United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executions

LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY-GENERAL

Dear Participants,

I would like to welcome you all to EuroAsia Model United Nations Training and Development Conference 2013. My name is Fatma Betül Bodur and I am a junior at Ankara University Faculty of Law.

Organized under the auspices of Model United Nations Association of Turkey, as a method to fulfil its mission to familiarize MUN-related activities country-wide; EuroAsia MUN 2013 continues the tradition of eight years to host a wide range of delegates from beginners to be introduced to MUN for the first time; to those who are experienced in MUN, seeking a unique opportunity to develop in the field. This year, nine committees will be simulated in EuroAsia MUN; each chosen delicately to appeal to its participants from different levels and areas of academic studies and interest.

United Nations General Assembly Third Committee, Social, Cultural and Humanitarian, will discuss the agenda item Developing a Global Plan of Action against Extrajudicial Executions. This study guide and the academic structure of the Committee have been prepared by the respected Under-Secretary-General Ms. Arzum Koca. Prepared by her talent, hard-work and wisdom; the study guide serves as a perfect first step to comprehend this particular agenda of utmost importance in global scale.

I advise the participants to read the study guide thoroughly. You may also check further readings and key documents which are found on our website. As a whole, the documents presented by the Academic Team will provide you the awareness which is required so as to follow the discussions within the Committee and fully enjoy Model United Nations.

Should you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact me via bodur@muntr.org.

Regards,

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 1

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial ExecutionsFatma Betül Bodur

Secretary-General of EuroAsia MUN 2013

LETTER FROM THE UNDER-SECRETARY GENERAL

Honourable Participants,

Welcome to the EuroAsia Model United Nations Training and Development Conference

2013. My name is Arzum Koca, I am the responsible Under-Secretary-General for SOCHUM

Committee and United Nations Security Council.

This year SOCHUM will address one of the crucial human right violations: violations of right

to life with extrajudicial executions. In the process of preparation of the study guide; I tried to

underline both technical and humanitarian aspects of the issue. I believe with the following

information and your participation this committee will come up with an efficient action plan.

I hope that this conference will give you amazing experiences and for the first time delegates,

make you like the Model UN activities. Do not hesitate to ask questions to both me and your

committee directors. Enjoy every moment and do not hesitate to participate in the debates to

change the course of the world.

Kind regards,

Arzum KOCA

Under Secretary General responsible for SOCHUM and UNSC

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 2

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executions

General Assembly Third

Committee: Social, Humanitarian

and Cultural Affairs

Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Affairs

Committee (SOCHUM) is the third

committee of the United Nations General

Assembly which is the main deliberative,

policymaking and representative organ of

the United Nations (UN).1

Charter of the United Nations outlines the

competence of the General Assembly (GA)

committees as:

“Making recommendations on the matters

related to international peace and security,

political cooperation, development, human

rights, fundamental freedoms, health

concerns, economic, social, humanitarian,

cultural, educational fields;

Examining reports from various United

Nations organs.”2

Having a wide range of agenda items

concerning social and humanitarian affairs

and human rights issues; evident from its

recent draft resolutions3, the Third

Committee of the GA mostly focuses on

the latter branch of its agenda.4

As a GA committee, SOCHUM, in which

all member States have equal

representation and vote, does not have the

authorisation to make a legally binding

decision.5 Nevertheless, it has an important

role since its establishment evident in its

effort in the fields of: advancement of

women, treatment of refugees, promotion

of fundamental freedoms, elimination of

racism, the right to self- determination,

youth, family, ageing, persons with

disabilities, prevention of crime, and

international drug control.6

AGENDA ITEM: DEVELOPING

A GLOBAL PLAN OF ACTION

AGAINST EXTRAJUDICIAL

EXECUTIONS

A. INTRODUCTION

Right to life is one of the most

fundamental human rights and deserves the

greatest respect. In respect with that the

promotion and protection of the right to

life, as guaranteed in several international

instruments, is no longer considered to be a

matter exclusively within the domestic

jurisdiction of a State, but a matter of

international concern.7 Therefore it is

crucial for the international community to

stop violations of the right to life trough

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 3

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executionsextrajudicial executions. One significant

proof of the growing interest of the

international community to fight the

practice of extrajudicial execution was the

appointment of an independent expert to

serve as a special rapporteur to the

Commission on Human Rights which was

the first appointment of a person to study a

particular type of human rights violation

on a worldwide basis.8 In the following

sections examples of the Special

Rapporteur’s reports on states will be

further examined.

While the following guide will deeply

inspect the causes and impacts of the

extrajudicial executions it is important to

note that extrajudicial executions are not a

problem that can only be found in certain

regions or only in low-income countries,

almost every country faces or has faced

extrajudicial executions.9 This also reflects

that the measures in combating the

extrajudicial executions must be

independent from any nation and only

linked to the idea of protection of the right

to life.

I. Defining Extrajudicial Executions

In its broad context the term “extrajudicial

executions” encompasses executions which

violate domestic penal or humanitarian

law.10 The word extrajudicial is explained

in the UN Multilingual Terminology

Database as “done outside of a court's

jurisdiction; not founded upon or dependent

upon the authority of a court“.11 The

definition of “extrajudicial execution” is

extensive;12 it covers any killing by both

government forces and other groups, when

the government fails to investigate and

prosecute them in a position to do so.13

Most common forms of extrajudicial

executions include killings caused by

excessive use of force by enforcement

officials, indiscriminate killings of civilians

and murder by state security forces or

paramilitary groups (group of civilians

organized in a military fashion, especially

to operate in place of or assist regular army

troops14), when these are not adequately

investigated, prosecuted or punished.15 The

state has to be involved in or at least tacitly

accept the mission of the killings; therefore,

to express it in different words:

Extrajudicial execution is when state kills

someone without due process of law or

tolerates a killing made by the non-state

actors.16 While one of the most important

characteristics of extrajudicial execution is

that they are carried out outside the ambit of

law;17 aforementioned state involvement

may happen directly or indirectly as

follows:

Extrajudicial execution can be made

by direct agents of the state (such as

the military or law enforcement)18,

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United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executions

Presupposing that the private citizen

does not have an affirmative defence

that would hold up in the state’s

courts (in other words when the

killing is unjust), extrajudicial

execution can be made by private

citizens whom the state chooses not

to punish for their actions by using

instruments such as impunity19

which will be further explained in

the later sections.

Affirmative defences are classified under

the criminal law as a justification defence

(an excuse defence).20 A killing carried

with an affirmative defence makes the

killing just.21 An example of affirmative

defence is the acts of self defence such

that; if the killing happens within the

borders of self defence, the perpetrator no

longer counts as a murderer who carried

out an unjust killing.

II. Relevant Norms

Before examining extrajudicial executions

in a detailed way it is important to know

the human rights norm “the right to life”

which is the main subject of extrajudicial

executions.

a. Understanding the Right to Life

Right to life is one of the universal

substantive human rights which are

inherited simply for being a human.22 The

United Nations has itself played a crucial

role in ensuring the protection of human

rights; moreover forming the human rights

law.

The idea of right to life is given the

primary emphasis in many legal documents

including the phrase in the Article 3 of the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

(UDHR) which goes as follows:

“Everyone has the right to life, liberty and

security of person.”23

In 1966, the International Covenant on

Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), also

adopted by the UNGA, reaffirmed the same

idea by stating the following at Article 6:

“Every human being has the inherent right

to life. This right shall be protected by law.

No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his

life.”24

There are different interpretations of right

to life such as the right to life-sustaining

essentials.25 Sometimes right to life can be

interpreted as a right not to be killed

unjustly.26 As mentioned above, while

killing others in some certain conditions

under the self defence is just, extrajudicial

killings are in their nature unjust.27

Although there are different ideas about

state’s role in protecting the right to life on

whether they can ensure the right more

effective by limiting or by expanding their

jurisdiction to protect others from unjust

killings;28 the common element of these

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 5

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executionsviews is that the right to life must be

protected by states.29

b. International Human Rights Law and

International Humanitarian Law

Both international humanitarian law and

international human rights law aim to

protect the lives, health and dignity of

individuals from different aspects;

therefore, they are complementary.30 One

of the differences between these two

similar branches of law is that; while

humanitarian law applies exclusively in

situations of armed conflict, most of the

human rights protect the individual at all

times.31 Secondly; the human rights

implementing mechanisms, contrary to

those of international humanitarian law,

consist of supervisory bodies at either

regional or global level (such as the

European Court of Human Rights or the

UN Commission on Human Rights) which

are either based on the UN Charter or

provided for in specific treaties.32

In an armed conflict, human rights law is

complemented by the additional regime of

humanitarian law; thus the application of

international humanitarian law to an armed

conflict does not exclude the application of

human rights law.33 It is generally

considered that human rights law must be

interpreted in a way that is consistent with

international humanitarian law.34 This is

particularly the subject with regards to the

right to life.35

Under human rights law, the state is not

only prohibited from directly violating the

right to life, but is also required to ensure

the right to life, and must meet its due

diligence obligations to take appropriate

measures to deter, prevent, investigate,

prosecute and punish perpetrators.36

c. Interpretation of the Right to Life in

Armed Conflicts by Human Rights

Bodies

It is seen in many cases of the situations of

armed conflicts that the major human rights

bodies have applied the human rights law

on the use of potentially lethal force.37 This

means that the state may only use

potentially lethal force when absolutely

necessary and may only use that amount of

force which is necessary to deal with the

threat posed.38 This also means that the state

is under an obligation to attempt to make an

arrest wherever possible.39

d. Conditions Regulating the Use of

Force under the Human Rights Law

Although many of the major human rights

treaties specify the issue of use of force, the

most detailed40 one is the article 2(2) in the

European Convention:

