Feature Articles

Toward a Conversation BetweenESL Teachers and Intensive

English Program Administrators

LUCIE MOUSSUUniversity of Alberta

Several scholars have investigated the strengths and weaknessesof native-English-speaking (NES) and nonnative-English-speak-ing (NNES) teachers of English as a second language (ESL) butfew researchers have explored intensive English program (IEP)administratorsrsquo and ESL teachersrsquo perspectives on teacher trainingand the strengths and weaknesses of NES and NNES teachersThrough online questionnaires this study examined 96 ESLteachersrsquo perceptions regarding their (MA TESOL) teachereducation and 21 IEP administratorsrsquo perspectives about teachertraining and their resulting hiring practices Results showsimilarities between IEP administratorsrsquo and ESL teachersrsquoperceptions of NNES teachersrsquo strengths and weaknessesParticipants also wished that preservice teachers were given morefirsthand teaching opportunities IEP administrators emphasizedexperience not first language as a determining factor in hiringdecisions Recommendations to improve teacher education andthe teaching experience of NES and NNES teachers are offereddoi 105054tj2010234767

As a native speaker of French I never envisioned becoming anEnglish teacher In fact I taught French for several years at a USuniversity before entering a masterrsquos program in teachingEnglish to speakers of other languages (TESOL) This programrequired advanced language skills for admission but onceaccepted native and nonnative speakers of English were treatedequally1 For example all preservice teachers in the program

1 Maintaining the nativenonnative speaker dichotomy is done here for practical convenience andbecause most work based on the study of teachers who are nonnative speakers implicitly accepts theseparation between the two groups However I fully recognize that the distinction is in reality quiteblurry with many people considering themselves bilingual or multilingual

400 TESOL Journal 14 December 2010

completed their teaching practicum and were subsequently hiredas English as a second language (ESL) teachers in the universityrsquosintensive English program (IEP)2 regardless of their primarylanguages

At the outset of my practicum I began to doubt my authorityand right to teach English Fortunately these doubts provided mewith a perfect research topic Since then I have been investigatingthe strengths and weaknesses of nonnative-English-speaking(NNES) and native-English-speaking (NES) teachers as well asfactors (eg training discrimination) that may affect how the twogroups gauge their effectiveness as teachers and the overallsuccess of their teaching experience I have also investigated thehiring practices of IEP administrators to evaluate whethercurricula in TESOL programs adequately prepare teachers tomeet their expectations This article presents some of my recentfindings

THE NATIVENONNATIVE PREDICAMENTPhillipson (1992) discusses the concepts of lsquolsquolinguistic imperialismrsquorsquoand lsquolsquonative speaker fallacyrsquorsquo that is the belief that lsquolsquothe idealteacher is a native speakerrsquorsquo (p 185) Responding to this fallacyMedgyes (1994) claims that nonnative English speakers in spite oftheir potential linguistic barriers have certain qualities that nativespeakers may not possess Canagarajah (1999) also explains how thenotion of native speaker as established by Chomsky (1986) hasbecome obsolete in a modern world where people are often nativespeakers of more than one language or more than one variety of alanguage and where linguistic boundaries are no longer clear

Building on these beliefs scholars have added that native aswell as nonnative speakers are necessary and even indispensablein contexts where they could collaborate and use their skills andcompetencies to the fullest (see Braine 1999 Kamhi-Stein 2004)Finally Canagarajah (2005) reexamines the distinction between

2 IEPs are language schools often attached to universities that prepare international students for theTest of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) before they can be integrated into mainstreamuniversity classes These students may be accepted in most IEPs at any level of English proficiency andmay spend a few months to a few years there before they are able to pass the TOEFL A number ofTESOL programs have preservice English language teachers do their practicum in their universityrsquosIEP

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 401

native and nonnative speakers and confirms that this distinctionno longer applies because of globalization and the intense mixingof cultures currently taking place in the postmodern worldmaking the definitions of the words too blurry and restrictedCanagarajah and other scholars (eg Higgins 2003) explain thatEnglish is no longer owned and dominated by the old inner circlecolonial powers (Kachru 1982) but by a multitude of speakersfrom diverse cultures who need to learn to communicate andnegotiate effectively Indeed English teaching proficiency has to beseen as a lsquolsquoplural systemrsquorsquo that abandons the notion of nativeversus nonnative speakers and instead adopts the distinctionbetween for example lsquolsquonovice and expertrsquorsquo teachers (Canagarajah2005 p xxvii) That is a lsquolsquogoodrsquorsquo teacher should no longer be anative or nonnative speaker but should only be an educatedperson who masters a combination of linguistic pedagogical andmethodological skills (Astor 2000) matching a given context at agiven time and for a given purpose

TEACHER EDUCATION AND TEACHING PRACTICUMDetermining a curriculum for teacher education programs is oftenproblematic because not all native and nonnative speakers have thesame linguistic cultural and educational background Thestandard approach has been to offer the same curriculum to bothwhile establishing distinct admission and graduation requirementsfor each England and Roberts (1989) found that roughly 40 of allMA TESOL students were nonnative English speakers and thattheir admission requirements to most programs differed from thoseof native speakers However although most program administra-tors recognized linguistic and cultural differences between nativeand nonnative speakers many did not see a need for specialadjustments to accommodate nonnative speakersrsquo circumstances DLiu (1999) also confirms that although approximately 40 of allTESOL students in North America Britain and Australia werenonnative speakers they received the same training as nativespeakers

Several scholars have proposed to improve training for bothgroups through targeted programs of study Berry (1990) Cullen(1994) and the contributors to Kamhi-Steinrsquos (2004) volume

