842

eriod in Perspective

Toward aGlobal Civilization

1945–Present

World War II can be seen as the end of an era of Euro-pean domination of the world. After the war, Europe

quickly divided into hostile camps as the Cold War rivalrybetween the United States and the Soviet Union forced

nations to take sides. In the late 1980s, however, theSoviet Empire began to come apart, and the Cold War

quickly ended.World War II severely undermined the stability of the

colonial order in Asia and Africa. By the end of the 1940s,most colonies in Asia had gained their independence.

Later, African colonies, too, would become independentnations.

Primary Sources LibrarySee pages 1000–1001 for primary source readings to

accompany Unit 6.

Use The World History Primary Source Document Library CD-ROM to find additional

primary sources about Global Civilization.

The

� African National Congresscampaign rally

� Contemporary African artfeaturing Nelson Mandela

“. . . there is no easy walk tofreedom anywhere . . .”

—Nelson Mandela

844

➊ The United States

Satellite CommunicationThe first telephone developed by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 was noth-

ing more than a wooden stand with a funnel, some wires, and a cup of acid,but the telephone was soon to revolutionize communication worldwide.

Similarly, when the Soviet Union launched a tiny communicationssatellite named Sputnik I in 1957, the device could do little more thantransmit radio signal beeps. However, this satellite also represented amajor step in communication technology.

Three years later, the United States launched its first satellites,which could relay telephone calls between Europe and the UnitedStates. In 1962, the United States satellite Telstar was the first to relay

live television programs to distant locations.By the 1980s, people around the world with satellite dish antennas

could tune in to hundreds of television programs. The effect was revolu-tionary. Repressive governments in Eastern Europe and elsewhere could not

legislate against free speech beamed down from the skies.

CommunicationThe invention of writing and printing reshaped history. Today, elec-tronic technology is moving communications forward at a startlingrate. People can now be instantaneously linked around the world by satellites and the Internet.

1948First electronic computer withstored memory is developed

Telstar

1957Soviet Unionlaunches Sputnik I

➊ ➌

➋

1901Guglielmo Marconi sends firstradio waves across Atlantic

1930sTelevisiondeveloped

845

➌ China

Satellite DishesSatellite dishes made it possible for people across the People’s Repub-

lic of China to listen to Mandarin-speaking rappers out of Hong Kong,English broadcasts of CNN News, and movies from Japan. The uncen-sored broadcasts enraged government officials, who tried to ban satellitedishes in 1993. However, even as officials dismantled thousands of largedishes, kits for smaller dishes were being smuggled into the country.

Other countries with repressive policies, such as Iran and Myanmar,tried and failed to ban satellite reception. Even free governments, likeIndia’s, were concerned about the “cultural invasion,” but satellite television was here to stay.

➋ Africa

The InternetIn Africa, UNESCO is helping the Pan-African News Agency and

others to link to the Internet. Project leaders see the Internet as one ofthe keys to unlocking Africa’s economic potential. Currently, there isone Internet access site for every 200 Africans, compared to a worldaverage of one site for every 30 people. Internet access will improve,and as it does, African communications, education, business, and gov-ernment endeavors will be profoundly impacted.

Why It Matters

1990African agencieslink to the Internet

1993Chinese governmentbans satellite dishes

1960United States launchesits first satellites

1971Microprocessoris invented

1977Apple II computerintroduced

While it used to take months to send a letter from the United States to Africa, today it can take only seconds. How has instantaneous communication made the world smaller? What are the good and bad results of this phenomenon?

Cybercafe

Satellite dish, Tibet

UNIT 6 Toward a Global Civilization

1957Soviets launchSputnik I

846

Cold War andPostwar Changes

1945–1970

Key EventsAs you read this chapter, look for the key events of the Cold War.

• At the end of World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union competed for political domination of the world.

• The United States fought in Korea and Vietnam to prevent the spread of communism.• The Soviet Union used armies to maintain Soviet regimes in Eastern Europe.

• The creation of NATO and the European Economic Community helped Western Europe move toward political and economic unity during the Cold War.

The Impact TodayThe events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today.

• NATO continues to flourish. Representatives of its 19 member nations form the North Atlantic Council, which is headquartered in Brussels, Belgium.

• Nuclear weapons remain a threat to the peace and stability of the world.• The civil rights struggle brought greater equality to African Americans and altered

American attitudes toward race, discrimination, and poverty.

World History Video The Chapter 27 video, “The Berlin Airlift,” showshow American and British planes circumvented the Soviet blockade.

1945 1950 1955

1945The Cold War begins

1954Civil rightsmovementbegins

1949NATOformed

1953KoreanWar ends

1947United States announcesTruman Doctrine andMarshall Plan

Martin Luther King, Jr.

847

The Soviet government displays its military strength in Moscow’s annual May Day parade.

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory Web site at

and click on Chapter 27–ChapterOverview to preview chapter information.

wh.glencoe.com

Art or Photo here

1961Berlin Wallbuilt

1964More U.S. troops sent to Vietnam

1962Cuban missile crisis unfolds

1960 1965 1970

Fidel Castro

Berlin Wall

848

A Sober Victoryhe end of World War II in Europe had been met withgreat joy. One visitor in Moscow reported, “I looked

out of the window [at 2 A.M.], almost everywhere there werelights in the windows—people were staying awake. Every-one embraced everyone else, someone sobbed aloud.”

After the victory parades and celebrations, however, Euro-peans awoke to a devastating realization: their civilizationwas in ruins. As many as fifty million people (both soldiersand civilians) had been killed over the last six years. Massiveair raids had reduced many of the great cities of Europe toheaps of rubble.

An American general described Berlin: “Wherever welooked we saw desolation. It was like a city of the dead. Suf-fering and shock were visible in every face. Dead bodies stillremained in canals and lakes and were being dug out fromunder bomb debris.”

Millions of Europeans faced starvation. Grain harvestswere only half of what they had been in 1939. Millions werealso homeless. In the parts of the Soviet Union that had beenoccupied by the Germans, almost twenty-five million peoplewere without homes. Fifteen million Germans and East Euro-peans were driven out of countries where they were no longerwanted. Millions of people had been uprooted by the war andbecame “displaced persons” who tried to find food and a wayhome.

T

Cleaning up after the London Blitz

Why It MattersDespite the chaos, Europe was soon on the road to a remarkablerecovery. However, World War IIhad destroyed European supremacyin world affairs, and from this,Europe did not recover. As the ColdWar between the world’s two super-powers—the United States and theSoviet Union—grew stronger, Euro-pean nations were divided into twoarmed camps dependent on one of these two major powers. TheUnited States and the Soviet Union,whose rivalry brought the world tothe brink of nuclear war, seemed tohold the survival of Europe and theworld in their hands.

History and You Create a worldmap. As you read the chapter, colorthe map as a United States policymaker might have during the ColdWar. Indicate the Soviet and UnitedStates spheres of influence as wellas areas under contention.

Guide to Reading

Development of the Cold War

Preview of Events

On March 5, 1946, Winston Churchill said in a speech in Fulton, Missouri:

“From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descendedacross the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of centraland eastern Europe, Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest,and Sofia; all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in the Sovietsphere and all are subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and increasing measure of control from Moscow.”

—The Congressional Record, 79th Congress, 1946

In 1946, Stalin replied: “In substance, Mr. Churchill now stands in the position of afirebrand of war.” The division between Western Europe and Soviet-controlled EasternEurope marked the beginning of the Cold War.

Confrontation of the SuperpowersOnce the Axis powers were defeated, the differences between the United States

and the Soviet Union became clear. Stalin still feared the capitalist West, and U.S.(and other Western) leaders continued to fear communism. Who, then, was respon-sible for beginning the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union?Both took steps that were unwise and might have been avoided. It should not sur-prise us that two such different systems would come into conflict.

Voices from the Past

Main Ideas• A period of conflict called the Cold War

developed between the United Statesand the Soviet Union after 1945.

• As the Cold War developed, Europeannations were forced to support one ofthe two major powers.

Key Termssatellite state, policy of containment, armsrace, domino theory

People to IdentifyDean Acheson, Nikita Khrushchev

Places to LocateBerlin, Federal Republic of Germany, German Democratic Republic

Preview Questions1. What were the major turning points in

the development of the Cold War?2. What was the Cuban missile crisis?

Reading StrategySummarizing Information Use a tablelike the one below to list the Americanpresidents who held office during theCold War and major events related to theCold War that took place during theiradministrations.

CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes 849

President Major Event

✦1945 ✦1950 ✦1955 ✦1960 ✦1965

1948Berlin Air Liftbegins

1949Chinese Communiststake control of China

1950Korean War begins

1961Soviets and East Germansbuild the Berlin Wall

1964Lyndon B. Johnson increasesnumber of troops sent to Vietnam

Winston Churchill

Truman argument ran, then the United States wouldhave to face the spread of communism throughoutthe free world.

As Dean Acheson, the U.S. secretary of state,explained, “Like apples in a barrel infected by dis-ease, the corruption of Greece would infect Iran andall the East . . . likewise Africa, Italy, France. . . . Notsince Rome and Carthage had there been such apolarization of power on this earth.”