“Deprivation of life shall not be regarded

as inflicted in contravention of the Article

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 6

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executionswhen it results from the use of force which

is no more than absolutely necessary:

(a) in defence of any person from unlawful

violence;

(b) in order to effect a lawful arrest or to

prevent the escape of a person lawfully

detained;

(c) in action lawfully taken for the purpose

of quelling a riot or insurrection.”41

B. FURTHER EXAMINATION OF

EXTRAJUDICIAL KILLINGS

I. Direct Involvement of State Actors

As mentioned above, under human rights

law; killings by state forces are legal only

if they are required to protect life and there

are no other means of preventing that

threat to life; such as capture or nonlethal

incapacitation.42 The perpetrators of

extrajudicial executions can be all security

forces or militias that wear either civilian

clothing or uniforms.43

UN Special Rapporteur (Mr. Philip Alston)

who was assigned to investigate summary,

arbitrary and extrajudicial executions, has

recently expressed his concerns about the

usage of irregular forces that have become a

part of government policies and counter

insurgency campaigns in some countries

such as increasing scale of extrajudicial

executions carried out by security forces

and armed groups.44 Another deepening

concern is that extrajudicial executions

connected to the police or armed forces in

cases of crimes committed in connection

with their duties, when the use of force is

contradictory with the criteria of absolute

necessity and proportionality.45 It is noted

that such incidents are not uncommon in

states that have a strong legacy of

militarization or where the armed forces are

granted far-reaching law enforcement

authorisations, such as, Turkey, Mexico,

Honduras, Myanmar and Indonesia.46 Photograph 1: UN Special Rapporteur, Mr. Philip

Alston47

a. Killings by Law Enforcement

Officials

Not all killings by police are unlawful, but

the circumstances in which the police may

use lethal force are strictly circumscribed

by international human rights law.48 “The

police may only intentionally use lethal

force where it is necessary to protect

life.”49

The most common forms of police killings

occur due to excessive use of force in law

enforcement operations, including those

performed during attempts to arrest

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 7

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executionssuspected criminals, crowd or riot control,

and purported “shoot-outs” with alleged

armed criminals (sometimes called

“encounter killings”).50 The term encounter

killings has been used since the very early

times to describe extrajudicial executions

due to the frequency of the officials

claiming the deceased had been killed in an

‘encounter’ with police.51

While some killings are motivated by

personal monetary gain (the UN Special

Rapporteur has reported on police killings

occurring at police checkpoints, where

attempts at extortion can escalate into

extrajudicial executions52) others may

occur in the context of poorly planned and

unlawful policing policies and operations.53

Police’s usage of lethal force may be based

on many factors such as lack of proper

police training (especially related with the

weapons use), lack of training in human

rights, lack of appropriate weaponry or

other equipment.54 Domestic legal

frameworks for the use of force may be

either overly permissive which legalise the

use of deadly force in instances where it is

not necessary to protect life55 or they may

be unclear regarding the line between

necessary and excessive force.56 Poor pay

for police may also lead to corruption and

violent activity. There may also be high

level political or public support for violent

policing.57 In some states, police stated that

they could not tell how many people were

killed by the police (whether in self-defence

or otherwise), because there was no

centralized data-keeping or monitoring;

rather, records were kept in the inquest file

register maintained at each police station.58

The example of Kenya can be given to

explain the lack of information of

extrajudicial executions by the police.

During the UN Special Rapporteur’s visit to

Kenya it was reported that some

Government officials stated if killings

occurred, they were committed infrequently

and by “rogue” officers.59 Moreover, senior

police officials were unwilling to

acknowledge the problem at all:60 In

essence, their response was one of denial,

stone-walling, and obfuscation.61

Another example of an extrajudicial

execution by the police can be given from

India where police shot and killed two men

whom they claimed to be Pakistani

terrorists and were killed in an encounter.62

While the media reports were questioning

what the police had stated about the events,

a local doctor said that he had witnessed the

event and the alleged encounter was not

real; he also claimed to have been pressured

to change his statement later on.63

b. Extrajudicial Killings by State Forces

during an Armed Conflict

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 8

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial ExecutionsIt is crucial to make a distinction between

the killing of enemy soldiers, who, because

they are combatants, “are not considered

to be entitled to due process”,64 and the

killing of people who are declared as non-

combatants, whose deaths are considered

as “extrajudicial executions”.65 In several

cases, such as the 2009 report of Colombia

on “arbitrary or summary” (which is

defined as the immediate killing of a

person who is accused of a crime without

the benefit of a full and fair trail66) and

“extrajudicial executions”, most victims

were caught in the cross fire during

confrontations between the army or police

and illegal armed groups during the

conflicts.67 The problem begins when

military officials state they believed an

individual was fighting on behalf of the

opposition group thus had not died in

crossfire while community members claim

the victim was not a combatant.68

The situations in which civilians are

intentionally targeted for strategic reasons

such as gaining military advantage in

conflicts are quite common as well as

situations in which killings performed in

order to demonstrate power or as the

counterinsurgency policy that are later-on

announced as “caught in the crossfire of the

conflict”.69 Too often civilians are trapped

between state and rebel forces, or between

warring rebel factions, in a struggle to avoid

being threatened or killed by one or more

sides as in the cases of Afghanistan,

Colombia and the Democratic Republic of

the Congo.70

Reports of the UN agents have also

addressed the importance of human rights-

based security sector reform, military

recruitment and vetting of military

personnel for war crimes, humanitarian law

training, killings by private security

contractors, and the need for transparency

and accountability mechanisms relating to

right-to-life violations during armed

conflicts and occupations.71

II. Situations When the Indirect

Involvement of State Actors is the Case:

Killings by Non-State Actors

The right to life includes not only a

prohibition on illegal killings by state

authorities, but also entails state obligation

to adequately protect this right and punish

its violation by non-state actors.72 In

situations of widespread killings, or

traditions which tend towards regular

violence against a particular portion of the

population, such as LGBT groups,

according to the obligation to ensure right

to life, states can be held responsible73 for

failure to adequately address systemic

causes, for instance, through efforts to

protect vulnerable populations and to

improve education; addressing impunity, or

correcting perceived inadequacies in law

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 9

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executionsenforcement and the justice system which

lead to vigilantism.74

The Category of Non-State Actors is not

readily susceptible of a clear definition,

which increases the complexity of the

term.75 In recent years the term “non-state

actors”, which was long used primarily to

describe groups whose purposes are

essentially benign such as non-

governmental organizations, religious

groups and corporations,76 has increasingly

come to be associated with groups whose

agendas include harming innocent

civilians.77

In 2004 four general categories of non-

state actors were identified by the UN

Special Rapporteur Philip Alston:78

“(a) The State has direct responsibility for

the actions of non-state actors that operate

at the behest of the government or with its

knowledge or acquiescence, for example

private militias controlled by the

government (which may, for example, be

ordered to kill political opponents) as well

as paramilitary groups and deaths squads;

(b) Governments are also responsible for

the actions of private contractors (including

military or security contractors),

corporations and consultants who engage

in core State activities (such as prison

management, law enforcement or

interrogation);

(c) Where non-State armed groups are

parties to an armed conflict, such groups

have their own direct legal responsibilities

for any killings they commit in violation of

international humanitarian law examples of

which had seen in the reports on

Afghanistan, Colombia, the Democratic

Republic of the Congo and Sri Lanka.

