understanding happiness: a look into the chinese folk psychology

Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432

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Understanding happiness: A look into the Chinese folk psychology

Luo Lu

Graduate Institute of Behavioural Sciences,

Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan

Correspondence address: Dr. Luo Lu, Graduate Institute of Behavioural Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical

University, No. 100 Shih-Chuan 1st Road, Kaohsiung City 807, Taiwan, ROC.

Tel: +886-7-3121101 Ext. 2273 Fax: +886-7-3223445

E-mail: [email protected] OR [email protected]


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Abstract

This qualitative study using a folk psychology approach explored what Chinese people think about

happiness. One hundred and forty-two undergraduate students wrote free-format essays in response to a

simple open-ended question, “What is happiness?” Using thematic analysis, four main themes were

found. (1) Happiness can be defined in terms of (a) a mental state of satisfaction and contentment; (b)

positive feelings/emotions; (c) a harmonious homeostasis; (d) achievement and hope; and (e) freedom

from ill-being. (2) Happiness is a harmonious state of existence, under the following conditions: (a) the

individual is satisfied or content; (b) the individual is the agent of his own happiness; (c) spiritual

enrichment is emphasized more than material satisfaction; and (d) the individual maintains a positive

outlook for the future. (3) The relationship between happiness and unhappiness is dialectical. These

two distinct entities are locked in a never-ending relationship of interdependence: each depends on the

other for contrast and meaning. Moreover, this relationship between the two opposites is also dynamic

and constantly changing. (4) Happiness can be achieved, provided that one has the following abilities:

(a) the wisdom of discovery; (b) the wisdom of contentment and gratitude; (c) the wisdom of giving;

and (d) the wisdom of self-cultivation. These themes were discussed in the contexts of Chinese

philosophical and folk views of happiness.

Key words: definitions of happiness, Chinese folk psychology, ways to achieve happiness

What is happiness?

This is a simple question. We all know the answer, or do we? As soon as we hear people talk

about happiness, we will be stunned how diverse each one’s ideas about happiness are! The differences

are even more substantial in the ways people from the East and the West think about happiness.

Regarded as a “basic building block, a value in terms of which other values are justified” (Braithwaite

& Law, 1985, p.261), happiness may be universal, but its meaning remains complex and ambiguous.

In English language, “happy” as an adjective has three broad meanings: (1) fortunate, lucky;

feeling or expressing pleasure, contentment, satisfaction, etc.; (2) (in polite formulas) pleased; (3) (of

language, conduct, suggestion) well-suited to the situation. “Happiness” is used as a noun to convey the

first meaning (Hornby, Gatenby & Wakefield, 1948). It is not difficult to understand then why in the

Western psychological studies, happiness is often implied as a psychological state following the

gratification of some important human needs or desires (Diener, 1984;Veenhoven, 1984).

Nonetheless, with a staunch conviction of scientific methods, Western psychologists have

generally left the question of “what is happiness” to philosophers for debate, and gone on to study the

perceived happiness and its correlates. In so doing, researchers gave achieved a general consensus to

operationalize happiness in terms of (1) positive affect; (2) life satisfaction; and (3) absence of negative

affect (Andrews & Withey, 1976; Diener, 1984; Argyle, 1987; Lu, 1995). However, such a working

definition is at most an attempt to identify components/elements of the happiness experience, which


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unravels little about the nature of happiness. Some researchers have criticized the lack of theoretical

sophistication and psychological depth entailed in the current mainstream happiness (or SWB) research

(Ryff, 1989). Although empirical study on happiness has won its legitimacy and recognition in the

mainstream scientific psychology, and flourished over the past three decades, the accumulation of data

has failed to push up the level of theoretical construction (Diener et al., 1999). Comparing the two

extensive reviews 15 years apart (Diener, 1984; Diener et al., 1999), we now know more, with more

confidence, about correlates of SWB, but we are no closer to the heart of this ultimate human

experience. The hard question of “what is happiness” is unavoidable, if we are to further our

understandings of human happiness. Breaking this deadlock can also hopefully enable us to direct our

scientific efforts more effectively.

Because meanings and concepts are molded by culture (Bruner, 1990), it seems necessary to

explore what people think about happiness as embedded in the world of meanings/values construed by

a unique cultural tradition. The Chinese culture, with its rich heritage, provides an interesting vantage

point to contrast the predominant Western cultural perspective in the SWB research. The present study

was thus undertaken as an exploration of folk psychology, in terms of “a cultures account of what

makes human beings tick” (Bruner, 1990, p.13). It is through shared meanings and values that a great

cultural tradition penetrates through human existence. Human lives thus are intertwinned with their

culture, both as a carrier of the culture, and as an active force of creation. It should be of no exception

that people make judgments and draw conclusions about the quality of their lives within the cultural

framework of meanings/values/concepts. Therefore, choosing to focus on people’s own spontaneous

accounts of their ideas about happiness, this study aimed to explore people’s conceptions of happiness

in a modern Chinese society.

Views of happiness in the Chinese culture

The word “happiness” did not appear in the Chinese language until recently. “Fu” or “fu qi” is

perhaps the closest equivalent of happiness in Chinese ancient thoughts. ”Fu” appeared as early as in

bone inscriptions from Shang Dynasty. It was spotted in records of oracle, meaning “presenting the

filled wine container at the altar” (Bauer, 1976). It is clear that the original meaning of fu is to worship

a god, to express human desires and prayers. What were these desires and prayers, then? The

escavation of Shang graves has offered us valuable insights. Ancient Chinese did not view death as an

absolute frontier, rather as a change of rhythm of life, like day and night. Therefore, the deads were

reckon to continue to possess human desires, which could be satisfied in the same ways as the living.


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Ancient burial gifts, hence, can be regarded as indicators of what constituted happiness at the very

beginning of the Chinese civulization. The interpretation of bone inscriptions and the luxurious burial

gifts point to a twofold fundamental conception of happiness: blessings from the supernatural, and

pleasures in human society.

Later, in the “Shang Shu”, the word “fu” was more clearly defined in mundane existence to

include “longevity, prosperity, health, peace, virtue, and a comfortable death” (Wu, 1991). “May the

five fus come to your door” is still a popular greeting at the Chinese New Year nowadays.

