Tycho Brahe

Brahe wearing the Order of theElephant

Born Tyge Ottesen Brahe14 December 1546Knutstorp Castle,Scania, Denmark-Norway

Died 24 October 1601(aged 54)Prague, HabsburgBohemia, HolyRoman Empire

Nationality Danish

Alma mater University ofCopenhagenLeipzig UniversityUniversity of Rostock

Occupation Nobleman,astronomer, writer

Known for Tychonic systemRudolphine Tables

Spouse(s) Kirsten BarbaraJørgensdatter

Tycho Brahe

Tycho Brahe (/ˈtaɪkoʊ ˈbrɑː(hi), - ˈbrɑː(h)ə/ TY-koh BRAH(-hee) - BRAH-(h)ə; born Tyge Ottesen Brahe;[a] 14 December 1546 – 24October 1601) was a Danish nobleman, astronomer, and writerknown for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical observations.He was born in the then-Danish peninsula of Scania. Tycho was wellknown in his lifetime as an astronomer, astrologer, and alchemist. Hehas been described as "the first competent mind in modern astronomyto feel ardently the passion for exact empirical facts".[3] Most of hisobservations were more accurate than the best available observationsat the time.

An heir to several of Denmark's principal noble families, Tychoreceived a comprehensive education. He took an interest in astronomyand in the creation of more accurate instruments of measurement. Asan astronomer, Tycho worked to combine what he saw as thegeometrical benefits of the Copernican system with the philosophicalbenefits of the Ptolemaic system into his own model of the universe,the Tychonic system. His system correctly saw the Moon as orbitingEarth, and the planets as orbiting the Sun, but erroneously consideredthe Sun to be orbiting the Earth. Furthermore, he was the last of themajor naked-eye astronomers, working without telescopes for hisobservations. In his De nova stella (On the New Star) of 1573, herefuted the Aristotelian belief in an unchanging celestial realm. Hisprecise measurements indicated that "new stars" (stellae novae, nowknown as supernovae), in particular that of 1572, lacked the parallaxexpected in sublunar phenomena and were therefore not taillesscomets in the atmosphere as previously believed but were above theatmosphere and beyond the Moon. Using similar measurements, heshowed that comets were also not atmospheric phenomena, aspreviously thought, and must pass through the supposedly immutablecelestial spheres.

King Frederick II granted Tycho an estate on the island of Hven andthe funding to build Uraniborg, an early research institute, where hebuilt large astronomical instruments and took many carefulmeasurements, and later Stjerneborg, underground, when hediscovered that his instruments in Uraniborg were not sufficientlysteady. On the island (where he behaved autocratically toward theresidents) he founded manufactories, such as a paper mill, to providematerial for printing his results. After disagreements with the newDanish king, Christian IV, in 1597, Tycho went into exile. He wasinvited by the Bohemian king and Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph IIto Prague, where he became the official imperial astronomer. He builtan observatory at Benátky nad Jizerou. There, from 1600 until his

Children 8

Parent(s) Otte Brahe Beate ClausdatterBille

Signature

death in 1601, he was assisted by Johannes Kepler, who later usedTycho's astronomical data to develop his three laws of planetarymotion.

Tycho's body has been exhumed twice, in 1901 and 2010, to examinethe circumstances of his death and to identify the material from whichhis artificial nose was made. The conclusion was that his death waslikely caused by a burst bladder, and not by poisoning, as had beensuggested, and that the artificial nose was more likely made of brassthan silver or gold, as some had believed in his time.

LifeEarly yearsTycho's noseScience and life on Uraniborg

Marriage to Kirsten JørgensdatterThe 1572 supernovaLord of HvenPublications, correspondence and scientific disputes

Exile and later yearsRelationship with Kepler

Illness, death, and investigations

Career: observing the heavensObservational astronomyThe Tychonic cosmological modelLunar theorySubsequent developments in astronomyWork in medicine, alchemy and astrology

LegacyBiographiesScientific legacyCultural legacy

Works (selection)See alsoNotesReferencesFurther readingExternal links

Contents

Life

1586 portrait of Tycho Brahe framedby the family shields of his nobleancestors, by Jacques de Gheyn.

Tycho Brahe was born as heir to several of Denmark's mostinfluential noble families and in addition to his immediate ancestrywith the Brahe and the Bille families, he also counted the Rud, Trolle,Ulfstand, and Rosenkrantz families among his ancestors. Both of hisgrandfathers and all of his great grandfathers had served as membersof the Danish king's Privy Council. His paternal grandfather andnamesake Thyge Brahe was the lord of Tosterup Castle in Scania anddied in battle during the 1523 Siege of Malmö during the LutheranReformation Wars. His maternal grandfather Claus Bille, lord toBohus Castle and a second cousin of Swedish king Gustav Vasa,participated in the Stockholm Bloodbath on the side of the Danishking against the Swedish nobles. Tycho's father Otte Brahe, a royalPrivy Councilor (like his own father), married Beate Bille, who washerself a powerful figure at the Danish court holding several royalland titles. Both parents are buried under the floor of KågerödChurch, four kilometres east of Knutstorp.[4]

Tycho was born at his family's ancestral seat of Knutstorp Castle(Danish: Knudstrup borg; Swedish: Knutstorps borg), about eightkilometres north of Svalöv in then Danish Scania. He was the oldest of 12 siblings, 8 of whom lived toadulthood, including Steen Brahe. His twin brother died before being baptized. Tycho later wrote an ode inLatin to his dead twin,[5][6] which was printed in 1572 as his first published work. An epitaph, originally fromKnutstorp, but now on a plaque near the church door, shows the whole family, including Tycho as a boy.

When he was only two years old Tycho was taken away to be raised by his uncle Jørgen Thygesen Brahe andhis wife Inger Oxe (sister to Peder Oxe, Steward of the Realm) who were childless. It is unclear why OtteBrahe reached this arrangement with his brother, but Tycho was the only one of his siblings not to be raised byhis mother at Knutstorp. Instead, Tycho was raised at Jørgen Brahe's estate at Tosterup and at Tranekær on theisland of Langeland, and later at Næsbyhoved Castle near Odense, and later again at the Castle of Nykøbingon the island of Falster. Tycho later wrote that Jørgen Brahe "raised me and generously provided for meduring his life until my eighteenth year; he always treated me as his own son and made me his heir".[7]

From ages 6 to 12, Tycho attended Latin school, probably in Nykøbing. At age 12, on 19 April 1559, Tychobegan studies at the University of Copenhagen. There, following his uncle's wishes, he studied law, but alsostudied a variety of other subjects and became interested in astronomy. At the University, Aristotle was a stapleof scientific theory, and Tycho likely received a thorough training in Aristotelian physics and cosmology. Heexperienced the solar eclipse of 21 August 1560, and was greatly impressed by the fact that it had beenpredicted, although the prediction based on current observational data was a day off. He realized that moreaccurate observations would be the key to making more exact predictions. He purchased an ephemeris andbooks on astronomy, including Johannes de Sacrobosco's De sphaera mundi, Petrus Apianus's Cosmographiaseu descriptio totius orbis and Regiomontanus's De triangulis omnimodis.[7]

Jørgen Thygesen Brahe, however, wanted Tycho to educate himself in order to become a civil servant, andsent him on a study tour of Europe in early 1562. 15-year old Tycho was given as mentor the 19-year-oldAnders Sørensen Vedel, whom he eventually talked into allowing the pursuit of astronomy during the tour.[8]

Vedel and his pupil left Copenhagen in February 1562. On 24 March, they arrived in Leipzig, where theymatriculated at the Lutheran Leipzig University.[9] In 1563, he observed a conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn,and noticed that the Copernican and Ptolemaic tables used to predict the conjunction were inaccurate. This ledhim to realize that progress in astronomy required systematic, rigorous observation, night after night, using the

Early years

An artificial nose of the kind Tychowore. This particular example did notbelong to Tycho.

most accurate instruments obtainable. He began maintaining detailed journals of all his astronomicalobservations. In this period, he combined the study of astronomy with astrology, laying down horoscopes fordifferent famous personalities.[10]