402 TESOL Journal

promote tailored classes that would increase nonnative speakersrsquoconfidence facilitate language use in the classroom and presentvaried methodologies for a range of contexts Cullen Lee (2004)and Lin Wang Akamatsu and Riazi (2005) reflect that in factnative as well as nonnative speakers could benefit from courses ingrammar pronunciation vocabulary and culture Moreovercertain scholars (eg Brady amp Gulikers 2004 Pasternak amp Bailey2004) recommend improving native speakersrsquo awareness of andsensitivity to topics such as culture shock language learningdifficulties and other sociolinguistic issues Nelson (1992) Llurda(2004) and Eguiguren (2000) suggest that native speakers alsoneeded training to correct their perception of English as a fixed andcontrolled entity because many varieties of English existthroughout the world even within English-speaking countries (seeKachru 1982) And English language teachers must be prepared toaddress the needs of students who will use English forcross-cultural communication (Canagarajah 2005 Modiano 2001)

Regarding teaching practicum practices Reid (1997) observesthat approximately two-thirds of TESOL programs in the UnitedStates require a supervised teacher training component for everystudent Interestingly although practicum supervisors in Llurdarsquos(2005) study agreed that the NNES preservice teachers in theirprograms had higher language awareness than their NEScounterparts most of these supervisors also said that they wouldrecommend nonnative speakers to teach primarily low-level classesSimilarly most practicum supervisors believed that NNES teacherswould feel more comfortable teaching in their own countries ratherthan in the United States and 16 of the NNES preservice teacherswere recognized as having problematic accents

TEACHERrsquoS PERSPECTIVESFor NNES teachers developing self-esteem and authority in theclassroom seems to present greater challenges than attaininglanguage proficiency Greis (1984) and Medgyes (1994) explain thatmany NNES teachers feel anxiety when in front of students orcolleagues Reves and Medgyes (1994) conducted a studyillustrating that the perpetual fear of studentsrsquo judgment madeNNES teachers self-conscious of their mistakes which in turn made

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 403

them more insecure Samimy and Brutt-Giffler (1999) argue that acombination of external factors (eg age and proficiency level ofstudents goals and objectives of the program personality and skillsof the teachers) significantly affect the perceived success of ateaching experience

Maumrsquos (2003) interviews with NES and NNES teachers revealthat both groups saw their role as ESL teachers quite differentlybased on their perceived strengths and weaknesses and their ownlanguage learning experience NNES teachers also clearly expressedfrustration toward their isolation and lsquolsquomarginalization in theprofessionrsquorsquo (p 162)

LANGUAGE PROGRAM ADMINISTRATORSrsquoPERSPECTIVESLittle research has been conducted regarding IEP administratorsand NNES teachers Researchers (eg Mahboob 2003) have notedsome discrimination against NNES teachers in these programs butfew have directly solicited feedback from IEP administrators abouttheir hiring practices and beliefs

As an IEP administrator Perdreau (1994) believes that mostteachers coming out of TESOL programs lack necessary training fordealing with cultural diversity English language teachers sheexplains should come from different countries and cultures torepresent studentsrsquo diverse cultural ethnic and linguisticbackgrounds TESOL programs should prepare NES and NNESteachers to act as role models for students in accommodatingtolerating and reflecting on cultural diversity

Flynn and Gulikers (2001) explain that an understanding ofthe culture of the country whose variety of English is taught isnecessary Also adequate education in TESOL or applied linguisticsis crucial for all ESL teachers Flynn and Gulikers also advocate forall preservice teachers courses in both applied linguistics andcurriculum design a practicum and the opportunity to observe andteach in different contexts (eg Kndash12 community colleges IEPs)Further they advise IEP administrators to provide mentors to allnew teachers and to encourage collaboration

Having surveyed IEP administrators and TESOL teachereducators Reid (1997) notes that IEP administrators often struggle

404 TESOL Journal

with the ethics of providing English language teachers who do notseem qualified (because of their status as nonnative speakers) toteach students who are paying significant amounts of money tolearn English According to these administrators hiring evenqualified NNES teachers prevented their IEP from achieving thesame financial success as IEPs that hire only NES teachers At thesame time many TESOL teacher educators told Reid that thecourses they could offer to NES and NNES teachers did not alwaysdepend on actual needs but rather on the universityrsquos budget thespecializations of the teachers they could hire and constraints in thelocations and sizes of programs A remarkable conclusion reachedby several TESOL teacher educators and IEP administrators whoparticipated in the survey was that the two groups talked abouttheir academic and administrative roles in markedly different wayshad different goals were lsquolsquofundamentally differentrsquorsquo (p 26) andcould rarely reach a common ground

Mahboob (2003) also investigated IEP administratorsrsquo hiringpractices Of the 122 administrators who responded 598considered lsquolsquonative English speakerrsquorsquo an important or somewhatimportant criteria when hiring ESL teachers Of the 1425 teachersworking in the 122 IEPs only 79 were nonnative speakers

As the preceding discussion indicates few researchers haveinvestigated IEP administratorsrsquo and MA TESOL programadministratorsrsquo perspectives on the training and competence of NESand NNES teachers However based on the previously discussedstudies it appears that few people in such lsquolsquorelationshipsrsquorsquo (IEPadministrators teacher educators ESL teachers etc) have similarexpectations regarding teacher education and the teaching andlearning experience To investigate this further the followingproject was undertaken

THE STUDYThe following research questions directed the study3 and will bediscussed here

3 The research questions discussed here are part of a larger study and have been slightly modified to fitthe articlersquos requirements

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 405

1 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo (self-)perceptions of NNES teachersrsquostrengths and weaknesses and how do the opinions of IEP administratorscorroborate with or differ from the teachersrsquo (self-)perceptions

2 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo opinions regarding their teachingpreparation and how do the opinions of IEP administrators corroboratewith or differ from the teachersrsquo opinions