The Marshall Plan The Truman Doctrine was fol-lowed in June 1947 by the European Recovery Pro-gram. Proposed by General George C. Marshall, U.S.secretary of state, it is better known as the MarshallPlan. The program was designed to rebuild the pros-perity and stability of war-torn Europe. It included$13 billion in aid for Europe’s economic recovery.Underlying the Marshall Plan was the belief thatCommunist aggression was successful in countrieswhere there were economic problems.

The Marshall Plan was not meant to shut out theSoviet Union or its economically and politicallydependent Eastern European satellite states. Theyrefused to participate, however. According to theSoviet view, the Marshall Plan guaranteed “Americanloans in return for the relinquishing by the Europeanstates of their economic and later also their politicalindependence.” The Soviets saw the Marshall Plan asan attempt to buy the support of countries.

In 1949, the Soviet Union responded to the Mar-shall Plan by founding the Council for Mutual Assis-tance (COMECON) for the economic cooperation ofthe Eastern European states. COMECON largelyfailed, however, because of the inability of the SovietUnion to provide large amounts of financial aid.

By 1947, the split in Europe between the UnitedStates and the Soviet Union had become a fact of life.In July 1947, George Kennan, a well-known U.S. diplo-mat with much knowledge of Soviet affairs, argued fora policy of containment to keep communism withinits existing boundaries and prevent further Sovietaggressive moves. Containment became U.S. policy.

The Division of Germany The fate of Germanyalso became a source of heated contention betweenthe Soviets and the West. At the end of the war, theAllied Powers had divided Germany into four zones,each occupied by one of the Allies—the UnitedStates, the Soviet Union, Great Britain, and France.Berlin, located deep inside the Soviet zone, was alsodivided into four zones.

The foreign ministers of the four occupying pow-ers met repeatedly in an attempt to arrive at a final

850

Because of its need to feel secure on its westernborder, the Soviet government was not prepared togive up its control of Eastern Europe after Germany’sdefeat. American leaders were not willing to give upthe power and prestige the United States had gainedthroughout the world. Suspicious of each other’smotives, the United States and the Soviet Union soonbecame rivals. Between 1945 and 1949, a number ofevents led the two superpowers (a country whosemilitary power is combined with political influence)to oppose each other.

Rivalry in Europe Eastern Europe was the first areaof disagreement. The United States and Great Britainbelieved that the liberated nations of Eastern Europeshould freely determine their own governments.Stalin, fearful that the Eastern European nationswould be anti-Soviet if they were permitted free elec-tions, opposed the West’s plans. Having freed East-ern Europe from the Nazis, the Soviet army stayed inthe conquered areas.

A civil war in Greece created another area of con-flict between the superpowers. The Communist Peo-ple’s Liberation Army and anticommunist forcessupported by Great Britain were fighting each otherfor control of Greece in 1946. However, Britain had itsown economic problems, which caused it to with-draw its aid from Greece.

The Truman Doctrine President Harry S Truman ofthe United States, alarmed by the British withdrawaland the possibility of Soviet expansion into the eastern

Mediterranean, responded inearly 1947 with the TrumanDoctrine. The Truman Doc-trine stated that the UnitedStates would provide money

to countries (in this case,Greece) threatened by

Communist expan-sion. If the Soviets

were not stoppedin Greece, the

President Trumanasked Congress for money to aidEuropean recovery.

peace treaty with Germany but had little success. ByFebruary 1948, Great Britain, France, and the UnitedStates were making plans to unify the three Westernsections of Germany (and Berlin) and create a WestGerman government.

The Soviets opposed the creation of a separateWest German state. They attempted to prevent it bymounting a blockade of West Berlin. Soviet forcesallowed neither trucks, trains, nor barges to enter thecity’s three Western zones. Food and supplies couldno longer get through to the 2.5 million people inthese zones.

The Western powers faced a dilemma. No onewanted World War III, but how could the people inthe Western zones of Berlin be kept alive, when thewhole city was inside the Soviet zone? The solutionwas the Berlin Air Lift—supplies would be flown inby American and British airplanes. For more than 15months, more than 200,000 flights carried 1.5 milliontons (1.4 million t) of supplies. The Soviets, whowanted to avoid war as much as the Western powers,finally gave in and lifted the blockade in May 1949.

In September 1949, the Federal Republic of Ger-many, or West Germany, was formally created. Itscapital was Bonn. A month later, a separate East Ger-man state, the German Democratic Republic, wasset up by the Soviets. East Berlin became its capital.Berlin was now divided into two parts, a reminder ofthe division of West and East.

Describing What was the intentionof the Marshall Plan?

The Spread of the Cold WarAs you will learn, the spread of the

Cold War led to the creation of military alliances thatinfluenced the development of the postwar world.In 1949, Chinese Communists took control of the

government in China, strengthening U.S. fears aboutthe spread of communism. The Soviet Union alsoexploded its first atomic bomb in 1949. All too soon,the United States and the Soviet Union wereinvolved in a growing arms race, in which bothcountries built up their armies and weapons.Nuclear weapons became increasingly destructive.

Both sides came to believe that an arsenal of nuclearweapons would prevent war. They believed that if onenation attacked with nuclear weapons, the othernation would still be able to respond and devastate theattacker. According to this policy, neither side couldrisk using their massive supplies of weapons.

Reading Check

851CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes

N

S

EW

100 kilometers0

Chamberlin Trimetric projection

100 miles0

5°E

15°E

10°E

55°N

50°N

45°N

EAST GERMANY(GERMAN

DEMOCRATICREPUBLIC)

POLAND

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

AUSTRIA

YUGOSLAVIAITALY

SWITZ.

FRANCE

LUX.

BELG.

NETHER-LANDS

DENMARK

WEST GERMANY(FEDERALREPUBLIC

OF GERMANY)

AmericanZone

FrenchZone

BritishZone Berlin

Hannover

Hamburg

Braunschweig

Frankfurt

10 kilometers0Lambert AzimuthalEqual-Area projection

10 miles0

FRENCHSECTOR

BRITISHSECTOR

AMERICAN SECTOR

SOVIETSECTOR

EASTBERLIN

WEST BERLIN

EASTGERMANY

EAST GERMANY

Allied occupation zoneSoviet occupation zoneRoutes of the BerlinAirlift, 1948–1949Iron CurtainDivision of Allied zone

Divided Germany and the Berlin Air Lift

During the Berlin Air Lift, Western planes delivered foodand supplies to the people of West Berlin.

1. Interpreting Maps Approximately how much Germanland was occupied by the Allies? How much was occu-pied by the Soviets?

2. Applying Geography Skills Why could the Allies notdeliver food to West Berlin by land?

New Military Alliances The search for securityduring the Cold War led to the formation of new mil-itary alliances. The North Atlantic Treaty Organiza-tion (NATO) was formed in April 1949 whenBelgium, Luxembourg, France, the Netherlands,Great Britain, Italy, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, and

Iceland signed a treaty with the United States andCanada. All the powers agreed to provide mutualhelp if any one of them was attacked. A few yearslater, West Germany and Turkey joined NATO.

In 1955, the Soviet Union joined with Albania, Bul-garia, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary,Poland, and Romania in a formal military allianceknown as the Warsaw Pact. Now, Europe was onceagain divided into hostile alliance systems, just as ithad been before World War I.

New military alliances spread to the rest of theworld after the United States became involved in theKorean War (discussed in Chapter 31). The warbegan in 1950 as an attempt by the Communist gov-ernment of North Korea, which was allied with theSoviet Union, to take over South Korea. The KoreanWar confirmed American fears of Communist expan-sion. More determined than ever to contain Sovietpower, the United States extended its militaryalliances around the world.

To stem Soviet aggression in the East, the UnitedStates, Great Britain, France, Pakistan, Thailand, thePhilippines, Australia, and New Zealand formed theSoutheast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). TheCentral Treaty Organization (CENTO), whichincluded Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, Great Britain,and the United States, was meant to prevent theSoviet Union from expanding to the south. By themid-1950s, the United States found itself allied mili-tarily with 42 states around the world.

852 CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes

1,000 kilometers0Orthographic projection

1,000 miles0

30°N120°W 150°W 180° 150°E 30°N

120°E

90°W

60°W

30°W

60°E

60°N

0° 30°E

NORTHPOLE

ARCTIC

OCEaN

PaCIFIC

OCEaN

Mediterranean Sea

UNITEDSTATES

CANADA

GREENLANDDen.

SOVIETUNION

ICELAND

NORWAY

UNITEDKINGDOM

PORTUGAL

FRANCE

NETHERLANDS

BELGIUMLUX.

200 km

200 mi.0

0 Lambert Azimuthal

Equal-Area projection

Yugoslavia left the Communist Bloc in 1948.

Dates indicate when countries came under Communist control.

SOVIETUNION

POLAND1947EAST

GERMANY 1949

WESTGERMANY

DENMARK

AUSTRIA

ITALY YUGOSLAVIA1945

HUNGARY1947

CZECH. 1948

ROMANIA1947

BULGARIA

GREECE

SWITZ.