When Tycho and Vedel returned from Leipzig in 1565, Denmark was at war with Sweden, and as vice-admiral of the Danish fleet, Jørgen Brahe had become a national hero for having participated in the sinking ofthe Swedish warship Mars during the First battle of Öland (1564). Shortly after Tycho's arrival in Denmark,Jørgen Brahe was defeated in the Action of 4 June 1565, and shortly afterwards died of a fever. Stories have itthat he contracted pneumonia after a night of drinking with the Danish King Frederick II when the king fellinto the water in a Copenhagen canal and Brahe jumped in after him. Brahe's possessions passed on to hiswife Inger Oxe, who considered Tycho with special fondness.[11]

In 1566, Tycho left to study at the University of Rostock. Here, hestudied with professors of medicine at the university's famous medicalschool and became interested in medical alchemy and botanicalmedicine.[12] On 29 December 1566 at the age of 20, Tycho lost partof his nose in a sword duel with a fellow Danish nobleman, his thirdcousin Manderup Parsberg. The two had drunkenly quarreled overwho was the superior mathematician at an engagement party at thehome of Professor Lucas Bachmeister on 10 December.[13] Comingnearly to quarrel again with his cousin on 29 December, they endedup resolving their feud with a duel in the dark. Though the two werelater reconciled, the duel resulted in Tycho losing the bridge of hisnose and gaining a broad scar across his forehead. He received thebest possible care at the university and wore a prosthetic nose for therest of his life. It was kept in place with paste or glue and said to bemade of silver and gold.[14] In November 2012, Danish and Czechresearchers reported that the prosthetic was actually made of brassafter chemically analyzing a small bone sample from the nose fromthe body exhumed in 2010.[15] The prosthetics made of gold andsilver were mostly worn for special occasions, rather than everydaywear.

In April 1567, Tycho returned home from his travels, with a firm intention of becoming an astrologer.Although he had been expected to go into politics and the law, like most of his kinsmen, and althoughDenmark was still at war with Sweden, his family supported his decision to dedicate himself to the sciences.His father wanted him to take up law, but Tycho was allowed to travel to Rostock and then to Augsburg(where he built a great quadrant), Basel, and Freiburg. In 1568, he was appointed a canon at the Cathedral ofRoskilde, a largely honorary position that would allow him to focus on his studies. At the end of 1570, he wasinformed of his father's ill health, so he returned to Knutstorp Castle, where his father died on 9 May 1571.The war was over, and the Danish lords soon returned to prosperity. Soon, another uncle, Steen Bille, helpedhim build an observatory and alchemical laboratory at Herrevad Abbey.[16] Tycho was acknowledged byKing Frederick II who proposed to him that an observatory be built to better study the night sky. Afteraccepting this proposal, the location for the Uraniborg's construction took place at a remote island called Hvenin the Sont near Copenhagen, which made a name for itself as the most promising observatory in Europe at thetime.[17]

Tycho's nose

Science and life on Uraniborg

Star map of the constellationCassiopeia showing the position ofthe supernova of 1572 (the topmoststar, labelled I); from Tycho Brahe'sDe nova stella.

Towards the end of 1571, Tycho fell in love with Kirsten, daughter of Jørgen Hansen, the Lutheran minister inKnudstrup.[18] As she was a commoner, Tycho never formally married her, since if he did he would lose hisnoble privileges. However, Danish law permitted morganatic marriage, which meant that a nobleman and acommon woman could live together openly as husband and wife for three years, and their alliance thenbecame a legally binding marriage. However, each would maintain their social status, and any children theyhad together would be considered commoners, with no rights to titles, landholdings, coat of arms, or even theirfather's noble name.[19] While King Frederick respected Tycho's choice of wife, himself having been unable tomarry the woman he loved, many of Tycho's family members disagreed, and many churchmen would continueto hold the lack of a divinely sanctioned marriage against him. Kirsten Jørgensdatter gave birth to their firstdaughter, Kirstine (named after Tycho's late sister) on 12 October 1573. Kirstine died from the plague in 1576,and Tycho wrote a heartfelt elegy for her tombstone.[20] In 1574, they moved to Copenhagen where theirdaughter Magdalene was born,[21] and later the family followed him into exile.[22] Kirsten and Tycho livedtogether for almost thirty years until Tycho's death. Together, they had eight children, six of whom lived toadulthood.

On 11 November 1572, Tycho observed (from Herrevad Abbey) avery bright star, now numbered SN 1572, which had unexpectedlyappeared in the constellation Cassiopeia. Because it had beenmaintained since antiquity that the world beyond the Moon's orbit waseternally unchangeable (celestial immutability was a fundamentalaxiom of the Aristotelian world-view), other observers held that thephenomenon was something in the terrestrial sphere below the Moon.However, Tycho observed that the object showed no daily parallaxagainst the background of the fixed stars. This implied that it was atleast farther away than the Moon and those planets that do show suchparallax. He also found that the object did not change its positionrelative to the fixed stars over several months, as all planets did intheir periodic orbital motions, even the outer planets, for which nodaily parallax was detectable. This suggested that it was not even aplanet, but a fixed star in the stellar sphere beyond all the planets. In1573, he published a small book De nova stella,[23] thereby coiningthe term nova for a "new" star (we now classify this star as asupernova and know that it is 7500 light-years from Earth). Thisdiscovery was decisive for his choice of astronomy as a profession.Tycho was strongly critical of those who dismissed the implications ofthe astronomical appearance, writing in the preface to De nova stella:

"O crassa ingenia. O caecos coeli spectatores" ("Oh thick wits. Oh blind watchers of the sky"). Thepublication of his discovery made him a well-known name among scientists across Europe.[24][25]

Tycho continued with his detailed observations, often assisted by his first assistant and student, his youngersister Sophie Brahe. In 1574, Tycho published the observations made in 1572 from his first observatory atHerrevad Abbey. He then started lecturing on astronomy, but gave it up and left Denmark in spring 1575 totour abroad. He first visited William IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel's observatory at Kassel, then went on toFrankfurt, Basel and Venice, where he acted as an agent for the Danish king, contacting artisans and craftsmenwhom the king wanted to work on his new palace at Elsinore. Upon his return, the King wished to repay

Marriage to Kirsten Jørgensdatter

The 1572 supernova

Lord of Hven

A hand-painted copper-plateengraving of Uraniborg from Blaeu'sAtlas Maior (1662-5), based on awoodcut from Brahe's Astronomiæinstauratæ mechanica (1598).

Tycho Brahe's large mural quadrantat Uraniborg

Engraving of the above ground partsof Tycho Brahe's undergroundobservatory "Stjerneborg".

Tycho's service by offering him a position worthy of his family; heoffered him a choice of lordships of militarily and economicallyimportant estates, such as the castles of Hammershus or Helsingborg.But Tycho was reluctant to take up a position as a lord of the realm,preferring to focus on his science. He wrote to his friend JohannesPratensis, "I did not want to take possession of any of the castles ourbenevolent king so graciously offered me. I am displeased withsociety here, customary forms and the whole rubbish".[26] Tychosecretly began to plan to move to Basel, wishing to participate in theburgeoning academic and scientific life there. But the King heard ofTycho's plans, and desiring to keep the distinguished scientist, heoffered Tycho the island of Hven in Øresund and funding to set up anobservatory.[27]

Until then, Hven had beenproperty directly under theCrown, and the 50 families on the island considered themselves to befreeholding farmers, but with Tycho's appointment as Feudal Lord ofHven, this changed. Tycho took control of agricultural planning,requiring the peasants to cultivate twice as much as they had donebefore, and he also exacted corvée labor from the peasants for theconstruction of his new castle.[28] The peasants complained aboutTycho's excessive taxation and took him to court. The courtestablished Tycho's right to levy taxes and labor, and the result was acontract detailing the mutual obligations of lord and peasants on theisland.[29]

Tycho envisioned his castle Uraniborg as a temple dedicated to themuses of arts and sciences, rather than as a military fortress; indeed, itwas named after Urania, the muse of astronomy. Construction beganin 1576 (with a laboratory for his alchemical experiments in thecellar). Uraniborg was inspired by the Venetian architect AndreaPalladio, and was one of the first buildings in northern Europe toshow influence from Italian renaissance architecture.