Another important ancient work, “Classic of ritual” gave “fu” yet another amendment. “Fu” was

“fortunate, lucky, smooth and free of obstacles”. Again popular greetings at the Chinese New Year,

such as “May everything work out as you wish”, “May wind and rain come in harmony”, and “May

God grant man’s wishes” express just such a view of happiness.

Roughly, the Chinese people’s conception of happiness can be traced back to the early days of

civilization, and has kept some of its core ideas while evolving with the great culture. In folk wisdom,

Chinese happiness seems to include material abundance, physical health, virtuous and peaceful life, and

relief from death anxiety.

The ancient Chinese society was a dual existence. At the top of the societal pyramid, the social

elite presided power and prestige, whose ideals were recorded and carried down through the writings

and teachings of great philosophers and scholars; the vast majority of working people were ruled

according to, and preached with those ideals, but conveyed them in folklores as described above.

Nonetheless, there is no denying that schools of great philosophy have profoundly shaped the Chinese

culture and the mentality of Chinese people for thousands of years. The Tripartite of Confucianism,

Taoism and Buddhism form the backbone of the orthodox Chinese culture, and each has distinct views

on human happiness.

Confucius was the first Chinese philosopher to formulate an earthbound thought system.

However, he did not talk about “fu”, in fact there is not a single utterance of it in “The book of

conversations”, the dialogues between Confucius and his disciples. “Li”, ritual, is the most important

concept in Confucian system instead, and Confucians valued ritual more than mundane happiness.

Confucius spent the best part of his life touring countries, preaching to each ruler his vision of Chinese

humanism. He insisted that a wise ruler must rule with “virtue” and make people equal by ritual. Virtue

and ritual can then make people accept social categories as a matter of personal concern. Hence, for the

Chinese elite, the ideals of humanity and equality are stabilization of the existing social order. Also for

the Chinese elite, happiness dose not lie in personal salvation or material accumulation, rather it is


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achieved through constant self-cultivation, maintaining a harmonious family, ruling a country wisely,

and keeping peace in the world, each progresses to a higher level and greater degree of happiness.

For ordinary people, Confucian philosophy presupposes that the life of each individual is only a

link in that person’s family lineage and that an individual is a continuation of his ancestors. This

teaching puts one’s family right in the center of one’s life and everyday existence. Ancestor worship is

an integral part of the Confucian ritual for the mass, and many of the practices are still followed today.

Confucian philosophy advocates that one should strive to preserve and expand the prosperity and

vitality of one’s family. Happiness is to achieve this ultimate life goal through hard working and

frugality to accumulate material resources, through intellectual labour and passing exams to obtain

respectable social status, through suppression of selfish and earthly desires to lead a virtuous life, and

ultimately through fulfillment of one’s social duties.

To sum, for Confucians, happiness is no longer a set of living conditions, it is the psychological

state or spiritual world of a living individual. Happiness is not transient, shallow sensual pleasures, it is

an eternal, deeply meaningful world of reason. Confucians regarded happiness as spiritual, not material;

as moral, not circumstantial; as self-identified, not other-judged.

Yang and Cheng (1987) divided the Confucian values, still well preserved in Taiwan, into four

groups. (1) Family factors include family responsibilities and obedience to one’s elders. (2) Group

factors include accepting the hierarchical structure of society; trust in and obedience to authority; and

commitment to the solidarity, harmony, and norms of the group. (3) Job-orientation factors include

education, skill learning, hard work, and frugality. (4) Disposition factors include austerity, calmness,

humility, and self-control. Putting these values into practice should lead to happiness in life.

Wu (1992) asserted that the Confucian happiness is achieved through “knowledge, benevolence,

and harmony of the group” (p.31). Confucian philosophy stresses the collective welfare of the family,

or clan (extending to society and the entire human race) more than individual welfare. Under this

collectivist orientation, Chinese culture emphasizes sharing the fruits of individual success with the

group. Contributing to society is the ultimate happiness, whereas hedonistic striving for happiness is

regarded as unworthy and even shameful.

Taoism opposes to the idea of happiness as a product of material satisfaction, it also opposes the

Confucian idea of happiness as a constant self-cultivation to achieve moral greatness. Taoists assert that

everything in the universe must follow “Tao”, the great Natural force that starts everything in the first

place. Taoism is also termed the philosophy of “not–doing” (“wu wei”), for it insists that perfect

happiness is the absence of happiness, and perfect glory is the absence of glory (Chiang, 1976).


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Happiness in Taoism is the personal liberation from all human desires, through following the Natural

force, not doing anything, accepting fate calmly, and facing life with a peaceful mind. In so doing, one

may reach the ultimate happiness of merging with the universe, termed “tian ren he yi”. Happiness in

Taoism, therefore, is not an emotional feeling of joy, rather, it is a cognitive insight and transcendence.

Taoists practice a life style of withdrawal, isolation and quietness. The ultimate goal is to achieve

anonymity, vanishing into the Nature, transcending the Nature, and merging with the Nature.

Unlike Confucianism and Taoism, Buddhism is not an indigenous Chinese philosophy. However,

Buddhism has incorporated many of the Chinese philosophical thoughts and cultural traditions over

thousands of years since its first introduction from India in Tang Dynasty. Buddhism asserts that there

is no such thing as absolute, lasting happiness in life, all existence on earth was poisoned by

unhappiness from the very start, and only “nirvana” can offer salvation (Chiang, 1976). Buddhism not

only turn away from the world, but also from happiness itself. Happiness in Buddhism can only be

found in the “Paradise of the west” after nirvana, which promises eternal bliss beyond everyday misery

of this world. Physical exercises, meditation, doing charitable deeds, eliminating all human desires are

all ways to lift up the soul to reach nirvana and eternal happiness.