(d) The fully “private” killings, such as

murders by gangs, vigilante justice,

“honour killings” or domestic violence

killings where there is pattern of killings

and the Government’s response (in terms

either of prevention or of accountability) is

inadequate to engage the responsibility of

the State”.79

In addition, in reports detailing

Governmental violations in response to

violence by non-state actors, it is important

to report on non-state actors’ violations in

order to provide a fair picture of the

situation facing the Government.80 This is

reflected in the reports on Brazil, Kenya

and Nigeria.81

a. Killings by Private Militias controlled

by the Government, Paramilitary

Groups and Deaths Squads

The most important category of non-state

actors are groups who are not government

officials but operate at the behest of the

government, or operate with its knowledge

or acquiescence such as paramilitary

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 10

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executionsgroups, militias, death squads, irregulars

and other comparable groups.82 These

groups, as a result, are not subject to

effective investigation, prosecution, or

punishment.83

A death squad is an armed squad which

may comprise of secret police forces,

paramilitary groups, or government soldiers

and policemen, or be organized as

vigilantes that conduct extrajudicial

executions, and forced disappearances of

persons for the purposes of political

repression, genocide, or revolutionary

terror; which are often, but not exclusively,

associated with police states, one party

states, or military dictatorships.84

Democratic governments’ forming death

squads during a state of emergency and

then disband them once the crisis passes is

not unheard of.85 The usage of death squads

and paramilitary groups have not only been

common, but also a standard feature of

states' counterinsurgency strategies since

the early times with the purposes of

eliminating the ones thought to be “working

with the enemy and keeping the potential

rebel sympathizers”.86 While extrajudicial

executions and death squads are historically

prevalent in Iraq, El Salvador, Afghanistan,

Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, regions in

Equatorial Africa, Jamaica, some parts of

South America, Uzbekistan, parts of

Thailand and in the Philippines;87 death

squads have continued to be active in

several locations, including Chechnya,

Democratic Republic of the Congo,

Colombia, Iraq, and Sudan, among others.88

A particular incident may be given from

Kenya: First, a senior police denied

knowledge of the Kwekwe death squad and

yet its existence was confirmed in

Parliament by the Minister of State for

Provincial Administration and Internal

Security, Professor George Saitoti.89 While

reports and efforts of UN Special

Rapporteur keeps emphasizing the

importance of eliminating extrajudicial

executions by death squads;90 they remain

to be a problem.

A paramilitary can be defined as a

militarised force whose functions and

structure are similar to those of a

professional military, but which is not

considered as a part of

a state's formal armed forces.91 Meanwhile,

the term paramilitary itself is subjective,

depending on what status a force is

considered to have.92 The UN Special

Rapporteur stated in his reports that “In

view of the experience of other countries,

where paramilitary groups are responsible

for numerous and grave human rights

violations, the Government may wish to

consider as a preferable solution

strengthening the regular security forces in

areas with armed conflict, rather than

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 11

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executionscreating a paramilitary body.”93 Recently

at 2013 in Colombia paramilitaries

threatened to kill Afro-descendants in the

Cacarica River Basin in north-western

Colombia by stating that they are in

possession of a list of community leaders

whom they label as guerrilla collaborators.94

While people labelled as guerrilla

collaborators in Colombia by the security

forces or paramilitaries have allegedly been

the target of human rights violations

including extrajudicial executions, enforced

disappearance, enforced displacement and

threats; the Colombian government

authorities claimed to have failed to take

decisive action to confront paramilitary

forces in the area although having been

aware of them.95

b. Killings by Private Contractors

Corporations and Consultants who are

Engaged in Core State Activities

Most common examples of core state

activities carried out by private contractors,

corporations and consultants are prison

management, law enforcement or

interrogation such as private prison

companies.96 There are many deaths in

custody in states such as Burkina Faso97 and

Pakistan98 which encompass guards killing

prisoners, inter-prisoner violence, suicides

and death resulting from torture in custody.

States have the responsibility to protect the

rights of individuals that are held in custody

including the protection of right to life.99

The obligation of the state is not only to

prohibit and prosecute killings by guards or

other officials, but also to prevent deaths

and to respond effectively to the causes of

the deaths specifically as ensuring

appropriate prison oversight and

monitoring; stopping practices of prisoners

running prisons, ensuring accurate records

of detainees and their sentences.100 Thus,

when states fail to investigate and prosecute

those custodial deaths which is the generic

term referring to deaths of those in the

custody of the state101, it makes the killings

happen without the due process of law

hence the custodial killings becomes

extrajudicial executions.102

c. Killings by Non-State Armed Groups

that are Parties to an Armed Conflict

The fourth major group of non-state actors

relevant to the extrajudicial executions is

armed opposition groups. The traditional

approach of international law is that only

Governments can violate human rights;

thus, such armed groups are simply

committing criminal acts.103 While this

may be an accurate characterization, in

reality, it is often not the case.104 In some

contexts it may be desirable to address the

activities of such groups within certain parts

of the human rights equation.105

Accordingly addressing complaints to them

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 12

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executionsabout executions and calling for respect of

the relevant norms may be the case.106

d. Fully “Private” Killings

“Vigilante killings”, which have been

reported from around the world and is a

concern to all states, are unlawful killings

by private citizens of suspected criminals

and others.107 It can be defined as killings

by individuals or groups who “take the law

into their own hands”.108 It is important to

be aware of the difference between

extrajudicial and judicial killings

especially in the cases in which the

perpetrator of the action is a private citizen

such as killings with affirmative defences.

They should be separated from other forms

of killings which may, by definition,

overlap in certain respects, but which are

in fact distinct: For example, although

vigilante killings are sometimes justified

by individual perpetrators as “self-

defence”,109 they are distinct from killings

lawfully committed in self-defence,

because they are not actually carried out in

response to an immediate threat or use of

lethal force. Killings by vigilantes are

distinct from insurgents, guerrillas and

rebel groups because vigilantes are not

against the state as such; nor do they seek

fundamental changes in the structure of the

state, or separatism.110

Governments tend not to accept

responsibility for such killings on the

grounds that private actors were

responsible and there was nothing the

Government could have done to prevent

them.111 This indeed happens in many

instances in which individuals or mobs act

entirely of their own accord and in

circumstances in which Government

officials are either absent or helpless.112

Often the fully private killings may occur

as extrajudicial executions when those

killed were on the Government list of

undesirables (suspected criminals etc.) and

that the killings are not exactly lamented

by the authorities;113 when complicity of

the Governments is the case or at least

when the passive acquiescence of the

Government becomes apparent; or when

Governments have act through the

intermediary of alleged vigilantes on its

operations.114

III. Victims of the Extrajudicial

Executions

Other than knowing the perpetrators of the

killings; understanding the dynamics and

causes of killings in particular situations

will often require a focus on the victims’

membership to especially vulnerable

groups which can be listed as civilians in

armed conflict, women, refugees,

indigenous people, those deemed to be

“socially undesirable” who are not the

main concerns of authorities in many states

such as accused people, children, the

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 13

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executionselderly, the disabled, those perceived to be

or identified as gay, lesbian, bisexual or

transsexual, human rights defenders, and

journalists.115

There are also reports on so-called “honour

killings” of women. The perpetrators of

these crimes are mostly male family

members, who go unpunished or receive

reduced sentences116 on the justification of

having murdered to defend their “family

honour”117 where the state either approves

of and supports these acts, or extends a

form of impunity to the perpetrators by

giving tacit or covert support to the

practice.118 Prevention of the so-called

honour killings may happen with ensuring

the independence of judges and lawyers

who monitor these incidents.119 Along with

the honour killings of women, the femicide

(murders of women) and gender-based

violence made by vigilantes that goes

unpunished by the efforts of the states

should be terminated.120

The level of death threats and fears of

extrajudicial executions of human rights

defenders is high in some states such as

Guatemala and Brazil.121 While it is known

that effective investigations of these threats

can prevent the killings; in reality, few

attacks against human rights defenders are

investigated122 and even fewer result in

convictions,123 and the killing of human

rights defenders has increased in large

part124 due to the failure to investigate and

punish those responsible.125

Killings of indigenous people are often

based on complex land conflicts and

ownership issues,126 but the complexity of

the cases cannot be used as an excuse for

failing to take immediate action to prevent,

prosecute and punish extrajudicial

executions.127 Although above mentioned

land conflicts and ownership issues may be

seen as the reasons of the killings, those

executions allegedly only occur because

those who order and carry out the murders

know that they will not be punished.128

Another important victim group can be

identified as socially undesirables. Killings

of these people is rising in many states

where executions of gang members,

criminal suspects are committed by police

personnel,129 and where killings by prison

inmates are facilitated by Guards.130

IV. Relevant Elements which Motivate

Extrajudicial Executions

a. National Counterinsurgency Policies

Counterinsurgency policies are one of the

highest motives for extrajudicial

executions.131 Although there are several

definitions, the most common132 one is

from the US military doctrine, which

describes counterinsurgency as “those

military, paramilitary, political, economic,

psychological, and civic actions taken by a

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 14

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executionsgovernment to defeat insurgency.”133 Once

the governments launch counterinsurgency

policies; the number of reports on

extrajudicial executions increases.134 It is

seen that the targets of such killings

include people such as lawyers, judges,

human rights activists, journalists, doctors,

leaders or activists of labour movements,

farmers, priests, and activists of opposition

parties; who are lawfully criticizing the

government policy with peaceful means;