When he realized that the towers of Uraniborg were not adequate asobservatories because of the instruments' exposure to the elements andthe movement of the building, he then constructed a secondunderground observatory at nearby Stjerneborg in 1581. Thebasement included an alchemical laboratory with 16 furnaces forconducting distillations and other chemical experiments.[30]

Unusually for the time, Tycho established Uraniborg as a researchcentre, where almost 100 students and artisans worked from 1576 to1597.[31][32] Uraniborg also contained a printing press and a papermill, both among the first in Scandinavia, enabling Tycho to publishhis own manuscripts, on locally made paper with his own watermark.He created a system of ponds and canals to run the wheels of thepaper mill. Over the years he worked on Uraniborg, Tycho wasassisted by a number of students and protegés, many of whom wenton to their own careers in astronomy: among them were Christian

Brahe's notebook with hisobservations of the 1577 comet

Sørensen Longomontanus, later one of the main proponents of the Tychonic model and Tycho's replacementas royal Danish astronomer; Peder Flemløse; Elias Olsen Morsing; and Cort Aslakssøn. Tycho's instrument-maker Hans Crol also formed part of the scientific community on the island.[33]

He observed the great comet that was visible in the Northern sky fromNovember 1577 to January 1578. Within Lutheranism, it wascommonly believed that celestial objects like comets were powerfulportents, announcing the coming apocalypse, and in addition toTycho's observations several Danish amateur astronomers observedthe object and published prophesies of impending doom. He was ableto determine that the comet's distance to Earth was much greater thanthe distance of the Moon, so that the comet could not have originatedin the "earthly sphere", confirming his prior anti-Aristotelianconclusions about the fixed nature of the sky beyond the Moon. Healso realized that the comet's tail was always pointing away from theSun. He calculated its diameter, mass, and the length of its tail, andspeculated about the material it was made of. At this point, he had notyet broken with Copernican theory, and observing the comet inspiredhim to try to develop an alternative Copernican model in which theEarth was immobile.[34] The second half of his manuscript about thecomet dealt with the astrological and apocalyptic aspects of the comet,and he rejected the prophesies of his competitors; instead, making hisown predictions of dire political events in the near future.[35] Amonghis predictions was bloodshed in Moscow and the imminent fall of Ivan the Terrible by 1583.[b]

The support that Tycho received from the Crown was substantial, amounting to 1% of the annual total revenueat one point in the 1580s.[37] Tycho often held large social gatherings in his castle. Pierre Gassendi wrote thatTycho also had a tame elk (moose) and that his mentor the Landgrave Wilhelm of Hesse-Kassel (Hesse-Cassel) asked whether there was an animal faster than a deer. Tycho replied that there was none, but he couldsend his tame elk. When Wilhelm replied he would accept one in exchange for a horse, Tycho replied with thesad news that the elk had just died on a visit to entertain a nobleman at Landskrona. Apparently, during dinner,the elk had drunk a lot of beer, fallen down the stairs, and died.[38] Among the many noble visitors to Hvenwas James VI of Scotland, who married the Danish princess Anne. After his visit to Hven in 1590, he wrote apoem comparing Tycho with Apollon and Phaethon.[39]

As part of Tycho's duties to the Crown in exchange for his estate, he fulfilled the functions of a royalastrologer. At the beginning of each year, he had to present an Almanac to the court, predicting the influenceof the stars on the political and economic prospects of the year. And at the birth of each prince, he preparedtheir horoscopes, predicting their fates. He also worked as a cartographer with his former tutor AndersSørensen Vedel on mapping out all of the Danish realm.[40] An ally of the king and friendly with QueenSophie (both his mother Beate Bille and adoptive mother Inger Oxe had been her court maids), he secured apromise from the King that ownership of Hven and Uraniborg would pass to his heirs.[39]

In 1588, Tycho's royal benefactor died, and a volume of Tycho's great two-volume work AstronomiaeInstauratae Progymnasmata (Introduction to the New Astronomy) was published. The first volume, devoted tothe new star of 1572, was not ready, because the reduction of the observations of 1572–3 involved muchresearch to correct the stars' positions for refraction, precession, the motion of the Sun etc., and was notcompleted in Tycho's lifetime (it was published in Prague in 1602/03), but the second volume, titled De MundiAetherei Recentioribus Phaenomenis Liber Secundus (Second Book About Recent Phenomena in the CelestialWorld) and devoted to the comet of 1577, was printed at Uraniborg and some copies were issued in 1588.

Publications, correspondence and scientific disputes

Frontispiece to the 1610 edition ofAstronomiae InstaurataeProgymnasmata

Denmark what is my offense? Howhave I offended you my fatherland?You may think that what I have done is wrongBut was I wrong to spread your fame abroad?Tell me, who has done such things before?And sung your honor to the very stars?

Excerpt of Tycho Brahe's Elegy toDania[44]

Besides the comet observations, it included an account of Tycho'ssystem of the world.[34] The third volume was intended to treat thecomets of 1580 and following years in a similar manner, but it wasnever published, nor even written, though a great deal of materialabout the comet of 1585 was put together and first published in 1845with the observations of this comet.[41]

While at Uraniborg, Tycho maintained correspondence with scientistsand astronomers across Europe.[42] He inquired about otherastronomers' observations and shared his own technological advancesto help them achieve more accurate observations. Thus, hiscorrespondence was crucial to his research. Often, correspondencewas not just private communication between scholars, but also a wayto disseminate results and arguments and to build progress andscientific consensus. Through correspondence, Tycho was involved inseveral personal disputes with critics of his theories. Prominent amongthem were John Craig, a Scottish physician who was a strong believerin the authority of the Aristotelian worldview, and Nicolaus ReimersBaer, known as Ursus, an astronomer at the Imperial court in Prague,whom Tycho accused of having plagiarized his cosmological model.Craig refused to accept Tycho's conclusion that the comet of 1577 hadto be located within the aetherial sphere rather than within theatmosphere of Earth. Craig tried to contradict Tycho by using his ownobservations of the comet, and by questioning his methodology. Tycho published an apologia (a defense) ofhis conclusions, in which he provided additional arguments, as well as condemning Craig's ideas in stronglanguage for being incompetent. Another dispute concerned the mathematician Paul Wittich, who, after stayingon Hven in 1580, taught Count Wilhelm of Kassel and his astronomer Christoph Rothmann to build copies ofTycho's instruments without permission from Tycho. In turn, Craig, who had studied with Wittich, accusedTycho of minimizing Wittich's role in developing some of the trigonometric methods used by Tycho. In hisdealings with these disputes, Tycho made sure to leverage his support in the scientific community, bypublishing and disseminating his own answers and arguments.[43]

When Frederick died in 1588, his son and heir Christian IVwas only 11 years old. A regency council was appointed torule for the young prince-elect until his coronation in 1596.The head of the council (Steward of the Realm) wasChristoffer Valkendorff, who disliked Tycho after a conflictbetween them, and hence Tycho's influence at the Danishcourt steadily declined. Feeling that his legacy on Hvenwas in peril, he approached the Dowager Queen Sophieand asked her to affirm in writing her late husband'spromise to endow Hven to Tycho's heirs.[39] Nonetheless,he realized that the young king was more interested in warthan in science, and was of no mind to keep his father's promise. King Christian IV followed a policy ofcurbing the power of the nobility by confiscating their estates to minimize their income bases, by accusingnobles of misusing their offices and of heresies against the Lutheran church. Tycho, who was known tosympathize with the Philippists (followers of Philip Melanchthon), was among the nobles who fell out of gracewith the new king. The king's unfavorable disposition towards Tycho was likely also a result of efforts byseveral of his enemies at court to turn the king against him. Tycho's enemies included, in addition to

Exile and later years

Valkendorff, the king's doctor Peter Severinus, who also had personal gripes with Tycho, and several gnesio-Lutheran Bishops who suspected Tycho of heresy — a suspicion motivated by his known Philippistsympathies, his pursuits in medicine and alchemy (both of which he practiced without the church's approval)and his prohibiting the local priest on Hven to include the exorcism in the baptismal ritual. Among theaccusations raised against Tycho were his failure to adequately maintain the royal chapel at Roskilde, and hisharshness and exploitation of the Hven peasantry.[20]