3 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo opinions regarding their current teachingexperience and how do the opinions of IEP administrators corroborate withor differ from the teachersrsquo opinions

4 What are the criteria used by IEP administrators to hire NNES and NESteachers

Research Design

For practical and theoretical reasons (see Brown 2001 Richards ampLockhart 1994) questionnaires were selected as survey instrumentsfor this project To create questions and statements for the varioussections of the questionnaires constructs (eg knowledge ofgrammar job satisfaction) were first identified from the literaturereview (Brown 2001 Purpura 1998) Then questions and state-ments for each construct were written and distributed to a panel ofexperts who considered issues of clarity length and validity of theconstructs and statements After the questionnaires were pilotedthey were placed online for easy access

Next came the identification of participating IEPs Narrowing thefield to accredited IEPs facilitated the selection of programs that weremost similar to one another in terms of overall quality and organization

E-mails requesting participation were sent to 52 IEP adminis-trators and institutional review board permissions were secured for25 IEPs Participating administrators and teachers were then sentthe URLs and passwords to the online questionnaires By the end ofthe semester 96 teacher questionnaires and 21 administratorquestionnaires had been submitted

The SAS 913 statistical package was used to calculatefrequencies and percentages for each question using the multiple-choice and Likert-scale formats

Participants

Ninety-six ESL teachers from 19 IEPs responded to the teacherquestionnaire 18 were nonnative English speakers 78 were native

406 TESOL Journal

speakers The NNES teachers came from Argentina AzerbaijanBrazil China the Czech Republic Germany Iceland Japan KoreaReunion Island Russia Slovakia and Somalia The NES teacherscame from Canada England Ireland New Zealand and the UnitedStates Of the 96 teachers 71 were female and 23 were male

All the participating teachers held a diploma The majority(781) held masterrsquos degrees in TESOL TESL second languageacquisition second language education applied linguisticslinguistics or another field Some teachers were working toward anMA (52) or a PhD (21)

For participating ESL teachers work experience at their currentIEPs ranged from a few weeks to 27 years they taught a variety ofskills (reading writing listening speaking grammar vocabularyculture pronunciation TOEFL preparation idioms interculturalcommunication academic skills business English English forspecific purposes) and at all levels (beginner intermediate andadvanced)

Twenty-one administrators participated 19 were native Englishspeakers 1 was a bilingual speaker of English and Spanish and 1was a nonnative speaker of English Of the 21 8 were male and 13were female Seventeen of the administrators had hired at least oneNNES teacher during the previous semester

RESULTSThe teacher and administrator questionnaires posed severalquestions to study participants This section addresses thesequestions and the responses

Strengths and Weaknesses

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most valuable qualities of NNES teachers ingeneral if anyrsquorsquo

The most frequent responses given by NNES teachers abouttheir own perceived strengths were their understanding ofstudentsrsquo challenges and needs (805) and their own languagelearning experience (777) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]have an ability to relate to the students in a way that a NES teacherdoes not [We] can help students with difficulties and be a rolemodelrsquorsquo Other comments by NNES teachers included the following

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 407

lsquolsquo[We] are very concerned about accuracy in using the language andknowing the reasons English is the way it isrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[We] look atculture from an outside perspective so [we] can point out thingsthat [NES teachers] may not noticersquorsquo Another strength mentionedby NNES teachers about their own teaching was the lsquolsquodesire tocontinue to learn and to demonstrate their own learning tostudentsrsquorsquo as well as their desire to learn from students (445)

NES teachers recognized NNES teachersrsquo language learningexperience (487) their ability to be lsquolsquogood role models forstudentsrsquorsquo (307) and their lsquolsquoability to understand and explaingrammar rulesrsquorsquo (192) One NES teacher admired lsquolsquoNNESteachersrsquo ability to deal with criticism about being [NNESteachers]rsquorsquo and many recognized qualities such as NNES teachersrsquolsquolsquoresilience hopefulness strength cultural wealth and resourcesrsquorsquo(410) Similarly several NES teachers acknowledged NNESteachersrsquo dedication to teaching their effort their lsquolsquoenthusiasmrsquorsquoand their lsquolsquokindnessrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopatiencersquorsquo toward ESL students (435)no NNES teacher mentioned these Finally few NNES teachers incontrast to 833 of their NES colleagues recognized thelsquolsquoadditional cultural insights [NNES teachers provide] for theEnglish language learnerrsquorsquo

NES teachers frequently cited their admiration of their NNESpeers Although they perhaps questioned NNES teachersrsquo languageproficiency or knowledge of US culture (to be discussedsubsequently) they recognized the multicultural awareness andunderstanding of studentsrsquo challenges and needs that NNESteachers brought to the classroom

Administrators more readily recognized NNES teachersrsquopedagogical skills (476) with comments such as lsquolsquoThey havelearned English and their experience can assist them in lesson plansand learning strategiesrsquorsquo Administrators also praised NNESteachers for their knowledge of lsquolsquohow to use multiple techniquesrsquorsquolsquolsquocurricular flexibilityrsquorsquo lsquolsquostrong collegialityrsquorsquo lsquolsquodedicationrsquorsquolsquolsquocreativity in the classroomrsquorsquo and lsquolsquohigh standards (expectations)for students (academics and proficiency)rsquorsquo As one administratorexplained NNES teachersrsquo strengths include lsquolsquolove of languagesand cultures ability to create a comfortable atmosphere in class to

408 TESOL Journal

promote learning and cooperation among the students and abilityto reach students with different learning stylesrsquorsquo

Administrators also recognized NNES teachers as being lsquolsquoterrificrole-modelsrsquorsquo (240) and as having and lsquolsquounderstanding experienceof students in livingadapting to another culture and operating inanother languagersquorsquo (240)

