toward an understanding of academic self‐concept in distance education

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This article was downloaded by: [University of Cambridge] On: 19 December 2014, At: 16:42 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK American Journal of Distance Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hajd20 Toward an understanding of academic selfconcept in distance education Chère Campbell Gibson a a Associate Professor in the Department of Continuing and Vocational Education , University of WisconsinMadison , CAVE, 1300 Linden Drive, Madison, WI, 53706 Published online: 24 Sep 2009. To cite this article: Chère Campbell Gibson (1996) Toward an understanding of academic selfconcept in distance education, American Journal of Distance Education, 10:1, 23-36, DOI: 10.1080/08923649609526907 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08923649609526907 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever

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Page 1: Toward an understanding of academic self‐concept in distance education

This article was downloaded by: [University of Cambridge]On: 19 December 2014, At: 16:42Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number:1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street,London W1T 3JH, UK

American Journal of DistanceEducationPublication details, including instructions forauthors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hajd20

Toward an understandingof academic self‐concept indistance educationChère Campbell Gibson aa Associate Professor in the Department ofContinuing and Vocational Education , Universityof Wisconsin‐Madison , CAVE, 1300 Linden Drive,Madison, WI, 53706Published online: 24 Sep 2009.

To cite this article: Chère Campbell Gibson (1996) Toward an understandingof academic self‐concept in distance education, American Journal of DistanceEducation, 10:1, 23-36, DOI: 10.1080/08923649609526907

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08923649609526907

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of allthe information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on ourplatform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensorsmake no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy,completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinionsand views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views ofthe authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis.The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should beindependently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor andFrancis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings,demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever

Page 2: Toward an understanding of academic self‐concept in distance education

or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, inrelation to or arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private studypurposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution,reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any formto anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and usecan be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

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THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATIONVol. 10 No. 1 1996

Toward an Understanding ofAcademic Self-Concept in

Distance EducationChère Campbell Gibson

Abstract

Academic self-concept has been demonstrated to influence studentsuccess in distance education. The purpose of this study was toexamine the nature of academic self-concept in distance educationand to determine its enhancers and detractors. It was determinedthat this construct is dynamic and multi-faceted: the process of bothlearning as an adult and learning at a distance, as well as the contentstudied, influences academic self-concept. Implications for bothpractice and further research are discussed.

Introduction

Academic persistence continues to be a concern among distance educa-tors and administrators alike, as indicated by the number of researchstudies related to this phenomenon (see, for example, the review byCookson 1990). The primary focus of these studies is the identificationof influences on learners' decisions to leave distance education coursesof study before completion (attrition).

In response to this increasing interest, distance educators have devel-oped a number of models to explain and predict attrition. These modelsinclude not only those characteristics students bring to the educationalprocess at the time of entry—such as educational preparation, motiva-tional and persistence attributes, and educational preparation (Kennedyand Powell 1976; Sweet 1986; Billings 1988)—but also variables thatare more situational in nature. These situational variables include thelearner's life circumstances, such as family and employer support (Pow-ell, Conway and Ross 1990; Pythian and Clements 1982; Woodley andMclntosh 1980), and institutional factors such as quality and difficultyof instructional materials and provision of tutorial support (Billings1988; Sweet 1986; Kennedy and Powell 1976).

One construct that emerges in a number of persistence studies pertainsto an adult's perception of his or her ability to succeed in the educational

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environment. For example, Garrison (1985) studied whether goal-clarityand course-relevance variables would enable greater discriminationbetween persisters and nonpersisters in an adult basic education classthan would other psychosocial variables. He concluded that after thevariables of last grade completed and hours worked entered the discrimi-nant analysis, an ideal self/self-confidence discrepancy variable was themost powerful discriminator. Similarly, in a post hoc study of adults pur-suing baccalaureate degrees at a distance, measures of expectancy ofsuccess in learning activities, as well as both dispositional (related toone's attitude and perceptions about self-as-learner) and independentstudy (related to the process of studying at a distance) variables wereassociated with persistence (Gibson and Graff 1992). The Gibson andGraff (1992) findings closely parallel the Powell, Conway, and Ross(1990) findings with students' perception of their chances for success,value of previous education, concrete study habits, persistent behaviors,and need for support included in a discriminant model.