Tycho became even more inclined to leave when a mob of commoners, possibly incited by his enemies atcourt, rioted in front of his house in Copenhagen. Tycho left Hven in 1597, bringing some of his instrumentswith him to Copenhagen, and entrusting others to a caretaker on the island. Shortly before leaving, hecompleted his star catalogue giving the positions of 1,000 stars.[20] After some unsuccessful attempts atinfluencing the king to let him return; including showcasing his instruments on the wall of the city, he finallyacquiesced to exile, but he wrote his most famous poem Elegy to Dania in which he chided Denmark for notappreciating his genius. The instruments he had used in Uraniborg and Stjerneborg were depicted anddescribed in detail in his book Astronomiae instauratae mechanica or Instruments for the restoration ofastronomy,[45] first published in 1598. The King sent two envoys to Hven to describe the instruments leftbehind by Tycho. Unversed in astronomy, the envoys reported to the king that the large mechanicalcontraptions such as his large quadrant and sextant were "useless and even harmful".[46]

From 1597 to 1598, he spent a year at the castle of his friend Heinrich Rantzau in Wandesburg outsideHamburg, and then they moved for a while to Wittenberg, where they stayed in the former home of PhilipMelanchthon.[47]

In 1599, he obtained the sponsorship of Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor and moved to Prague, as ImperialCourt Astronomer. Tycho built a new observatory in a castle in Benátky nad Jizerou, 50 km from Prague, andworked there for one year. The emperor then brought him back to Prague, where he stayed until his death. Atthe imperial court even Tycho's wife and children were treated like nobility, which they had never been at theDanish court.[47]

Tycho received financial support from several nobles in addition to the emperor, including Oldrich DesideriusPruskowsky von Pruskow, to whom he dedicated his famous Mechanica. In return for their support, Tycho'sduties included preparing astrological charts and predictions for his patrons at events such as births, weatherforecasting, and astrological interpretations of significant astronomical events, such as the supernova of 1572(sometimes called Tycho's supernova) and the Great Comet of 1577.[48]

In Prague, Tycho worked closely with Johannes Kepler, his assistant. Kepler was a convinced Copernican,and considered Tycho's model to be mistaken, and derived from simple "inversion" of the Sun's and Earth'spositions in the Copernican model.[49] Together, the two worked on a new star catalogue based on his ownaccurate positions — this catalogue became the Rudolphine Tables.[50] Also at the court in Prague was themathematician Nicolaus Reimers (Ursus), with whom Tycho had previously corresponded, and who, likeTycho, had developed a geo-heliocentric planetary model, which Tycho considered to have been plagiarizedfrom his own. Kepler had previously spoken highly of Ursus, but now found himself in the problematicposition of being employed by Tycho and having to defend his employer against Ursus' accusations, eventhough he disagreed with both of their planetary models. In 1600, he finished the tract Apologia pro Tychonecontra Ursum (defense of Tycho against Ursus).[51][52][53] Kepler had great respect for Tycho's methods andthe accuracy of his observations and considered him to be the new Hipparchus, who would provide thefoundation for a restoration of the science of astronomy.[54]

Relationship with Kepler

Illness, death, and investigations

Tycho Brahe's grave in Prague, newtomb stone from 1901

Tycho suddenly contracted a bladder or kidney ailment after attendinga banquet in Prague, and died eleven days later, on 24 October 1601,at the age of 54. It is also said that Tycho had been suffering from anillness which he had attempted to take care of himself with hisalchemy skills, but failed and rather contributed to his death.According to Kepler's first-hand account, Tycho had refused to leavethe banquet to relieve himself because it would have been a breach ofetiquette.[55][56] After he returned home, he was no longer able tourinate, except eventually in very small quantities and withexcruciating pain. The night before he died, he suffered from adelirium during which he was frequently heard to exclaim that hehoped he would not seem to have lived in vain.[57] Before dying, heurged Kepler to finish the Rudolphine Tables and expressed the hopethat he would do so by adopting Tycho's own planetary system, rather than that of Copernicus. It was reportedthat Tycho had written his own epitaph, "He lived like a sage and died like a fool."[58] A contemporaryphysician attributed his death to a kidney stone, but no kidney stones were found during an autopsy performedafter his body was exhumed in 1901, and the 20th-century medical assessment is that his death is more likelyto have resulted from uremia.[59]

Investigations in the 1990s have suggested that Tycho may not have died from urinary problems, but insteadfrom mercury poisoning.[60] It was speculated that he had been intentionally poisoned. The two main suspectswere his assistant, Johannes Kepler, whose motives would be to gain access to Tycho's laboratory andchemicals,[61] and his cousin, Erik Brahe, at the order of friend-turned-enemy Christian IV, because of rumorsthat Tycho had had an affair with Christian's mother.[62][63]

In February 2010, the Prague city authorities approved a request by Danish scientists to exhume the remains,and in November 2010 a group of Czech and Danish scientists from Aarhus University collected bone, hairand clothing samples for analysis.[64][65][66] The scientists, led by Dr Jens Vellev, analyzed Tycho's beard haironce again. The team reported in November 2012 that not only was there not enough mercury present tosubstantiate murder, but that there were no lethal levels of any poisons present. The team's conclusion was that"it is impossible that Tycho Brahe could have been murdered".[67][68] The findings were confirmed byscientists from the University of Rostock, who examined a sample of Tycho's beard hairs that had been takenin 1901. Although traces of mercury were found, these were present only in the outer scales. Therefore,mercury poisoning as the cause of death was ruled out, while the study suggests that the accumulation ofmercury may have come from the "precipitation of mercury dust from the air during [Tycho's] long-termalchemistic activities".[69] The hair samples contain 20–100 times the natural concentration of gold until 2months before his death.[70]

Tycho is buried in the Church of Our Lady before Týn, in Old Town Square near the Prague AstronomicalClock.[71]

Tycho's view of science was driven by his passion for accurate observations, and the quest for improvedinstruments of measurement drove his life's work. Tycho was the last major astronomer to work without theaid of a telescope, soon to be turned skyward by Galileo Galilei and others. Given the limitations of the nakedeye for making accurate observations, he devoted many of his efforts to improving the accuracy of the existingtypes of instrument — the sextant and the quadrant. He designed larger versions of these instruments, which

Career: observing the heavens

Observational astronomy

Drawing of a large sextant used byTycho Brahe

Drawing of a large quadrant used byTycho Brahe.

allowed him to achieve much higher accuracy. Because of theaccuracy of his instruments, he quickly realized the influence of windand the movement of buildings, and instead opted to mount hisinstruments underground directly on the bedrock.[72]

Tycho's observations of stellar and planetary positions werenoteworthy both for their accuracy and quantity.[73] With an accuracyapproaching one arcminute, his celestial positions were much moreaccurate than those of any predecessor or contemporary — about fivetimes as accurate as the observations of the contemporary astronomerWilhelm of Hesse.[74] Rawlins (1993:§B2) asserts of Tycho's StarCatalog D, "In it, Tycho achieved, on a mass scale, a precision farbeyond that of earlier catalogers. Cat D represents an unprecedentedconfluence of skills: instrumental, observational, & computational—all of which combined to enable Tycho to place most of his hundredsof recorded stars to an accuracy of ordermag 1'!"

He aspired to a level ofaccuracy in his estimatedpositions of celestial bodiesof being consistently withinan arcminute of their realcelestial locations, and alsoclaimed to have achieved thislevel. But, in fact, many of

the stellar positions in his star catalogues were less accurate than that.The median errors for the stellar positions in his final publishedcatalog were about 1.5', indicating that only half of the entries weremore accurate than that, with an overall mean error in each coordinateof around 2'.[75] Although the stellar observations as recorded in hisobservational logs were more accurate, varying from 32.3" to 48.8"for different instruments,[76] systematic errors of as much as 3' wereintroduced into some of the stellar positions Tycho published in hisstar catalog — due, for instance, to his application of an erroneousancient value of parallax and his neglect of polestar refraction.[77]

Incorrect transcription in the final published star catalogue, by scribesin Tycho's employ, was the source of even larger errors, sometimes bymany degrees.[c]

Celestial objects observed near the horizon and above appear with agreater altitude than the real one, due to atmospheric refraction, andone of Tycho's most important innovations was that he worked outand published the very first tables for the systematic correction of this possible source of error. But, asadvanced as they were, they attributed no refraction whatever above 45° altitude for solar refraction, and nonefor starlight above 20° altitude.[81]

To perform the huge number of multiplications needed to produce much of his astronomical data, Tycho reliedheavily on the then-new technique of prosthaphaeresis, an algorithm for approximating products based ontrigonometric identities that predated logarithms.[82]

The Tychonic cosmological model

In this depiction of the Tychonicsystem, the objects on blue orbits(the Moon and the Sun) revolvearound the Earth. The objects onorange orbits (Mercury, Venus, Mars,Jupiter, and Saturn) revolve aroundthe Sun. Around all is a sphere offixed stars.