For scholars, Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism are three entirely different, and even

contradictory philosophical systems. For ordinary people, however, they have been merged and utilized

to promote a good life. Differentiation between them is no longer necessary nor possible in mundane

life of the mass. People may act in accordance with Confucianism when they are interacting with other

people, with Taoism when they are faced with the nature, and with Buddhism when they are confronted

with themselves. The three great thought schools have been synthesized, reinterpreted and applied to

different realms and different living circumstances. This is the ultimate achievement of “Chinese

utilitarianism” (Quah, 1995). The present study thus set out to explore folk, as opposed to scholarly

theories of the nature of happiness and ways to achieve happiness.

Folk theories are shared by certain subgroups of the human population, in this case, the Chinese

people. Almost no empirical study has focused on the conception of happiness, although there have

recently been one study looking at the folk theories of causes of happiness across cultures (Chiasson,

Dube & Blondin, 1996), and one at lay theories of causes of happiness in the British culture (Furnham

& Cheng, 2000). These efforts are valuable and are forming new frontiers in the SWB research,

however, both still leaves the fundamental issue of happiness conception untouched. The purpose of

this study was then to move towards bridging this gap between scholarly theories of SWB and ordinary

people’s day-to-day experiences and their deeply held believes, concepts about human happiness.


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Being the first effort of this kind, this study is inevitably exploratory in nature. Nonetheless, a

concerted effort to attack important philosophical questions, such as “what is happiness?” with

scientific methods and empirical evidence is worthwhile.

Method

Participants

One hundred and forty-two undergraduate students, age 19 to 25, participated in the study. The

students were in their second to fourth year, enroling on a health psychology course at a medical

university in a metropolitan city in southern Taiwan. These students were majored in medicine (N=60),

other heath–related disciplines (N=60), social sciences (N=9), and natural sciences (N=13).

Procedure

To reflect the exploratory nature of the present study, a qualitative approach was adopted. Data

were collected through a free-format essay writing exercise that took place in January 2000.

Participants were given a simple open-ended question, “what is happiness?”, to write an essay. There

was no restriction on perspectives, topics, materials, formats, length, and time of completion. However,

it was stressed that participants should freely and fully express their views and thoughts about

happiness.

All the essays were then coded using thematic analysis. This analysis of the data was then

communicated back to the participants at a later class session. The researcher explained her

interpretations of themes emerged from these essays, elaborated on her major findings, and answered

any queries. This communication exercise thus served as a debriefing act in accordance with research

ethics, especially in qualitative research. This exercise also served as a validation of data and analysis

to actively engage participants as co-researchers. Participants were invited to provide any further

insights, comments, amendments, modifications or clarifications they wish to make. Participants agreed

in general with researcher’s interpretations of and conclusions drawn from the data. Yet, some

participants took up this opportunity to offer more detailed contextual, background information to the

statements they initially made. In general, participants were pleased to have this feedback session, and

enthusiastically engaged in the discussion. This exercise hence further strengthened the

“trustworthiness” of the study, through the attempt to achieve intersubjectivity between the researcher

and participants.


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Results and Discussion

The results are presented below and are grouped into sub-headings that reflect the main themes to

arise from the essays. As the purpose of this study was to explore the folk psychology of Chinese

happiness conceptions, no content analysis or frequency courts were conducted. Instead, qualitative

summary methods were employed to present the results. As the amount of materials were considerable,

only example quotes were given to illustrate each point made below. To protect anonymity, only

participants codes were given following each quotation.

Definitions of happiness

Many scholars think that happiness is too illusive and abstract to be pinned down, and defining it

is only possible at the operational level. Some participants expressed similar agitation and hesitation

when confronted with the direct, almost sharp inquiry of “what is happiness?”. One participant began

his essay with the comment: “This is really a very difficult question to answer!” (P33). Another one

doubted: “Very few people will even attempt to define it” (P65). Someone confessed that: “I do not

know how to give it a definite definition” (P.5). Yet another one claimed that: “There could be no

definite linguistic definition” (P117).

The failure to commit oneself to a clear definite definition of happiness was due to two

fundamental aspects of the happiness experience. First, happiness is abstract, hence its meaning is hard

to be captured by language. P42 remarked that: “Happiness exists only in a split of thought”. P29 and

P59 both wrote that: “Happiness is very abstract, and it only dwells in everyone’s mind. It is thus

difficult to express in language”. Second, happiness is subjective, hence there could be considerable

individual differences in definitions of happiness. P11, P30 and P140 all recognized that: “Happiness is

a very subjective kind of personal experiences and feelings”. Other participants shared a similar view:

“The feelings/interpretations/definitions of happiness are largely dependent on the individual’s

subjective consciousness” (P13, P28, P36, P.38, P.82). P12 and P14 collaborated to provide a summary

for this “no definition is possible” stance: “Personal happiness has no fixed criterion, and need not be

restricted to a single model. Happiness is simply based on the individual’s psychological feelings. This

is the very nature of happiness”.

The majority of participants took up the challenge to define happiness, albeit in their own ways.

A total of 67 distinct definitions of happiness were identified, collaborating the above observation that

happiness is subjective, so is its definition. Nonetheless, all these diverse definitions pertained to five

underlying themes, although no single definition dealt with all five.


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1.Happiness as a mental state of satisfaction and contentment

Many participants referred to happiness as a profound mental state of satisfaction and

contentment. This mental state of happiness can be evoked from fulfillment of needs and desires. One

participant was blunt in stating that “Happiness is the gratification of personal desires” (P134). Some

elaborated to cover various realms: “Happiness is the spiritual and material satisfaction” (P11, P62);

“Happiness is the physical, psychological and social satisfaction.” (P17); or simply: “Happiness is the

satisfaction with the current life circumstances” (P6, P79). Whether specific or general, these views of

happiness are quite in agreement with the long-held scholarly telic theories, that maintain happiness is

gained when some state, goal or need is fulfilled (Diener, 1984).