for instance, speeches and writings135 136 In

armed conflicts, use of brutal force can

crush insurgency without thinking about

the weakening of the state's legitimacy;137

often the states which use such methods

have little or no legitimacy to lose and thus

no concern with its loss.138 It is claimed

that the risk of strengthening insurgency by

damaging legitimacy is especially high in

those countries when insurgency is

embedded in the population, when it

already enjoys some popular sympathy, or

when lethal force is not used with great

care.139 Under counterinsurgency policies,

states claimed to use extrajudicial

executions as an instrument to gain

military advantage and to demonstrate

power.140

b. Killings with Impunity

Impunity is defined as “The impossibility,

de jure or de facto, of bringing perpetrators

of violations to account –whether in

criminal, civil, administrative or

disciplinary proceedings since they are not

subject to any inquiry that might lead to

their being accused, arrested, tried and, if

found guilty, sentenced to appropriate

penalties, and to making reparations to

their victims.”141 The most important

motive behind the killing is the strong

belief that they will not be punished. For

example according to the Asian Human

Rights Commission (AHRC), the reason

behind widespread extrajudicial executions

in Pakistan was that; the police and other

law enforcement agencies enjoy impunity

because of the support they receive from

provincial heads.142 Moreover it is seen that

when action is taken, only the lower

ranking staff is punished and high ranking

police officers remain unpunished so far.143

Photograph 2: International Day to End Impunity144

The words of UN Special Rapporteur goes

as “Impunity can result from poorly

structured and ineffective police internal

affairs mechanisms, nonexistent forensic

capacity, inadequate witness protection

programs for those reporting abuse, inept

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 15

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executionscriminal justice systems, and deficient

commissions of inquiry.”

Another factor contributing to impunity is

the lack of any effective, dedicated to

external civilian oversight of the police

forces; which results in police being left to

themselves.145 This eventually makes it

easier for the police to cover up the

wrongdoings and to claim that killings

were lawful which, as a result encourages

the perpetrators to make extrajudicial

executions in the first place.146

V. Legal Framework

International human rights instruments,

including the Universal Declaration of

Human Rights (UDHR), International

Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

(ICCPR), the UN Code of Conduct for Law

Enforcement Officials (Code of Conduct),

the UN Basic Principles on the Use of

Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement

Officials (Basic Principles) and the UN

Principles on the Effective Prevention and

Investigation of Extra-Legal, Arbitrary and

Summary Executions, are particularly

relevant to the protection of the right to

life.147 UDHR sets common standards of

achievement for all the states; while Article

3 sets the general standard for the right to

life, Article 6 paragraph 1 of the ICCPR

establishes respect for the right to life. Also

in the ICCPR there are clauses

acknowledging the permissibility of

restricting some rights on the grounds such

as the need to maintain public order such as

articles 18(3), 19(3), and 21; however,

arbitrarily depriving even the most hated

“terrorists” of their life is never justified.148

Article 4 of the ICCPR provides for the

possibility of derogations from rights under

the Covenant ''in time of public emergency

threatening the life of the nation''. However

the right to life, cannot be derogated from

even during public emergencies, a

protection accorded to a very limited

number of rights.149

While the protection of the right to life

under international law is stricter, the legal

status of extra-judicial executions warrants

a deeper discussion. Furthermore only in

Articles 6 (right to life) and 14 (right to a

fair trial) of the ICCPR, the due process

rights or the minimum safeguards required

for an execution by the state to be lawful

under international law can be found which

includes the following:

"i) Capital punishment must not be

imposed except pursuant to a final

judgment of a competent, independent and

impartial court established by law;

ii) The accused has the right to be

presumed innocent until proven guilty;

iii) The accused has the right to have

adequate time and facilities to prepare a

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 16

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executionsdefence and to communicate with counsel

of the accused's choosing;

iv) The accused has the right to be tried in

his or her presence, to defend him or

herself in person or through legal

assistance of his or her own choosing; to

be informed of this right; and to be

provided legal assistance where the

interests of justice require;

v) The accused has the right to have his or

her conviction and sentence reviewed by a

higher tribunal according to law."150

Through, presuming that the accused is

guilty, bypassing the judicial system, and

not allowing accused persons to properly

defend themselves, extrajudicial

executions in police encounters are by

definition a violation of due process and

the aforementioned safeguards.151

C. PREVENTING EXTRAJUDICIAL

KILLINGS

Preventing extrajudicial executions can be

achieved by eliminating its motives.152

Efforts should be made to protect

vulnerable populations, education should be

improved, impunity should be addressed,

inadequacies in law enforcement

(disproportionate use of force, problems

with the chain of command) and the justice

system should be corrected and

counterinsurgency policies must not

themselves violate human rights and

humanitarian law.153

Proper investigation is a critical factor in

the prevention of extrajudicial

executions.154 Without adequate

investigation of complaints of extrajudicial

executions, prosecuting and convicting the

perpetrators will not happen; therefore the

presence of an independent body that is

empowered to investigate such complaints

is crucial. Another effective mechanism in

combating extrajudicial executions is the

help of the regional human rights bodies.

Prosecution of those who commit

extrajudicial executions should be

ensured.155

Moreover, overcoming the problems in the

judicial systems is vital. Court action in

cases of extrajudicial executions should not

be slow due to the fact that such delays

impede the process of bringing to justice

those who commit extrajudicial

executions,156 in many cases making

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 17

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executionsconviction unfeasible due to the length of

time that has passed.157

The right to compensation should be

granted for the families of victims. An

effective compensation system would

encourage the families of those murdered,

to bring their cases before the courts.158

Armed and security forces should be held

accountable for their parts in extrajudicial

executions. Furthermore, in circumstances

where a member of the army or security

forces commits a serious human rights

violation (such as extrajudicial executions)

that also constitutes a criminal offence, that

person could be charged under the general

law and tried in a public court.159

It is important that the governments do not

encourage the practice, in order for the

prevention of the extrajudicial executions;

since otherwise, it may lead to making the

perpetrators believe that there is an official

policy sanctioning the commission of

extrajudicial executions.160

Above mentioned human rights treaties

have to be signed and ratified. There are

still 7 states which did not ratify the ICCPR

along with 18 countries which have not

signed the treaty yet.161

D. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED

WHILE INVESTIGATING AND

PROSECUTING EXTRAJUDICIAL

KILLINGS

I. General Challenges

A state’s obligation to ensure the right to

life includes a duty to investigate alleged

violations of that right effectively,

regardless of the violations’ being made by

the state itself or by non-state actors.162

There may be some challenges such as

police’s unwillingness or inability to carry

out an independent investigation of the

killing,163 the state’s lack of forensic

capacity to conduct investigations,164

unsuccessfully or ineffectively secured

crime scenes,165 police’s failure to refer

cases to the prosecution service,166 corrupt

or poorly trained prosecutors,167 justifiably

unwilling witnesses to testify because of

inadequate witness protection

programmes,168 overcrowded dockets of

the judges leading cases to be resulted in

years,169 or corruption of judges through

bribery to delay cases so as to absolve the

perpetrators.170 In response to these

challenges, the UN Special Rapporteur

underlined:

"(a) The need for external oversight of the

police, including a study of the various

forms of oversight, and the applicable law

and principles (A/HR/14/24/Add.8);

(b) The obstacles to effective national

commissions of inquiry, and the

requirements for the creation and

implementation of effective commissions;

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 18

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executions(c) The need of effective practices in

witness protections programmes

(A/63/313);

(d) The importance of states making their

military justice systems compatible with

human rights standards (A/63/313)."171

II. Absence of Adequate Information

Despite the efforts of the UN Special

Rapporteur, the absence of statistics at the

national and international level remains

another challenge.172 States often fail their

responsibility to give reports, moreover

these reports and statistics are generally

lessened.173 It is important to work with the

non-state actors both in international

platforms and national platforms.174 At the

international aspect of the issue,

effectiveness of regional non-governmental

organisations’ needs to be improved in the

fields of; reporting the absence of efficient

investigations and prosecutions, raising

public awareness, warning the international

organisations and assisting the state if

needed.175

At national level, eye witnesses are the key

persons while investigating and

prosecuting the extrajudicial executions.176

The successful prosecution of the

perpetrators is difficult, if not impossible,

in the absence of effective witness

protection programmes which has been

generally overlooked by the international

community.177 If witnesses can be easily

intimidated, if they and their families

remain vulnerable, or if they sense that the

protections offered to them cannot be

relied upon, they are unlikely to testify.178

This challenge requires distinctive

solutions, in part because relying on the

police to provide protection may itself

compromise when the execution is carried

out by the police.179 Although it is not a

great element concerning the extrajudicial

executions, eyewitness misidentification

should not be overlooked when it can be

the single greatest cause of wrongful

convictions.180

III. Problem of Deterred Media Persons

and Media Censorship

Journalists and media persons are one of

the common victim groups of extrajudicial

executions.181 From the cases studied, it is

apparent that the killing of journalists and

media persons are more or less attributable

to reprisals for the victims’ exposés or

other media practices.182 Authorities

continue to arrest, harass, intimidate, and

use violence against journalists in some

countries such as the Philippines.183

The presence of the media censorship can

be foreseen when extrajudicial executions

can be defined as state killings without the

due process of law meaning that state

involvement is an essential element of the

killings.184 No government would let its

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United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executionsmedia to transmit the human right