Although Tycho admired Copernicus and was the first to teach histheory in Denmark, he was unable to reconcile Copernican theorywith the basic laws of Aristotelian physics, that he considered to befoundational. He was also critical of the observational data thatCopernicus built his theory on, which he correctly considered to havea high margin of error. Instead, Tycho proposed a "geo-heliocentric"system in which the Sun and Moon orbited the Earth, while the otherplanets orbited the Sun. Tycho's system had many of the sameobservational and computational advantages that Copernicus' systemhad, and both systems also could accommodate the phases of Venus,although Galilei had yet to discover them. Tycho's system provided asafe position for astronomers who were dissatisfied with older modelsbut were reluctant to accept the heliocentrism and the Earth'smotion.[83] It gained a considerable following after 1616 when Romedeclared that the heliocentric model was contrary to both philosophyand Scripture, and could be discussed only as a computationalconvenience that had no connection to fact.[84] Tycho's system alsooffered a major innovation: while both the purely geocentric modeland the heliocentric model as set forth by Copernicus relied on theidea of transparent rotating crystalline spheres to carry the planets intheir orbits, Tycho eliminated the spheres entirely. Kepler, as well asother Copernican astronomers, tried to persuade Tycho to adopt the

heliocentric model of the Solar System, but he was not persuaded. According to Tycho, the idea of a rotatingand revolving Earth would be "in violation not only of all physical truth but also of the authority of HolyScripture, which ought to be paramount."[85]

With respect to physics, Tycho held that the Earth was just too sluggish and heavy to be continuously inmotion. According to the accepted Aristotelian physics of the time, the heavens (whose motions and cycleswere continuous and unending) were made of "Aether" or "Quintessence"; this substance, not found on Earth,was light, strong, unchanging, and its natural state was circular motion. By contrast, the Earth (where objectsseem to have motion only when moved) and things on it were composed of substances that were heavy andwhose natural state was rest. Accordingly, Tycho said the Earth was a "lazy" body that was not readilymoved.[86][87][88] Thus while Tycho acknowledged that the daily rising and setting of the Sun and stars couldbe explained by the Earth's rotation, as Copernicus had said, still

such a fast motion could not belong to the earth, a body very heavy and dense and opaque, butrather belongs to the sky itself whose form and subtle and constant matter are better suited to aperpetual motion, however fast.[89]

With respect to the stars, Tycho also believed that, if the Earth orbited the Sun annually, there should be anobservable stellar parallax over any period of six months, during which the angular orientation of a given starwould change thanks to Earth's changing position. (This parallax does exist, but is so small it was not detecteduntil 1838, when Friedrich Bessel discovered a parallax of 0.314 arcseconds of the star 61 Cygni.[90]) TheCopernican explanation for this lack of parallax was that the stars were such a great distance from Earth thatEarth's orbit was almost insignificant by comparison. However, Tycho noted that this explanation introducedanother problem: Stars as seen by the naked eye appear small, but of some size, with more prominent starssuch as Vega appearing larger than lesser stars such as Polaris, which in turn appear larger than many others.Tycho had determined that a typical star measured approximately a minute of arc in size, with more prominentones being two or three times as large. In writing to Christoph Rothmann, a Copernican astronomer, Tychoused basic geometry to show that, assuming a small parallax that just escaped detection, the distance to thestars in the Copernican system would have to be 700 times greater than the distance from the Sun to Saturn.

Moreover, the only way the stars could be so distant and still appear the sizes they do in the sky would be ifeven average stars were gigantic — at least as big as the orbit of the Earth, and of course vastly larger than theSun. And, Tycho said, the more prominent stars would have to be even larger still. And what if the parallaxwas even smaller than anyone thought, so the stars were yet more distant? Then they would all have to beeven larger still.[91][92] Tycho said

Deduce these things geometrically if you like, and you will see how many absurdities (not tomention others) accompany this assumption [of the motion of the earth] by inference.[93]

Copernicans offered a religious response to Tycho's geometry: titanic, distant stars might seem unreasonable,but they were not, for the Creator could make his creations that large if He wanted.[94][95] In fact, Rothmannresponded to this argument of Tycho's by saying:

"[W]hat is so absurd about [an average star] having size equal to the whole [orbit of the Earth]?What of this is contrary to divine will, or is impossible by divine Nature, or is inadmissible byinfinite Nature? These things must be entirely demonstrated by you, if you will wish to infer fromhere anything of the absurd. These things that vulgar sorts see as absurd at first glance are noteasily charged with absurdity, for in fact divine Sapience and Majesty is far greater than theyunderstand. Grant the vastness of the Universe and the sizes of the stars to be as great as you like— these will still bear no proportion to the infinite Creator. It reckons that the greater the king, somuch greater and larger the palace befitting his majesty. So how great a palace do you reckon isfitting to GOD?".[96]

Religion played a role in Tycho's geocentrism also – he cited the authority of scripture in portraying the Earthas being at rest. He rarely used Biblical arguments alone (to him they were a secondary objection to the idea ofEarth's motion) and over time he came to focus on scientific arguments, but he did take Biblical argumentsseriously.[97]

Tycho's 1587 geo-heliocentric model differed from those of other geo-heliocentric astronomers, such as PaulWittich, Reimarus Ursus, Helisaeus Roeslin and David Origanus, in that the orbits of Mars and the Sunintersected. This was because Tycho had come to believe the distance of Mars from the Earth at opposition(that is, when Mars is on the opposite side of the sky from the Sun) was less than that of the Sun from theEarth. Tycho believed this because he came to believe Mars had a greater daily parallax than the Sun. But, in1584, in a letter to a fellow astronomer, Brucaeus, he had claimed that Mars had been further than the Sun atthe opposition of 1582, because he had observed that Mars had little or no daily parallax. He said he hadtherefore rejected Copernicus's model because it predicted Mars would be at only two-thirds the distance of theSun.[98] But, he apparently later changed his mind to the opinion that Mars at opposition was indeed nearer theEarth than the Sun was, but apparently without any valid observational evidence in any discernible Martianparallax.[99] Such intersecting Martian and solar orbits meant that there could be no solid rotating celestialspheres, because they could not possibly interpenetrate. Arguably, this conclusion was independentlysupported by the conclusion that the comet of 1577 was superlunary, because it showed less daily parallaxthan the Moon and thus must pass through any celestial spheres in its transit.

Tycho's distinctive contributions to lunar theory include his discovery of the variation of the Moon's longitude.This represents the largest inequality of longitude after the equation of the center and the evection. He alsodiscovered librations in the inclination of the plane of the lunar orbit, relative to the ecliptic (which is not aconstant of about 5° as had been believed before him, but fluctuates through a range of over a quarter of a

Lunar theory

Valentin Naboth's drawing ofMartianus Capella's geo-heliocentricastronomical model (1573)

Johannes Kepler published theRudolphine Tables containing a starcatalog and planetary tables usingTycho's measurements. Hven islandappears west uppermost on thebase.

degree), and accompanying oscillations in the longitude of the lunar node. These represent perturbations in theMoon's ecliptic latitude. Tycho's lunar theory doubled the number of distinct lunar inequalities, relative to thoseanciently known, and reduced the discrepancies of lunar theory to about a fifth of their previous amounts. Itwas published posthumously by Kepler in 1602, and Kepler's own derivative form appears in Kepler'sRudolphine Tables of 1627.[100]

Kepler used Tycho's records of the motion of Mars to deduce laws of planetary motion,[101] enablingcalculation of astronomical tables with unprecedented accuracy (the Rudolphine Tables)[d] and providingpowerful support for a heliocentric model of the solar system.[104][105]