The adult's concept of self-as-learner has also been related to successin a graduate distance education degree program. However, in contrast tothe above studies, Langenbach and Korhonen (1988) noted that a morepositive sense of self-as-learner was associated with noncompleters, thussuggesting the possibility of a false sense of self-confidence amongdropouts as they begin their studies. This point also has been argued byGarrison (1987). It should be noted that, in these two cases, measure-ment of the learner's perception preceded the beginning of study, incontrast to the post hoc measurement performed in the Gibson and Graff(1992) study.

Timing the measurement of students' perception of self-as-learnermay be critical for another reason. As Herrmann (1988) notes, "A curso-ry investigation into research in distance education . . . shows that, forthe most part, students are treated as a sample population with groupcharacteristics, i.e. flat, unchanging individuals" (p. 5).

The previously mentioned studies fit this description. However, Her-rmann's own recent research on secondary socialization of distanceeducation students illustrates the changing perceptions of students asthey progress through their studies and the situational adjustments thatthey make as they juggle their multiple roles. These changing percep-tions call into question the "flat, unchanging" conception of individuals.A possible conclusion, based on this and other research, is that while stu-dents' conceptions of themselves as learners are important to their

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GIBSON

success, this facet of self-concept is potentially dynamic and ever-chang-ing throughout the course of their studies.

Purpose

System-wide studies examine general trends, patterns, and explanato-ry models; to complement these broad studies, Woodley and Parlett(1983) have called for more detailed micro-analyses at the "individualstudent level [where] we need to know far more about the psychologicalprocesses involved in becoming and ceasing to be [a student at a dis-tance]" (p. 19). The purpose of this study was to explore the nature ofthe distance learner's academic self-concept with particular reference toits stability and/or changeability and to identify the precursors and/orcatalysts of any changes observed during the early months of distancestudy. Defined as one of a number of facets (physical, social, emotional)that make up one's general self-concept (Shavelson, Hubner, and Stanton1976), academic self-concept represents the individual's mental image ofself-as-learner, that is, the sense of personal competence and related con-fidence in his or her ability to succeed in the chosen educationalendeavor.

Methodology

Sixteen external-degree students were interviewed seven times duringtheir first year of study at a distance. Most of these baccalaureate degreeseekers were women (87.5%) between the ages of thirty to forty-twowho were employed outside the home at least 50% of the time. All hadone or more dependents. The subjects were self-selected from a totalgroup of twenty-nine students who matriculated in the two-month regis-tration period selected as the starting point for the study. A comparisonof participants and a sample of nonparticipants found similar age andgender distribution, previous educational experience, and other demo-graphic characteristics such as marital and socioeconomic status.Psychological variables were not assessed.

Open-ended interviews, ranging in length from fifteen to forty-fiveminutes, were conducted by telephone each month for the first threemonths following the student's matriculation into the program. Studentswere interviewed every six to seven weeks during the succeeding eightmonths with the timing dependent on variables such as holidays and stu-dent life roles and responsibilities. The general focus of the interviews

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was on the experience of studying at a distance and, more specifically,on the variables of perceived confidence, perceived competence, com-mitment, barriers to and enhancers of educational progress, and breadthof resources used in pursuing their studies. Each of the interviews wastranscribed verbatim.

The data were reviewed for statements that related to academic self-concept. Constant comparison revealed recurring topics and patterns thatformed the coding categories for data analyses and interpretation. Datainterpretations were shared with students who had pursued studies at adistance (as well as with a group of international distance education col-leagues) for further feedback, insights, and comment.

This article focuses solely on the data collected during the first threemonths of study and on the construct of academic self-concept as itrelates to the student's ability to pursue a degree at a distance. This ini-tial three month period was selected because it is the period duringwhich attrition is particularly prevalent (Mclntosh, Woodley, and Mom-son 1980; Woodley and Parlett 1983; Billings 1988; Cookson 1990).

