ANOTHER INCONVENIENT TRUTH:

Race and EthnicityRace and ethnicity affect how students respond toinstruction and their opportunities to learn.Willis D. Hawley and Sonia Nieto

Given the shameful dif-

ferences in the academicoutcomes and graduationrates of students of colorcompared to many Asian

and white students, one would expectpolicies and practices related to stu-dents' race and ethnicity to be high onthe reform agenda. Of course, there iswidespread discussion of the "minorityachievement gap," but solutions on thepublic agenda are invariably color-blind.It is widely assumed that what works forwhite and Asian American students willwork for students of color-if only wedid it more often.

We need, however, to recognize aninconvenient truth-that when it comesto maximizing learning opportunitiesand outcomes for students from raciallyand ethnically diverse backgrounds,race and ethnicity matter. Race and eth-nicity influence teaching and learningin two important ways: They affect howstudents respond to instruction and cur-riculum, and they influence teachers'assumptions about how students learnand how much students are capable oflearning.

Being more conscious of race andethnicity is not discriminatory; it's real-istic. Research on race- and ethnicity-related dispositions suggests thatalmost all of us, regardless of our skin

color, are biased against, or at leastrelatively uncomfortable with, peoplewhose race and ethnicity are differentfrom our own (Greenwald, Pohlman,Uhlman, & Banaji, 2007). Moreover,people of different races and ethnicitiessee the incidence of discriminationand the availability of educationaland economic opportunity differently(McIntosh, 1988; Nieto & Bode, 2008;Sleeter, 1994).

Clarifying TermsWe use the expression race- andethnicity-responsive rather than morecomfortable terms like diversity or cul-tural responsiveness to draw attentionto the importance of addressing issuesrelated to skin color in improving stu-dents' learning opportunities. Also,when we focus on race alone, wesometimes see only black and white,neglecting the wide range of ethnicitiesin our schools and society.

Effective implementation of race- andethnicity-responsive approaches toschool improvement that benefit all stu-dents requires that educators take threesteps.

Step 1: Understand how raceaffects teaching and learning.Commitment to race- and ethnicity-conscious strategies for school

improvement begins by understandingthe influence of race and ethnicity onbehavior and on attitudes about racialand ethnic differences.

There are three important lessons inthis regard. First, differences amongpeople to whom we assign racial andethnic identities have no biologicalbases and are, instead, the product of

66 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP / NOVEMBER 2010

Matter

socially constructed beliefs. When thesebeliefs disadvantage one group morethan another, we can change themthrough social action. For example, onestudy found that teachers who becameactive in antiracist projects broadenedtheir understanding and were able touse their new skills in creating affirminglearning environments for all their

students (Donaldson, 2001).Second, most of us are not fully

aware of our dispositions toward peopleof races and ethnicities different fromour own (Ayres, 2001). Thus, we do notunderstand how others see our behavioror the extent to which latent beliefsshape our actions. Learning how toquestion our beliefs is essential.

Finally, despite progress in race rela-tions, many people of color see theiropportunities as limited and fear theywill experience discrimination. Givenyears of neglect and discrimination inpublic education, these perceptions areneither surprising nor unwarranted.Nevertheless, communities of colorhave, in general, great faith that edu-cation is their best hope for improvingtheir children's life chances.

Examining Some CommonNonproductive BeliefsThis first step involves looking at somecommon beliefs about teaching andlearning that often undermine students'opportunities to learn but which wesustain because they seem sensible andare, in many cases, well-meaning.

m To be fair to all students, one shouldbe color-blind and ignore racial differ-ences. To acknowledge that focusing onstudents' race or ethnicity affects howone should teach is to acknowledge thatracial and ethnic discrimination hasbeen, and continues to be, a significantinfluence on what and how studentslearn. This is not a comforting thoughtin a nation whose public stance is oneof equity and fairness for all. Indeed,it is quite common to hear educatorssay that they are color-blind, as thoughthis were a positive value. Althoughcolor-blindness is a good thing when itmeans that people do not discriminateon the basis of race, it can have negativeconsequences when educators refuseto see their students' racial, ethnic, cul-tural, and linguistic differences. Instead,teachers need to respect and build on

ASCD / WWW.ASCD.ORG 67

differences to foster student learning.w One can build student self-esteem by

reducing academic rigor. This particularlyharmful belief leads to lowered expecta-tions and, inevitably, to lower academicoutcomes. Compelling evidence showsthat when teachers hold high expecta-tions for students who have been mar-ginalized by their schooling experiences,student learning is enhanced, as longas high expectations are linked to greaterresources and support (Ferguson, 2004).Without appropriate support in place,the often-stated "all students can learn"is an empty slogan.