Galileo's 1610 telescopic discovery that Venus shows a full set ofphases refuted the pure geocentric Ptolemaic model. After that itseems 17th-century astronomy mostly converted to geo-heliocentricplanetary models that could explain these phases just as well as theheliocentric model could, but without the latter's disadvantage of thefailure to detect any annual stellar parallax that Tycho and othersregarded as refuting it.[106] The three main geo-heliocentric modelswere the Tychonic, the Capellan with just Mercury and Venusorbiting the Sun such as favoured by Francis Bacon, for example, andthe extended Capellan model of Riccioli with Mars also orbiting theSun whilst Saturn and Jupiter orbit the fixed Earth. But the Tychonicmodel was probably the most popular, albeit probably in what wasknown as 'the semi-Tychonic' version with a daily rotating Earth. Thismodel was advocated by Tycho's ex-assistant and discipleLongomontanus in his 1622 Astronomia Danica that was the intendedcompletion of Tycho's planetary model with his observational data,and which was regarded as the canonical statement of the completeTychonic planetary system. Longomontanus' work was published inseveral editions and used by many subsequent astronomers, andthrough him the Tychonic system was adopted by astronomers as faraway as China.[107]

The ardent anti-heliocentric French astronomer Jean-Baptiste Morindevised a Tychonic planetary model with elliptical orbits published in1650 in a simplified, Tychonic version of the Rudolphine Tables.[108]

Another geocentric French astronomer, Jacques du Chevreul, rejectedTycho's observations including his description of the heavens and thetheory that Mars was below the Sun.[109] Some acceptance of theTychonic system persisted through the 17th century and in places untilthe early 18th century; it was supported (after a 1633 decree about theCopernican controversy) by "a flood of pro-Tycho literature" of Jesuitorigin. Among pro-Tycho Jesuits, Ignace Pardies declared in 1691that it was still the commonly accepted system, and FrancescoBlanchinus reiterated that as late as 1728.[110] Persistence of theTychonic system, especially in Catholic countries, has been attributedto its satisfaction of a need (relative to Catholic doctrine) for "a safesynthesis of ancient and modern". After 1670, even many Jesuit

Subsequent developments in astronomy

Monument of Tycho Brahe andJohannes Kepler in Prague

writers only thinly disguised their Copernicanism. But in Germany, the Netherlands, and England, theTychonic system "vanished from the literature much earlier".[111]

James Bradley's discovery of stellar aberration, published in 1729, eventually gave direct evidence excludingthe possibility of all forms of geocentrism including Tycho's. Stellar aberration could only be satisfactorilyexplained on the basis that the Earth is in annual orbit around the Sun, with an orbital velocity that combineswith the finite speed of the light coming from an observed star or planet, to affect the apparent direction of thebody observed.[112]

Tycho also worked in medicine and alchemy. He was strongly influenced by Paracelsus, who considered thehuman body to be directly influenced by celestial bodies. The paracelsian view of man as a microcosm, andastrology as the science tying together the celestial and bodily universes was also shared by PhilipMelanchthon, and was precisely one of the points of contention between Melanchthon and Luther, and hencebetween the philippists and the gnesio-Lutherans.[34] For Tycho there was a close connection betweenempiricism and natural science on one hand and religion and astrology on the other.[113] Using his large herbalgarden at Uraniborg, Tycho produced several recipes for herbal medicines, using them to treat illnesses such asfever and plague.[114] In his own time, Tycho was also famous for his contributions to medicine; his herbalmedicines were in use as late as the 1900s.[115] The expression Tycho Brahe days, in Scandinavian folklore,refers to a number of "unlucky days" that were featured in many almanacs beginning in the 1700s, but whichhave no direct connection to Tycho or his work.[116] Whether because he realized that astrology was not anempirical science or because he feared religious repercussions Tycho seems to have had a somewhatambiguous relation to his own astrological work. For example, two of his more astrological treatises, one onweather predictions and an almanac, were published in the names of his assistants, in spite of the fact that heworked on them personally. Some scholars have argued that he lost faith in horoscope astrology over thecourse of his career,[117] and others that he simply changed his public communication on the topic as herealized that connections with astrology could influence the reception of his empirical astronomical work.[113]

The first biography of Tycho, which was also the first full-lengthbiography of any scientist, was written by Pierre Gassendi in1654.[118] In 1779, Tycho de Hoffmann wrote of Tycho's life in hishistory of the Brahe family. In 1913, Dreyer published Tycho'scollected works, facilitating further research. Early modernscholarship on Tycho tended to see the shortcomings of hisastronomical model, painting him as a mysticist recalcitrant inaccepting the Copernican revolution, and valuing mostly hisobservations that allowed Kepler to formulate his laws of planetarymovement. Especially in Danish scholarship, Tycho was depicted as amediocre scholar and a traitor to the nation — perhaps because of theimportant role in Danish historiography of Christian IV as a warrior king.[20] In the second half of the 20thcentury, scholars began reevaluating his significance, and studies by Kristian Peder Moesgaard, OwenGingerich, Robert Westman, Victor E. Thoren, and John R. Christianson focused on his contributions toscience, and demonstrated that while he admired Copernicus he was simply unable to reconcile his basic

Work in medicine, alchemy and astrology

Legacy

Biographies

Stjerneborg observatory in HvenIsland, constructed in 1589, now amuseum

theory of physics with the Copernican view.[119][120] Christianson's work showed the influence of Tycho'sUraniborg as a training center for scientists who after studying with Tycho went on to make contributions invarious scientific fields.[121]

Although Tycho's planetary model was soon discredited, his astronomical observations were an essentialcontribution to the scientific revolution. The traditional view of Tycho is that he was primarily an empiricistwho set new standards for precise and objective measurements.[122] This appraisal originated in PierreGassendi's 1654 biography, Tychonis Brahe, equitis Dani, astronomorum coryphaei, vita. It was furthered byJohann Dreyer's biography in 1890, which was long the most influential work on Tycho. According tohistorian of science Helge Kragh, this assessment grew out of Gassendi's opposition to Aristotelianism andCartesianism, and fails to account for the diversity of Tycho's activities.[122]

Tycho's discovery of the new star was the inspiration for Edgar AllanPoe's poem "Al Aaraaf".[123] In 1998, Sky & Telescope magazinepublished an article by Donald W. Olson, Marilynn S. Olson andRussell L. Doescher arguing, in part, that Tycho's supernova was alsothe same "star that's westward from the pole" in Shakespeare'sHamlet.[124]

Tycho is directly referenced in Sarah Williams' poem The OldAstronomer: "Reach me down my Tycho Brahé,—I would know himwhen we meet". Though, the poem's oft quoted line comes later:"Though my soul may set in darkness, it will rise in perfect light; / Ihave loved the stars too truly to be fearful of the night." Alfred Noyesalso wrote a long biographical poem in honor of Brahe.

The lunar crater Tycho is named in his honour,[125] as is the crater Tycho Brahe on Mars and the minor planet1677 Tycho Brahe in the asteroid belt.[126] The bright supernova, SN 1572, is also known as Tycho'sNova[127] and the Tycho Brahe Planetarium in Copenhagen is also named after him,[128] as is the palm genusBrahea.[129]

De Mundi Aetherei Recentioribus Phaenomenis Liber Secundus (https://www.loc.gov/item/85194796/) (Uraniborg, 1588; Prague, 1603; Frankfurt, 1610)Tychonis Brahe Astronomiae Instauratae Progymnasmata (https://www.loc.gov/item/85194777/) (Prague, 1602/03; Frankfurt, 1610)

December 1573 lunar eclipseHistory of trigonometryTycho Brahe Prize

Scientific legacy

Cultural legacy

Works (selection)

See also

a. Danish: [ˈtsʰyːjə ˈʌtəsn̩ ˈpʁɑːə]. He adopted the Latinized form "Tycho Brahe" (Danish: [ˈtsʰykʰoˈpʁɑːə] ( listen); sometimes written Tÿcho) at around age fifteen. The name Tycho comes fromTyche (Τύχη, meaning "luck" in Greek, Roman equivalent: Fortuna), a tutelary deity of fortuneand prosperity of ancient Greek city cults. He is now generally referred to as "Tycho", as wascommon in Scandinavia in his time, rather than by his surname "Brahe" (a spurious appellativeform of his name, Tycho de Brahe, only appears much later).[1][2]

b. Ivan the Terrible died a year later than predicted by Tycho Brahe.[36]

c. Victor Thoren[78] says: "[the accuracy of the 777 star catalogue C] falls below the standardsTycho maintained for his other activities ... the catalogue left the best qualified appraiser of it(Tycho's eminent biographer J. L. E. Dreyer) manifestly disappointed. Some 6% of its final 777positions have errors in one or both co-ordinates that can only have arisen from 'handling'problems of one kind or another. And while the brightest stars were generally placed with theminute-of-arc accuracy Tycho expected to achieve in every aspect of his work, the fainter stars(for which the slits on his sights had to be widened, and the sharpness of their alignmentreduced) were considerably less well located." (ii) M. Hoskin[79] concurs with Thoren's finding"Yet although the places of the brightest of the non-reference stars [in the 777 star catalogue]are mostly correct to around the minute of arc that was his standard, the fainter stars are lessaccurately located, and there are many errors." (iii) The greatest max errors are given byDennis Rawlins.[80] They are in descending order a 238° scribal error in the right ascension ofstar D723; a 36° scribal error in the right ascension of D811; a 23° latitude error in all 188southern stars by virtue of a scribal error; a 20° scribal error in longitude of D429; and a 13.5°error in the latitude of D811.

d. According to Owen Gingerich[102] and Christopher Linton,[103] these tables were some 30times more accurate than other astronomical tables then available.