TURKEYALBANIA1946

1946

Copenhagen

Berlin

WarsawPrague

ViennaBudapest

Bucharest

SofiaTirana

Belgrade

Rome

North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO) member nations, 1949

Nations joining NATO as of 1955

Warsaw Pact members as of 1955

Nonmember nations as of 1955

Balance of Power after World War II

After World War II, the spread of the Cold War created newmilitary alliances.

1. Interpreting Maps Are there any geographic factorsthat could have determined whether a country became amember of NATO or of the Warsaw Pact?

2. Applying Geography Skills Use the map to create a chart listing all of the countries in NATO and all themembers of the Warsaw Pact. Which European countriesdid not join either alliance?

The Arms Race The Soviet Union had set off its firstatomic bomb in 1949. In 1952, both the Soviet Unionand the United States developed hydrogen bombs,which were even more deadly. By the mid-1950s, bothnations had intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs)capable of sending bombs anywhere in the world.

Both the United States and the Soviet Union nowworked to build up huge arsenals of nuclearweapons. They believed that having these arsenalswould prevent war. Neither side would launch anuclear attack, because both knew that the other sidewould be able to strike back with devastating power.

In 1957, the Soviets sent Sputnik I, the first man-made space satellite, to orbit the earth. New fearsseized the American public. Did the Soviet Unionhave a massive lead in building missiles? Was there a“missile gap” between the United States and theSoviet Union?

A Wall in Berlin Nikita Khrushchev (kroosh•CHAWF), who emerged as the new leader of theSoviet Union in 1955, tried to take advantage of theAmerican concern over missiles to solve the problemof West Berlin. West Berlin remained a “Westernisland” of prosperity in the midst of the relativelypoverty-stricken East Germany. Many East Germans,tired of Communist repression, managed to escapeEast Germany by fleeing through West Berlin.

Khrushchev realizedthe need to stop theflow of refugees fromEast Germany throughWest Berlin. In August1961, the East Germangovernment began tobuild a wall separat-ing West Berlin from East Berlin. Eventually itbecame a massive barrier guarded by barbed wire,floodlights, machine-gun towers, minefields, andvicious dog patrols. The Berlin Wall became astriking symbol of the division between the twosuperpowers.

Identifying Name the militaryalliances formed during the Cold War.

The Cuban Missile CrisisDuring the administration of John F. Kennedy, the

Cold War confrontation between the United States andthe Soviet Union reached frightening levels. In 1959, aleft-wing revolutionary named Fidel Castro overthrewthe Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista and set up a

Reading Check

Soviet-supported totalitarian regime in Cuba (seeChapter 29). President Kennedy approved a secretplan for Cuban exiles to invade Cuba in the hope ofcausing a revolt against Castro. The invasion was adisaster. Many of the exiles were killed or capturedwhen they attempted a landing at the Bay of Pigs.

After the Bay of Pigs, the Soviet Union sent armsand military advisers to Cuba. Then, in 1962,Khrushchev began to place nuclear missiles in Cuba.The missiles were meant to counteract U.S. nuclearweapons placed in Turkey within easy range of theSoviet Union. Khrushchev was quick to point out,“Your rockets are in Turkey. You are worried byCuba . . . because it is 90 miles from the Americancoast. But Turkey is next to us.”

The United States was not willing to allow nuclearweapons within such close striking distance of itsmainland. In October 1962, Kennedy found out thatSoviet ships carrying missiles were heading to Cuba.He decided to blockade Cuba and prevent the fleetfrom reaching its destination. This approach gaveeach side time to find a peaceful solution.Khrushchev agreed to turn back the fleet and removeSoviet missiles from Cuba if Kennedy pledged not toinvade Cuba. Kennedy quickly agreed.

The Cuban missile crisis seemed to bring theworld frighteningly close to nuclear war. Indeed, in1992 a high-ranking Soviet officer revealed thatshort-range rockets armed with nuclear deviceswould have been used against U.S. troops if theUnited States had invaded Cuba, an option thatKennedy fortunately had rejected. The realizationthat the world might have been destroyed in a fewdays had a profound influence on both sides. A hot-line communications system between Moscow andWashington, D.C., was installed in 1963. The twosuperpowers could now communicate quickly intimes of crisis.

Explaining How was the Cuban missile crisis resolved?

Vietnam and the Domino TheoryBy that time, the United States had been drawn

into a new struggle that had an important impact onthe Cold War—the Vietnam War (see Chapter 31). In1964, under President Lyndon B. Johnson, increasingnumbers of U.S. troops were sent to Vietnam. Theirpurpose was to keep the Communist regime of NorthVietnam from gaining control of South Vietnam.

U.S. policy makers saw the conflict in terms of a domino theory. If the Communists succeeded

Reading Check

853CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes

Berlin Wall

EASTGERMANY EAST

GERMANYEast

BerlinWestBerlin

EAST GERMANY

in South Vietnam, the argument went, other coun-tries in Asia would also fall (like dominoes) to communism.

Despite the massive superiority in equipment andfirepower of the American forces, the United Statesfailed to defeat the determined North Vietnamese.The growing number of American troops sent to Viet-nam soon produced an antiwar movement in theUnited States, especially among college students ofdraft age. The mounting destruction of the conflict,brought into American homes every evening on tele-vision, also turned American public opinion againstthe war.

President Johnson, condemned forhis handling of the costly and indeci-sive war, decided not to run for reelec-tion. Former Vice President Richard M.Nixon won the election with his pledgeto stop the war and bring the Americanpeople together. Ending the war wasdifficult, and Nixon’s administrationwas besieged by anti-war forces.

Finally, in 1973, President Nixonreached an agreement with North Viet-nam that allowed the United States towithdraw its forces. Within two yearsafter the American withdrawal, Viet-

nam had been forcibly reunited by Communistarmies from the North.

Despite the success of the North Vietnamese Com-munists, the domino theory proved unfounded. Asplit between Communist China and the SovietUnion, including border clashes and different imple-mentations of communism, put an end to the West-ern idea that there was a single form of communismdirected by Moscow. Under President Nixon, Ameri-can relations with China were resumed. New nationsin Southeast Asia managed to avoid Communist governments.

Above all, Vietnam helped show the limitations ofAmerican power. By the end of the Vietnam War, a new era in American-Soviet relations had begun to emerge.

Examining What did the VietnamWar prove about the state of global communism?

Reading Check

854 CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes

9. Informative Writing Imagine thatyou are a resident of Berlin in 1948.Write a letter to a friend living inanother part of Germany explainingwhat is happening in Berlin and yourreaction to the actions of the foreigngovernments involved.

Checking for Understanding1. Define satellite state, policy of contain-

ment, arms race, domino theory.

2. Identify Truman Doctrine, Dean Ache-son, Marshall Plan, NATO, Warsaw Pact,SEATO, CENTO, Nikita Khrushchev.

3. Locate Berlin, Federal Republic of Ger-many, German Democratic Republic.

4. Explain why the Berlin Wall was built.What did the wall symbolize?

5. List the four powers that divided andoccupied Germany.

Critical Thinking6. Evaluate In your opinion, why did the

United States assume global responsi-bility for containing communism?

7. Organizing Information Use a tablelike the one below to list the militaryalliances formed during the Cold War.In the next column list the countriesbelonging to the alliance.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photo of a campus sit-in

shown on this page. Students oftenused sit-ins to protest government pol-icy in the 1960s and 1970s. What meth-ods of protest do people use today?

Alliance Countries

Many young Americans were proud to serve theircountry in Vietnam, but increasingly the mood oncollege campuses was anti-war. Why?

History

Guide to Reading

The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe

Preview of Events

In 1956, Hungary revolted against Soviet control. The Soviet Union sent in troopsand announced:

“Forces of reaction and counterrevolution . . . are trying to take advantage of thediscontent of part of the working people to undermine the foundations of the people’sdemocratic order in Hungary and to restore the old landlord and capitalist order. TheSoviet government and all the people deeply regret that the development of events inHungary has led to bloodshed. On the request of the Hungarian People’s Governmentthe Soviet government consented to the entry into Budapest of the Soviet Army unitsto assist the Hungarian authorities to establish order in the town.”

—Department of State Bulletin, November 12, 1956

After World War II, Stalin and the Soviet forces kept a tight hold on EasternEurope—a hold that many countries struggled against.

The Reign of StalinWorld War II devastated the Soviet Union. To create a new industrial base,

Stalin returned to the method that he had used in the 1930s. Soviet workers wereexpected to produce goods for export with little in return for themselves. Theincoming capital from abroad could then be used to buy machinery and Westerntechnology.

Voices from the Past

Main Ideas• As Soviet leader, Khrushchev initiated

policies of de-Stalinization.• The Soviet Union faced revolts and

protests in its attempt to gain and main-tain control over Eastern Europe.