However, there is another dimension to this seemingly straightforward satisfaction/contentment

definition of happiness. More participants remarked that happiness is the ability to be content. For

instance, “Feeling content is the genuine happiness” (P135); “Happiness is the ability to feel content

from the bottom of one’s heart” (P24, P41, P21). Underlying these definitional statements is the distinct

Chinese view that “one should be content with one’s lot, and sincerely feel thankful for whatever life

brings”. This calm, meditating Chinese mentality may seem passive, even pessimistic in surface, it is

nonetheless a proactive way of re-channeling psychological energy to maintain control when control is

seemingly unattainable. Clearly, it has a reflection of the Confucian preaching of accepting and

maintaining the existing social order; of the Taoists’ urge to desire nothing and entrust everything to

Nature’s rules; even of the Buddhists’ ideal of living a desireless life and cultivating a clear mind. For

Chinese, the bliss-like state of contentment and deeply-felt inner happiness need not be the product of

actual satisfaction of needs and desires, the happiness is more profound and long-lasting when one

adopts a different psychological perspective of accepting and welcoming the fate with gratitudes and

heart-felt thankfulness. P91 gave a vivid account of such a state: “Happiness is to be truly content with

whatever one has at the moment, and naturally feels moved and touched from the bottom of one’s

heart”.

2.Happiness as positive feelings/emotions

Satisfaction/contentment often goes hand in hand with various positive feelings and emotions in

the happiness experiences. Some participants defined happiness as simple joy (P33, P50, P53, P69),

whereas some used more general terms, referring happiness to “feelings of a subjective and positive

nature” (P18, P34, P44, P48, P97, P100). Some were more specific in listing these positive emotions:


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“Happiness is a feeling of sweetness, joy, safe, comfortable, being ordinary and feeling comfortable

with oneself” (P74). Although researchers have often operationalized happiness as positive affectivity

and the two constructs are almost synonymous in many SWB studies (Bradburn, 1969; Diener, 1984;

Argyle, 1987), “being ordinary” and “feeling comfortable with oneself ” have never been on the list of

“happy emotions”.

Yet more participants mentioned similar feelings of this type of warm, relaxed, long-lasting,

heart-touching, deep emotions, as opposed to more exciting, intense, transient, shallow emotions such

as joy and elation. P4 wrote: “Happiness is a positive feeling of being loved and feeling content”. P26

agreed: “Happiness is the feeling of being loved and cared about”. P27 gave a neat summary of this

view of happiness: “Happiness is when I am happy, and people around me are happy; when I feel warm,

and can give warmth to other people”. For Chinese, intense hedonic emotions are not stressed, although

they are recognized as part of the happiness experience. Instead, “being at ease with oneself” reflects

the Buddhist wisdom of self retrospection and self transcendence; “being loved and loving others” is a

life practice of the Confucian ideal of promoting group welfare starting from one’s most intimate circle

of people.

3.Happiness as a harmonious homeostasis

Happiness can be defined as a state of harmony within the individual as well as between the

individual and his surroundings. P13 wrote: “Happiness is to achieve a harmonious balance between

one’s body and mind”. Others thought that: “Happiness is a quality of the mind, is a spiritual state of

fitness” (P32, P141). The concept of harmonious homeostasis seems to capture the core implication of

happiness being a dynamic process of achieving and maintaining a good fit from within to outward.

P98 declared that: “Happiness is the ability to pursue a balanced satisfaction between one’s ideals and

physical, psychological realities”. P99 defined happiness as “a physical, psychological and social

(interpersonal) equilibrium”. P111 elaborated on this view, saying that: “Happiness is the inner

well-being and contentment, as well as the feeling of harmony with the external world. It is also trust,

safty and stability”.

Headey and Wearing (1989) proposed a dynamic equilibrium model to explain individual

differences in SWB. However, their key interest was to synthesize the top-down theories (e.g.

personality effects) and the bottom-up theories (eg. life events influences). Hence, mechanisms of

fluctuation on stability of SWB were their focal concern, rather than the nature of happiness. The

Chinese concept of homeostasis, however, has a philosophical depth. According to the ancient


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Yin-Yang theory, homeostasis is the ideal state for the entire universe, a state of harmony with the great

natural principles (Hong, 1944). The Yin-Yang theory of great Chinese antiquity, is a life philosophy

and a dualistic cosmic theory, which explains all activities of the universe, including human life. The

centre thesis is that the universe consists of two basic principles of nature, Yin and Yang; through the

change of relationships between these two opposing forces, all creations were born and are still

constantly changing, hence keeping a state of homeostasis in nature, societies and human beings.

Happiness is but one particular domain submissive to the influences of Yin and Yang. The above

presented view of happiness corresponds nicely to this Yin-Yang philosophy, stressing a state of

homeostasis in the human mind and body, in the individual and his social, spiritual and natural

environment. This holistic view of happiness thus surpasses the Western view of equilibrium as a

process mechanism. Harmony between Heaven, Earth and People is also the ultimate happiness aspired

by Taoism.

4. Happiness as achievement and hope

Some participants stressed the sense of achievement and worth as a defining feature of happiness,

which often leads to satisfaction and contentment. P8 wrote that: “Happiness is a sense of achievement

and satisfaction in one’s interested realms”. This state of happiness is usually brought about through the

attainment of goals and rewards for efforts. P67 viewed happiness as “the dreams coming true”, while

P45 viewed happiness as “a sense of achievement, rewards for one’s efforts”. This view of happiness

can be seen as another form of the telic theories (Diener, 1984), emphasizing happiness as an end state,

as a product of goal fulfillment. Among Chinese, such a view of happiness is unusually uplifting, active,

initiating, and focuses on individual agency and autonomy. As P125 put it “Happiness is a feeling of

joy and contentment gained in the process of striving for one’s ideals and goals”.

This view of happiness also has a future dimension to it. P76 wrote that: “Happiness is a feeling

of worth in the present life, and a longing towards the future”. P118 agreed: “”Happiness is satisfaction

with the present circumstance, and holding positive outlook for the future development”. Happiness is

not only focused on the present, but also oriented towards the future. Therefore, the common practice

of using (present) life satisfaction as a proxy for happiness is restricting and incomplete (Diener, 1984;

Argyle, 1987). Furthermore, if happiness inherently implies an optimistic approach towards the future,

the finding that optimism as a personality trait consistently correlates with reported happiness is to be

expected (Myers & Diener, 1996).