1. Jackson (2001), page 12.2. Šolcová (2005).3. Edwin Arthur Burtt, The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science: A Historical

and Critical Essay (1925).4. Håkansson 2006, pp. 39–40.5. Wittendorff 1994, p. 68.6. Reprinted in Danske Magazin, ii, p. 170 (Weistritz, ii. p.237. Håkansson 2006, p. 40.8. Bricka 1888, p. 608.9. Dreyer 2004, p. 16.

10. Håkansson 2006, p. 45.11. Håkansson 2006, p. 46.12. See entry of Tycho Brahe (http://purl.uni-rostock.de/matrikel/100028187) in Rostock

Matrikelportal.13. Benecke, Mark (July–August 2004). "The Search for Tycho Brahe's Nose". Annals of

Improbable Research. 10 (4): 6. doi:10.3142/107951404781540572 (https://doi.org/10.3142%2F107951404781540572).

14. Boerst, William J. (2003). Tycho Brahe: Mapping the Heavens (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781883846978/page/34). Morgan Reynolds Publishing. pp. 34–35 (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781883846978/page/34). ISBN 978-1883846978.

Notes

References

15. Gannon, Megan (16 November 2012). "Tycho Brahe Died from Pee, Not Poison" (http://www.livescience.com/24835-astronomer-tycho-brahe-death.html). LiveScience. Retrieved17 November 2012.

16. Christianson 2000, pp. 8–14.17. "The Galileo Project | Science | Tycho Brahe" (http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/brahe.html).

galileo.rice.edu. Retrieved 1 December 2019.18. Thoren & Christianson 1990, p. 45.19. Christianson 2000, pp. 12–14.20. Björklund 1992.21. Christianson 2000, pp. 60.22. Christianson 2000, pp. 207.23. De nova et nullius ævi memoria prius visa stella (http://www.texts.dnlb.dk/DeNovaStella/Index.

html). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090224211014/http://www.texts.dnlb.dk/DeNovaStella/Index.html) 24 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine – Photocopy of the Latin printwith a partial translation into Danish: "Om den nye og aldrig siden Verdens begyndelse i nogentidsalders erindring før observerede stjerne ..."

24. Christianson 2000, pp. 17–18.25. Thoren & Christianson 1990, pp. 55–60.26. Christianson 2000, p. 8.27. Christianson 2000, pp. 7–8, 25–27.28. Christianson 2000, pp. 28–39.29. Christianson 2000, pp. 40–43.30. Shackelford 1993.31. Christianson 2000, p. 247.32. West, Mary Lou. "Physics Today August 2001" (https://archive.is/20050215193155/http://www.p

hysicstoday.org/pt/vol-54/iss-8/p47a.html). Archived from the original (http://www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-54/iss-8/p47a.html) on 15 February 2005.

33. Christianson 2000, p. 142.34. Christianson 1979.35. Håkansson 2004.36. Christianson (1979)37. Thoren & Christianson 1990, p. 188.38. Dreyer, J. L. E. (1890). Tycho Brahe: a picture of scientific life and work in the sixteenth century

(https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe:_a_picture_of_scientific_life_and_work_in_the_sixteenth_century). Adam and Charles Black, Edinburgh. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-7661-8529-6 – viaWikisource. "unluckily the elk one day walked up the stairs into a room, where it drank so muchstrong beer, that it lost its footing when going down the stairs again"

39. Christianson 2000, p. 141.40. Håkansson 2006, p. 62.41. John Louis Emil Dreyer, Tycho Brahe: a Picture of Scientific Life and Work in the Sixteenth

Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=fqBCAAAAIAAJ&), A. & C. Black (1890), pp. 162–3

42. Mosley 2007, p. 36.43. Håkansson 2006, pp. 179–89.44. Christianson 2000, p. 216.45. Brashear, Ronald (May 1999). "Astronomiæ instauratæ mechanica by Tycho Brahe:

Introduction" (http://www.sil.si.edu/DigitalCollections/HST/Brahe/brahe-introduction.htm#book).Special Collections Department. Smithsonian Institution Libraries. Retrieved 19 July 2016.

46. Björklund 1992, p. 33.47. Håkansson 2006, p. 68.48. Adam Mosley and the Department of History and Philosophy of Science of the University of

Cambridge. Tycho Brahe and Astrology (http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/tychoastrol.html).1999. Retrieved 2 October 2008

49. Jardine 2006, p. 258.50. Gingerich 1989.51. Jardine 2006.52. Mosley 2007, p. 28.53. Ferguson 2002.54. Christianson 2000, p. 304.55. Tierney, John (29 November 2010). "Murder! Intrigue! Astronomers?" (https://www.nytimes.com/

2010/11/30/science/30tierney.html?pagewanted=all). New York Times. Retrieved30 November 2010. "At the time of Tycho's death, in 1601, the blame fell on his failure torelieve himself while drinking profusely at the banquet, supposedly injuring his bladder andmaking him unable to urinate."

56. Thoren & Christianson 1990, pp. 468–69.57. Dreyer (2004), p. 309: "Ne frustra vixisse videar!".58. "Brahe, Tycho (1546–1601) – from Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography" (http://scienc

eworld.wolfram.com/biography/Brahe.html). Scienceworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 13 August2012.

59. Thoren & Christianson 1990, pp. 469–70.60. Kaempe, Thykier, Pedersen: "The cause of death of Tycho Brahe in 1601." Proceedings of the

31st TIAFT Congress, Leipzig 1993, Contributions to Forensic Toxicology. MOLINApress,Leipzig 1994, pp. 309–315

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hive.org/web/20120121073826/http://hnn.us/articles/did-johannes-kepler-murder-tycho-brahe).History News Network. Archived from the original (http://hnn.us/articles/did-johannes-kepler-murder-tycho-brahe) on 21 January 2012. Retrieved 19 January 2012.

