Turkey: Secularism vs. Islamism

Key issues1. What is Kemalism and what are the key tenets of Turkish secularism? 2. What expressions of Islam have emerged in Turkey and do they pose a threat to the secular principles of the state? 3. Is there a growing secular/Islamist divide in the country and, if so, what are its expressions?Timeline of the AKP (Adalet ve Kalknma Partisi/Justice and Development Party) Founded in 2001. 2002 10 days before the general elections, Turkey's chief prosecutor, Sabih Kanadolu asked the Constitutional Court to close the AKP, accusing them of abusing law and justice. 2002 landslide victory in the elections. Abdullal Gl becomes Prime Minister. 2003 constitutional amendment that enables Erdoan to become PM. 2007 early election called where AKP gained 46.6% of the votes (share of votes increased, but number of seats decreased). 2008 saw a second closure trial, attempting to ban the AKP and 71 of their members from politics for 5 years. The party was not banned, but state funding for the party was reduced. 2011 won 49.8% of the popular vote.Main issues Islamic Revivalism in Turkish Politics Turkish politics always been influenced by deep cultural rifts and clashes - major historic divide between positivist-secular versus the Islamic revivalists - Turkish voters overwhelmingly identified with the right wing ideologies of Islamic revivalism and Turkish ethnic nationalism (Kalaycioglu)voting behaviour studies found that ethnicity and religion emerged as two most important determinants of party preference (Kalaycioglu)Turkey society attracted by Islamic revivalism - large proportion of population are religious (mainly Sunni Islam) - Society possessed 'a desire to end what they considered to be the unjust and even immoral practises of the lay governments that fuelled political corruption in the country.'(Kalaycioglu)ideological pristine Islamic revivalism has failed to attract much popular support or stay in power thus party members diluted ideology with ideas of economic liberalism and EU orientated foreign policy (Kalaycioglu)Religion had never completely been relegated to private sphere Crisis of Secularism in Turkish PoliticsGol's Main argument the real issue at stake is not the assumed clash of secular and Muslim identities but the complex of interdependence between Islam, secularism and democracy in Turkey. This concern predominantly comes from the army, the CHP (Peoples Republic Party) and the Kemalist elite which have accused the AKP of antisecularism. This is based on the fear that the AKP have a hidden Islamist agenda, which derives from two assumptions.1. Islam is incompatible with secularism and democracy.2. There is a clash of Muslim and secular identities. (Gol 2009)Gol argues that there has been an increase in the public visibility of Islam, such as head scarves. He argues that for many AKP voters the party also represents the need for personal freedom to express their religious identity, which is marginalised and excluded in the public sphere.4 levels which the reexive character of the public visibility of Islam in Turkey has operateda) State control of religion has led to the repression of Islam and suppression of Muslim identityb) Any attempt to bring Muslim identity into the public was viewed as reactionary by the secular system.c) Secular Turks were politically constructed as the new social reactionaries against the increased public visibility of Islam.d) Religious conservatives reected this secularist reaction back upon themselves by increasing their support for the AKP as the true representative of Muslim-selves. (Gol 2009)AKP took advantage of the fact that the constitution lacked definition of secularism - wanted to interrupt secularism in a way that would allow religious attire and over turn court rulings against wearing of the Turban. AKP attempt to rewrite part of constitution allowing Students to wear Turban in university argued it was not a political symbol At the same time public prosecution drew up an indictment to request a political ban of the AKP and its seventy one members from the constitutional court on the grounds that it had begun to act as a focal point for anti-secular activities in the country, which is a violation of the constitution and the Political Parties Act (Kalaycioglu)Court agreed however did not ban the party -Constitutional court put a financial sanction upon the party withheld half of the aid the AKP would receive from the State budget. Drop in popularity of Turban issue after 2007 considered a lack of religious liberty as opposed to attack upon secular principles of the state. Voters beginning to focus upon economic problems of country as opposed to religious practise matters particularly such high unemployment rates also other issues such as security and political instability - also social welfare such as healthcare and education thus overarching voting concerns in Turkey are quite secular On the issue of headscarves it is argued by Gol that this is a policy to protect the rights of women irrespective of their clothing and is a sign of the the complex interdependency between secularism and democratisation in a Muslim contextTurkey will continue to face tensions and stresses due to its mismatch between its political-legal system and its tradition and custom based society operating in part under the weight of Sunni Muslim values and orientations. (Kalaycioglu)AKP's Domestic Policy Economic Growth Failure of moderate left and right to sort issues of price inflation, corruption, economic redistribution voter shifted further right - also voter disengaged with CHP due to high levels of corruptionThe AKP realised that the economy was more important than religion