For Chinese, hope and keeping faith is even more important than actual achievement and goal


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fulfillment. Confucian, Taoism and Buddhism all preach a philosophy of submission to, rather than

conquering the environment. Hope and faith thus become important strategies of maintaining personal

control, albeit psychological, in the face of hardship and uncertainty. It is understandable that hope

should be intricately related to Chinese happiness.

5.Happiness as freedom from ill-being

So far, the four accounts of happiness all adopt a perspective of possessing or achieving

something, be it a fulfillment, a feeling/emotion, an accomplishment or hopeful outlook. However,

happiness can also be defined from the opposing perpective of not having something bad, unpleasant,

undesirable or unsettling. For instance, P68 stated that: “Happiness is a life without worries”. P119

gave a more detailed account: “Happiness can be defined in four aspects: (1) free of physical sufferings,

illnesses or disabilities; (2) being socially acceptable, getting along well with other people, being

respected and cared for, not being isolated; (3) free of worries and hardships, being able to live a

carefree and joyful life; (4) possessing a healthy, normal mind, being accepted by the society”. This

elaborate definition of happiness actually alternates between two opposing perspectives yet managed to

convey a rather coherent and meaningful view. It seems that “having” and “not having” may be equally

important in people’s thoughts about happiness. The scholarly debate of whether happiness and

unhappiness are two conceptually distinct constructs or two sides of a coin (Diener, 1984; Argyle, 1987)

seems irrelevant in the folk psychology theories of happiness. It is proposed that the relationship

between happiness and unhappiness is dialectical, each dependent on the other for contrast and

meaning, and under certain conditions, each can transform into the other. This point will be further

discussed later.

Happiness is a harmonious state of existence

Happiness is a state of being where one maintains a harmonious relationship with oneself, and

with the environment. This harmonious relationship is of fundamental importance to one’s survival and

well-being. However, this relationship is also dynamic and has to be diligently kept. In order to

maintain this harmonious relationship, several conditions have to be met.

1.The individual has to be satisfied or content

From previous discussions on the view of “happiness as satisfaction/contentment”, we can

conclude that one way to attain satisfaction and contentment in life is through the gratification of

human needs and the fulfillment of personal goals and desires. Needs, goals, and desires can reside in


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every realm of the human existence, but the following were specifically mentioned by our participants:

(1) to be loved, cared about, especially in one’s cardinal relationships with family members, friends,

and lover/spouse; (2) material abundance; (3) health; (4) biopsychosocial equilibrium; (5) self-worth;

(6) peace; (7) free of ill-being; and (8) self-actualization.

Previously, using qualitative interviews, Lu and Shih (1997) found a similar list of sources of

happiness among Chinese community adults. These prominent sources are: (1) being respected; (2)

harmonious interpersonal relationships; (3) material gratification; (4) work achievement; (5) being at

ease with life; (6) self-control and self-actualization; (7) pleasure and positive affect; (8) health; and (9)

downward social comparisons. Adopting a folk psychology approach, Chiasson, Dube and Blondin

(1996) found more similarities than differences in factors people perceived as contributing to happiness

across French-speaking Canadian, English-specking Canadian, American, and Salvadoran student

groups. The most often mentioned factors were family relationships, pursuing and reaching valued

goals, having a positive attitude toward self, and having friends. From a somewhat different perspective

of lay theories, Furnham and Cheng (2000) found six general factors in their 38-item “Causes of

happiness questionnaire” in a group of British students. They were: mental strength and personality

traits, personal advantages, achievement and freedom in life and work, social support and self-esteem,

security, optimism and contentment. While this study used pre-determined “lay beliefs”, the present

study, Lu and Shih (1997), Chiasson, Dube and Blondin (1996) all allowed free-range responses from

participants, hence lending more credits to the trustworthiness of revealing what people truly think

about happiness, both college students and community adults. It thus seems that conditions people

perceive as conducive to happiness are rather similar across age/cohort and cultural groups. They

broadly include interpersonal factors, such as money, achievement, health and self-worth, as well as

interpersonal factors, such as harmonious relationships, being loved, respected, and cared about, .

For Chinese, however, interpersonal goals are the most important to subjective well-being,

underlined by a desire for solidarity and loyalty so deeply woven in the cultural tradition (Lu, 1998).

The Confucian “wu lun”, five cardinal relationships, form the backbone of a Chinese person’s social

world, and were repeatedly mentioned by our participants in relation to happiness. They are one’s

relation with the emperor (supervisor being his modern proxy), with father, with spouse, with brother,

and with friends. Harmony on these realms virtually ascertains one’s harmonious relationships with the

self and the external environment, as other life domains are but servents serving the master: family and

clan. For example, making money is to prosper the family, and career achievements are to glorify the

family name.


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However, for the Chinese there is yet another way of feeling satisfied and content: not desiring

and being sincerely grateful to life. Human desires can be fulfilled through hard-driving and persistent

striving, as highly valued in the Western culture; or desires can be eliminated through even harder

suppression and self-cultivation. When a simple life style is adopted, a clear mind is set, a desireless

state finally breaks the vicious circle of reproduction of desires, frustration, and misery. Happiness then

can be truely long-lasting and peaceful. The spiritual cultivation and mind work preached by all schools

of Chinese philosophy open up another passage to the depth of happiness, which is generally

unavailable to the Westerners.

2.The individual is the agent of his own happiness

There is often a false belief that traditional Chinese philosophies are passive and pessimistic. In

fact, even the Taoists “not doing” (wu wei) is not “doing nothing”, rather doing things according to the

Nature’s force. The Confucian system asserts that fate determines while man strives. Many of our

participants took this more uplifting view and assumed more personal responsibility in formulating

their happiness conceptions. Three aspects of the human agency were mentioned. First, the individual

is dynamic, and should strive to create a meaningful life for himself. For instance, P125 wrote that:

“Happiness is not a given fact, it is created through personal striving”. He went on to claim that

“Happiness is a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction, after one has done what one should and tried one’s

best”. P111 agreed that: “A human life is a constant pursue of happiness. Putting one’s ideas into

practice is one way of pursuing happiness”.