These strengths are similar to those described by Arva andMedgyes (2000) However participants in Arva and Medgyesrsquosstudy also mentioned that NNES teachers were often more strictand demanding than their NES counterparts Although theparticipating NES teachers often recognized NNES teachersrsquodedication only one administrator mentioned the lsquolsquohigh standards(expectations) for studentsrsquorsquo as a strength of NNES teachersAnother strength recognized in previous studies (eg Medgyes1994) was NNES teachersrsquo ability to predict studentsrsquo difficultiesHowever this intuitive skill was only mentioned twice in the onlinequestionnaires

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most serious weaknesses of NNES teachersin general if anyrsquorsquo

NNES teachersrsquo self-perceptions of their weaknesses includedtheir lsquolsquoforeign accentrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopronunciationrsquorsquo (390) theirlsquolsquoinsufficient knowledge of idioms nuances of the language andculture resulting in inability to recognize cultural referencesrsquorsquo(335) their lsquolsquolack of confidencersquorsquo (277) and poor knowledge ofthe English language (277) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]donrsquot have the same feel for the languagersquorsquo Interestingly one NNESteacher perceived his or her knowledge of lsquolsquogrammarrsquorsquo as weakwhich clearly contradicts the literature and the numerous NESteachers and administrators who recognized NNES teachersrsquogrammatical knowledge as a strength As another NNES teacherexplained lsquolsquoeven though I know English language rules better thanthe native speakers I just donrsquot feel confident because thatrsquos not myfirst languagersquorsquo Finally one NNES teacher did not appreciate thequestion and responded lsquolsquoNo one is perfect and no one has it all Ifthey are qualified ESL teachers they are qualified ESL teachersPeriod What do you mean by lsquomost serious weaknessesrsquorsquorsquo

When asked about NNES teachersrsquo weaknesses NES teachersoverwhelmingly noted strong foreign accents and lsquolsquobadrsquorsquo pronun-

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 409

ciation (475) although as one teacher pointed out lsquolsquoour studentshave more difficulty understanding our British-accented instructorsthan our NNES teachersrsquorsquo Other responses included lack of UScultural knowledge (282) as well as lsquolsquopoorrsquorsquo self-confidence(153) Some NES teachers also mentioned lsquolsquoa lack of familiaritywith things NES teachers learn as childrenrsquorsquo and lsquolsquosyntactic errorsthat may be fossilized in some [NNES teachers] [These] instructorswill be models for the English language learners causingconfusionrsquorsquo Others explained that NNES teachers are lsquolsquosometimesnot able to emotionally stand up to students who are unhappy thatthey do not have a NES teacherrsquorsquo and that NNES teachers may feellsquolsquothat they are not good enough because English is not their firstlanguage They are not respected enough as educators and theytend to respond by feeling less confidentrsquorsquo

Another weakness mentioned twice was the different teachingmethods with NNES teachers having lsquolsquoallegiance to outmodedmethodologiesrsquorsquo and preferring lsquolsquoto teach using the methods withwhich they were taught which might not be the most current oraccepted in the United Statesrsquorsquo Another negative response was that

students in an IEP pay a large amount of money to come to theUnited States to learn English Most places in the world haveopportunities where a person can learn English however thereason many students come to the United States is to haveinstruction from a native speaker A nonnative speaker ofEnglish in an IEP must have near-native fluency I would bevery upset if I went to England for example to study Shakespear[sic] or English History only to have a professor from the UnitedStates there for a semester-abroad teaching experience

A few NES teachers went as far as saying that NNES teacherslsquolsquoteach incorrect informationrsquorsquo and have a serious lsquolsquolack of aware-ness of studentsrsquorsquo but comments such as these were rare Otherrespondents acknowledged that lsquolsquoall teachers make mistakesrsquorsquo canbe too critical or unkind can lack patience and can have difficultieslsquolsquosimplifying their speech for lower level studentsrsquorsquo Several NESteachers noted that NNES teachers were more harshly criticized bytheir ESL students for these perceived weaknesses whereas theseweaknesses were more readily accepted as lsquolsquonormalrsquorsquo for NESteachers

410 TESOL Journal

Administrators identified three major weaknesses in NNESteachers foreign accent (380) lsquolsquooverdependence on didacticpresentation of grammarrsquorsquo or lsquolsquofocusing too much on grammarrsquorsquo(333) and lack of self-confidence (285) One administrator alsomentioned lsquolsquothe lack of experience with the culture of theclassroomrsquorsquo Several administrators however did not find anymajor weaknesses that were particular to NNES teachers Oneadministrator explained

In general the most serious weakness would be a degree ofdifficulty with pronunciation that leads to stress on the part ofthe students Most often the students are less and less aware ofthe teacherrsquos accent over time If the students are confident in theteacherrsquos knowledge organization and classroom managementskills the students are more forgiving about pronunciation Ihave found that the [NNES teachers] who receive complaints aremore likely to be inexperienced the complaint then is more anexperience issue than a [NNES teacher] issue

Another administrator concluded by saying lsquolsquoIn my opinion[NNES teachersrsquo strongest weakness is] not believing that they havethe right to teach English Their own perception of themselves isflawedrsquorsquo

These comments lead to the conclusion that little has changedover the years and that the lsquolsquoautomatic extrapolation from compe-tent speaker to competent teacher based on linguistic groundsalonersquorsquo (Seidlhofer 1999 p 236) may still exists today NNESteachers are still sometimes perceived by others through the samelens (as inferior in status) and still sometimes perceive themselvesas having essentially the same strengths and weaknesses as wereobserved in the previous decade

Teacher Education and Teaching Practicum

lsquolsquoDuring your training as an ESL teacher (if any) did you take part in anydiscussions or take any classes aimed specifically at future NNESteachersrsquorsquo

