– Understand that scholarly writing is argumentation– Understand several rules for successful scholarly

writing– Understand how articles are structured (6 parts)– Understand key organizational patterns for lit

review– Distinguish and explain the 3 common

justifications for research articles

“Big Ideas” – Chapter 5

As a result of your readings and our class discussion this weekyou should have a basic understanding of and be able to

explain the following:

Research QuestionHypotheses

A WORKING MODEL OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH

Narrow focus

Identify topic

STEP 1:CONCEPTUALIZATION

Review of Literature

STEP 2: PLANNING & DESIGNING

Which Method?

STEP 4: ANALYZE& INTERPRET DATA

Report / Write STEP 5:RECONCEPTUALIZATION

STEP 3: SELECTING AMETHODOLOGY

OperationalizatonMeasurementTechniques

Define Key Concepts

Big Picture – The Forest & some of its trees. . .

• Topic selection

• Research questions and hypotheses

• Conceptual and operational definitions

• Literature review organization/structure

• Making an argument with literature/research

• Justification (p. 152, Reinard)

OVERVIEW OF SCHOLARLY WRITING

• more than just “legal” writing--an argument! – Inductive and Deductive

• based on the work of other scholars/researchers• using precise words (jargon, word choice)• advice for effective writing (common errors?)• revising and editing written work (beautiful?) • Example in book? (scholarly v. creative)• Why does effective writing in Com courses matter? • How about these? more errors

• Its and It’s• There and Their• Your and you’re• Run-on sentences• If it was…were• Not using transitions or connectors• active voice

“The difference between the right word and the “almost right word” is the

difference between lightning and the lightning bug.”- Mark Twain

Avoid overstatementsAvoid unsupportable generalizationsAvoid slang/cliches/colloquialismsKeep the language direct, simple

The Research Code

Researchers make claims in form of contingent statements

Defined:

Claims that can be shown to be either true or false

Example:

TV news broadcasts feature more stories about the civil rights movement than about the women's movement

Example:

Sources with high credibility produce more attitude change than sources with low credibility

Example: This month is October

CLAIM: states what you want readers to believe.

e.g., It must have rained last night.e.g., You should be checked for diabetes.

EVIDENCE (or GROUNDS): the reasons they should believe it.

e.g., because the streets are wet.e.g., because your glucometer reading is 200.

CLAIM: Sense of community will be higher for female students than male undergraduate students

EVIDENCE:

Extensive psychological literature on gender differences in attitudes, values and beliefs, particularly in social/interpersonal styles and motives (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974; Deaux, 1984; Eisenberg & Lennon, 1983)

WARRANT: a general principle, assumption or premise that bridges the claim and its evidence;whether your claim can be inferred from your evidence.

e.g., Whenever we see the evidence of wet streets in the morning,we can conclude that it probably rained last night.

e.g., You should be checked by your doctor (claim) becauseyour reading is 200 (evidence). [Why? … the warrant]Whenever someone has a reading of more than 120, that’s a good sign a person may have diabetes.]

QUALIFICATIONS: limit the certainty of your conclusions, stipulatethe conditions in which your claim holds, address yourreaders’ potential objections (and make you appear a judicious,cautious, thoughtful writer).

e.g., Your reading is 200 (evidence) so you should be checked (claim)[because that much glucose in the blood is a good sign that you may (qualification) have diabetes (warrant)] unlessof course, you just ate something sugary (qualification).

From The Craft of Research by Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams.

University of Chicago Press:Chicago, IL. (1995).

Research Article FormatTitle

Abstract

Introduction

Statement of the Problem/Hypotheses

Review of Literature What is known?

How does my Q. Relate?

Why select my method?

Method

May include statement of problem/hypotheses

Results

Discussion

Context of the problem ANDAND Justification

Statement of Problem OROR Hypotheses

Subjects Sample Procedure

References

Define? Data

Draw conclusions

Interpret results

Significance Limits

Future Research

Organizing Your Research

Immunity from.....

Chronological Research into the reasons why individuals use mass media dates back more than 50 years. Early forms of gratifications research attempted to understand why people used certain media content. In the process, it explored the functions of the media and the role of the audiences' needs and expectations (e.g., Herzog, 1940; Lazarsfeld & Stanton, 1941; Lazarsfeld & Stanton, 1949). These early studies preceded any formal conceptualization of the uses and gratifications paradigm later proposed by Katz, Blumler and Gurevitch (1974) and Rosengren (1974). Instead of asking what effects the media have on individuals and collective audience behavior, the questions were, what are people seeking and what do they believe they are deriving from mass media? According to Katz (1959), "it is the program that asks the question, not 'What do the media do to people?,' but 'What do people do with the media?'" (p. 2).