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Further reading

Bricka, Carl Frederik (1888). "Tycho Brahe" (http://runeberg.org/dbl/2/). Dansk BiografiskLexikon. II. Beccau – Brandis.Christianson, J. R. (2002). "The Legacy of Tycho Brahe". Centaurus. 44 (3‐4): 228–247.doi:10.1034/j.1600-0498.2002.440302.x (https://doi.org/10.1034%2Fj.1600-0498.2002.440302.x). PMID 17424666 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17424666).Christianson, J. R. (2000). On Tycho's Island: Tycho Brahe and His Assistants, 1570–1601.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Christianson, J. R. (1967). "Tycho Brahe at the University of Copenhagen, 1559–1562". Isis. 58(2): 198–203. doi:10.1086/350219 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F350219). S2CID 144721007 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144721007).Christianson, John R. (1998). "Tycho Brahe in scandinavian scholarship". History of Science.36 (4): 467–484. doi:10.1177/007327539803600403 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F007327539803600403). S2CID 161128058 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161128058).Christianson, John R. (1979). "Tycho Brahe's German treatise on the comet of 1577: A study inscience and politics". Isis. 70: 110–140. Bibcode:1979Isis...70..110C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979Isis...70..110C). doi:10.1086/352158 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F352158).S2CID 144502304 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144502304).Cowen, R. (18 December 1999). "Danish astronomer argues for a changing cosmos" (https://web.archive.org/web/20050828123855/http://sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc99/12_18_99b/fob6.htm). Science News. 156 (25 & 26). Archived from the original (http://sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc99/12_18_99b/fob6.htm) on 28 August 2005. Retrieved 28 July 2008.Dreyer, John Louis Emil (2004) [1890]. Tycho Brahe: A Picture of Scientific Life and Work in theSixteenth Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=ywaut_U5q00C&pg=PP1). KessingerPublishing. ISBN 978-0-7661-8529-6. OCLC 70058046 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/70058046).Dreyer, John Louis Emil (2014) [1890]. Tycho Brahe: A Picture of Scientific Life and Work in theSixteenth Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=CdzSAgAAQBAJ). CambridgeUniversity Press. ISBN 978-1-108-06871-0.Ferguson, Kitty (2002). The nobleman and his housedog: Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler:the strange partnership that revolutionised science. London: Review.Bibcode:2002nhtb.book.....F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002nhtb.book.....F).Gilder, J.; Gilder, A. L. (2005). Heavenly intrigue: Johannes Kepler, Tycho Brahe, and themurder behind one of history's greatest scientific discoveries (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781400031764_0). Anchor.Figala, Karin (1972). "Tycho brahes elixier". Annals of Science. 28 (2): 139–176.doi:10.1080/00033797200200111 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033797200200111).PMID 11619597 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11619597).Gingerich, Owen (1973). "Copernicus and Tycho". Scientific American. 173 (6): 86–101.Bibcode:1973SciAm.229f..86G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973SciAm.229f..86G).doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1273-86 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican1273-86).Gingerich, Owen (1989). "Johannes Kepler" (https://books.google.com/books?id=rkQKU-wfPYMC). In Taton, René; Wilson, Curtis (eds.). Planetary Astronomy from the Renaissance to theRise of Astrophysics Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.pp. 54–78. ISBN 978-0-521-24254-7. Retrieved 6 November 2009.Graney, C. M. (2012). "Science rather than God: Riccioli's review of the case for and against theCopernican hypothesis". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 43 (2): 215–225.arXiv:1103.2057 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1103.2057). Bibcode:2012JHA....43..215G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012JHA....43..215G). doi:10.1177/002182861204300206 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002182861204300206). S2CID 120484303 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120484303).Hashimoto, Keizo (1987). "Longomontanus's" Astronomia Danica" in China". Journal for theHistory of Astronomy. 18 (2): 95–110. Bibcode:1987JHA....18...95H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.e

du/abs/1987JHA....18...95H). doi:10.1177/002182868701800202 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002182868701800202). S2CID 115238854 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:115238854).Hetherington, Edith W.; Hetherington, Norriss S. (2009). Astronomy and Culture. ABC-CLIO.Håkansson, Håkan (2006). Att låta själen flyga mellan himlens tinnar [Letting the soul flyamong the turrets of the sky]. Stockholm, Sweden: Atlantis. ISBN 978-91-7353-104-7.Håkansson, Håkan (2004). "Tycho the Apocalyptic: History, Prophecy, and the Meaning ofNatural Phenomena". Acta Historicae Rerum Naturalium Necnon Technicarum. 8: 211–236.Hoskin, M. (ed.) (1999). The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy (First ed.). CambridgeUniversity Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57600-0.Høg, Erik (2009). "400 years of astrometry: from Tycho Brahe to Hipparcos". ExperimentalAstronomy. 25 (1–3): 225–240. Bibcode:2009ExA....25..225H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009ExA....25..225H). doi:10.1007/s10686-009-9156-7 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10686-009-9156-7). S2CID 121722096 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121722096).Jackson, E. Atlee (2001). Exploring Nature's Dynamics (https://books.google.com/books?id=8UD-pXH1kDYC&q=referred-to-as-tycho&pg=PA12). Wiley-IEEE. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-471-19146-9. Retrieved 20 December 2009.Jardine, Nicholas (2006). "Kepler as castigator and historian: His preparatory notes for ContraUrsum". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 37 (3): 257–297. Bibcode:2006JHA....37..257J (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JHA....37..257J). doi:10.1177/002182860603700302 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002182860603700302). S2CID 117910608 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:117910608).Kragh, Helge (2005). Fra Middelalderlærdom til Den Nye Videnskab. Dansk NaturvidenskabsHistorie (in Danish). 1. Aarhus: Aarhus Universitetsforlag. ISBN 978-87-7934-168-5.Kragh, Helge (2007). "Received wisdom in biography: Tycho biographies from Gassendi toChristianson". The History and Poetics of Scientific Biography. pp. 121–134.Krause, Oliver; Tanaka, Masaomi; Usuda, Tomonori; Hattori, Takashi; Goto, Miwa; Birkmann,Stephan; Nomoto, Ken'ichi (2008). "Tycho Brahe's 1572 supernova as a standard type Ia asrevealed by its light-echo spectrum". Nature. 456 (7222): 617–619. arXiv:0810.5106 (https://arxiv.org/abs/0810.5106). Bibcode:2008Natur.456..617K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Natur.456..617K). doi:10.1038/nature07608 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature07608).PMID 19052622 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19052622). S2CID 4409995 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4409995).Linton, Christopher M. (2004). From Eudoxus to Einstein—A History of MathematicalAstronomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82750-8.Moesgaard, Kristian Peder (1972). "Copernican influence on Tycho Brahe" ". In Dobrzycki,Jerzy (ed.). The Reception of Copernicus' Heliocentric Theory. Dordrecht & Boston: D. ReidelPublishing. ISBN 978-90-277-0311-8.Mosley, Adam (2007). Bearing the heavens: Tycho Brahe and the astronomical community ofthe late sixteenth century. Cambridge University Press.Olson, Donald W.; Olson, Marilynn S.; Doescher, Russell L. (1998). "The stars of Hamlet". Sky& Telescope. 96 (November): 68. Bibcode:1998S&T....96e..68O (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998S&T....96e..68O).Rawlins, Dennis (1993). "Tycho's 1004-Star Catalog / The First Critical Edition" (http://www.dioi.org/vols/w30.pdf) (PDF). Dio (PDF). The International Journal of Scientific History. 3: 3.Bibcode:1993DIO.....3....3R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993DIO.....3....3R). ISSN 1041-5440 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1041-5440). Retrieved 24 September 2009.Repcheck, Jack (2008). Copernicus's Secret: How the Scientific Revolution Began. Simon &Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-8952-8.Russell, J. L. (1989). "Catholic astronomers and the Copernican system after the condemnationof Galileo". Annals of Science. 46 (4): 365–386. doi:10.1080/00033798900200291 (https://doi.o

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Works written by or about Tycho Brahe at Wikisource

Tycho Brahe (https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=125379) at the Mathematics GenealogyProjectThe opening of Tycho Brahe's tomb (https://web.archive.org/web/20101023035446/http://humaniora.au.dk/en/events/tychobrahetomb/), Aarhus University.The Noble Dane: Images of Tycho Brahe (http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/tycho/index.htm). TheMuseum of the History of Science, Oxford, exhibits Eduard Ender's painting and other Tychomaterial.The Correspondence of Tycho Brahe (http://emlo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/blog/?catalogue=tycho-brahe) in EMLO (http://emlo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/home)Astronomiae instauratae mechanica, 1602 edition (http://digital.lib.lehigh.edu/planets/brahe.php?num=F&exp=false&lang=lat&CISOPTR=404&limit=brahe&view=full) — Full digitalfacsimile, Lehigh University.Astronomiae instauratae mechanica, 1602 edition (http://www.sil.si.edu/DigitalCollections/HST/Brahe/brahe.htm) – Full digital facsimile, Smithsonian Institution.Astronomiae instauratae mechanica (https://web.archive.org/web/20061205044447/http://kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/brahe/index-en.htm) at the Wayback Machine (archived 5 December 2006) – Fulldigital facsimile, the Danish Royal Library. Includes Danish and English translations.Learned Tico Brahae, His Astronomicall Coniectur, 1632 (http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/astro_early/id/283) – Full digital facsimile, Linda Hall Library.Tycho Brahe: the master of naked eye astronomy (http://www.juliantrubin.com/bigten/tycho_brahe.html) – background and hands on activitiesCoat-of-arms of Tycho Brahe (http://www.numericana.com/arms/brahe.htm)Tycho Brahe museum (https://web.archive.org/web/20110618051837/http://www.tychobrahe.com/UK/), Ven, Sweden

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