m Teaching should be adapted to stu-dents' learning styles. A simplistic under-standing of learning styles often leadsto stereotypes about students fromparticular backgrounds, as though allstudents from a shared backgroundlearn in exactly the same way. Not onlydo students learn in different ways, butalso students of color are often moredependent on school for learning howto learn than are more economicallyadvantaged students who may have hadmore varied learning opportunities.Although differentiating instruction isimportant, ultimately teachers' misuseof the term learning styles may limit thecognitive development of students fromdisadvantaged groups.

m Students must have good basic skillsbefore teachers can engage them in morecomplex learning activities. This beliefbelies the reality that even the youngeststudents can learn complex materialwhile at the same time developing basicskills. For example, in her thought-provoking book about her work with1st and 2nd graders from culturallydiverse backgrounds, Mary Cowhey

(2006) shows that while the studentswere learning to read, write, add, andsubtract, they were also having con-versations about philosophy, learningabout the civil rights movement, andeven engaging in a successful voter reg-istration drive-activities that not onlyare cognitively demanding but that alsomake the curriculum more pluralisticand engaging.

Step 2: Use race- and ethnicity-responsive teaching practices.Despite the research-based andcommonsense proposition that the

key to effective schools is effectiveteaching-particularly in racially andethnically diverse schools-publicpolicy focuses more on teacher qualifi-cations than on teaching quality. Effortsto improve teaching are often generic("good teaching is good teaching") andtypically are based on the idea thatwhat works for one student works foranother. A concomitant belief is thatstruggling students just need more ofthe same. Unfortunately, most measuresof good teaching do not deal explicitlywith culturally relevant pedagogy, inspite of the fact that research has docu-mented that this approach to teachingcan be effective with all students (Gay,2010; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Murphy &Alexander, 2006).

Numerous researchers have investi-gated the kind of teaching that makesa difference, particularly for studentswhose culture, race, and languagediffer from the majority (Garcia, 1999;Gay, 2010; Haberman, 1988; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Michie, 2009; Nieto,2003). The following practices illustratethe interdependence of good instruc-

tional practice and of caring and trustfulrelationships among students andteachers:

* Respecting and being interestedin students' experiences and culturalbackgrounds.

m Supporting higher-order leaming(for example, engaging students incomplex problem solving while devel-oping basic skills).

m Building on students' priorknowledge, values, and experiences.

"* Avoiding stereotyping of students."* Using ability grouping flexibly and

sparingly.m Adapting instruction to students'

semantics, accents, dialects, and lan-guage ability.

m Applying rules relating to behaviorfairly and sensitively.

m Facilitating learning of challengingmaterial by knowing how to deal withstereotype threat, that is, some students'beliefs that cultural myths about racialdifferences in abilities may be valid.

m Engaging families directly in theirchildren's leaming.

Step 3: Promote supportiveschool conditions.Looking at School CultureSchool structures, processes, and cul-tures affect student dispositions andtheir opportunities to learn. Under thebest of situations, these racially and eth-nically responsive conditions are alignedand reinforcing. The source of thiscoherence is a belief shared by teachers,administrators, and school staff thatthey have both the ability and theresponsibility to significantly influencestudent leaming, regardless of students'backgrounds.

We call such coherent sets of under-standings and commitments race- andethnicity-responsive school cultures.School practices in such culturesinclude targeted and flexible groupingfor instruction; access to and supportfor learning high-level content (such asadvanced placement courses); inclusiveand affirming curriculums; and fair dis-

68 EDUCATIONAL. LEADERSHIP / NOVEMBER 2010

School structures, processes, andcultures affect student dispositionsand their opportunities to learn.

ciplinary rules and processes.In schools with race- and

ethnicity-responsive schoolcultures, teachers and adminis-trators demonstrate respect andaffirmation for their students'identities and experiences andmake it clear that drive, or whatJaime Escalante called ganas-the desire and motivation tosucceed-can overcome evenbrutal structural inequalities.Numerous studies have foundthis to be the case. For example,in a three-year investigation ofacademic achievement amongMexican American students ina Texas high school, Valenzuela(1999) located the problem ofstudent underachievement not instudents' identities or in familyculture or poverty, but rather inuncaring school-based relation-ships and ineffective organiza-tional structures.