Problem-Solution It is clear that building a learning community is necessary for successful faculty-student interactions and a sense of social presence in online courses (Gunawardena, 1994; Wiesenberg & Hutton, 1995; Campbell, 1997; Gunawardena, 1997; McLellan, 1999; Kazmer, 2000). Everhart (1999, p. 12) declares that overcoming a ‘feeling of remoteness’ may be the greatest obstacle to distance learning and diminishing student attrition.

In response, Kim (1998; 2000) suggests “social scaffolding” as a way to build community and overcome feelings of isolation and distance in online learning. According to Palloff and Pratt (1999), one way to “scaffold” is by using personal discussion folders that introduce students to one another. Additionally, Smith (2001) and Franklin (2002) demonstrated how instructors’ use of audio emails could build closeness and intimacy among learners in online courses.

Inductive

– It is clear that building a learning community is necessary for successful faculty-student interactions and a sense of social presence in online courses (Gunawardena, 1994; Wiesenberg & Hutton, 1995; Campbell, 1997; Gunawardena, 1997; McLellan, 1999; Kazmer, 2000).

– Clow (1999), Phillips and Peters (1999), Roblyer (1999) and Hacker and Wignall (1997) all concluded that sufficient interaction with instructors and other students was important based on their studies of the student perceptions of particular online college learning experiences

Deductive The contingency theory of leadership indicates that the context in which a leader operates is a significant factor that influences what is considered “effective leadership” (See Vroom & Yetton, 1973; Fielder; Brilhart; Hicks, 1990; Stogdill, 1974; Bass, 1981). The educational setting is a popular context investigated by researchers (Smith, 1978, Jones, 1983). Generally, however, early research into the educational context identified specific traits that were necessary for effective leadership typical of traditional men (Smelnof, 1969; Holmes, 1971). It was not until the 1970s, after the passage of equal opportunity legislation, that women leaders were seen as their own unique subset of the leadership literature, i.e., gender differences began to be recognized (Moore, 1999). Several recent doctoral dissertations have been written about the career development and leadership styles of women in senior academic positions. Meister (1991). . . Davis (1996)... Sperling (1994) studied the. . . Roberts (1993) ...

Inductive Researchers seem to disagree about the nature and quality of online communities. While many scholars argue that they promote greater self and collective growth and that harmony and inclusiveness are fostered (Cutler, 1996; Featherstone & Burrows, 1995; Jones, 1995), others argue that they are illusory (Robins, 1995; Meyrowitz, 1985; van Dijk, 1997; Ebersole & Woods, 2001) and fragmenting (Shields, 1996). Some argue that “to succeed, distributed learning must balance virtual and direct interaction in sustaining communion among people” (Dede, 1996, p. 19; Baker, 2000).

Problem-Solution

The literature in media effects clearly demonstrates that violence viewed in television (Smith, 1999) and film (Jones, 2001) negatively affects children's behavior (Abel, 1982). Spindler and Rovai (1989) describe how parents can dramatically reduce the negative behavioral effects associated with TV violence through “debriefing” (p. 42). Similarly, Philbin (1990) and Greenleaf (1991) found that parents who view controversial television shows or other violent episodes with their children report far fewer negative behaviors from their children than those parents who do not view such shows with their children. Thus, parental involvement is a consistent factor in reducing the negative effects of violent television in a number of contexts.

Inductive

Why motivations do people have for listening to radio? What uses do they have of radio? First, people use radio for “utilitarian information and news” (Mendelsohn, 1964, p. 246; Cantril & Allport, 1935, Troldahl & Skolnik, 1967). They also use radio as a form of entertainment (MacFarland, 1990, p. 36; Mendelsohn, 1966, p. 247). Companionship (Ruffner, 1972, p. 242; Mendelsohn, 1966, p. 2) is another reason reported in the research. Fourth, radio is used as a form of escape; as a way to release tension and pressure (Weintraub, 1971, p. 39).