Key Termsheavy industry, de-Stalinization

People to IdentifyAlexander Solzhenitsyn, Tito, Imre Nagy,Alexander Dubcek

Places to LocateSoviet Union, Albania, Yugoslavia, Poland,Hungary, Czechoslovakia

Preview Questions1. What were Khrushchev’s policies of

de-Stalinization? 2. How did the Soviet Union exert its

power over Eastern Europe?

Reading StrategyCategorizing Information Use a dia-gram like the one below to identify howthe Soviet Union carried out Communistpolicies.

CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes 855

✦1950 ✦1955 ✦1960 ✦1965 ✦1970

1953Khrushchev namedgeneral secretary

1962Solzhenitsyn’s A Day in the Lifeof Ivan Denisovich is published

1964Khrushchev isvoted out of office

1968The Soviet Army invades Czechoslovakia

Soviet Union’s Communist Policies

ˇ

Soviet tanks in Hungary

Economic recovery in the Soviet Union was spec-tacular in some respects. By 1950, Russian industrialproduction had surpassed prewar levels by 40 per-cent. New power plants, canals, and giant factorieswere built. Heavy industry (the manufacture ofmachines and equipment for factories and mines)increased, chiefly for the benefit of the military. Thedevelopment of hydrogen bombs in 1952 and the firstspace satellite, Sputnik I, in 1957 enhanced the Sovietstate’s reputation as a world power abroad.

The Soviet people, however, were shortchanged.The growth rate for heavy industry was three timesthat for consumer goods. Moreover, the housingshortage was severe. An average Russian familylived in a one-room apartment. A British official inMoscow reported that “every room is both a livingroom by day and a bedroom by night.”

Stalin remained the undisputed master of theSoviet Union. He distrusted competitors, exercisedsole power, and had little respect for other Commu-nist Party leaders. He is reported to have said tomembers of his inner circle in 1952, “You are as blindas kittens. What would you do without me?”

Stalin’s suspicions added to the increasing repres-sion of the regime. In 1946, the government decreedthat all literary and scientific work must conform tothe political needs of the state. Along with this anti-intellectual campaign came political terror. A newseries of purges seemed likely in 1953, but Stalin’sdeath on March 5 prevented more blood-letting.

Summarizing What costs did Stalin’seconomic policy impose on the Russian people?

Reading Check

The Khrushchev EraA group of leaders succeeded Stalin, but the new

general secretary of the Communist Party, NikitaKhrushchev, soon emerged as the chief Soviet policymaker. Once in power, Khrushchev took steps toundo some of the worst features of Stalin’s regime.

At the Twentieth Congress of the CommunistParty in 1956, Khrushchev condemned Stalin for his“administrative violence, mass repression, and ter-ror.” The process of eliminating the more ruthlesspolicies of Stalin became known as de-Stalinization.

Khrushchev loosened government controls on lit-erary works. In 1962, for example, he allowed thepublication of A Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, agrim portrayal of life in a Siberian forced-labor campwritten by Alexander Solzhenitsyn (SOHL•zhuh•NEET•suhn). Each day, as Solzhenitsyn related, pris-oners were marched from the prison camp to a workproject through subzero temperatures: “There wereescort guards all over the place, . . . their machineguns sticking out and pointed right at your face. Andthere were guards with gray dogs.” Many Sovietsidentified with Ivan as a symbol of the suffering theyhad endured under Stalin.

Khrushchev tried to place more emphasis on pro-ducing consumer goods. He also attempted toincrease agricultural output by growing corn andcultivating vast lands east of the Ural Mountains. Theattempt to increase agricultural output was not suc-cessful and damaged his reputation within the party.This failure, combined with increased militaryspending, hurt the Soviet economy. The industrial

CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes

A Soviet scientist is shown working onSputnik I. The launch of Sputnik I, whichorbited the earth for 57 days, stunnedthe United States and enhanced theprestige of the Soviet Union. Today,many space endeavors are inter-national efforts. Why?

History

856

growth rate, which had soared in the early 1950s,now declined dramatically from 13 percent in 1953 to7.5 percent in 1964.

Foreign policy failures also damaged Khru-shchev’s reputation among his colleagues. His rashplan to place missiles in Cuba was the final straw.While he was away on vacation in 1964, a specialmeeting of the Soviet leaders voted him out of office(because of “deteriorating health”) and forced himinto retirement.

Explaining Why did the Soviet leaders vote Khrushchev out of power?

Eastern Europe: Behind the Iron Curtain

At the end of World War II, Soviet military forcesoccupied all of Eastern Europe and the Balkans(except for Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia). All ofthe occupied states came under Soviet control.

Communist Patterns of Control The timetable ofthe Soviet takeover varied from country to country.Between 1945 and 1947, Soviet-controlled Commu-nist governments became firmly entrenched in EastGermany, Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, and Hungary.In Czechoslovakia, where there was a strong tradi-tion of democracy and a multi-party system, theSoviets did not seize control of the government until1948. At that time they dissolved all but the Commu-nist Party.

Reading Check

Albania and Yugoslavia were exceptions to thispattern of Soviet dominance. During the war, bothcountries had had strong Communist movementsthat resisted the Nazis. After the war, local Commu-nist parties took control. Communists in Albania setup a Stalinist-type regime that grew more and moreindependent of the Soviet Union.

In Yugoslavia, Josip Broz, known as Tito, hadbeen the leader of the Communist resistance move-ment. After the war, he moved toward the creation ofan independent Communist state in Yugoslavia.Stalin hoped to take control of Yugoslavia, just as hehad done in other Eastern European countries. Tito,however, refused to give in to Stalin’s demands. Hegained the support of the people by portraying thestruggle as one of Yugoslav national freedom. Titoruled Yugoslavia until his death in 1980. AlthoughYugoslavia had a Communist government, it was nota Soviet satellite state.

Between 1948 and Stalin’s death in 1953, the East-ern European satellite states, directed by the SovietUnion, followed Stalin’s example. They institutedSoviet-type five-year plans with emphasis on heavyindustry rather than consumer goods. They began tocollectivize agriculture. They eliminated all noncom-munist parties and set up the institutions of repres-sion—secret police and military forces.

Revolts Against Communism Communism didnot develop deep roots among the peoples of EasternEurope. Moreover, the Soviets exploited EasternEurope economically for their own benefit and madeliving conditions harsh for most people.

After Stalin’s death, many Eastern European statesbegan to pursue a new course. In the late 1950s and 1960s, however,the Soviet Union made it clear—especially inPoland, Hungary, andCzechoslovakia—thatit would not allow itsEastern European satel-lites to become inde-pendent of Soviet control.

In 1956, protests erupted in Poland. In response,the Polish Communist Party adopted a series ofreforms in October 1956 and elected WladyslawGomulka as first secretary. Gomulka declared thatPoland had the right to follow its own socialist path.Fearful of Soviet armed response, however, the Polescompromised. Poland pledged to remain loyal to theWarsaw Pact.

857CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes

POLANDSOVIETUNION

HUNGARY

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

BalticSea

Nikita Khrushchev1894–1971—Soviet leader

First secretary of the CommunistParty after Stalin’s death,Khrushchev eventually came to bethe sole Soviet ruler. In 1956, hedenounced the rule of Stalin, arguingthat “Stalin showed in a whole series ofcases his intolerance, his brutality and hisabuse of power. . . . He was a very distrustful man, sicklysuspicious. Everywhere and in everything he saw ene-mies, two-facers, and spies.”

Khrushchev alienated other Soviet leaders by his pol-icy in Cuba. He had other problems with the higherSoviet officials as well. They frowned on his tendency tocrack jokes and play the clown. They also were dis-pleased when he tried to curb their privileges.

Developments in Poland in 1956 led HungarianCommunists to seek the same kinds of reforms.Unrest in Hungary, combined with economic diffi-culties, led to calls for revolt. To quell the rising rebel-lion, Imre Nagy, the Hungarian leader, declaredHungary a free nation on November 1, 1956, andpromised free elections. It soon became clear that thiscould mean the end of Communist rule in Hungary.

Khrushchev was in no position at home to allow amember of the Communist group of nations to leave,however. Three days after Nagy’s declaration, theSoviet Army attacked Budapest. The Soviets reestab-lished control over the country. Nagy was seized bythe Soviet military and executed two years later.

The situation in Czechoslovakia in the 1950s wasdifferent. There, the “Little Stalin,” Antonin Novotny,

858 CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes

9. Informative Writing You are aWestern journalist in Hungary in1956. Write an article for an Amer-ican newspaper that describes theevents leading to the Soviet attackon Budapest and what effect theattack will have on the Cold War.

Checking for Understanding1. Define heavy industry,

de-Stalinization.

2. Identify Alexander Solzhenitsyn, Tito,Imre Nagy, Alexander Dubcek.

3. Locate Soviet Union, Albania,Yugoslavia, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia.

4. Explain Khrushchev’s relationship to Stalinism.

5. List two countries in Eastern Europethat resisted Soviet dominance.

Critical Thinking6. Explain Why did Yugoslavia and Alba-

nia not come under the direct controlof the Soviet Union?

7. Organizing Information Use a tablelike the one below to identify the poli-cies of Stalin and the policies ofKhrushchev.