Second, the personal striving must be governed by moral principles, and a meaningful life is a

virtuous life. For example, P10 thought that: “Not harming others was the pre-condition for striving for

personal goals and happiness”. P2 wrote that: “A moral belief system is the foundation of one’s

happiness”. P14 also believed that: “Our happiness must be judged with the criterion of moral

obligations”. Morality has a central place in the Confucian philosophy and is held as a defining feature

of “becoming a man” (zuo ren). It is with morality, the Chinese culture battles the self-destructive

pursuit of hedonic pleasures, thus maintaining harmony and stability in the greater society.

Third, the individual should assume autonomy, but at the same time accept whatever fate may

bring him. As several participants mentioned that “Happiness is to be free to adopt one’s own life style

and do what one wants with life, however, one has to be open-minded and accept whatever life has

installed for one with great ease” (P65, P72, P90, P98, and P105).

In conclusion, the Chinese notion of human agency is fundamentally different from that


14

advocated in the Western culture, and is pre-determined by fate. The Chinese strategies of executing

human agency are also different from the Western ones, as they focus on accepting and coming to terms

with the results, no matter good or bad. When man has done his work, the rest is up to the Heaven.

3.Spiritual enrichment should be more emphasized than material satisfaction

As many of our participants believed that happiness is fundamentally a quality of the mind. The

human mind perceives, interprets, interacts with the external world, and generates various positive

feelings if relationships between the individual and himself, between the individual and his

environment are harmonious. A large majority of our participants noted that happiness is more of some

inner feelings than a mere reflection of the objective world. It is of course not likely that happiness can

bread in a material vacuum for most ordinary people, however, the dignity and peace accomplished by

Buddist munks under extreme material and physical hardships do provide a striking demonstration of

mind power. Chuan-Tzu, the great Taoist philosopher, sang and danced joyfully to celebrate the death

of his wife, for Taoism views death as a dreamless sleep, a transition to a new life, a purification of

imperfect human form, and a passport to eternal happiness. Confucian philosophy too stresses mind

work to suppress selfish desires and irrational demands in order to be virtuous and serve the group. All

these Chinese traditional teachings place great emphasis on spiritual enrichment, and play down, even

deny the role of material gratification, physical comfort, and hedonic pleasures in the happiness

experience. P122 ascribed to this solemn view of happiness: “Only when the spirit is rich, the mind is

peaceful and steady, happiness is then possible. Happiness is an inner feeling, not resides in the

external material world”. P40 agreed that “Happiness is a feeling generated by one’s mind, not a

judgement imposed from the outside”. P55 was certain that “If the mind is not content, happiness will

not exist”.

It should be said that referring happiness as an individual mental state and spiritual-focused is not

a monopoly of the Chinese cultural tradition, such viewpoints can be found in the

philosophies/religions of other cultures too. For instance, ancient Greek philosopher Democritus

(461-371 B.C.) asserted that the basis for the ultimate human happiness is the peace of soul and

self-discipline with moral and reason. In the eyes of ancient Greek philosophers, “virtue” is almost

synonym of “happiness”, and only through virtuous human activities can happiness be achieved. In the

East, India is another great cultural heritage which adopts a predominant spiritual and transcendental

approach to life in general, including happiness conceptions of course. Bearing in mind such

pan-cultural consensus on viewing happiness as a mental and spiritual state, it is thus worthwhile for


15

scholars to re-evaluate our SWB research paradigms. If happiness is believed to be mainly the work of

the human mind, which is largely independent of, if not irrelevant to the external conditions, then the

search for objective indicators of a happy person is doomed to be futile (Andrews & Withey, 1976;

Diener, 1984; Argrle, 1987; Myers & Diener, 1996). Instead, we should pay more attention to how

people interpret and generate meanings from the external world, for instance, in the track of judgement

theory (Rim, 1993).

4.The individual has to maintain a positive outlook for the future

Happiness is not just “here and now”, to achieve a harmonious relationship with oneself and with

the external world, one has to set the mind towards future too. For if future is gloomy, the preseat

happiness will only be short lived; if the mind is unsettling, happiness will not dwell.

The future orientation of happiness can be secured through: (1) acceptance of gaps between

realities and ideals (P79); (2) having courage to face the reality (P106, P123); and (3) keeping faith and

hope, opening up the mind towards future and staying optimistic disregarding external circumstances

(P6, P76). “Optimism keeps happiness alive and lasting” (P84).

As discussed earlier, amending the existing SWB research programmes to capture this future

dimension in happiness is necessary. To find out how people manage to maintain a positive outlook

under some exceptional hardships will be particularly insightful for our understanding of human

happiness (Carver et al., 1993).

The dialectical relationship between happiness and unhappiness

Philosophers and psychologists have long debated on the nature of relationship between

happiness and unhappiness. Buddhist philosophy cuts a deep breach between happiness and

unhappiness: unhappiness or misery is the truth of human existence, whereas happiness can only be

found in the “Paradise of the west”. Taoist philosophy too casts happiness and unhappiness in a

“all-or-none” relationship. Chuan-Tzu claimed that “perfect happiness is in the absence of happiness”.

In other words, if one searches for happiness, unhappiness results; if one does nothing, happiness is

found. In Taoism as well as Buddhism, happiness and unhappiness can not co-exist.

However, Chinese folk wisdom takes a more flexible stance on the relationship between

happiness and unhappiness. As briefly discussed earlier, the ancient Yin-Yang philosophy takes a

cosmological view that everything from the cosmos to human life is a never-ending, cyclic process of

change, between good and bad, happiness and misery, well-being and ill-being. In the Book of Change,


16

the ancient but still influential philosophical work, good things are said to be inevitably followed by

bad things; misfortune will be replaced by blessing. This cyclic view of life is best expressed in the

case of happiness/unhappiness: “Happiness is dependent on unhappiness, while unhappiness is hidden

in happiness” (Lu, 1998).

It is probable that the relationship between happiness and unhappiness can be a dialectical one.