Inductive/Chronological

Mendelsohn, in the tradition of Cantril and Allport (1935), also identified four basic psychological functions of radio for individuals of various ages: (a) utilitarian information and news function; (b) active mood accompaniment; (c) release from psychological tension and pressure; and (d) friendly companionship (1964, pp. 246-247). Troldahl and Skolnik (1967), identified the same uses as Mendelsohn, but also found that people used radio as a form of “work accompaniment” or background filler (pp. 57-67). Weintraub (1971) confirmed Troldahl and Skolnik's factors and added two new ones, "time-filling" and "relevancy" (pp. 150-151).

Chronological Lazarsfeld (1946) conducted some of the earliest systematic research of popular music and its audiences on the radio. In The People Look at Radio, he found that 72% of the respondents under age 30 liked to listen to popular music compared to just 22% of those over 50 years of age. Lazarsfeld also reported that there was a "slight tendency for rural people to like popular music less, but education seems to make little difference" (p. 47). In a follow-up study, Lazarsfeld and Kendall (1948) reported that listeners between the ages of 21-49, regardless of educational level, preferred listening to popular and dance music more than any other age group (p. 136). Men preferred listening to "Hillbilly and Western" music more often than women (p. 137). Riesman (1950) argued that popular music served such functions as social adjustment, social protest and "socialization" of the young. Hayakawa (1957) noted that jazz and "Negro blues" provided listeners with a "symbolic means" for coping with or otherwise handling the problems of life.

• More recent studies on the popular music audience have focused on younger audiences since pop music is typically considered to be "a reflection of the psyche of contemporary youth" (Goldberg, 1971, p. 588)—what this author refers to as the "MTV generation" or more recently "Generation X." Melton and Galician (1987) discovered several gratifications associated with pop music radio and video for college students: passing time, relaxation, shifting moods and forgetting problems. These researchers reported that pop music media greatly influenced social interaction.

Comparison & Contrast Order Mendelsohn (1964) identified the following uses associated with radio: companionship, bracketing the day, changing mood, counteracting loneliness or boredom, providing useful news and information, allowing vicarious participation in events and aiding social interaction (pp. 242-246). Note that these uses correspond, in great part, to the motivation categories of television use later identified by Rubin (1981, 1983): for example, counteracting loneliness or boredom (companionship, escape), bracketing the day (pass time), news and information (information) and social interaction. They also parallel uses of radio identified by Troldahl and Skolnik (1967).

Inductive

When discussing how to identify bias in print journalism, researchers have examined several factors. First, length of story. Longer stories may indicate a positive bias (Smith, 1987; Abel, 1988). Second, others have focused on number of stories about a given topic as an indication of bias. More stories over a given period of time may reveal a publication’s favoritism (Abelbam, 1981,LaSalle, 1987). Third, placement of story on the lead page, versus toward the middle or back of the paper, may further reveal a paper’s predisposition to favor a particular side of an issue (Markham, 1978; Dean, 1992; Braze, 1993). Finally, other scholars have focused on the language used in the story, that is, the use of positive or negative adjectives to describe the same issue (Jones, 1988; Lucas, 1990; Brereton, 1990). For example, ...

Known to unknown/Deductive/Topical

Research on religious radio broadcasting is plentiful (Dick, 1964; Barna, 1992). However, those studies that do exist tend to focus on audience demographics or history of the medium to the exclusion of other forms of scholarly inquiry (Seward & Dodds, 1992). Consequently, research on the uses and gratifications of religious radio in general and CCM radio specifically is sparse. Only one study dealing with the uses and gratifications of CCM radio could be identified (Creasman, 1994). Therefore, in order to generate a theoretical framework for this study, research from uses and gratifications theory in general will be considered as well as research from this paradigm dealing with secular radio. Literature on religious broadcast media use in general and religious radio specifically will also be examined. And given CCM's categorization as a form of popular ("contemporary") music, it will be valuable to consider studies dealing with the uses and gratifications of popular music.

Known to Unknown

From early on, media effects researchers have focused the attention of the nation on the media's dysfunctional effects (Schramm, Lyle & Parker, 1961; Parker, 1972). Children have been recognized as a special audience, one that deserves special consideration (Dorr, 1986; Wartella, 1995). Much of the research has examined the negative effects of media violence on children’s behavior (Wartella, 1982; Conger, 1989; Basil, 1992).