Academic Self-Concept: A Dynamic and Multifaceted Construct

Analysis of the data from the first three sets of interviews, coveringthe first four months of formal study, clearly illustrates the dynamicnature of the student's self-concept as a learner. For example, one stu-dent, reflecting on her level of confidence when entering the programand after completion of several course requirements, spoke of

Getting back and doing a few things and finding out. . . that I'm notgoing to fail. I don't think it's going to be a problem getting through itas far as learning on my own. From that point of view . . . I feel a lotmore confident.

On a less positive note, some students may enter distance education pro-grams with an inflated sense of their abilities and commitment to learn ata distance. Another student bemoaned:

Once I looked at the course material for geography and once I startedthis whole thing of realizing how much time I was willing to committo it, I went from being fully confident [10] to where I am now [6].(Reference to a numerical scale was this student's attempt to help theresearcher understand the magnitude of her change inself-confidence.)

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When thinking of themselves as learners, students appeared to consid-er several areas of competence. Some commented on their ability to copewith the process of learning as an adult: "I thought that my weaknesswould be that at 41 maybe my retention power wouldn't be as great as itwas...my last college days." Others focused more specifically on theirnew roles as learners at a distance: "I quickly realized it was going to bea lot harder than I anticipated, so I went to an easier course . . . so that Iwould gain some confidence in this whole way of learning." Still otherscommented on their confidence relative to a body of content. For exam-ple, when asked directly about her level of confidence, one student said,"Once I get over the math class, pretty good!" On a more positive note,another student, as she reflected on her subject matter competence in aspecific course, quipped, "I was surprised at how much I actually didknow, did remember from years before!"

Thus the data suggested a dynamic academic self-concept changingwith time and experience. Facets of self-concept emerging from the dataincluded the process of learning as an adult, the process of learning at adistance, and a content-specific aspect of academic self-concept.

Academic Self-Concept: Enhancers and Detractors

There appear to be both enhancers of and detractors from the stu-dents' perception of self-as-learner at a distance. A variety ofenvironmental and institutional factors relate both to process and con-tent.

Process Related Factors. Various confidence enhancers were men-tioned as students reflected on the process of learning at a distance.Empathy on the part of the professors was noted as an enhancer.

My confidence has been enhanced because the professors are soaccommodating...in this situation. The thing that is so wonderful isthat they respect the position I'm in (as a working parent).

Personal success appeared to play a large role in bolstering confi-dence and commitment: "I feel like I'm absorbing all this stuff real well.I don't feel lost at all, you know, 'cause that would make me give up."Progress toward a larger educational goal also raised self-confidence: "Ifanything I have been studying more now that I'm getting near the end ofthe course 'cause I feel so good that . . . I've actually tackled one(course)." Other students suggested that "The more you do the easier it

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gets," or echoed the common refrain that familiarity with the process oflearning at a distance enhances one's competence and confidence albeit,for some students, as a result of trial and error:

I feel more competent in the sense that I'm getting to know what toexpect 'cause when you first go in . . . nobody really talks to you andsays well maybe you should do this, this, and this.

Self-growth also appeared to be an enhancer:

Sitting down and having to feel that I am actively pursuing [knowl-edge] and kind of pushing out my boundaries and becoming . . . . Youcan't but be a better person for it. And I actually enjoy that and . . .that feeds your self-confidence, self-esteem.

What appears to emerge is a sense of accomplishment and a concomitantgrowing respect for one's self as a learner.

On the other hand, students expressed a lack of confidence in thsm-selves due to their unfamiliarity with the process and related roleexpectations in distance learning, where the teacher and learner are sepa-rated and learners are expected to assume high levels of responsibilityand autonomy. For example, one student noted, "Maybe after I finish acouple of courses, I'll be more confident and . . . know what to do in cer-tain situations."