Seeing Assets, Not DeficitsAll students bring cultural values andexperiences to their education, yetschools frequently disregard them, par-ticularly teachers who are unfamiliarwith their students' cultures. Gonzalez,Moll, and Amanti (2005) show teachershow to investigate, document, anduse students' funds of knowledge-theirexperiences, skills, and competencies-through home visits and interviewswith families. Teachers have foundthat families' competencies range frommedicinal know-how to skills in artsand crafts to literary expertise to entre-preneurial knowledge, yet these fundsof knowledge are frequently overlookedsimply because of families' social class,ethnicity, or race.

A belief in students' identities alsoincludes knowing something abouttheir cultural and historic experiences.Working with a group of Latino andAfrican American incarcerated youngmen, artist-educators Patty Bode andDerek Fenner developed a study of

public murals and street art in theUnited States. They initiated the unitwith Aaron Douglas's Harlem Renais-sance era murals. Making authenticcultural connections to the artists andtheir work supported the young men'sacademic achievement; they expressedtheir learning in vibrant paintings,collages, and documentaries (Bode &Fenner, 2010).

But there is a danger in over-generalizing about cultural effects. Whatis needed instead is knowledge andawareness of the history and valuedpractices of students and their com-munities (Gutierrez & Rogoff, 2003).Therefore, it makes sense for teachers tolearn about the students in their class-rooms as well as about their families,prior experiences, cultural practices,and values.

Honoring Youth CultureMany young people, regardless of theirethnicity or race, relate to today's youthculture; affirming this part of their

identity is also a way of dem-onstrating a belief in students'identities.

For instance, in theirresearch with high school stu-dents, Morrell and Duncan-Andrade (2002) used students'involvement with hip-hop cultureto transform their curriculum andpedagogy and successfully engagestudents in literacy learning. Atthe same time, these researcher/practitioners have taught urbanhigh school students such textsas Beowulf, The Canterbury Tales,Othello, Macbeth, Hamlet, and theOdyssey because they believe thatall students should engage withdemanding material whether itis based on urban and popularculture or on canonical texts thatcan-and indeed must-be made

Srelevant and exciting for students.

+ Engaging Students in Race- andEthnicity-Related InquiryTeachers and schools can also

show respect for students by involvingthem in classroom-based research.Using participatory action research as apedagogical approach, researcher JasonIrizarry (in press) and a group of highschool students with whom he wasworking conducted a two-year ethno-graphic study examining the policiesand practices that affected their edu-cation experiences. Irizarry and his stu-dents created a curriculum that focusedon learning about Latinos' historicstruggle for equal education and ondeveloping the skills needed to conductresearch relating to Latinos' educationexperiences and academic outcomes.

Demonstrating skills that schoolspurport to be important-such as theability to analyze information and usedata to construct written and oral per-suasive arguments-students presentedthe findings of their research as wellas recommendations to inform schoolreform efforts at various conferencesand professional meetings. Recom-

ASCD / WWW.A%CD.ORG, 69

mendations to teachers includedholding students to high stan-dards and providing supports forstudents to meet them, honoringstudents' cultural and linguisticdiversity, and building mutuallyedifying relationships with stu-dents and families. Most notable,Irizarry and his students sharethis experience in The Latinizationof U.S. Schools (in press), a bookthey wrote to inform the work ofeducators and policymakers.

Developing a ResponsiveSchool CultureChanging a culture requireschanging more than just attitudesand beliefs-it requires changingbehaviors. Schools can accom-plish this by focusing on the fol-lowing practices.

Targeted ProfessionalDevelopmentPeople seldom believe in prac-tices they don't know how toimplement. It follows that urgingteachers to have high expectationsfor themselves and students, withoutenhancing their expertise, is notonly inadequate but may be counter-productive (Ferguson, 2004).

School-based professional learningcommunities can improve teachingand learning and lead to a funda-mental change in teachers' work. Toenhance their learning, teachers can,for example, shadow students duringthe day and do collaborative inquiry(Zemelman & Ross, 2009). By shad-owing students, teachers can learnwhich content and activities mostmotivate students as well as how andwith whom students prefer to learn.As a result, teachers could investigatewhat it would mean to create culturallyresponsive learning environments forparticular students. Administratorscould support teacher collaborativeinquiry by providing needed resources,such as books and other materials, time

before or after school, or simply moralsupport for teachers' work.