Instead of exploring the possible negative effects of the media, other researchers have heralded the positive effects promised by the use of educational media in the classroom (e.g., Kozma, 1994; Salomon, 1978). Access to books, instructional motion pictures, radio, and more recently television and interactive multimedia has been envisioned as the panacea for all that ails our educational system (Barnes, 1972, 1982, 1992; Jones, 1997). The use of the World Wide Web in the classroom is only the latest in a long history of mass media technologies that have been embraced by the educational establishment.

Known to Unknown Although much has been written regarding the use of audio as the primary means of distance education delivery, either by means of audio tapes or synchronous, online audio or teleconferencing (Gunawardena, 1992), no research has concentrated on the use of audio as a supplement to primarily asynchronous, textual forms of online communication, an increasingly popular form of delivery in higher education (Davie & Wells, 1991). More importantly, perhaps, research dealing with the effects of online audio supplements on student/faculty relationships, student participation in online group discussion, student perceptions of online community, and overall student satisfaction with online distance courses or programs, has been missing (Phillips, 2002).

Known to UnknownMuch of the research related to using audio in classroom

delivery has focused on face-to-face settings (Keating & Hargitai, 1999). Much of the research has focused on specific audio tools that might be used by teachers, such as compact disc players (Micky, 2000). Others have asked whether audio-taped versus live lectures in the face-to-face setting enhanced cognitive learning in relation to student learning style (Barna, 1992; Smithfield, 1998).

Some research has focused on the best software for creating or producing audio messages for the world wide web in general (Boettcher, 1998; Jones, 1992). However, little research has focused on how audio production tools can be specifically incorporated within online instructional design and delivery, or what effect such tools might have on online learners. Kerka (2000) argues that for distance learning to be effective, facilitators must use a ‘mix’ of modes—for example, ‘combine e-mail discussion with audio/video methods to enhance the social aspect.’ Research has not been conducted to confirm these presuppositions.

Transition

• The End --

Un-rules for Good Writing

• 1. Don’t use no double negatives.

• 2. Make each pronoun agree with their antecedent.

• 3. Join clauses good like a conjunction should.

• 4. About them sentence fragments.

• 5. When dangling, watch your participles.

• 6. Verbs has to agree with their subject.

• 7. Just between you and I, case is important too.

Un-rules for Good Writing

• 8. Don’t write run-on sentences they are hard to read.

• 9. Don’t use commas, that aren’t necessary.

• 10. Try to not ever split infinitives.

• 11. Its important to use your apostrophes correctly.

• 12. Proofread your writing to see you left any words out.

• 13. Correct spelling is essentail.

• 14. A preposition is a poor word to end a sentence with.

Assessing Usage Awareness

• For Paul, Linda, and myself, thank you for helping.

• Magnavox gives you more.

• Most importantly, he dedicated himself to his studies.

• Hopefully, class will end on time.

• Take the book off of the copy machine.

• While she is a good student, she often procrastinates.

• The staff meets to continuously plan our advertising

Assessing Usage Awareness

• I cannot tell the differences between organizational, interpersonal, and small group communication.

• Besides his bad grammar, he communicated very well.

• Next time I will leave more time for studying.

Clichés

• Beginning an online class with Spring Arbor University brought one more incredibly difficult item [to my plate].

• This statement always [rang true] in my life.

• This lifestyle was an amazing [recipe for burnout] in Corporate America.

 • I know many people who really, really [beat themselves

up] avoid over [falling short] of their list of duties.

Chapter 5 – Writing Research

Your RQ or H

Mmm. . .

“I wonder”

Literature Review

Defined your terms

How do I organizeorganize my

literature review in a

way that justifiesjustifies my RQ or H?

Organizational Patterns1. Known to Unknown2. Deductive3. Problem-Solution4. Chronological5. Inductive6. Topical

Justifications

1. Filling a gap2. Extending 3. Practical Needs

How do I then, after I organize my literature and justify my RQ or H, do I present my findings to the public?

1. Introduction2. Literature Review3. Method section4. Results5. Discussion6. References

Basic Steps 1. Clarity?2. Verifiability?3. Recent?4. Statistical validity?5. Reliability?6. Overall quality?

Ward and Hansen (1987)

Types: (p. 136, Reinard)1. Known to Unknown2. Deductive/Inductive3. Chronological4. Topical5. Problem-Solution6. Comparison and Contrast

1. Introduce the lit review

2. Examine what was written--FILTER!

3. Research all relevant variables

4. Evaluate Previous Research

5. Organize your Research

6. Summarize what has been done, what has not, what should be

7. Pose formal research question/hypothesis

8. List sources (References)