Skills deficiencies also seemed related to levels of confidence. Onestudent questioned her ability to learn and attributed this lack of confi-dence to deficient study skills: "Part of it is having really rusty studyskills. Part of it is never having had study skills." Another noted, "I don'tknow if I can read well enough, although I have no trouble reading."Perhaps her concern reflected a lack of confidence in her ability to suc-ceed in the heavily print-based academic program in which she wasenrolled.

Students' confidence in their ability to successfully complete a degreeseemed directly related to their ability to juggle multiple roles: that is,"trying to balance the stress of still getting my job done and cominghome and studying" and "juggling time a little better." As one studentreflected on her struggles to balance commitment to her personal lifewith commitment to learning, she confided,

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My biggest weakness is time. Wanting to maintain my personal lifeand my interests and activities and yet realizing that if I'm seriouslygoing to get through this coursework . . . I have to work at this every,at least every, day.

Thus, students expressed apprehension about their ability to cope witha new process of learning. Included were concerns about the adequacy oftheir study skills and reading competencies and their ability to assumethe new roles and responsibilities needed to succeed when learning at adistance.

Content Related Factors. Students also reflected on mastering a vari-ety of content areas. Successfully taking placement examinations oftenresulted in an enhancement of academic self-concept: "I knew more thanI thought I would know." Realization that their accumulated experiencebase was relevant also appeared to enhance confidence:

After . . . taking two exams . . . I realize that I do know something.I'm not just picking it up right now. It's relating back to my presentoccupation and I'm very confident now . . . everything isn't totallynew. So the life experience that I had so far is helping.

After being questioned about why she felt her confidence level washigher now than in the prior month, one student noted

the fact that I'm actually doing it as opposed to thinking about it (pur-suing the degree). That I'm getting good feedback and some goodgrades and I'm accomplishing what I set out to do.

Success in mastering content enhances confidence. Related to that suc-cess is a familiarity with instructor expectations for testing and gradingin a particular content area. One student commented, "Now that I'vedone a few assignments and taken a few tests in my two courses, I havea better idea of what they want and I feel more confident that I can dothe work." Thus students' recognition of these content-related factorsalso appears to enhance their academic self-concept.

However, many students interviewed mentioned the same factors asdetractors to their academic self-concept. Many of these detractors relat-ed to expectations regarding assignments, test-taking, and types of tests:"I think my biggest challenge was talking, having that initial conference,with the instructors and finding out what they expected of me." Another

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student noted, "I try to look at instructions and do what they say verba-tim, but," she continued discouragedly, "sometimes you get off on acourse (direction) that you think is appropriate but it really isn't . . . "Some students lacked sufficient confidence in their ability to even guesswhat the instructor really wanted. They were reluctant to send in anyassignments for fear they had guessed wrong. As one student explained,"I know I need to send it [the completed assignment], just go ahead anddo it, send it. Because if it isn't what they want they can let me know."

Also, students expressed diminished confidence in their academicabilities as they confronted a dreaded course: "I'm pretty confident. Imean I'm still scared about the Logo one [computer course onLogoWriter]." An unfamiliar exam format also diminishes confidence:"I've never taken an oral exam before. I don't know what to expect."Doing well does not necessarily preclude anxiety. As one student v/howas getting As noted, "I want to know why I got an A," expressing aneed for feedback, insights into evaluation criteria and, perhaps, dataupon which to make an appropriate judgment about how confident sheshould be.

Registering for too many courses, then failing to make adequateprogress also is a detractor. Reflecting on her waning commitment tolearning and seeking a boost, one student commented, "I was going tocall my adviser this week . . . to ask what happens if, having bitten off 12credits . . . I couldn't finish it all in a year."

Progress toward degree completion was delayed by these detractors toacademic self-concept, which led to further delay because the studentswere then hesitant to mail in completed assignments. Not meeting previ-ously established academic goals also lowered the students' academicself-concept.

Discussion

Findings from this study suggest that students' academic self-conceptinitially ranged along a continuum from positive to negative and thenchanged as students became more or less confident/competent during thecourse of their studies. Further, academic self-concept was multifaceted,related to both the process and the content of learning within the largercontext of learning at a distance. Most important, academic self-conceptappeared to be a situational attribute of the learner, with specific institu-tional factors emerging as influences.