Fifty-one teachers answered negatively to this question and 28did not respond at all Only 17 teachers responded lsquolsquoyesrsquorsquo lsquolsquomaybersquorsquoor lsquolsquoit has been a while but I think sorsquorsquo A few teachers mentioneddiscussions about the lsquolsquoimportance of impressions students have

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 411

about [NES teachers] specifically a preference for lsquoblond blue-eyedrsquo speakers of English even if less qualifiedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquogrammarreview for NES teachers and speech assessment for NNESteachersrsquorsquo One NNES teacher took a class in which lsquolsquoit wasexplained to us that the teacher was the model for his or her studentand should therefore be highly proficient in the language Accentwas not really an issuersquorsquo Two NES teachers wrote lsquolsquoWe oftendiscussed studentsrsquo perceptions of [NNES teachers] in classesrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoWe talked about the benefits and disadvantages of [NNESteachers] teaching Englishrsquorsquo

One recurring comment was that some or many lsquolsquomembers ofthe class were nonnative English speakersrsquorsquo which allowed thistype of discussion to take place One NES teacher for exampleexplained lsquolsquoI took an ESL Phonetics class in which the majority ofclass members were nonnative speakers of English We did practiceteaching activities on each other in peer groups particularly inpronunciation areas NNES teachers have difficulty withrsquorsquo

Except for a few other responses such as lsquolsquono such courses wereofferedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquono all students enrolled were native speakersrsquorsquo thesewere all the answers given by the 96 participating teachers Theseresults corroborate the belief that there is a need for more specificinstructions for future teachers native and nonnative speakers alike(Canagarajah 2005 Kamhi-Stein 2004 J Liu 1999)

lsquolsquoDo you feel like your MA TESOL program (or other trainingprogram if any) is preparing or did prepare you well for your teachingassignmentsrsquorsquo

Responses varied widely but most teachers agreed that they hadbeen prepared well for their teaching assignments Many teachers(343) felt that their MA TESOL program lsquolsquoprepared [them] wellbecause it focused on practical teaching and not theory onlyrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoprepared [them] well for forming the theories behind what [they]choose to do in classrsquorsquo On the other hand many teachers (291)complained that it was lsquolsquohard to see how to incorporate all [the]theory into the actual practicersquorsquo or that lsquolsquotherersquos only so much aprogram can do The best preparation is the actual experiencersquorsquo OneNNES teacher also said lsquolsquoIt didnrsquot necessarily prepare me specificallyas a NNES teacher but practical as well as theoretical aspects ofteaching a language have been helpful for my current teaching

412 TESOL Journal

assignmentsrsquorsquo Another NNES teacher commented lsquolsquoIt gave meinsights of the American teaching stylersquorsquo This last comment confirmsBrainersquos (1999) and Eguigurenrsquos (2000) concerns regarding NorthAmerican TESOL programs potentially giving future Englishlanguage teachers a monocentric perspective of pedagogy

A frequent comment from NES as well as NNES teachers wasthat lsquolsquoexperience is still clearly the best teacherrsquorsquo Yet there were alsoseveral negative responses such as lsquolsquo[Our] program did not provideextensive practical training There was no practicum or studentteaching requiredrsquorsquo As one teacher explained lsquolsquoIn this programnonnative-English-speaking TESOL students are allowed to becomeESL instructors only if they are PhD students but not at the MAlevelrsquorsquo This corroborates Mahboobrsquos (2003) findings about the lackof practical training available to many NNES teachers

lsquolsquoHow shouldcould MA TESOL programs (or other teacherpreparation programs) prepare future ESL teachers to become excellentteachersrsquorsquo

IEP administratorsrsquo most common response (523) was lsquolsquoGive[preservice teachers] lots of practice-teaching and teachingopportunitiesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquoa lot of opportunities to observe otherteachersrsquorsquo Other responses from administrators reflected thisstatement lsquolsquoPrepare the teachers to understand culture and tocompensate with visuals if pronunciation is a problemrsquorsquo and toprovide lsquolsquosessions on classroom culturersquorsquo and lsquolsquoextensive reflectionon the professionrsquorsquo Administrators also advised teacher educatorsto help future ESL teachers lsquolsquoby providing a variety of learningopportunities (observations in the IEP course work etc) and bygetting the student teachers to develop their own philosophy forteachingrsquorsquo Other recurrent recommendations included thefollowing lsquolsquo[exposing preservice teachers] to a solid foundation inthe structure of the English language teaching methodology issuesin language pedagogy and policy and theory (eg World Englishescritical pedagogy)rsquorsquo lsquolsquo[increasing their] knowledge of languageacquisition pragmatics sociolinguistics content-basedinstructionrsquorsquo lsquolsquomentoring or partnering [them] with nativespeakersrsquorsquo giving lsquolsquoaccent reduction classrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[encouraging]professionalismrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[teaching] pronunciation and classroommanagement and expectations of nonnative speakers from a variety

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 413

of culturesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[teaching] awareness of nonverbalcommunicationrsquorsquo These suggestions are similar to thoserecommended by several scholars The idea of collaboration forexample was thoroughly discussed and studied by Matsuda andMatsuda (2004) and de Oliveira and Richardson (2001)

Two final comments seemed particularly significant in referenceto the education of NNES teachers

Prepare nonnative speakers mentally for the attitudes that theirstudents may have towards them Share with them strategies forgaining the confidence of their students

The most important training involves the exposure to resourcesnew teachers need to know where they will be able to findanswers in the future Teacher training should also include theprocess of community building Teachers should feel free to askquestions to share their knowledge and to cultivate their ownteaching style All members of the team should be aware of theneeds of the whole and aware of the benefits of their individualcontributions