Analyzing Visuals8. Compare the photograph on page 856

with the one shown above. How doeseach photograph symbolize a differentaspect of the Cold War?

Stalin Khrushchev

had been placed in powerin 1952 by Stalin himselfand remained firmly incontrol. By the late 1960s,however, Novotny hadalienated many membersof his own party. He wasespecially disliked by Czechoslovakia’s writers.A writers’ rebellion, whichencouraged the people totake control of their ownlives, led to Novotny’s res-ignation, late in 1967.

In January 1968, Alexander Dubcek (DOOB•chehk) was elected first secretary of the CommunistParty. He introduced a number of reforms, includingfreedom of speech and press and freedom to travelabroad. He relaxed censorship, began to pursue anindependent foreign policy, and promised a gradualdemocratization of the Czechoslovakian political sys-tem. Dubcek hoped to create “socialism with ahuman face.” A period of euphoria broke out thatcame to be known as the “Prague Spring.”

The euphoria proved to be short-lived, however.To forestall the spreading of this “spring fever,” theSoviet Army invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968and crushed the reform movement. Gustav Husákreplaced Dubcek, did away with his reforms, andreestablished the old order.

Evaluating What caused the battlesbetween the Eastern European states and the Soviet Union?

Reading Check

HISTORY

Web Activity Visitthe Glencoe WorldHistory Web site at

andclick on Chapter 27–Student Web Activity to learn more about theCold War.

wh.glencoe.com

The Soviet army invaded Czechoslovakia in 1968.

Understanding World Time ZonesWhy Learn This Skill?

Imagine that youwork in Boston and calla client in London at 2:00 P.M. No one answersbecause, when it is 2:00 P.M. in Boston, it isalready 7:00 P.M. inLondon.

Learning the SkillIn 1884, an interna-

tional conference dividedthe world into 24 timezones.

The Prime Meridian (0° longitude), whichruns through Greenwich,England, became the ref-erence point. Travelingeast from Greenwich, thetime is one hour later in each time zone. Travelingwest from Greenwich, the time is one hour earlierper zone.

The International Date Line is at 180° longitude.When crossing this line from west to east, you loseone day; when crossing in the opposite direction,you gain a day.

Using the map on this page:• Locate Los Angeles and note its time.• Locate Mumbai, India.• Determine whether Mumbai lies east or west of

Los Angeles.• Count the number of time zones between the two

cities. Each time zone is an hour difference.• Add or subtract the number of hours difference

between Mumbai and Los Angeles.• Is the International Date Line between the two

points? If so, add or subtract a day.• Check the time above Mumbai to see if you are

correct.

859

75° 90° 105° 120° 135° 150° 165° 180° 165° 150° 135° 120° 105° 90° 75° 60° 45°W 30° 15° 0° 15° 30° 45°E 60°

UNITEDSTATES

MEXICO

CANADA

CHINA JAPAN

BRAZIL

ARGENTINA

INDIA

RUSSIA ALASKA

HAWAII

CookIslands

NEWZEALAND

Inte

rnat

iona

l Dat

e Li

ne

Prim

e M

erid

ian

P.M A.M P.M

CocosIslands

Beijing

Honolulu

Los Angeles Washington, D.C.

Rio deJaneiro

Cape Town

Rome

GreenwichMoscow

London

New York City

Mumbai

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4

Time Zones of the World

Applying the Skill

Create four time zone problems. Be sure at least oneproblem involves the International Date Line. Exchangeproblems with a classmate and check the accuracy ofeach other’s computation.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,Level 2, provides instruction and practice in keysocial studies skills.

Practicing the SkillUse the map to calculate these times.1 If it is 3:00 P.M. in Greenwich, what time is it in

Moscow?2 If it is 9:00 A.M. in Cape Town, what time is it in

Washington, D.C.?3 It is 5:00 P.M. on Tuesday in Beijing. What day

and time is it in Honolulu?

Non-standard time

1949Simone de Beauvoir publishes The Second Sex

1957The Rome Treatyestablishes the EEC

Guide to Reading

Western Europe andNorth America

Preview of Events

1968Student revolts peak

1964The Civil RightsAct is passed

✦1945 ✦1950 ✦1955 ✦1960 ✦1965 ✦1970 ✦1975

In 1968, student protestors scribbled the following on the walls of the University of Paris:

“May 1968. World revolution is the order of the day.To be free in 1968 is to take part.Make love, not war.The mind travels farther than the heart but it doesn’t go as far.Exam = servility, social promotion, hierarchic society.Love each other.Are you consumers or participants?Revolution, I love you.”

—The Western Tradition from the Renaissance to the Present, Eugen Weber, 1972

Student revolts in the United States and Europe were a part of larger problems thatfaced Western society after 1945.

Western Europe: RecoveryWith the economic aid of the Marshall Plan, the countries of Western Europe

recovered relatively rapidly from the devastation of World War II. Between 1947 and1950, European countries received $9.4 billion for new equipment and raw materi-als. By 1950, industrial output in Europe was 30 percent above prewar levels.

Voices from the Past

Main Ideas• Postwar Western societies rebuilt their

economies and communities.• Shifting social structures in the West led

to upheaval and change.

Key Termswelfare state, bloc, real wages

People to IdentifyCharles de Gaulle, John F. Kennedy, Mar-tin Luther King, Jr., Simone de Beauvoir

Places to LocateFrance, West Germany

Preview Questions1. How did the EEC benefit the member

nations?2. What were the major social changes

in Western society after 1945?

Reading StrategyCategorizing Information Use a tablelike the one below to list programs insti-tuted by Great Britain, the United States,and Canada to promote social welfare.

860 CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes

Great Britain United States Canada

Student protester in Paris

This economic recovery continued well into the1950s and 1960s. The decades of the 1950s and 1960swere periods of dramatic economic growth and pros-perity in Western Europe. Indeed, Western Europehad virtually full employment during these decades.

France and de Gaulle The history of France fornearly a quarter of a century after the war was dom-inated by one man—the war hero Charles de Gaulle.In 1946, de Gaulle helped establish a new govern-ment called the Fourth Republic. It featured a strongparliament and a weak presidency. No party wasstrong enough to dominate, and the government waslargely ineffective.

Unhappy with the Fourth Republic, de Gaullewithdrew from politics. Then, in 1958, he returned.Leaders of the Fourth Republic, frightened by bitterdivisions caused by a crisis in the French colony ofAlgeria (discussed in Chapter 30), asked de Gaulle toform a new government and revise the constitution.

In 1958, de Gaulle drafted a new constitution forthe Fifth Republic that greatly enhanced the power ofthe president. The president would now have theright to choose the prime minister, dissolve parlia-ment, and supervise both defense and foreign policy.The constitution was overwhelmingly approved byFrench voters, and de Gaulle became the first presi-dent of the Fifth Republic.

As the new president, de Gaulle sought to returnFrance to a position of great power. To achieve thestatus of a world power, de Gaulle invested heavilyin nuclear arms. France exploded its first nuclearbomb in 1960.

During de Gaulle’s presidency, the French econ-omy grew at an annual rate of 5.5 percent, faster thanthat of the United States. France became a majorindustrial producer and exporter, especially of auto-mobiles and weapons.

Nevertheless, problems remained. Large govern-ment deficits and a rise in the cost of living led tounrest. In May 1968, a series of student protests was followed by a general labor strike. Tired and discouraged, de Gaulle resigned from office in April1969 and died within a year.

The Economic Miracle of West Germany Thethree Western zones of Germany were unified as the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949. From 1949 to 1963, Konrad Ade-nauer (A•duhn•OWR), theleader of the Christian Demo-cratic Union (CDU), served aschancellor (head of state).Adenauer sought respect forWest Germany. He cooper-ated with the United Statesand other Western Europeannations and especially wantedto work with France—Ger-many’s longtime enemy.

Under Adenauer, West Germany experienced an“economic miracle.” This revival of the West Germaneconomy was largely guided by the minister offinance, Ludwig Erhard. Unemployment fell from 8percent in 1950 to 0.4 percent in 1965. To maintain itseconomic expansion, West Germany even brought inhundreds of thousands of “guest” workers on visasfrom Italy, Spain, Greece, Turkey, and Yugoslavia.

Adenauer resigned in 1963, after 14 years of guid-ing West Germany through its postwar recovery.Ludwig Erhard succeeded Adenauer as chancellorand largely continued his policies.

An economic downturn in the mid-1960s openedthe door to the Social Democratic Party, whichbecame the leading party in 1969. The Social Demo-crats, a moderate socialist party, were led by WillyBrandt, mayor of West Berlin.

The Decline of Great Britain The end of WorldWar II left Great Britain with massive economic

861CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes

Konrad Adenauer

Charles de Gaulle1890–1970—French president

Charles de Gaulle had anunshakable faith in his mission torestore the greatness of the Frenchnation. De Gaulle followed a militarycareer and, before World War II, heargued for a new type of mobile tank war-fare. After France fell to the Nazis, he fled to Britain andbecame leader of the French Resistance.