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These general findings are supportive of Shavelson, Hubner, andStanton's (1976) notion of a multifaceted self-concept, which differenti-ates academic from nonacademic self-concept. Further, this studyconfirms the existence of facets within the construct of academic self-concept (Marsh, Byrne, and Shavelson 1988; Marsh 1992). This studydemonstrates that, in addition to a subject-matter facet that Marsh,Byrne, and Shavelson suggest exists within academic self-concept, thereare one or more facets related to the process of learning in general anddistance learning specifically.

One finding that deserves serious consideration is the students' callfor clear expectations from faculty. Students want to know what isexpected, what is important, and what kinds of assessment will beemployed, as well as how they are doing relative to the faculty mem-ber's criteria of excellence. This finding parallels field studies reportingthat most adult students who enter into new and stressful educational sit-uations prefer high instructor control and low student autonomy(Kasworm 1992). Further, it supports the contention that one of the fea-tures of academic self-concept is its evaluative character with"evaluations made against absolute standards such as the 'ideal'. . . andagainst relative standards, such as 'peers' or perceived evaluations of'significant others'" (Shavelson, Hubner, and Stanton 1976).

This call for clearly stated instructor expectations occurs during aperiod in distance education's history of growing emphasis on increasedlearner control and on instruction that is less teacher centered (Evans andNation 1989). Educators are developing multistage models with the goalof assisting students to become more self-directed in their learning overthe course of their studies (Kasworm 1992). Of particular concern is theconcurrent expression by a number of students of both growing confi-dence in their ability to study successfully at a distance and seriousdoubts about their competence and confidence relative to one or morebodies of content. This dichotomy appears consistent with the conceptu-alization of academic self-concept as increasingly less stable as oneproceeds toward more specific aspects of subject matter and specific sit-uations related to that subject matter (Shavelson, Hubner, and Stanton1976).

The finding of a situation-specific (e.g., a course-related) academicself-concept seems consistent with the findings of Bernard and Amund-sen (1989), which state that student background characteristics influencedropout decisions in certain courses. Further, "any model of programattrition must take into consideration the nature of the learning tasks in

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individual courses" (p. 43). Thus, a model of instructional design andlearner support that advocates increasing student autonomy over timewill fail to meet the need for direction and support of the student wholacks confidence and perceives a lack in competence in a specific subjector aspect of a subject even late in a course of study.

Recent research by Baynton (1992), which focuses on factors associ-ated with learner control in the distance education teaching-learningtransaction, further supports the findings of this study. While testing amodel of control in the teaching-learning transaction, Baynton's factoranalysis produced a six-factor solution with "student competency,""teacher/tutor support," and "choice" accounting for 39.6% of the totalvariance. Student competence (accounting for 20.4% of the total vari-ance) reflected both skill and dispositional elements of learners: studyskills, ability, confidence, motivation, time management, and emotionalsupport. Teacher/tutor support—which included treating the student as apeer or an equal, providing encouragement and support, encouraging thestudent's own ideas, and teacher-directed learning—accounted for 10.3%of the total variance. Choice—having a say in assignments, process andgrades, content covered, and an opportunity to discuss choices with fac-ulty members—accounted for 8.9% of the total variance.

Distance education, with its separation of teacher and learner—andoften learner from peers—places considerable responsibility and controlin the hands of learners. Findings from this and other studies suggest thatthere is a variability among students in their willingness to assume con-trol, in part as a result of negative assessments of their abilities aslearners. The movement from dependence to independence is not linear,given the situational nature of academic self-concept and the impact ofcourse-related variables.

From these data, attention to certain institutional factors such as clear-ly presented expectations in course materials and ready access to facultyand other support services could positively influence a learner's academ-ic self-concept. This influence could, in turn, contribute to increasedpersistence.