Happiness and unhappiness are two distinct entities, but locked in a never-ending relationship of

interdependence: each depends on the other for contrast and meaning. Without happiness, unhappiness

will not be threatening and distressing; without unhappiness, happiness will not be precious and worthy

of pursuit. Moreover, this relationship between the two opposites is also dynamic and constantly

changing. Happiness and unhappiness are conflictual, but they each can transform, and integrate at a

higher level. However, the conflicts may still be present at this higher lever, hence integration and

resolution are always possibilities at an even higher lever. So goes on this process of conflict,

integration and resolution. Buddhist philosophy may be misinterpreted as escapist and pessimistic, it in

fact urges people to play down the significance of “here and now”, and to view everything from a

wider perspective and at a higher level. This is the Buddhist wisdom of “seeing a mountain as not a

mountain; seeing a mountain as a mountain again”. “Seeing a mountain as not a mountain” is to

transcend the reality of mountain; however, “seeing a mountain as a mountain again” is to further

transcend one’s mind set of “not a mountain”.

Some of our participants’ views on happiness reflected this dialectical relationship with

unhappiness. One characteristic of this dialectical relationship is the contrast between happiness and

unhappiness. P38, P49 and P100 all stated that happiness results from its contrast with unhappiness.

P97 went on to explain: “When someone loses freedom, he then realizes the happiness of having

freedom. When love is gone (especially those who are forced to be separated from loved ones), they

then painfully realize how happy they were being in love”. This is a case of contrasting the present

unhappiness with the previous happiness intrapersonally. The contrast can also occur interpersonally.

P100 explained: “”If someone has just been forsaken by his girlfriend, he will surely feel miserable;

however, if he realizes that there are more misery and tragedy in the ICU, he will feel less unfortunate”.

In any case, happiness must be set against unhappiness, and unhappiness is sharpened against

happiness. P38 thus concluded: “If we are to feel happiness, we must first go through life’s trial of

frustration. Because if everything goes smoothly, it is hard to feel the existence of happiness”.

Another characteristic of the dialectical relationship between happiness and unhappiness is its

dynamic and transformational nature. P47 noted that: “When we go through different stages of life, the


17

happiness we pursue will change constantly”. Transient but intense sensual pleasures may bring

happiness to a young man, but are carefully avoided when he grows older, as these may breed

unhappiness even danger. The central thesis of proposing a dialectical view is that both happiness and

unhappiness are relative, changeable, and interdependent. The views of happiness and unhappiness as

two parallels, or as two poles of a dimension may both be restrictive. Instead, the energy and

transformation mechanisms involved in this dialectical relationship deserve more concerted research

efforts.

Happiness can be achieved

Happiness may be difficult to define, and constantly changing, however, most people believe that

its pursuit is worthy and happiness can be achieved. Our participants listed four broad categories of

abilities, or “wisdoms” in Chinese term, to ensure a successful pursuit of happiness.

1.The wisdom of discovery

As happiness is a quality of the mind, a subjective and relative inner state of feelings, participants

believed that happiness should not be searched outward, but inward instead. P125 questioned: “If we

don’t know what we need, what we are searching for, what we are waiting for, and just live a life day

by day, how can there be any happiness?” P2 agreed that: “The foundation of happiness is in your mind:

having faith, and knowing what one is searching for. Happiness needs not be searched outside, instead

one needs to build up one’s own mind”. Therefore, the starting point of a search for happiness is

retrospection and mind work: to understand oneself, to work on oneself, and to focus one’s mind from

outward demands to inward search. P115 commented that: “”People regard happiness as brought by

external events, hence can be achieved through hard striving outward. They don’t realize that happiness

is in fact a subtle inner feeling, and can only be found through hard striving inward”.

2. The wisdom of contentment and gratitude

As discussed earlier under the notion of happiness definitions, “being content with one’s lot, and

feeling sincerely thankful for whatever life brings” is a distinct Chinese perspective in conceptualizing

happiness. Many participants highlighted this wisdom of contentment and gratitude as a key to genuine

happiness. “Those who feel content are often happy”, “One should be content for and treasure whatever

one has got” are two popular Chinese idioms most often quoted in our participants writings about

happiness (eg. P52, P53, P81, P114). According to Confucian, Taoism and Buddhism, the most


18

effective way to achieve psychological contentment is to eliminate excessive desires. P114 remarked

that “In the search for happiness, we might better start with reducing our greedy desires”.

3.The wisdom of giving

One way to express one’s gratitude for life is to give back, benefiting other people and the greater

society, P21 commented that: “”Discovering one’s own happiness, learning to be grateful, and finally

giving out to other people, is in the pursuit of a more divine happiness”. P114 also agreed that: “Giving

is more fortunate than receiving. Those who are not greedy, not selfish are truly happy people”. P64

was more specific: “As long as I treat people sincerely, doing my best to help friends and giving them a

sense of security, I then feel happy”. This altruistic way to achieve happiness is reminiscent of the

Confucian collectivist oriented conception of happiness.

4.The wisdom of self-cultivation

Traditional Chinese philosophers are more concerned with practical issues of being a man, as

opposed to Western philosophers’ intense interest on abstract knowledge. Self-cultivation is a prime

method of transforming ideas into action. Learning and self-constraint are Confucian ways of

self-cultivation, synchronizing with the Nature is the Taoist way of life practice, whereas meditation

and rituals are Buddhist ways of mind work. Regardless of schools and methods, common goals of

self-cultivation are to surpass selfish desires, to break out the constraints of here and now, and to gear

one’s mind to a broader and higher horizon. As P54 remarked that: “Happiness does not involve things

happening to us, it is actually about how we view these things”. P69 also remarked that: “Happiness is

dependent on our perspectives of seeing things”. Happiness and unhappiness are separated with a split

of thought. Keeping a clear mind to transcend reality is the task of self-cultivation.

Final reflections

Causes of happiness vs. conceptions of happiness

Throughout the discussions on happiness, both from a philosophical and a folk point of view, there

seems a prevailing propensity of including the “causes” of happiness in its conceptions. There might be

several causes responsible for such a phenomenon.

First, in some viewpoints of happiness, certain acts, beliefs or circumstances are seen as

preconditions for a state of mind to be categorized as “happiness”. Confucians hold “moral” as the

necessary condition for human happiness. Ancient Greek philosophers too regarded “virtue” as a


19

precondition for happiness.