violations made by the government

itself.185 In some states domestic media

practices self-censorship due to fear of

government reprisal while others are

imposed that censorship, publications

generally do not report on sensitive

economic and political topics.186

E. SOCIETAL IMPACTS OF

EXTRAJUDICIAL KILLINGS

Extrajudicial executions are a sign of a

human rights crisis within a society.187

When the state itself is involved in

extrajudicial killings, it is clear that this act

directly violates state’s duty to protect its

citizen’s right to life; thus it is a fact that

state officials circumvent their own

structures for legal punishment is evidence

of a serious structural problem within a

government.188 In a state that has a large

number of extrajudicial executions, children

and youth find themselves orphaned,

working as child labourers, homeless or

displaced.189 Without traditional social

support systems, rise in the mob violence,

public distrust and lack of faith in the

judicial system are seen commonly in the

countries facing extrajudicial executions.190

Also the rise in mob violence leading to the

death of a large number people is a direct

social impact of continuing extrajudicial

executions in states.191

As stated above, many private perpetrators

of extrajudicial executions justify their

actions with a failure of state institutions in

protecting their citizens and to exert

justice;192 while impunity can massively

hamper a working democratic civil society,

political activists, civil society groups and

journalists cannot be guaranteed security,

which in turn, leads to diminished activity

of such groups.193

Usually state officials deny any

involvement in extrajudicial executions;

however, even if this holds true and state

agents minimize extrajudicial executions,

the killings are still a sign of the state’s

failure to ensure legal prosecution of

crimes which eventually results with public

distrust towards government officials.194

F. ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL

ORGANIZATIONS

I. International Organizations

a. United Nations

The Commission on Human Rights, in its

resolution 1992/72, renewed the mandate

of the UN Special Rapporteur who was

appointed in 1982 to submit reports

regarding summary or arbitrary executions,

and widened the title of the mandate to

include "extrajudicial" as well as

"summary or arbitrary" executions.195

Whether or not they have ratified relevant

treaties, the competence of UN Special

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United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial ExecutionsRapporteur’s work covers all states; thus

the Human Rights Council, in its resolution

8/3, requested the UN Special Rapporteur:

“(a) To continue to examine situations of

extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary

executions in all circumstances and to

submit his or her findings on an annual

basis;

(b) To respond effectively to information

which comes before him or her, in

particular when an extrajudicial, summary

or arbitrary execution is imminent or

threatened or when such an execution has

occurred;

(c) To enhance further his or her dialogue

with Governments;

(e) To continue monitoring the

implementation of existing international

standards on safeguards and restrictions

relating to the imposition of capital

punishment;

(f) To apply a gender perspective in his or

her work” by transmitting urgent appeals

and alleged case summaries of the

executions to the concerned Government

(individual complaints), making fact-

finding country visits and submitting

annual reports to the commission and

General Assembly."196

b. European Union (EU)

Subcommittee on Human Rights of the

European Parliament had several requests

from organisations to act to end

extrajudicial executions in some states by

addressing their economic, social and

cultural root causes.197 Another effort of

the European Union can be listed as

providing financial packages to the

governments to help them address

concerns related to extrajudicial executions

and enforced disappearances along with

the efforts of European Court of Justice.198

Also the European Union is fighting with

extrajudicial executions through diplomatic

means such as urging state authorities to

investigate allegations of extrajudicial

executions in the country.199

c. Association of Southeast Asian

Nations (ASEAN)

With the purpose of ensuring the

promotion and protection of human rights

and increasing the regional co-operation on

human rights among member states,200 the

ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission

on Human Rights (AICHR) was

established in October 2009 as a

consultative body of the ASEAN.201

Despite AICHR does not have the mandate

to investigate relevant cases, it receives

reports from nongovernmental

organizations (NGOs) submit reports on

human rights violations.202

d. Organization of American States

(OAS)

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 21

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial ExecutionsBeing a principal and autonomous organ of

the OAS; Inter-American Commission on

Human Rights (IACHR), made many

statements addressing the extrajudicial

executions in accordance with its mission

on promoting and protecting human rights

in American hemisphere.203 Along with

Inter-American Court of Human Rights,

IACHR uses different mechanisms such as

individual petitions and cases, requests for

precautionary measures, and monitoring on

the basis of reports from diverse sources to

combat human rights violations including

the extrajudicial executions.204

e. African Union (AU)

Along with its court and commission on

the relevant issues, in 1994 African

Commission on Human and Peoples'

Rights (ACHPR) a commissioner was

appointed as the Special Rapporteur on

extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary

executions and had the missions:

“To propose the implementation of a

reporting system on cases of extra judicial,

summary and arbitrary execution in

African states, specifically by keeping a

register containing all information as to

the identity of the victims;

To suggest the ways and means of

informing the African Commission in good

time of the possibility of extrajudicial,

summary or arbitrary executions, with the

goal of intervening before the OAU

Summit;

To intervene with States for trial and

punishment of perpetrators of extra-

judicial summary or arbitrary executions,

and rehabilitation of the victims of these

executions;

To examine the modalities of creation of a

mechanism of compensation for the

families of victims of extrajudicial,

summary or arbitrary executions.”205

In July 2013 a joint meeting was held and

the working group on death penalty and

extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary

executions in Africa discussed relevant

issues with the UN Special Rapporteur on

extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary

executions.206

f. League of Arab States

At the regional level, Arab states launched

the Arab Plan on the Education of Human

Rights, its Guideline Manual, the Arab

Plan on the Promotion of the Culture of

Human Rights and they mended the Arab

Charter on Human Rights.207 Moreover a

number of human rights mechanisms were

established to protect and promote human

rights, mainly, the Arab Human Rights

Committee, the Legislative, Legal Affairs

and Human Rights Committee, and the

Permanent Arab Human Rights Committee

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 22

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executionsat the Secretariat of the League of Arab

States.208

II. Non-Governmental Organizations

a. Amnesty International

Amnesty International is a global

movement of more than 3 million

supporters,209 members and activists in

over 150 countries and territories;210

independent of any government, political

ideology, economic interest or religion and

funded mainly by its membership and

public donations who campaigns to end

grave abuses of human rights.211 Under

these human right abuses extrajudicial

executions remains being one of the crucial

violations to prevent.

b. Human Rights Watch

Human Rights Watch is one of the world’s

leading independent organizations212

dedicated to defending and protecting

human rights by focusing international

attention where human rights are violated,

“they give voice to the oppressed and hold

oppressors accountable for their

crimes.”213 In the case of violations of right

to life by extrajudicial executions, they are

trying to support the cause of human rights

mostly by raising public awareness,

listening to the eyewitnesses, preparing

reports; in other words they are trying to

cover the lack of effective media and

adequate information.214

G. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the issues undertaken in this

document is of utmost importance, as it

contributes to having a broad perspective

towards the violations of the right to life

especially via extrajudicial executions.215

As stated above extrajudicial executions

can happen in two ways: firstly it may

happen with the direct involvement of the

state and secondly the indirect involvement

of the state can be the case. Also further

divisions are made to better understand the

extrajudicial executions, its perpetrators

and its victims. Societies suffering from

such killings face many impacts such as

public distrust to the government officials,

lack of faith to the judicial system, increase

in the mob violence.

Another issue is that while the importance

of eliminating extrajudicial executions is

vital, challenges in combating it remains as

a great problem; such as the absence of

information, media censorship, and

inefficiency of the regional human right

mechanisms.