Implications for Practice

If academic self-concept is as strongly associated with students' per-sistence in external degree programs as the data indicate, educatorsshould strive to optimize enhancers and diminish detractors to this aca-demic self-concept. Analyses of the data provide support for continuing

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a number of already-suggested, although not widely used, practices. Forexample, a student orientation that introduces procedures for learning ata distance, including roles and responsibilities of teachers and learners,should be provided. Instruction in the process of directing one's ownlearning and in study strategies also seems appropriate early in a stu-dent's program.

As Garrison and Baynton (1990) note, when students are given theopportunity to control their own learning, they may be both unwilling toexercise the level of control required and unable to assume the responsi-bilities associated with being a self-directed learner. The learner's pastlearning strategies are not always adequate for dealing with a new edu-cational situation such as learning at a distance. Educational experiencesthat incorporate information about adult development—especially aboutlearning in adulthood and learning how to learn—should be incorporatedinto a course when possible. Optional time-management and stress-man-agement programs also seem indicated to help students integrate theirlives as students with roles and responsibilities in work, family, andcommunity.

Of particular importance in learning specific content is the students'need for clearly outlined expectations from the instructor. "Signposts"indicating points deserving students' special attention would furtherassist learning. Sample questions and appropriate (from the instructor'sperspective) answers also may help. Examples of exemplary assign-ments or less-than-exemplary assignments with comments indicatingareas for improvement would help students learn to judge the quality oftheir work, albeit only against the teacher's criteria. While recognizingthe benefit of assessing their own personal needs and tailoring a courseto meet their learning goals and expectations, many learners appear ini-tially to lack the necessary level of confidence and perceivedcompetence for this degree of self-directedness. However, given the situ-ation-specific nature of academic self-concept, it is important to provideoptions in which students can regulate the level of their control overlearning goals, methods, and evaluation strategies in both introductory oradvanced courses.

One point was repeatedly stressed by participants in this and earlierstudies (e.g., Graff and Coggins 1989): the difficulty of making that firsttelephone contact with the professor to ask a question. Students continu-ally voiced the need to be prepared, so as not to "sound like an idiot." Itwould seem that instructor-initiated telephone contact during the firstthree weeks might answer a number of students' questions related to

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expectations and educational processes, thereby enhancing academicself-concept and, perhaps, encouraging the submission of written assign-ments. Further, feedback on assignments seems important if only to helpstudents assess their strengths and weaknesses and to judge more realis-tically their abilities. Self-assessment tools embedded in study materialsalso could bolster students' confidence by indicating when they areready to take an exam, based on their scores on self-testing devices simi-lar to the actual test. In addition, the nature and characteristics ofdifferent types of examinations need to be specified.

Implications for Research

Academic self-concept is but one construct affecting persistence inexternal-degree programs. Additional research is needed to understandmore fully its many facets as well as to assess its relationship to the con-stellation of other constructs that have direct or intervening effects onpersistence. As Snow (1989) notes in his discussion of cognitive andconative structures in learning, one needs to consider the initial states oflearners, their desired end states, and the transitions between these states,given the impact of instruction on the transition from initial to end states.What becomes clear is that "achievements become aptitudes for furtherlearning, and knowledge, skill, strategy, regulation and motivation inter-mingle; all have both cognitive and conative aspects" (p. 9).

The need to more fully develop and validate this construct is apparent,as is the need to develop measurement approaches to assess it. If educa-tors could design a reliable and valid measure that takes intoconsideration the adult as learner, the educational program content, andthe context of distance education, this instrument could be used to identi-fy learners who are potentially at risk of failure. The distance teachingorganization then could provide intervention and empowerment strate-gies to those most in need. Further, the effectiveness of these individualintervention strategies would be enhanced by excluding those who nei-ther need nor want additional or special services either initially or atspecific points during their educational pursuits.

Conclusions

The findings of this and other studies suggest 1) that academic self-concept plays an important role in persistence in distance education and2) that this facet of general self-concept is a dynamic and situational

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attribute of the distance learner that is amenable to intervention. Institu-tional practices can affect this all-important variable through simplemodifications in educational practices that can potentially enhance thelearner's success in academic pursuits.

Note: This study was partially funded by the Kellogg Foundation.

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