The previous responses can be sorted into two main categorieson the one hand the need for more solid and extensive practicaltraining for NES and NNES teachers alike and on the other handthe need for focused discussions on the topic of NES and NNESteachersrsquo strengths and weaknesses challenges and successesneeds and achievements

Teaching Experience and Responses to Discrimination

lsquolsquoDo you feel that you are being discriminated against in any way bystudents or colleaguesrsquorsquo

Of the 93 ESL teachers who responded 366 said yes and634 said no Among those who said yes 7 were NNES teachers(representing 38 of all NNES teacher respondents) although oneof the NNES teachers who answered negatively added lsquolsquoI havenever heard any negative comments However I do hear [fromother] teachers that some students donrsquot particularly like mersquorsquo

When asked how they responded or would respond todiscrimination against NNES teachers from ESL students severalNES teachers explained that they tell students about NNESteachersrsquo strengths (grammar knowledge etc) that there are

414 TESOL Journal

different accents even within the United States and that it isimportant to be accustomed to different accents in todayrsquosmulticultural world (see Canagarajah 2005 for a thoroughdiscussion of this concept) As one teacher explained

I ask students how they plan to use English in the futureInevitably they will use it in a context where they will comeacross many types of users of English not just native speakers Istress that being exposed to a variety of accents and uses ofEnglish from a professional and trained teacher will benefitthem in the short and long run

Other teachers replied that they made no attempt to convincestudents that NNES teachers could be good teachers because lsquolsquonowords can convince them that they are in good handsrsquorsquo Others triedto lsquolsquoevaluate the reason behind the commentsrsquorsquo or advised thestudents lsquolsquoto speak to the teacher directlyrsquorsquo Some respondents toldESL students that lsquolsquothere are many different dialects of English that[students] must get used torsquorsquo that lsquolsquo[NNES teachersrsquo] experienceadds a lot to the class that [NES teachers] cannot add becausetheyrsquove never been through the experience of learning Englishrsquorsquoand that lsquolsquo[students] are lucky to have such a good role modelrsquorsquo

Although most NES teachers reported standing up for theirNNES colleagues in response to discriminatory comments one NESteacher responded lsquolsquoI think it is a subject worthy of discussionWould you like to learn to play the violin from someone who didnrsquotplay it wellrsquorsquo Similarly the great majority of NNES teachers felt thatthey could talk to mentors or IEP administrators if they encountereddiscrimination but one disagreed and explained lsquolsquoNo not really If Iwant to keep my job Irsquove been taught to avoid any negativeconfrontation with any individual in an administrative positionrsquorsquo

IEP administrators seemed to be more aware than teachers ofongoing discrimination against NNES teachers When asked howthey reacted or would react to discrimination some administratorsreplied lsquolsquoWe engage students and teachers in conversations aboutspecific issues and a larger conversation about Englishinternationally and in the universityrsquorsquo Others explained to theirstudents that lsquolsquoEnglish is spoken in many different rhythms andwith somewhat different pronunciation and that as citizens of theworld people need to listen and adjust to speaking differencesrsquorsquo and

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 415

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

completed their teaching practicum and were subsequently hiredas English as a second language (ESL) teachers in the universityrsquosintensive English program (IEP)2 regardless of their primarylanguages

At the outset of my practicum I began to doubt my authorityand right to teach English Fortunately these doubts provided mewith a perfect research topic Since then I have been investigatingthe strengths and weaknesses of nonnative-English-speaking(NNES) and native-English-speaking (NES) teachers as well asfactors (eg training discrimination) that may affect how the twogroups gauge their effectiveness as teachers and the overallsuccess of their teaching experience I have also investigated thehiring practices of IEP administrators to evaluate whethercurricula in TESOL programs adequately prepare teachers tomeet their expectations This article presents some of my recentfindings

THE NATIVENONNATIVE PREDICAMENTPhillipson (1992) discusses the concepts of lsquolsquolinguistic imperialismrsquorsquoand lsquolsquonative speaker fallacyrsquorsquo that is the belief that lsquolsquothe idealteacher is a native speakerrsquorsquo (p 185) Responding to this fallacyMedgyes (1994) claims that nonnative English speakers in spite oftheir potential linguistic barriers have certain qualities that nativespeakers may not possess Canagarajah (1999) also explains how thenotion of native speaker as established by Chomsky (1986) hasbecome obsolete in a modern world where people are often nativespeakers of more than one language or more than one variety of alanguage and where linguistic boundaries are no longer clear

Building on these beliefs scholars have added that native aswell as nonnative speakers are necessary and even indispensablein contexts where they could collaborate and use their skills andcompetencies to the fullest (see Braine 1999 Kamhi-Stein 2004)Finally Canagarajah (2005) reexamines the distinction between

2 IEPs are language schools often attached to universities that prepare international students for theTest of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) before they can be integrated into mainstreamuniversity classes These students may be accepted in most IEPs at any level of English proficiency andmay spend a few months to a few years there before they are able to pass the TOEFL A number ofTESOL programs have preservice English language teachers do their practicum in their universityrsquosIEP

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 401

native and nonnative speakers and confirms that this distinctionno longer applies because of globalization and the intense mixingof cultures currently taking place in the postmodern worldmaking the definitions of the words too blurry and restrictedCanagarajah and other scholars (eg Higgins 2003) explain thatEnglish is no longer owned and dominated by the old inner circlecolonial powers (Kachru 1982) but by a multitude of speakersfrom diverse cultures who need to learn to communicate andnegotiate effectively Indeed English teaching proficiency has to beseen as a lsquolsquoplural systemrsquorsquo that abandons the notion of nativeversus nonnative speakers and instead adopts the distinctionbetween for example lsquolsquonovice and expertrsquorsquo teachers (Canagarajah2005 p xxvii) That is a lsquolsquogoodrsquorsquo teacher should no longer be anative or nonnative speaker but should only be an educatedperson who masters a combination of linguistic pedagogical andmethodological skills (Astor 2000) matching a given context at agiven time and for a given purpose