Second, for ordinary people, philosophical and ethical contemplations are too removed from their

mundane existence, so is the abstract and illusive definitions of happiness. However, subjective

experiences of a happy state may be blessed, or observed on other people. Hence, beliefs on “causes”

of happiness are direct results of attributions made on such real happy experiences. In other words,

causes of happiness are the relatively concrete and tangible components of the generally abstract and

illusive conceptions of happiness. Not surprisingly, both lay people and scholars have found them

attainable and rewarding subjects of intellectual inquiries Chiasson, Dube & Blondin, 1996; Furnham

& Cheng, 2000; Lu & Shih, 1997).

Finally, both setting preconditions for happiness and making attributions on real happy

experiences may have utilitarian functions as well. Knowing/believing what causes happiness can serve

to guide concerted efforts in the pursuit of happiness. Having set moral as the precondition for

happiness, Confucians further point out that happiness can be achieved through “knowledge,

benevolence, and harmony of the group” (Wu, 1992, p.31). These are the three ways of self-cultivation

to accomplish the Confucian moral greatness. We should be aware that although “causes” of happiness

may be psychologically more accessible when people think about happiness, and scientifically more

operationalizable to explore, there are still much more to a comprehensive happiness conception.

Heritage vs. adoption in happiness conceptions

From the aforementioned limited extant empirical literature, we can tentatively conclude that the

propensity of including the causes of happiness in its conceptions may not be distinct in the Chinese

culture. In fact, the reflections made above are sufficiently general to be applied to other cultures too.

Furthermore, even with a focus deliberately set on the Chinese cultural contexts, some viewpoints

presented in this paper do not merely reflect Chinese traditions, such as referring happiness as an

individual mental and spiritual state, which can be found in other cultures too. Moreover, it can be

argued that in spite of Chinese background, Taiwanese society may no longer be a “pure” heritage of

Chinese traditional culture. As a matter of fact, neither Hong Kong nor Mainland China is. After

decades of economic globalization, political interactions, strategic alliance, and systematic cultural

communications, it seems that very few cultures in today’s world can withstand the strict test of being

“pure” to their heritages. With no doubt, the cultural asymmetry does exist, namely, the Eastern

cultures are faced with greater impacts and challenges brought by the invading Western cultures than

vice versa. However, against this background of vast scale imposed cultural evolution in Asian


20

territories, Taiwan stands out as a rather special and intriguing case.

First, Taiwan has the best preservation of the Chinese cultural heritages among Chinese dominated

societies in the world, due to historical and political reasons. Since 1949, the Communists took over

power in Mainland China and the Nationalist government expelled established their anti-Communist

base in Taiwan. The two sides are officially still at war with each other. Although the war of guns has

ceased for many decades, but the one with competing ideologies and fierce rhetoric still prevails across

the Taiwan Strait. The Nationalist government orchestrated a political campaign to preserve Chinese

cultural heritages, in order to rival the Communists’ anti-tradition stance. This political engineering has

far-reaching influences and consequently core Chinese values such as fillial piety still pervade through

every aspect of life in Taiwan. Materials on Chinese cultural heritages are part of the core curriculum in

statutory education for every Taiwanese, which is not the case in any other Chinese societies.

Second, Taiwan has been a major gateway for Western influences into Asia, besides Hong Kong.

The help and alliance of the Western world, especially the USA, secured the safety and survival of the

early exiled government. Consequently, Western influences are welcome and profound, which laid the

ground for the still ongoing democratization in Taiwan. American life style is also evident around every

street corner in big cities of Taiwan. Hence, the historical anti-communist stance of the Taiwanese

government has created a blend of traditional Chinese cultural heritages and Western capitalism in

modern Taiwan.

Living in a cross-stream of Chinese and Western cultural influences, contemporary Taiwanese

people exhibit an amazing capacity for both cultural preservation and cultural adaptation. A recent

study (Lu et al., 2001) has found that Taiwanese people possess traditional Chinese collectivistic values

(interdependent self-construal and harmony beliefs), as well as Western individualistic values

(independent self-construal and control beliefs). Furthermore, both sets of values contribute to

happiness. Hwang (1996) examined perceived generational value differences among Taiwanese college

students. He found very little changes on importance attached to core traditional values between the

two generations. However, some traditional values are receding among the younger Taiwanese.

Nonetheless, traditional and modern values can coexist in the process of societal modernization. They

may even integrate to form a new value system to guide modern life practice for contemporary

Taiwanese. It seems that in the face of the vast-scale cultural invasion from the West, and the rapid

transition from an agricultural and autocratic society to an industrial and democratic society, Taiwanese

people have not relinquished traditional Chinese ideology, philosophies, values and practices. Instead,

they have made pragmatic use of the Western culture, learning, adopting and assimilating useful


21

ideology, philosophies, values and practices to enhance adjustment in the modern world (Quah, 1995).

An attitude favoring both cultural preservation and cultural adaptation for dealing with the apparent

conflicts between strong traditionality and requisite modernity seems to be the most favorable outcome

for people in Taiwan. This should also be the case for happiness conceptions explored in this study. It

may not be very meaningful even possible to tease out “heritage” vs. “adoption” in happiness

conceptions, nonetheless, we need to be aware that the Taiwan’s young generation are living testimony

that “heritage” and “adoption” not only can coexist, but also are equally important for human

happiness.

A final quote

It is becoming to conclude this paper with a poem from one of our participants’ essays.

Where does happiness come from

Happiness is a warm feeling so attractive

everyone likes to get closer

but it is abstract, can not be touched

If you are to search for it

you don’t know where it comes from

Happiness is from your heart

just fill your heart with love

Looking at people with love

experiencing the encounter between people with love

You will feel happy

Happiness is inside everyone’s mind

Everyone’s thoughts control their existence

As long as you can experience, knowing to treasure

Happiness is no longer a privilege of the rich

ordinary people can possess happiness, even more


22

Therefore, don’t say that you are not happy

You just don’t know how to experience

Happiness is from your heart

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understanding happiness: a look into the chinese folk psychology

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