in Turkish politics. Both Turkish and Western economists agree that the AKP has achieved economic stability in Turkey through 1. A decrease in inflation.2. Economic growth.3. Securing foreign investment. (Gol 2009) Gol argues that the AKPs success comes from their economic success, not a population which supports an Islamist agenda stating that more favourable views of the AKP government were linked to the economic growth experienced since 2002.Focus upon increasing economic growth - ensure EU membership - Success of growth due to focus upon stability in domestic and foreign relationsDespite this the secularists argue that Guls ascent to the highest position in Turkey was part of the AKPs hidden agenda to Islamise state institutions. Gul has made speeches affirming his commitment to the Turkish Constitution and secularism arguing that one can be both Muslim and secular. (Gol 2009) 'Democratic Opening ' (Also known as 'Kurdish Opening') government preferred democratic opening to fend off opposition charges that it was catering to separatism, national unity plan. (Somer and Liaras 2010)Some changes to constitution: an amendment that would allow for the president to be elected separately allow president to serve for two five terms Changes that allow parties seat with 5% of vote - previously was 10% - previously led to many coalition governments and instability - wanted to prevent nationalist parties from gaining seatsAbortive openings were attempted in the early 1990s, in 1999 and, by the AKP itself, in 2005. - However they shook Turkeys self-image as a monolithic nation and the dominant social and political perceptions sceptical of the public expression of ethnic-cultural differences. They also produced some important legal-institutional changes such as the abolition of the death penalty and the legalization of broadcasting in Kurdish.Earlier attempts at Kurdish opening had led to discussion of Kurdish issue in academia and also in public life - led to change in public perceptions The demands of some Kurdish nationalists, such as constitutional recognition as a separate nation or amnesty for imprisoned Ocalan, go beyond the recognition of Kurdish ethnic-cultural rights....Because they raise the question of sovereignty as both a symbol and a political boundary, national rights are more controversial and politically harder to address than ethnic-cultural rights are. (Somer and Liarias 2010)Turkey has also been slow in legislating and implementing a variety of ethnic-linguistic rights such as education and broadcasting in Kurdish, which have become standard practice in advanced democracies(Somer and Liarias 2010)Kurdish broadcasting was legalised in 2002, the completion of all regulation and the removal of all restriction only became possible in 2009, despite the start of accession talks with the EU starting four years earlier; Hope of EU accession facilities Kurdish opening in two ways: 1. insofar as Turkeys membership prospects are credible, this diminishes the likelihood that Turkish Kurds would pursue secession.2. EU encourages both the Turkish state and Kurdish nationalists to shun violent means and provides standards and examples of how to meet ethnic-national demands short of violent separatism.Thus why the Kurdish opening occurred when it did - there were less demands for independence domestically from the Kurds and internationally.Turkey no longer enforces the view of the country as a homogenous melting pot The societys ethnic, cultural and regional heterogeneity is more or less recognized as de facto pluralism (Somer and Liarias 2010)Relations with Kurdish PopulationThe war with the PKK (Kurdistan Workers Party), which continues to launch attacks on Turkish security forces and civilians within Turkey, as well as from neighbouring Iraq, has caused the deaths of up to 40,000 people since 1984. -Period of relative peace when PKK leader was imprisoned in 1999 -Armed struggle began again 2004 coincided with a major period of democratisation in the country although only some of the reforms addressed the Kurdish question(Somer and Liarias 2010) There has been an effort to address the grievances of the Kurdish community in Turkey and a recognition that the solution has to be through political and economic reforms, not military efforts. (Larabee 2010)Reaping the benefits of its image as the anti-establishment party, AKP seemed to carry the favour of the Kurdish electorate in both the July 2007 general election and a follow-up constitutional referendum that established direct election of the president. The AKP then declared itself the real representative of the countrys Kurds.(Somer and Liaras 2010)Kurdish support for the AKP fluctuates 2007 elections they won most of the cities in the Kurdish region, but in municipal elections the party lost out badly to the Democratic Society Party (main pro-Kurdish party) - led to Kurdish opening (Larabee 2010)AKP's Foreign Policy Turkey faces a new series of threatsa) The rise of Kurdish nationalism and separatism.b) Sectarian violence in Iraq, which could spill over into neighbouring countries.c) The possibility of a nuclear-armed Iran.d) Weak and fragmented Lebanon, which has links to Syria and Iran.Since 2002, the AKP government has been heavily influenced by the doctrine of Strategic Depth and the core idea of the doctrine is that a nation's value in international relations depends on its geostrategic location - particularly focused upon relations with neighbours. (Larrabe 2010) Debate about whether increased relations with MENA damages Turkey's western orientation Relations in Middle East - questions over whether it is the 'islamisation of Turkish foreign policy'Decline in power of Military - has this led to softening of Turkish FP? (Larabee 2010)Relations with EU and West European Union Larrabee argues that because Turkey has strengthened its ties with the Middle East and Caucasus, have coincided with growing problems in Turkey's relations with Europe. Ziya Onis labelled 2002-05 the Golden Age of Europeanization in Turkey where the AKP pushed through a series of important economic and political reforms that paved the way for the EU's decision in December 2004 to open accession negotiations with Turkey.EU members hesitant about Turkey's membership due: 1. Large population (over 70 mil) would then become second largest member, 2. low economic development, 3/ large investment necessarily in Turkey's infrastructure and agriculture, 4. because of its Muslim culture and religion, is not really European. (Larabee 2010)'There has been a loss of enthusiasm for and commitment to EU membership on Turkey's part but also a visible slowdown in Turkey's reform process. The prospect of EU membership provided an important incentive for the AKP's reform efforts in 200205, but as the perception that membership was possible began to weaken, so too did the incentive for the AKP to give domestic reform a high priority. (Larabee 2010)Turkey's growing involvement in the Caucasus and Caspian region is driven in part by energy concerns. The Russian invasion of Georgia and the RussianUkrainian gas conflict in early 2009 have underscored the need for Europe to shore up its energy security by diversifying its suppliers, and have given a boost to the EU's interest in the construction of the Nabucco project, which would transport Caspian gas to Europe via a pipeline that would run from Turkey through Romania, Hungary and Austria...if successful, the pipeline will enhance Turkey's role as an important regional actor and make Turkey a key cog in Europe's effort to achieve energy independence. (Larabee 2010)United States Despite the end of the Cold War Turkey's cooperation is needed to achieve US policy goals. -Turkey depends on US support as it did during the Cold War-, at the same time, Turkey's geostrategic role and interests have expanded. Turkey now has stakes in various regions it did not have two decades ago. (Larabee 2010)During the Bush administrations USTurkish relations sharply deteriorated, largely as a result of the US invasion of Iraq which led to serious strains in relations and a sharp rise in anti-American sentiment among Turks - However Obama has made revitalising relations with Turkey an important foreign policy priority. (Larabee 2010)Turkey played part in WOT - involved in intervention in Afghanistan (Kalaycioglu)Relations with MENA Countries Syria and Iran - Previously troubled relations with the countries- however 2004, Iran and Turkey signed a security cooperation agreement which branded the PKK a terrorist organisation, allowed for cooperation to protect borders and coordination of intelligence.Energy sources has also been an important factor Iran is Turkeys second largest supplier of natural gas. The US has strongly criticised the deals over gas, however the AKP has gone ahead, arguing that Turkey needs to diversify its sources of supply in order to avoid becoming too dependent on one supplier. (Larabee 2010)Irans potential nuclear plan have caused problems, because although Turkey does not want to see a nuclear Iran, Erdogan has accused the West of applying a double standard by singling out Iran's nuclear programme for criticism while remaining silent about Israel's possession of nuclear weapons. In addition to this they have expressed strong reservations about imposing sanctions on Iran, calling for intensified diplomatic efforts to resolve the problem. (Larabee 2010)Historically strained relations with Syria, such as in Oct 1998 when Turkey threatened to invade Syria if they did not stop supporting the PKK. Since then the relationship has improved (article written before the Syrian revolution) a) April 2009 joint military exercises.b) Sept 2009 both countries agreed to abolish visa requirements.c) Trade has increased and was estimated in 2009 to be $4 billion. (Larabee 2010)Israel - Soured relations- due to increasing relations with Iran and Syria - also Turkey critical of policy of Israeli officials including the strikes against Gaza in 2008/9 - particularly poor relations with Netanyahu government Stance that the Palestinian cause is at heart a moral issue and this has helped increase Turkey's stature and credibility in the Arab world.Kurdish Regional Government- Larrabee argues that one of the most important changes in foreign policy is the countries relations with the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG). Since late 2008, the AKP government began to intensify such contacts.They have oil pipelines which flow from northern Iraq into Turkish ports, which contributes to Turkey's ambition to become an important energy hub between the Caspian and Middle East. (Larabee 2010) However there are still disagreements over Kirkuk and whether it should be controlled by the KRG or Baghdad Turkey fears that if the KRG take control it would enable the Iraqi Kurds to finance an independent Kurdish state. (Larabee 2010)Sources F. S. Larrabee, Turkeys New Geopolitics, Survival. Vol. 52, No. 2 (April-May 2010), pp.157-180A. Gol, The Identity of Turkey: Muslim and Secular ,Third world quarterly. Vol. 30, No. 4 (2009), pp.795-811KALAYCIOGLU, E. Democracy, Islam and Secularism in Turkey, BROWN, N.J. and E. EL-DIN SHAHIN (Eds) The Struggle over Democracy in the Middle East, Routledge: pp154-184SOMER M. and E. G. LIARAS, (2010) Turkeys New Kurdish Opening: Religious Versus Secular Values, Middle East Policy, 17(2) pp 152-165