TEACHER EDUCATION AND TEACHING PRACTICUMDetermining a curriculum for teacher education programs is oftenproblematic because not all native and nonnative speakers have thesame linguistic cultural and educational background Thestandard approach has been to offer the same curriculum to bothwhile establishing distinct admission and graduation requirementsfor each England and Roberts (1989) found that roughly 40 of allMA TESOL students were nonnative English speakers and thattheir admission requirements to most programs differed from thoseof native speakers However although most program administra-tors recognized linguistic and cultural differences between nativeand nonnative speakers many did not see a need for specialadjustments to accommodate nonnative speakersrsquo circumstances DLiu (1999) also confirms that although approximately 40 of allTESOL students in North America Britain and Australia werenonnative speakers they received the same training as nativespeakers

Several scholars have proposed to improve training for bothgroups through targeted programs of study Berry (1990) Cullen(1994) and the contributors to Kamhi-Steinrsquos (2004) volume

402 TESOL Journal

promote tailored classes that would increase nonnative speakersrsquoconfidence facilitate language use in the classroom and presentvaried methodologies for a range of contexts Cullen Lee (2004)and Lin Wang Akamatsu and Riazi (2005) reflect that in factnative as well as nonnative speakers could benefit from courses ingrammar pronunciation vocabulary and culture Moreovercertain scholars (eg Brady amp Gulikers 2004 Pasternak amp Bailey2004) recommend improving native speakersrsquo awareness of andsensitivity to topics such as culture shock language learningdifficulties and other sociolinguistic issues Nelson (1992) Llurda(2004) and Eguiguren (2000) suggest that native speakers alsoneeded training to correct their perception of English as a fixed andcontrolled entity because many varieties of English existthroughout the world even within English-speaking countries (seeKachru 1982) And English language teachers must be prepared toaddress the needs of students who will use English forcross-cultural communication (Canagarajah 2005 Modiano 2001)

Regarding teaching practicum practices Reid (1997) observesthat approximately two-thirds of TESOL programs in the UnitedStates require a supervised teacher training component for everystudent Interestingly although practicum supervisors in Llurdarsquos(2005) study agreed that the NNES preservice teachers in theirprograms had higher language awareness than their NEScounterparts most of these supervisors also said that they wouldrecommend nonnative speakers to teach primarily low-level classesSimilarly most practicum supervisors believed that NNES teacherswould feel more comfortable teaching in their own countries ratherthan in the United States and 16 of the NNES preservice teacherswere recognized as having problematic accents

TEACHERrsquoS PERSPECTIVESFor NNES teachers developing self-esteem and authority in theclassroom seems to present greater challenges than attaininglanguage proficiency Greis (1984) and Medgyes (1994) explain thatmany NNES teachers feel anxiety when in front of students orcolleagues Reves and Medgyes (1994) conducted a studyillustrating that the perpetual fear of studentsrsquo judgment madeNNES teachers self-conscious of their mistakes which in turn made

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 403

them more insecure Samimy and Brutt-Giffler (1999) argue that acombination of external factors (eg age and proficiency level ofstudents goals and objectives of the program personality and skillsof the teachers) significantly affect the perceived success of ateaching experience

Maumrsquos (2003) interviews with NES and NNES teachers revealthat both groups saw their role as ESL teachers quite differentlybased on their perceived strengths and weaknesses and their ownlanguage learning experience NNES teachers also clearly expressedfrustration toward their isolation and lsquolsquomarginalization in theprofessionrsquorsquo (p 162)

LANGUAGE PROGRAM ADMINISTRATORSrsquoPERSPECTIVESLittle research has been conducted regarding IEP administratorsand NNES teachers Researchers (eg Mahboob 2003) have notedsome discrimination against NNES teachers in these programs butfew have directly solicited feedback from IEP administrators abouttheir hiring practices and beliefs

As an IEP administrator Perdreau (1994) believes that mostteachers coming out of TESOL programs lack necessary training fordealing with cultural diversity English language teachers sheexplains should come from different countries and cultures torepresent studentsrsquo diverse cultural ethnic and linguisticbackgrounds TESOL programs should prepare NES and NNESteachers to act as role models for students in accommodatingtolerating and reflecting on cultural diversity

Flynn and Gulikers (2001) explain that an understanding ofthe culture of the country whose variety of English is taught isnecessary Also adequate education in TESOL or applied linguisticsis crucial for all ESL teachers Flynn and Gulikers also advocate forall preservice teachers courses in both applied linguistics andcurriculum design a practicum and the opportunity to observe andteach in different contexts (eg Kndash12 community colleges IEPs)Further they advise IEP administrators to provide mentors to allnew teachers and to encourage collaboration

Having surveyed IEP administrators and TESOL teachereducators Reid (1997) notes that IEP administrators often struggle

404 TESOL Journal

with the ethics of providing English language teachers who do notseem qualified (because of their status as nonnative speakers) toteach students who are paying significant amounts of money tolearn English According to these administrators hiring evenqualified NNES teachers prevented their IEP from achieving thesame financial success as IEPs that hire only NES teachers At thesame time many TESOL teacher educators told Reid that thecourses they could offer to NES and NNES teachers did not alwaysdepend on actual needs but rather on the universityrsquos budget thespecializations of the teachers they could hire and constraints in thelocations and sizes of programs A remarkable conclusion reachedby several TESOL teacher educators and IEP administrators whoparticipated in the survey was that the two groups talked abouttheir academic and administrative roles in markedly different wayshad different goals were lsquolsquofundamentally differentrsquorsquo (p 26) andcould rarely reach a common ground