To stop the violations the Committee must

take specific actions; discuss the situations

where the serious violations of the

prohibition of extrajudicial executions are

apparent.216 Caution has to be shown,

awareness of the issues has to be grown at

all levels.217 Much more effective

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 23

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executionsmechanisms for accountability must be

achieved.218

H. POINTS THAT A RESOLUTION

SHOULD COVER

Measures to prevent

disproportionate use of force by the

state actors

Measures to increase accountability

of state actors in extrajudicial

executions

Methods to achieve effective use of

the media relevant to the

extrajudicial executions

Methods to facilitate social

reconciliation in countries that are

faced or currently facing

extrajudicial killings

Ways of overcoming the abuse of

impunity

Methods to promote a effective

justice system that will not

encourage and will not let the

extrajudicial killings happen

Ways of ending the violations of

right to life trough the extrajudicial

killings by non-state actors

Ways of improving the efficiency

of actions taken against the

extrajudicial executions by both

international and non-governmental

organisations

Ways of overcoming the lacking

statistics problem

Methods to terminate extrajudicial

executions carried out by non-state

actors

Methods to terminate extrajudicial

executions carried out by state

actors

EuroAsia MUN 2013 Page 24

United Nations General Assembly Third CommitteeDeveloping a Global Plan of Action Against Extrajudicial Executions

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1 United Nations. 2013. Current Session (68th). [online] Available at: http://www.un.org/en/ga/ (Accessed: 2 October 2013)2 United Nations. 2013. Functions and Powers of the General Assembly. [online]Available at: http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/background.shtml (Accessed: 2 October 2013)3 United Nations. 2013. Third Committee. [online]Available at: http://www.un.org/ga/61/third/proposalslist.shtml (Accessed: 2 October 2013)4 United Nations. 2013. Current Session (68th). [online] Available at: http://www.un.org/en/ga/ (Accessed: 2 October 2013) 5United Nations. 2013. Charter of the United Nations. [online]Available at: http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter4.shtml (Accessed: 2 October 2013) 6 United Nations. 2013. Current Session (68th). [online] Available at: http://www.un.org/en/ga/ (Accessed: 2 October 2013)7 United Nations. Fact Sheet No.11 (Rev.1), Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions [online] Available at: http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet11rev.1en.pdf (Accessed: 2 October 2013)8 Ibid.9Observer Volume 2. 2010. Extrajudicial Killings – a Human Rights Crisis. [online] Available at: http://www.ipon-philippines.info/fileadmin/user_upload/Observers/Observer_Vol.2_Nr.2/Observer_Vol.2_Nr.2_PoliticalKillings_4.pdf (Accessed: 4 October 2013)10Asad Jamal. Extra-judicial Executions in Pakistan: Killing with impunity. [online] Available at: http://hrcp-web.org/hrcpweb/wp-content/pdf/ff/10.pdf (Accessed: 4 October 2013)11United Nations. 2013. Uniterm. [online] Available at: http://unterm.un.org/dgaacs/unterm.nsf/8fa942046ff7601c85256983007ca4d8/6e3e8435a06fede9852569fd00029b39?OpenDocument (Accessed: 5 October 2013)12 Ibid.13UN Special Rapporteur. Use of Force During Armed Conflict. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/Handbook%20Chapter%201%20Use%20of%20Force%20During%20Armed%20Conflicts5.pdf (Accessed: 7 October 2013)14 http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Disappearances/disappearance_gc.pdf 15 Asad Jamal. Extra-judicial Executions in Pakistan: Killing with impunity. [online] Available at: http://hrcp-web.org/hrcpweb/wp-content/pdf/ff/10.pdf (Accessed: 4 October 2013)16 Observer Volume 2. 2010. Extrajudicial Killings – a Human Rights Crisis. [online] Available at: http://www.ipon-philippines.info/fileadmin/user_upload/Observers/Observer_Vol.2_Nr.2/Observer_Vol.2_Nr.2_PoliticalKillings_4.pdf (Accessed: 4 October 2013)17 http://plj.upd.edu.ph/the-dispute-over-extrajudicial-killings-the-need-to-define-extrajudicial-killings-as-state-sponsored-acts/ 18 Asad Jamal. Extra-judicial Executions in Pakistan: Killing with impunity. [online] Available at: http://hrcp-web.org/hrcpweb/wp-content/pdf/ff/10.pdf (Accessed: 4 October 2013)19 Ibid.20 Brody, David C.; James R. Acker, Wayne A. Logan (2001). Criminal law. (Accessed: 4 October 2013)21 Ibid.22 Human Rights Education Assosiation. 2011. Right to Life. [online] Available at: http://www.hrea.org/index.php?base_id=159 (Accessed: 6 October 2013)23 United Nations. 2013. Charter of the United Nations. [online]Available at: http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter4.shtml (Accessed: 2 October 2013) 24 Ofice of the High Commissioner on Human Rights. 2012. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. [online] Available at: http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx (Accessed: 7 October 2013) 25 J.O. Famakinwa. 2011. Interpreting the Right to Life. [online]Available at: http://www.diametros.iphils.uj.edu.pl/pdf/diam29famakinwaen.PDF (Accessed: 7 October 2013)26 Ibid. 27 Asad Jamal. Extra-judicial Executions in Pakistan: Killing with impunity. [online] Available at: http://hrcp-web.org/hrcpweb/wp-content/pdf/ff/10.pdf (Accessed: 4 October 2013)28 Erich Weede. 2008. Human Rights, Limited Government, and Capitalism. [online] Available at: http://relooney.fatcow.com/00_New_3077.pdf (Accessed: 7 October 2013)29 Ibid.30 ICRC. 2004. What is the difference between humanitarian law and human rights law? [online] Available at: http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/5kzmuy.htm (Accessed: 8 October 2013)31 Ibid. 32 Ibid. 33 University Centre for International Humanitarian Law. 2005. EXPERT MEETING ON THE RIGHT TO LIFE IN ARMED CONFLICTS AND SITUATIONS OF OCCUPATION [online] Available at: http://www.geneva-academy.ch/docs/expert-meetings/2005/3rapport_droit_vie.pdf (Accessed: 8 October 2013)

34 Loise Doswald Beck. 2006. The right to life in armed conflict: does international humanitarian law provide all the answers? [online] Available at: http://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/irrc_864_doswald-beck.pdf (Accessed: 8 October 2013)35 Ibid.36 UN Special Rapporteur. KILLINGS BY NON-STATE ACTORS AND AFFIRMATIVE STATE OBLIGATIONS. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/Handbook%20Chapter%203-Responsibility%20of%20states%20for%20non-state%20killings.pdf (Accessed: 10 October 2013)37 Noam Lubell. 2005. Challenges in applying human rights law to armed conflict. [online] Available at: http://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/irrc_860_lubell.pdf (Accessed: 10 October 2013)38 Loise Doswald Beck. 2006. The right to life in armed conflict: does international humanitarian law provide all the answers? [online] Available at: http://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/irrc_864_doswald-beck.pdf (Accessed: 8 October 2013)39 Ibid.40 Equality and human Rights Commission. 2013. Understanding Human Rights. [online] Available at: http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/advice-and-guidance/equal-rights-equal-respect/useful-information/understanding-human-rights/ (Accessed: 8 October 2013)41 Article 2(2) of the [European] Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and FundamentalFreedoms, 1950 (ECHR)42UN Special Rapporteur. USE OF FORCE BY LAW ENFORCEMENT OFFICIALS. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/Handbook%20Chapter%202%20use%20of%20force%20in%20LE.pdf (Accessed: 11 October 2013)43 Algeria Watch. 1999. ExtraJudicial Killings. [online] Available at: http://www.algeria-watch.org/en/aw/extrajudicial_killings.htm (Accessed: 11 October 2013)44Official Documents System  of the United Nations. 2013. [online] Available at: http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G03/172/60/PDF/G0317260.pdf?OpenElement (Accessed: 11 October 2013)45 Ibid.46 Ibid.47 Bibliography: 2013. Untitled. [image online] Available at: http://rajivawijesinha.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/philip.jpg [Accessed: 28 October 2013].48UN Special Rapporteur. USE OF FORCE BY LAW ENFORCEMENT OFFICIALS. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/Handbook%20Chapter%202%20use%20of%20force%20in%20LE.pdf (Accessed: 11 October 2013)49Ibid. 50Ibid. 51 South Asia Human Rights Document Centre. 2003. India: Extrajudicial killings under the spotlight [online] Available at : http://www.hrdc.net/sahrdc/hrfeatures/HRF71.htm (Accessed: 11 October 2013)52 UN General Assembly. 2010. Report of the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, Philip Alston[online] Available at : http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/14session/A.HRC.14.24.Add8.pdf (Accessed: 11 October 2013)53 A/HRC/11/2/Add.3.54 Irin. 2013. AFGHANISTAN: Police casualties high due to lack of training, equipment http://www.irinnews.org/report/72685/afghanistan-police-casualties-high-due-to-lack-of-training-equipment (Accessed: 11 October 2013)55UN Special Rapporteur. USE OF FORCE BY LAW ENFORCEMENT OFFICIALS. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/Handbook%20Chapter%202%20use%20of%20force%20in%20LE.pdf (Accessed: 11 October 2013)56Ibid. 57Ibid.58Ibid.59 UN General Assembly. 2009. PROMOTION AND PROTECTION OF ALL HUMAN RIGHTS, CIVIL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS, INCLUDING THE RIGHT TO DEVELOPMENT [online] Available at: http://www.lb7.uscourts.gov/documents/08-31971.pdf 60 http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc796861.pdf (Accessed: 11 October 2013)61UN Special Rapporteur. USE OF FORCE BY LAW ENFORCEMENT OFFICIALS. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/Handbook%20Chapter%202%20use%20of%20force%20in%20LE.pdf (Accessed: 11 October 2013)62 South Asia Human Rights Document Centre. 2003. India: Extrajudicial killings under the spotlight [online] Available at : http://www.hrdc.net/sahrdc/hrfeatures/HRF71.htm (Accessed: 11 October 2013)63 Ibid.