Surfacing Issues Relatedto Race and EthnicityWhen schools, examine data on studentachievement, they invariably look atdifferences among racial groups-although they may not look beyondsuperficial categories of racial difference,such as Asian American or Latino. But,ironically, proposals for improvementseldom suggest that student difficultiescould be related to race or ethnicity.Nevertheless, instruction that isunresponsive to such differences and toethnicity-related tensions in schools andclassrooms may partially explain lowachievement.

Most schools are not characterizedby open discussions of issues relatedto race and ethnicity. Educators maybelieve that focusing on race and eth-nicity could be divisive and that strat-egies to enhance the achievement of

students of color will undermineother students' learning oppor-tunities. Yet such discussions areessential to a race- and ethnicity-responsive school culture.

Professional learning commu-nities can provide the structure,shared respect, and trust neededfor collaboratively addressingthese issues. Although manyteachers and administratorsmay be reluctant to focus onthe thorny issues of racism andprivilege, most students are eagerto begin the conversation. Onehelpful resource for surfacingthese issues in the classroom isMica Pollock's Everyday Anti-racism (New Press, 2008), whichincludes insightful essays bymore than 60 researchers whoeach propose a single action thateducators can take to counteract

Sracism in schools and society.SThese include such actions as@ challenging cultural messages

about who can and cannot doscience and using photography to

wrestle with questions of racial identity.

Witnessing Effective PracticeSeeing is believing. Teachers needopportunities to witness diversity-responsive practices. By closely andopenly examining evidence on studentperformance, schools can identifyteachers who are more effective thanothers with students of diverse back-grounds. In some cases, teachers willbe more effective with students of onerace than with students of another.School districts can identify people fromwhom and places in which others canlearn, and they should provide time andresources to do so.

Engaging with FamiliesThe families of students of diverseracial and ethnic backgrounds oftenfeel unwelcome and uncomfortable inschools and can be reluctant to engagein the kinds of activities that schools

70 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP / NOVEMBER 2010

sanction. As a result, teachers and othereducators may conclude that thesefamilies do not value education. In fact,in general, African American, Latino,American Indian, and Pacific Islandfamilies have a great deal of respectfor education and view it as the bestway out of poverty and hopelessness(see Bouffard, Bridglall, Gordon, &Weiss, 2009).

Family involvement strategies that areresponsive to racial and ethnic diversityreject the idea that language or culturaldifferences are insurmountable barriers.They encourage educators to

a Learn about their students' familiesby communicating with them consis-tently and respectfully.

x Learn about the communities inwhich they teach by becoming familiarwith the community resources.

m Learn to speak at least one of thenative languages of the students theyteach.

* Learn how to engage families intheir children's education in ways thatenrich the curriculum, family supportfor learning, and teachers' knowledge ofstudents.

a Listen to what the families need andwant for their children (Hildalgo, Sui, &Epstein, 2004).

Good for AllOften, schools marginalize specialefforts to meet the needs of studentsof racially and ethnically diverse back-grounds, treating them as actions thattake time away from the central tasks ofimproving academic achievement.

But there is no zero-sum game here.Indeed, it is ironic that policies and

practices that are particularlyresponsive to the needs of students ofcolor are likely to be the best things wecould do to enhance the learning of allstudents. Z

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McIntosh, P. (1988). White privilege andmale privilege (Work Paper No. 189).Wellesley, MA: Wellesley College Centerfor Research on Women.

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Authors' note: The concerns addressedin this article are the focus of the SouthernPoverty Law Center's Teaching DiverseStudents Initiative. Extensive resourcesfor improving the learning opportunitiesof students of color can be found on theinitiative's website at www.tolerance.org/tdsi. Resources include articles, learningactivities, interactive cases, interviews, andexamples of promising practices.

EL onlineLearn how one school system has encouraged educators to rethink theirassumptions about race and privilege in the online-only article "QuestioningOur Beliefs and Biases" by John Krownapple, Razia F. Kosi, and ShannonKeeny available at www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/novlO/vo168/numO3/Questioning-Our-Beliefs-and-Biases.aspx.

Willis D. Hawley is professor emeritusof Education and Public Policy at the Uni-versity of Maryland and director of theSouthern Poverty Law Center's TeachingDiverse Students Initiative; wdh@umd.edu. Sonia Nieto is professor emeritaof Language, Literacy, and Culture,School of Education, University of Mas-sachusetts, Amherst; snieto@educ.umass.edu.

ASCD / WWW.ASCD.ORG, 71

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TITLE: ANOTHER INCONVENIENT TRUTH: Race andEthnicity Matter

SOURCE: Educational Leadership 68 no3 N 2010PAGE(S): 66-71

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