As president of France, de Gaulle realized that Francewas wasting its economic strength by maintaining itscolonial empire. By 1962, he had granted independenceto France’s black African colonies and to Algeria. At thesame time, he believed that playing an important role inthe Cold War would enhance France’s stature. For thatreason, he pulled France out of NATO, saying that Francedid not want to be an American “vassal state.”

problems. In elections held immediately after thewar, the Labour Party overwhelmingly defeatedChurchill’s Conservative Party.

The Labour Party had promised far-reachingreforms, especially in the area of social welfare.Under Clement Attlee, the new prime minister, theLabour government set out to create a modern wel-fare state—a state in which the government takesresponsibility for providing citizens with servicesand a minimal standard of living.

In 1946, the new government passed the NationalInsurance Act and the National Health Service Act.The insurance act provided government funds tohelp the unemployed, the sick, and the aged. Thehealth act created a system of socialized medicinethat ensured medical care for everyone. The Britishwelfare state became the norm for most Europeanstates after the war.

The cost of building a welfare state at home forcedBritain to reduce expenses abroad. This meant thedismantling of the British Empire. Economic neces-sity forced Britain to give in to the demands of its

many colonies for national independence. Britainwas no longer able to play the role of a world power.

Continuing economic problems brought the Con-servatives back into power from 1951 to 1964.Although they favored private enterprise, the Con-servatives accepted the welfare state and evenextended it by financing an ambitious building pro-gram to improve British housing.

Explaining Why did de Gaulle investheavily in nuclear arms?

Western Europe: The Move toward Unity

As we have seen, the divisions created by the ColdWar led the nations of Western Europe to form theNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Thedestructiveness of two world wars caused manythoughtful Europeans to consider the need for someadditional form of European unity. National feelingwas still too powerful, however, for European

Reading Check

862 CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes

Economic Miracles: Germany and JapanBoth Germany and Japan were devastated by World

War II. Their economies were in shambles. Their cities layin ruins. At the end of the twentieth century, though, Ger-many and Japan were two of the world’s greatest eco-nomic powers. What explains their economic miracles?

Because of the destruction of the war, both countrieswere forced to build new industrial plants. For manyyears, neither country spent much on defense. Their gov-ernments focused instead on rebuilding the infrastruc-ture (roads, bridges, canals, and buildings) that had beendestroyed during the war. Both German and Japaneseworkers had a long tradition of hard work and basic skills.

In both countries, U.S.occupation policy wascommitted to economicrecovery, a goal that wasmade easier by Americanforeign aid.

Today, Germany and Japanshare many similarities in eco-nomic structure. Both rely onimports of raw materials for theirindustries. Both depend for theirprosperity on exports of manufac-tured goods, including machinery,automobiles, steel, textiles, electri-cal and electronic equipment, andships. Both nations must importfood to feed their populations.

� Japanese railroadstation

� German bridge

862

The United States has never experienced the kindof destruction experienced by Germany and Japanduring World War II. How might your life be dif-ferent if the United States was in the process of rebuilding after a war? What cultural, political, and economic factors might influence the processof rebuilding in the United States?

1945 and 1973, real wages (the actual purchasingpower of income) grew an average of 3 percent a year,the most prolonged advance in American history.

Prosperity was not the only characteristic of theearly 1950s, however. Cold War struggles abroad ledto the widespread fear that Communists had infil-trated the United States. President Truman’s attorneygeneral warned that Communists were “every-where—in factories, offices, butcher stores, on streetcorners, in private businesses.” For many Americans,proof of this threat became more evident when thou-sands of American soldiers were sent to Korea to fightand die in a war against Communist aggression.

This climate of fear produced a dangerous politi-cal agitator, Senator Joseph R. McCarthy of Wiscon-sin. His charges that hundreds of supposedcommunists were in high government positionshelped create a massive ”Red Scare”—fear of

863CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes

200 kilometers0Chamberlin Trimetric projection

200 miles0

N

S

EW

0°5°W 5°E 10°E 15°E 20°E

50°N

45°N

Sicily

SardiniaIt.

CorsicaFr.

MediterraneanSea

NorthSea

FRANCE

WESTGERMANY

ITALY

LUX.

BELGIUM

NETH.

European Economic Community, 1957

nations to give up their political sovereignty. As aresult, the desire for unity focused chiefly on the eco-nomic arena, not the political one.

In 1957, France, West Germany, the Benelux coun-tries (Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg),and Italy signed the Rome Treaty. This treaty createdthe European Economic Community (EEC), alsoknown as the Common Market.

The EEC was a free-trade area made up of the sixmember nations. These six nations would impose notariffs, or import charges, on each other’s goods.However, as a group, they would be protected by atariff imposed on goods from non-EEC nations. Inthis way, the EEC encouraged cooperation among themember nations’ economies. All the member nationsbenefited economically.

By the 1960s, the EEC had become an importanttrading bloc (a group of nations with a common pur-pose). With a total population of 165 million, the EECwas the world’s largest exporter and purchaser ofraw materials.

Evaluating Why did European unitycome in the form of an economic alliance?

The United States in the 1950sBetween 1945 and 1970, the ideals of Franklin

Delano Roosevelt’s New Deal largely determined thepatterns of American domestic politics. The NewDeal had brought basic changes to American society.They included a dramatic increase in the role andpower of the federal government, the rise of organ-ized labor as a significant force in the economy andpolitics, the beginning of a welfare state, and a real-ization of the need to deal fairly with the concerns ofminorities, especially African Americans.

The New Deal tradition in American politics wasreinforced by the election of Democratic presidents—Harry S Truman in 1948, John F. Kennedy in 1960,and Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964. Even the election ofa Republican president, Dwight D. Eisenhower, in1952 and 1956 did not change the basic direction ofthe New Deal. Eisenhower said, “Should any politi-cal party attempt to abolish Social Security and elim-inate labor laws, you would not hear of that partyagain in our political history.”

An economic boom followed World War II. Ashortage of consumer goods during the war had leftAmericans with both extra income and the desire tobuy goods after the war. In addition, the growth oflabor unions brought higher wages and gave moreworkers the ability to buy consumer goods. Between

Reading Check

The signing of the Rome Treaty in 1957 established theEuropean Economic Community (EEC).

1. Interpreting Maps What countries were members ofthe EEC in 1957?

2. Applying Geography Skills What geographical fac-tors could help to explain why some European coun-tries joined the EEC in 1957 but others did not?

Original European EconomicCommunity (EEC) members, 1957

communist subversion. Under McCarthy, severalindividuals including intellectuals and movie starswere questioned about Communist activities. WhenMcCarthy attacked alleged “Communist conspira-tors” in the U.S. Army, he was condemned by Con-gress in 1954. Very quickly, his anticommunistcrusade came to an end.

Describing What effect did the ColdWar have on many Americans?

The United States in the 1960sThe 1960s began on a youthful and optimistic

note. At age 43, John F. Kennedy became theyoungest elected president in the history of theUnited States. His administration was cut short whenthe president was killed by an assassin on November22, 1963. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson thenbecame president. Johnson won a new term as presi-dent in a landslide victory in 1964.

The Johnson Administration President Johnsonused his stunning victory to pursue the growth of the welfare state, begun in the New Deal. Johnson’sprograms included health care for the elderly, vari-

Reading Check

ous measures to combat poverty, and federal assis-tance for education.

Johnson’s other domestic passion was the civil rights movement, or equal rights for AfricanAmericans. The civil rights movement had its begin-nings in 1954, when the United States Supreme Courtruled that the practice of racial segregation (separa-tion) in public schools was illegal. According to ChiefJustice Earl Warren, “separate educational facilities

Youth Protest in the 1960s

The decade of the 1960s witnessed adramatic change in traditional manners

and morals. The new standards were evi-dent in the breakdown of the traditionalfamily as divorce rates increased dramati-cally. Movies, plays, and books broke newground in the treatment of once-hiddensubjects.

A new youth movement also emerged inthe 1960s. New attitudes toward sex andthe use of drugs were two of its features.Young people also questioned authority and rebelled against the older generation.Spurred on by the Vietnam War, the youthrebellion in the United States had become

a youth protest movement by the secondhalf of the 1960s. Active participants in themovement were often called “hippies.”

In the 1960s, the lyrics of rock musicreflected the rebellious mood of manyyoung people. Bob Dylan, a well-knownrecording artist, expressed the feelings ofthe younger generation. His song “TheTimes They Are a-Changin’,” released in1964, has been called an “anthem for theprotest movement.” Some of its words,which follow, tell us why.

“The Times They Are a-Changin’”Come gather round peopleWherever you roamAnd admit that the waters

Lyndon B. Johnson taking the oath of office

864

Around you have grownAnd accept it that soonYou’ll be drenched to the boneIf your time to youIs worth savin’Then you better start swimmin’Or you’ll sink like a stoneFor the times they are a-changin’ . . .Come mothers and fathersThroughout the landAnd don’t criticizeWhat you can’t understandYour sons and your daughtersAre beyond your commandYour old roadIs rapidly agin’Please get out of the new oneIf you can’t lend your handFor the times they are a-changin’

865

CONNECTING TO THE PAST

1. Identifying What does Bob Dylan say is the conse-quence of not changing?

2. Comparing Are there songs or artists today whohave the same cultural outlook as Bob Dylan?

3. Writing about History What social or politicalissues are being expressed in music, literature, tele-vision, or movies today? Write a brief essay high-lighting one or two cultural examples, includinglyrics or other relevant materials.