64United Nations. 2013. Uniterm. [online] Available at: http://unterm.un.org/dgaacs/unterm.nsf/8fa942046ff7601c85256983007ca4d8/6e3e8435a06fede9852569fd00029b39?OpenDocument (Accessed: 5 October 2013)65Ibid.66 Judicial Education Centre. 2013. GLOSSARY OF LEGAL TERMS [online] Available at: http://jec.unm.edu/manuals-resources/glossary-of-legal-terms (Accessed: 12 October 2013)67 Human Rights Report. 2012. Colombia. [online] Available at: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/204648.pdf (Accessed: 12 October 2013)68 Ibid.69 J.T. Janani. 2006. The Politics of Extrajudicial Killings. [online] Available at: http://sangam.org/taraki/articles/2006/09-19_Extrajudicial_Killings.php?uid=1954 (Accessed: 12 October 2013)70UN Special Rapporteur. Use of Force During Armed Conflict. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/Handbook%20Chapter%201%20Use%20of%20Force%20During%20Armed%20Conflicts5.pdf (Accessed: 7 October 2013)71Ibid.72United Nations. 2013. Uniterm. [online] Available at: http://unterm.un.org/dgaacs/unterm.nsf/8fa942046ff7601c85256983007ca4d8/6e3e8435a06fede9852569fd00029b39?OpenDocument (Accessed: 5 October 2013)73 UN Special Rapporteur. Use of Force During Armed Conflict. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/Handbook%20Chapter%201%20Use%20of%20Force%20During%20Armed%20Conflicts5.pdf (Accessed: 7 October 2013)74 Ibid.75 UN Special Rapporteur. KILLINGS BY NON-STATE ACTORS AND AFFIRMATIVE STATE OBLIGATIONS. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/Handbook%20Chapter%203-Responsibility%20of%20states%20for%20non-state%20killings.pdf (Accessed: 10 October 2013)76 Ibid.77 Ibid.78 UN General Assembly.2010. Human rights defenders. [online] Available at: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/defenders/docs/A-65-223.pdf (Accessed: 11 October 2013)79 UN Special Rapporteur. KILLINGS BY NON-STATE ACTORS AND AFFIRMATIVE STATE OBLIGATIONS. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/Handbook%20Chapter%203-Responsibility%20of%20states%20for%20non-state%20killings.pdf (Accessed: 10 October 2013)80 Ibid. 81 Ibid.82 Ibid.83 Ibid.84 World News. 2013. Death Squad. [online] Available at: http://news.linktv.org/topics/death-squad (Accessed: 13 October 2013)85 Ibid.86 Gred Grandin. 2007. The Unholly Trinity. Available at: http://www.coldtype.net/Assets.13/PDFs/0513.Grandin.pdf (Accessed: 13 October 2013)87 World News. 2013. Death Squad. [online] Available at: http://news.linktv.org/topics/death-squad (Accessed: 13 October 2013)88 Ibid.89 National Assembly of Kenya, Official Report, 12 February 2009, p 2790 Kenya National Human Rights. 2008. Follow-up Report on: Extra-Judicial Killings and Disappearances [online] Available at: http://www3.nd.edu/~ndlaw/cchr/news/FinalReport.pdf (Accessed: 13 October 2013)91 Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). 2011. Oxford University Press. [online] (Accessed: 13 October 2013)92 Ibid.93 E/CN.4/1995/61, para. 293.94 Amnesty International. 2013. GOVERNMENT URGED TO HALT PARAMILITARIES. [online] Available at: http://colombialand.org/amnesty-international-government-urged-to-halt-paramilitaries/ (Accessed: 13 October 2013)95 Ibid.96 Laura A. Dickinson. Contract as a tool for regulating private military companies. [online] Available at: https://lapa.princeton.edu/conferences/military07/restricted/dickinson2_military07.pdf (Accessed: 13 October 2013)97 Amnesty International. 2013. Burkina Faso. [online] Available at: http://www.amnesty.org/en/region/burkina-faso/report-2011 (Accessed: 14 October 2013)98 Amnesty International. 2013. [online] Available at: http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/ASA33/005/1993/en (Accessed: 14 October 2013)99 UN General Assembly. 2010. Report of the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/14%20HRC%20SR%20report

%20(A_HRC_14_24).pdf (Accessed: 15 October 2013)100 Ibid.101 The Crown Prosecution Service. 2013. Deaths in Custody. [online] Available at: http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/d_to_g/deaths_in_custody/ (Accessed: 15 October 2013)102 Asian Human Rights Commision. 2013. Institutionalised torture, extrajudicial killings & uneven application of law in Thailand. [online] Available at: http://www.humanrights.asia/resources/journals-magazines/article2/0402/institutionalised-torture-extrajudicial-killings-uneven-application-of-law-in-thailand (Accessed: 15 October 2013)103 United Nations. 2011. TERNATIONAL LEGAL PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN ARMED CONFLICT [online] Available at: http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/HR_in_armed_conflict.pdf (Accessed: 15 October 2013)104 UN Special Rapporteur. KILLINGS BY NON-STATE ACTORS AND AFFIRMATIVE STATE OBLIGATIONS. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/Handbook%20Chapter%203-Responsibility%20of%20states%20for%20non-state%20killings.pdf (Accessed: 10 October 2013)105 Ibid.106 Ibid. 107 UN General Assembly. 2009. Extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/64%20GA%20SR%20Report%20(A_64_187).pdf (Accessed: 17 October 2013)108 Richard Maxwell Brown, Strain of Violence: Historical Studies of American Violence and Vigilantism, 1975, p. 96.109 UN General Assembly. 2009. Extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/64%20GA%20SR%20Report%20(A_64_187).pdf (Accessed: 17 October 2013)110 Ibid.111 Ibid. 112 Ibid. 113 Ibid. 114 Ibid. 115 UN General Assembly. 2010. Report of the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/14%20HRC%20SR%20report%20(A_HRC_14_24).pdf (Accessed: 15 October 2013)116 UN Special Rapprteur. VICTIM GROUPS. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/Handbook%20Chapter%208%20-%20Victim%20Groups%2C%20Handbook.pdf (Accessed: 15 October 2013)117 Ibid.118 Ibid.119 Ibid.120 Ibid.121 UN General Assembly. 2010. Report of the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/14%20HRC%20SR%20report%20(A_HRC_14_24).pdf (Accessed: 15 October 2013)122 UN Special Rapprteur. VICTIM GROUPS. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/Handbook%20Chapter%208%20-%20Victim%20Groups%2C%20Handbook.pdf (Accessed: 15 October 2013)123 Ibid.124 Ibid.125 Ibid.126 Ibid.127 Human Rights Council. 2008. PROMOTION AND PROTECTION OF ALL HUMAN RIGHTS, CIVIL, POLITICAL, ECONOMICAL, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS INCLUDING THE RIGHT TO DEVELOPMENT [online] Available at: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/executions/docs/A_HRC_11_2_Add_2_English.pdf (Accessed: 16 October 2013)128 Ibid.129 Ibid.130 Ibid.131 David H. Ucko. 2011. Counterinsurgency and its Discontents. [online] Available at: http://swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/research_papers/2011_RP06_uck_ks.pdf (Accessed: 16 October 2013)132 Ibid.133 Ibid. 134 Human Rights Now. 2008. Report on Extrajudicial Killings and Enforced Disappearances in the Philippines; Fact Finding Mission of Human Rights Now to Philippines [online] Available at:

http://www.pinoyhr.net/reports/EJK_HRN_2008.pdf (Accessed: 17 October 2013)135 Ibid.136 Ibid. 137 National Defence Research Institute. 2013. War by Other Means [online] Available at: http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2008/RAND_MG595.2.pdf (Accessed: 17 October 2013)138 Ibid. 139 Ibid.140 Ibid.141 UNESCO. 2013. Combating Impunity of Crimes against Press Freedom [online] Available at:http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/events/prizes-and-celebrations/celebrations/international-days/world-press-freedom-day/2013-themes/combating-impunity-of-crimes-against-press-freedom/ (Accessed: 17 October 2013)142 Asad Jamal. Extra-judicial Executions in Pakistan: Killing with impunity. [online] Available at: http://hrcp-web.org/hrcpweb/wp-content/pdf/ff/10.pdf (Accessed: 4 October 2013)143 Ibid.144 2013. [image online] Available at: http://rajivawijesinha.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/philip.jpg [Accessed: 13 October 2013].145 Asad Jamal. Extra-judicial Executions in Pakistan: Killing with impunity. [online] Available at: http://hrcp-web.org/hrcpweb/wp-content/pdf/ff/10.pdf (Accessed: 4 October 2013)146 Ibid. 147 Ibid.148 Ibid.149 Ibid.150 Ibid.151 Ibid. 152 New York School of Law. 2010. UN Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial Executions Handbook [online] Available at : http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/LegalObservations (Accessed: 11 October 2013)153 Ibid. 154 South Asia Human Rights Document Centre. 2003. India: Extrajudicial killings under the spotlight [online] Available at : http://www.hrdc.net/sahrdc/hrfeatures/HRF71.htm (Accessed: 11 October 2013)155 Ibid.156 Ibid.157 Ibid.158 Ibid.159 Ibid.160 Ibid.161 United Nations. 2013. Office of Legal Affairs [online] Available at : http://untreaty.un.org/ola/ (Accessed: 18 October 2013)162 New York School of Law. 2010. UN Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial Executions Handbook [online] Available at : http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/LegalObservations (Accessed: 18 October 2013)163 UN Special Rapporteur. 2010. INVESTIGATION AND PROSECUTION OF KILLINGS. [online] Available at: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/application/media/Handbook%20Chapter%205%20Investigation%20and%20Prosecution%20of%20Killings.pdf (Accessed: 19 October 2013)164 Ibid. 165 Ibid.166 Ibid.167 Ibid.168 Ibid.169 Ibid.170 Ibid.171 Ibid.172 Ibid.173 Ibid.174 Ibid.175 Ibid.176 Ibid.177 Ibid.178 Ibid.179 Ibid.180 Innocence Protection. 2013. Eyewitness Misidentification. [online] Available at:http://www.innocenceproject.org/understand/Eyewitness-Misidentification.php (Accessed: 20 October 2013)181 Asian Human Rights Commision. 2013. Extrajudicial killings & human rights abuses in the Philippines [online] Available at: http://www.humanrights.asia/resources/journals-magazines/article2/0505/extrajudicial-killings-human-

rights-abuses-in-the-philippines (Accessed: 20 October 2013)182 All A. Parreno. 2010. REPORT ON THE PHILIPPINE EXTRAJUDICIAL KILLINGS. [online] Available at: http://asiafoundation.org/resources/pdfs/ReportonPhilippineEJK20012010.pdf (Accessed: 20 October 2013)183 Jeffrey M. Tupas, CULTURE OF IMPUNITY: US to help Aquino stop media killings, PHIL. DAILY INQUIRER,June 23, 2010, available at: http://services.inquirer.net/print/print.php?article_id=20100623-277074 (Accessed: 20 October 2013)184 Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. 2011. Burma. [online] Available at: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/186475.pdf (Accessed: 20 October 2013)185 Ibid.186 Ibid. 187 Human Rights in Iran. 2011. Official Distortion and disinformation. [online] Available at: http://www.iranhumanrights.org/wp-content/uploads/distortion-disinformation-final.pdf (Accessed: 20 October 2013)188 Observer Volume 2. 2010. Extrajudicial Killings – a Human Rights Crisis. [online] Available at: http://www.ipon-philippines.info/fileadmin/user_upload/Observers/Observer_Vol.2_Nr.2/Observer_Vol.2_Nr.2_PoliticalKillings_4.pdf (Accessed: 4 October 2013)189 HimRights. 2013. Peace Building & Reconciliation [online] Available at: http://www.himrights.org/peacebuilding_reconciliation.php (Accessed: 21 October 2013)190 Ibid.191 Priyo News. 2011. Mob violence social impact of extra-judicial killings: NHRC chief [online] Available at: http://news.priyo.com/law-and-order/2011/07/20/mob-violence-social-impact-ext-32298.html (Accessed: 21 October 2013)192 Ibid.193Observer Volume 2. 2010. Extrajudicial Killings – a Human Rights Crisis. [online] Available at: http://www.ipon-philippines.info/fileadmin/user_upload/Observers/Observer_Vol.2_Nr.2/Observer_Vol.2_Nr.2_PoliticalKillings_4.pdf (Accessed: 4 October 2013)194Ibid.195 Office for the Human Rights Commission. 2013. Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions [online] Available at:http://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/executions/pages/srexecutionsindex.aspx (Accessed: 21 October 2013)196 Ibid.197 World Organisation Against Torture. 2009. OMCT calls on the European Union to act to end extrajudicial executions in the Philippines by helping address their economic, social and cultural root causes [online] Available at:http://www.omct.org/files/2009/02/5160/philippines___omct_intervention_european_parliament_sub_committee_on_human_rights.pdf (Accessed: 21 October 2013)198 Business World. 2011. EU grant to address extrajudicial deaths [online] Available at: http://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section=Nation&title=EU-grant-to-address-extrajudicial-deaths&id=73281 (Accessed: 22 October 2013)199 Olive Burrows. 2013. Kenya: EU Decries Rise in Extra-Judicial Killings in Kenya[online] Available at: http://allafrica.com/stories/201310070074.html (Accessed: 23 October 2013)200 Termsak Chalermpalanupap. 2012. Promoting and Protecting Human Rights in ASEAN [online] Available at: http://www.aseansec.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/HLP-OtherDoc-2.pdf (Accessed: 23 October 2013)201 UN News Centre. 2012. UN official welcomes ASEAN commitment to human rights, but concerned over declaration wording [online] Available at: http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=43536#.Umb0HxB8lzc (Accessed: 23 October 2013)202 Arghea Desafti Hapsari. 2010. NGOs to report rights abuse cases to AICHR [online] Available at: http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/03/29/ngos-report-rights-abuse-cases-aichr.html (Accessed: 23 October 2013)203 Organization of American States. 2013. What is the IACHR? [online] Available at: http://www.oas.org/en/iachr/mandate/what.asp (Accessed: 24 October 2013)204 Organization of American States. 2013. Report on the situation of the Human Rights in Jamaica [online] Available at: http://www.oas.org/en/iachr/docs/pdf/Jamaica2012eng.pdf (Accessed: 24 October 2013)205 Mohammed Ben Salem. 2013. Activities as Special Rapporteur on Extra-judicial, Summary or Arbitrary Execution[online] Available at: http://www.achpr.org/sessions/20th/intersession-activity-reports/mohammed-ben-salem/ (Accessed: 24 October 2013)206 African Commission on Human and People’s Rights. 2013. Press Release on the Joint Meeting of Working Group on Death Penalty and Extra-Judcial, Summary or Arbitrary Killings in Africa & the UN Special Rapproteur on Extra-Judicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions. [online] Available at: http://www.achpr.org/press/2013/06/d155/ (Accessed: 24 October 2013)207 UNHCR. 2010. National Human Rights Institutions [online] Available at:http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/PTS-4Rev1-NHRI_en.pdf (Accessed: 24 October 2013)

208 League of Arab States. 2013. Mechanisms of Human Rights [online] Available at:http://www.lasportal.org/wps/portal/las_en/inner/!ut/p/c5/vZLNcoIwFIWfxQfoJAQtuEw1_IgBCcEfNgwKVQQhRQXh6YszXXRTu3G8Z3EXZ879zuKCAPQqojrdR5e0LKIcrEHwHk7HLlsOmQxVj4yhiaamQy2EoCP3_uZvX1X-Sa_AGg5D79gKs8s6duw85M01anO3ofd9JJLtj-ec3CwPlpLNze6sMJNyzZLOY2mpuQSbIzV24QB4SdHfCx4R733uPvxjMAQbECi_8iNNgqbrqe6HPkHmEgH-xMYPWZr0Qpb8OtYSPpU1A8E-L7f9p65mG3SblrSZEi887Eilxq1d-U4Rp3mc4YylzFUIJ1ZoSOJ6aRVxq52jvoVfdaZPtEOl7Ba09iFNjImPRSpfML4KixVxiVHKBVNRkfsLqn_ipm5Imt8SnnVh7czoW5NUUA9HzqXdcScRM7cS9oFX1-hqbGOtGZHi3He1jfKUAHHy65Sp0o_kPR4MvgGYycSc/dl3/d3/L2dBISEvZ0FBIS9nQSEh/?pcid=38d9e10049c4557faabfbe526698d42c (Accessed: 26 October 2013)209 Amnesty International. 2013. WHO WE ARE [online] Available at: http://www.amnesty.org/en/who-we-are (Accessed: 26 October 2013)210 Ibid. 211 Ibid.212 Human Rights Watch. 2013. About Us. [online] Available at: http://www.hrw.org/about (Accessed: 27 October 2013)213 Ibid.214 Human Rights Watch. 2008. As If They Fell From the Sky [online] Available at: http://www.hrw.org/reports/2008/russia0608/7.htm#_ftnref113 (Accessed: 26 October 2013)215 Official Documents System of the United Nations. 2013. [online] Available at: http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G03/172/60/PDF/G0317260.pdf?OpenElement (Accessed: 27 October 2013)216 Ibid.217 Ibid.218 Ibid.