Young people expressed their rebellion through clothing, music, and government protests.

are inherently unequal.” African Americans also boy-cotted segregated buses and other public places.

In August 1963, The Reverend Martin LutherKing, Jr., leader of a growing movement for racialequality, led a march on Washington, D.C., to drama-tize the African American desire for equality. Kingadvocated the principle of passive disobediencepracticed by Mohandas Gandhi. King’s march andhis impassioned plea for racial equality had an elec-trifying effect on the American people. By the end of1963, a majority of the American people called civilrights the most significant national issue.

President Johnson took up the cause of civilrights. The Civil Rights Act in 1964 created themachinery to end segregation and discrimination inthe workplace and all public places. The VotingRights Act the following year made it easier forAfrican Americans to vote in southern states.

Laws alone, however, could not guarantee theGreat Society that Johnson talked about creating. Hesoon faced bitter social unrest.

Social Upheaval In the North and West, blacks hadhad voting rights for many years. However, local pat-terns of segregation led to higher unemploymentrates for blacks than for whites. In the summer of

1965, race riots broke out in the Watts district of LosAngeles. Thirty-four people died, and over a thou-sand buildings were destroyed. In 1968, MartinLuther King, Jr., was assassinated. Riots hit over ahundred cities, including Washington, D.C. The riotsled to a “white backlash” (whites became less sym-pathetic to the cause of racial equality) and continuedthe racial division of the United States.

Antiwar protests also divided the American peopleafter President Johnson sent American troops to war inVietnam (see Chapter 31). As the war progressedthrough the second half of the 1960s, the protests grew.Then, in 1970, four students at Kent State Universitywere killed and nine others were wounded by theOhio National Guard during a student demonstration.The tragedy startled the nation. By this time Ameri-cans were less willing to continue the war.

The combination of antiwar demonstrations andriots in the cities caused many people to call for “lawand order.” This was the appeal used by RichardNixon, the Republican presidential candidate in1968. With Nixon’s election in 1968, a shift to thepolitical right in American politics began.

Identifying Name PresidentJohnson’s two most important domestic policy goals.

Reading Check

The Development of CanadaFor 25 years after World War II, a prosperous

Canada set out on a new path of industrial develop-ment. Canada had always had a strong export econ-omy based on its abundant natural resources. Now itdeveloped electronic, aircraft, nuclear, and chemicalengineering industries on a large scale. Much of theCanadian growth, however, was financed by capitalfrom the United States, which led to U.S. ownershipof Canadian businesses. Some Canadians fearedAmerican economic domination of Canada.

Canadians also worried about playing a second-ary role politically and militarily to the United States.They sought to establish their own identity in worldpolitics. Canada was a founding member of theUnited Nations in 1945 and joined the North AtlanticTreaty Organization in 1949.

The Liberal Party dominated Canadian politicsthroughout most of this period. Under Lester Pear-

866

Gunfire breaks up an anti-war protest at KentState University, Ohio, in 1970. Today, a memo-rial inscribed “Inquire, Learn, Reflect” marks thesite where four student protesters were killed bythe National Guard. What message or lesson isconveyed to you by the events at Kent State?

History

CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar ChangesCHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes

� 1959 De Soto

son, the Liberal government created Canada’s wel-fare state by enacting a national social security sys-tem (the Canada Pension Plan) and a national healthinsurance program.

Explaining Why did some Canadiansfear U.S. economic domination of Canada?

The Emergence of a New SocietyAfter World War II, Western society witnessed

rapid change. Such new inventions as computers,televisions, and jet planes altered the pace andnature of human life. The rapid changes in postwarsociety led many to view it as a new society.

A Changing Social Structure Postwar Westernsociety was marked by a changing social structure.

Especially noticeable were changes in the middleclass. Traditional middle-class groups were made upof businesspeople, lawyers, doctors, and teachers. Anew group of managers and technicians, hired bylarge companies and government agencies, nowjoined the ranks of the middle class.

Changes also occurred among the lower classes. Theshift of people from rural to urban areas continued.The number of people in farming declined drastically.By the 1950s, the number of farmers in most parts of

Reading Check

� Early 1950s television

Europe had dropped by 50 percent. The number ofindustrial workers also began to decline as the amountof white-collar workers increased.

At the same time, a noticeable increase in the realwages of workers made it possible for them to imi-tate the buying patterns of the middle class. This ledto what some observers have called the consumersociety—a society preoccupied with buying goods.

Buying on credit became widespread in the 1950s.Workers could now buy such products as televisions,washing machines, refrigerators, vacuum cleaners,and stereos. The automobile was the most visiblesymbol of the new consumerism. In 1948, there were5 million cars in all of Europe. By the 1960s, therewere almost 45 million.

Women in the Postwar World Women’s partici-pation in the world wars had resulted in severalgains. They had achieved one of the major aims of thenineteenth-century feminist movement—the right tovote. After World War I, many governments hadexpressed thanks to women by granting them votingrights. Sweden, Great Britain, Germany, Poland,Hungary, Austria, and Czechoslovakia did so in1918, followed by the United States in 1920. Womenin France and Italy did not obtain the right to voteuntil 1945.

During World War II, women had entered theworkforce in huge numbers. At the war’s end, how-ever, they were removed to provide jobs for soldiersreturning home. For a time, women fell back into tra-ditional roles. Birthrates rose, creating a “babyboom” in the late 1940s and the 1950s.

By the end of the 1950s, however, the birthrate hadbegun to fall, and with it, the size of families. Thestructure of the workplace changed once again as thenumber of married women in the workforceincreased in both Europe and the United States.

These women, especially working-class women,faced an old problem. They still earned less than menfor equal work. For example, in the 1960s, womenearned 60 percent of men’s wages in Britain, 50 per-cent in France, and 63 percent in West Germany.

In addition, women still tended to enter tradition-ally female jobs. Many faced the double burden ofearning income on the one hand and raising a familyon the other. Such inequalities led increasing num-bers of women to rebel.

By the late 1960s, women had begun to assert theirrights again. In the late 1960s came renewed interestin feminism, or the women’s liberation movement,as it was now called.

Of great importance to the emergence of the post-war women’s liberation movement was the work ofSimone de Beauvoir (duh•boh•VWAHR). In 1949,she published her highly influential work, The SecondSex. As a result of male-dominated societies, sheargued, women had been defined by their differencesfrom men and consequently received second-classstatus. De Beauvoir’s book influenced both theAmerican and European women’s movements.

Student Revolt As we have seen, students in U.S.universities in the mid- to late 1960s launched an anti-war protest movement. At the same time, Europeanstudents were engaging in protests of their own.

Before World War II, it was mostly members ofEurope’s wealthier classes who went to universities.After the war, European states began to encouragemore people to gain higher education by eliminatingfees. As a result, universities saw an influx of studentsfrom the middle and lower classes. Enrollments grewdramatically. In France, 4.5 percent of young peoplewent to university in 1950. By 1965, the figure hadincreased to 14.5 percent.

There were problems, however. Many Europeanuniversity classrooms were overcrowded, and manyprofessors paid little attention to their students.

Simone de Beauvoir1908–1986—French author

A prominent French intellectual,Simone de Beauvoir became a majorvoice in the European feminist move-ment. Born into a Catholic middle-class family and educated at theSorbonne in Paris, she supportedherself as a teacher and later as a novelist and writer.

De Beauvoir believed that she lived a “liberated” lifefor a twentieth-century European woman. Despite all herfreedom, she still came to perceive that, as a woman, shefaced limits that men did not: “What particularly signalizesthe situation of woman is that she—a free autonomousbeing like all human creatures—nevertheless finds herself in a world where men compel her to assume thestatus of the Other.”

867CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes

Growing discontent led to an outburst of studentrevolts in the late 1960s.

This student radicalism had several causes. Manyof these protests were an extension of the revolts inU.S. universities, which were often sparked by stu-dent opposition to the Vietnam War. Some students,particularly in Europe, wished to reform the univer-sity system. They did not believe that universitiesresponded to their needs or to the realities of themodern world. Others expressed concerns aboutbecoming small cogs in the large and impersonalbureaucratic wheels of the modern world. Studentprotest movements in both Europe and the United

States reached a high point in 1968. By the early 1970s,the movements had largely disappeared.

The student protests of the late 1960s caused manypeople to rethink some of their basic assumptions.Looking back, however, we can see that the studentupheavals were not a turning point in the history ofpostwar Europe, as some people thought at the time.In the 1970s and 1980s, student rebels would becomemiddle-class professionals. The vision of revolution-ary politics would remain mostly a memory.

Identifying What was the women’sliberation movement trying to accomplish?

Reading Check

868 CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes

Checking for Understanding1. Define welfare state, bloc, real wages.

2. Identify Charles de Gaulle, ChristianDemocratic Union, European EconomicCommunity, John F. Kennedy, MartinLuther King, Jr., consumer society,women’s liberation movement, Simonede Beauvoir.

3. Locate France, West Germany.

4. Explain why many British coloniesgained their independence after WorldWar II.

5. List the original members of the Com-mon Market.

Critical Thinking6. Analyze Do you think the student

revolts of this period contributed posi-tively or negatively to society? Why?

7. Cause and Effect Use a diagram likethe one below to identify factors lead-ing to the emergence of the postwarwomen’s liberation movement.

Analyzing Visuals8. Compare the Kent State photo on

page 866 with the photo above. Whatdo these two scenes have in common?In your opinion, were the costs of theseprotests justified? What causes todaycould motivate this type of passion and sacrifice?

9. Persuasive Writing Demonstra-tions, marches, and riots were usedin the 1960s and 1970s to communi-cate popular opinion. Write an essaythat argues for or against the effec-tiveness of these methods for chang-ing public opinion and policy.

Women’s Liberation Movement

Students threw cobblestones and thepolice retaliated with tear gas duringthe 1968 Paris demonstrations. Later,the streets were repaved with asphaltand concrete. After this incident,why do you think the authoritieswanted paved streets rather thanstreets of cobblestone?

History

869

“I Have a Dream”ON AUGUST 28, 1963, MARTIN LUTHER KING,Jr., led a civil rights march on Washington, D.C.,and gave an inspired speech that energized themovement.

“I am happy to join with you today in what willgo down in history as the greatest demonstration forfreedom in the history of our nation . . . .

I say to you today, my friends, so even though weface the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I stillhave a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in theAmerican dream. I have a dream that one day thisnation will rise up and live out the true meaning ofits creed, ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident,that all men are created equal.’ I have a dream thatone day on the red hills of Georgia, sons of formerslaves and the sons of former slave owners will beable to sit down together at the table of brother-hood. . . . I have a dream that my four little childrenwill one day live in a nation where they will not bejudged by the color of their skin, but by the contentof their character . . . .

This is our hope. This is the faith that I go back to the South with. With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone ofhope. With this faith we will be able to transformthe jangling discords of our nation into a beautifulsymphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will beable to work together, to pray together, to struggletogether, to go to jail together, to stand up for free-dom together, knowing that we will be free one day.And this will be the day. This will be the day whenall of God’s children will be able to sing with newmeaning, ‘My country ’tis of thee, sweet land of lib-erty, of thee I sing. Land where my father died, landof the pilgrims’ pride, from every mountainside, letfreedom ring.’ And if America is to be a great nation,this must become true . . . .

And when this happens, and when we allowfreedom to ring, when we let it ring from every vil-lage and every hamlet, from every state and every

city, we will be able to speed up that day when allof God’s children, black men and white men, Jewsand Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be ableto join hands and sing in the words of the oldNegro spiritual: ‘Free at last, Free at last. Thank GodAlmighty, we are free at last.’”

—Martin Luther King, Jr., Speech DeliveredAugust 28, 1963, in Washington, D.C.

Martin Luther King, Jr., was an inspiring speaker.

Analyzing Primary Sources

1. Why do you think this speech has become sofamous? Has King’s dream been realized? Why or why not?

2. Describe King’s dream in your own words.3. Based on your earlier reading, how do

you think Adolf Hitler would have reacted to King’s speech? Explain.

CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes

Using Key Terms1. The actual purchasing power of income is called .

2. The idea that allowing communist aggressors to take overone country will encourage them to take over other nationshas been called the .

3. The process of removing Stalin’s influence from the Sovietgovernment, economy, and social system was called .

4. A nation that is preoccupied with the desire to provide itspeople with material goods may be said to be a .

5. Nations with governments that intervene in the economy to assure a minimal standard of living for all people are saidto be .

6. The attempt of non-communist world powers to prevent a further spread of communism to other states was called a .

7. The is a force that is working for greater equality andrights for women.

8. A country that was economically and politically dependenton the Soviet Union was called a .

9. The United States and the Soviet Union were involved in agrowing in which both countries built up their armiesand weapons.

Reviewing Key Facts10. Economics What was COMECON and why was it formed?

11. Economics What changes were made in the British govern-ment’s role in its economic system after World War II?

12. History What caused the Soviet Union to invade Hungary in 1956?

13. History Describe what happened when satellite states triedto become independent of the Soviet Union.

14. Culture What book influenced the women’s movement in America and Europe? What was its significance to themovement?

15. Science and Technology Name some inventions that alteredthe pace and nature of life in postwar Western society.

16. History What happened during the Cuban missile crisis in 1962?

17. Culture Name the social movements that altered Americansociety after World War II.

18. Government What prevented even greater repression and terror from taking place in the Soviet Union during theearly 1950s?

19. History What were some of the political and economic“weapons” of the Cold War?

Greece(1944–1949)

Berlin(1949)

Berlin(1961)

Korea(1950–1952)

Cuba(1962)

Vietnam(1964–1973)

Civil war erupts.

Soviets and Western powersdivide Germany.

Civil war begins when NorthKorea invades South Korea.

Refugees escape fromEast to West Berlin.

Soviets support Castro’stotalitarian regime in Cuba.

Civil war erupts betweenNorth and South Vietnam.

Great Britain aids government forcesagainst communism.

Western powers airlift supplies toSoviet-blockaded West Berlin.

United Nations forces fight to saveSouth Korea from communism.

Soviets build Berlin Wall.

United States invades Bay of Pigs; Soviets place nuclear missiles in Cuba; United States blockades Cuba.

United States intervenes to preventNorth Vietnam from taking overSouth Vietnam.

United States creates TrumanDoctrine.

Blockade is lifted.

United States extends militaryalliances around the world.

Berlin Wall becomes symbolof divided Germany.

Soviets withdraw missiles;hotline is established betweenMoscow and Washington, D.C.

United States withdraws from Vietnam;Vietnam is reunited by Communists.

Significant Event(s) Result(s)Conflict/Crisis

870

Following World War II, two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, engaged in a Cold War that was fought around the globe.

28. Why was the United States so concerned that the Sovietswere placing missiles in Cuba? What other islands fall withinthe blockade zone?

Self-Check QuizVisit the Glencoe World History Web site at

and click on Chapter 27–Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.wh.glencoe.com

HISTORY

Directions: Use the quote and your knowl-edge of world history to answer the follow-ing question.

“And even today woman is heavily handicapped, thoughher situation is beginning to change. Almost nowhere is herlegal status the same as man’s, and frequently it is much to her disadvantage. Even when her rights are legally recog-nized in the abstract, long-standing custom prevents theirfull expression . . . .”

—The Second Sex, Simone de Beauvoir

Simone de Beauvoir’s book, The Second Sex, was publishedin 1949. Her book was influential because it

A helped women gain the right to vote.

B contributed to a women’s movement in the 1950s and1960s.

C greatly increased the number of married women in thelabor force.

D influenced and shaped the student protest movement.

Test-Taking Tip: A date can be an important clue. When a question contains a date, think about major events thatoccurred during or around that time. Then eliminateanswer choices that do not reflect that history.

CHAPTER 27 Cold War and Postwar Changes 871

Critical Thinking20. Analyzing How did de-Stalinization help Khrushchev gain

control of the Soviet government?

21. Explaining Is containment an important or pressing issue inAmerican foreign policy today? Explain your reasoning.

Writing about History22. Expository Writing In an essay, identify and explain possi-

ble reasons for the comparatively slow growth of social ben-efits provided to Americans, compared to the rapid growthof these programs in Europe, after World War II.

Analyzing SourcesRead the following excerpt from Solzhenitsyn’s A Day in the Lifeof Ivan Denisovich in which prisoners march from the prisoncamp to a work project through temperatures of seventeendegrees below zero:

“There were escort guards all over the place, . . .their machine guns sticking out and pointed right atyour face. And there were guards with gray dogs.”

23. Why might Soviets identify with this story?

24. Why did Khrushchev allow this book to be published?

Applying Technology Skills25. Using the Internet Search the Internet for information

about technological inventions since World War II that havegreatly affected our lives. Use a search engine to focus yoursearch. Create a time line including pictures and illustrationsof the inventions you researched.

Making Decisions26. The Cuban missile crisis developed out of a tense power

struggle between two nuclear powers. What decisions cre-ated the crisis? What else might have been done?

Analyzing Maps and ChartsUsing the map above, answer the following questions.

27. How many miles did the blockade zone of Cuba extend fromwest to east?

500 kilometers0Albers Conic Equal-Area projection

500 miles0

S

N

EW

80°W 70°W

20°N

10°N

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Gulf ofMexico

Atlantic

Ocean

Guant´anamo Bay

Caribbean Sea

Bay ofPigs

FLORIDA

CUBAHAITI

DOMINICANREPUBLIC

MEXICO

JAMAICA

PUERTORICO

U.S.BAHAMASKey West

Miami

Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962

StandardizedTest Practice

Soviet missile siteU.S. blockade zoneU.S. naval base�

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