Mahboob (2003) also investigated IEP administratorsrsquo hiringpractices Of the 122 administrators who responded 598considered lsquolsquonative English speakerrsquorsquo an important or somewhatimportant criteria when hiring ESL teachers Of the 1425 teachersworking in the 122 IEPs only 79 were nonnative speakers

As the preceding discussion indicates few researchers haveinvestigated IEP administratorsrsquo and MA TESOL programadministratorsrsquo perspectives on the training and competence of NESand NNES teachers However based on the previously discussedstudies it appears that few people in such lsquolsquorelationshipsrsquorsquo (IEPadministrators teacher educators ESL teachers etc) have similarexpectations regarding teacher education and the teaching andlearning experience To investigate this further the followingproject was undertaken

THE STUDYThe following research questions directed the study3 and will bediscussed here

3 The research questions discussed here are part of a larger study and have been slightly modified to fitthe articlersquos requirements

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 405

1 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo (self-)perceptions of NNES teachersrsquostrengths and weaknesses and how do the opinions of IEP administratorscorroborate with or differ from the teachersrsquo (self-)perceptions

2 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo opinions regarding their teachingpreparation and how do the opinions of IEP administrators corroboratewith or differ from the teachersrsquo opinions

3 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo opinions regarding their current teachingexperience and how do the opinions of IEP administrators corroborate withor differ from the teachersrsquo opinions

4 What are the criteria used by IEP administrators to hire NNES and NESteachers

Research Design

For practical and theoretical reasons (see Brown 2001 Richards ampLockhart 1994) questionnaires were selected as survey instrumentsfor this project To create questions and statements for the varioussections of the questionnaires constructs (eg knowledge ofgrammar job satisfaction) were first identified from the literaturereview (Brown 2001 Purpura 1998) Then questions and state-ments for each construct were written and distributed to a panel ofexperts who considered issues of clarity length and validity of theconstructs and statements After the questionnaires were pilotedthey were placed online for easy access

Next came the identification of participating IEPs Narrowing thefield to accredited IEPs facilitated the selection of programs that weremost similar to one another in terms of overall quality and organization

E-mails requesting participation were sent to 52 IEP adminis-trators and institutional review board permissions were secured for25 IEPs Participating administrators and teachers were then sentthe URLs and passwords to the online questionnaires By the end ofthe semester 96 teacher questionnaires and 21 administratorquestionnaires had been submitted

The SAS 913 statistical package was used to calculatefrequencies and percentages for each question using the multiple-choice and Likert-scale formats

Participants

Ninety-six ESL teachers from 19 IEPs responded to the teacherquestionnaire 18 were nonnative English speakers 78 were native

406 TESOL Journal

speakers The NNES teachers came from Argentina AzerbaijanBrazil China the Czech Republic Germany Iceland Japan KoreaReunion Island Russia Slovakia and Somalia The NES teacherscame from Canada England Ireland New Zealand and the UnitedStates Of the 96 teachers 71 were female and 23 were male

All the participating teachers held a diploma The majority(781) held masterrsquos degrees in TESOL TESL second languageacquisition second language education applied linguisticslinguistics or another field Some teachers were working toward anMA (52) or a PhD (21)

For participating ESL teachers work experience at their currentIEPs ranged from a few weeks to 27 years they taught a variety ofskills (reading writing listening speaking grammar vocabularyculture pronunciation TOEFL preparation idioms interculturalcommunication academic skills business English English forspecific purposes) and at all levels (beginner intermediate andadvanced)

Twenty-one administrators participated 19 were native Englishspeakers 1 was a bilingual speaker of English and Spanish and 1was a nonnative speaker of English Of the 21 8 were male and 13were female Seventeen of the administrators had hired at least oneNNES teacher during the previous semester

RESULTSThe teacher and administrator questionnaires posed severalquestions to study participants This section addresses thesequestions and the responses

Strengths and Weaknesses

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most valuable qualities of NNES teachers ingeneral if anyrsquorsquo

The most frequent responses given by NNES teachers abouttheir own perceived strengths were their understanding ofstudentsrsquo challenges and needs (805) and their own languagelearning experience (777) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]have an ability to relate to the students in a way that a NES teacherdoes not [We] can help students with difficulties and be a rolemodelrsquorsquo Other comments by NNES teachers included the following

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 407

lsquolsquo[We] are very concerned about accuracy in using the language andknowing the reasons English is the way it isrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[We] look atculture from an outside perspective so [we] can point out thingsthat [NES teachers] may not noticersquorsquo Another strength mentionedby NNES teachers about their own teaching was the lsquolsquodesire tocontinue to learn and to demonstrate their own learning tostudentsrsquorsquo as well as their desire to learn from students (445)

NES teachers recognized NNES teachersrsquo language learningexperience (487) their ability to be lsquolsquogood role models forstudentsrsquorsquo (307) and their lsquolsquoability to understand and explaingrammar rulesrsquorsquo (192) One NES teacher admired lsquolsquoNNESteachersrsquo ability to deal with criticism about being [NNESteachers]rsquorsquo and many recognized qualities such as NNES teachersrsquolsquolsquoresilience hopefulness strength cultural wealth and resourcesrsquorsquo(410) Similarly several NES teachers acknowledged NNESteachersrsquo dedication to teaching their effort their lsquolsquoenthusiasmrsquorsquoand their lsquolsquokindnessrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopatiencersquorsquo toward ESL students (435)no NNES teacher mentioned these Finally few NNES teachers incontrast to 833 of their NES colleagues recognized thelsquolsquoadditional cultural insights [NNES teachers provide] for theEnglish language learnerrsquorsquo

NES teachers frequently cited their admiration of their NNESpeers Although they perhaps questioned NNES teachersrsquo languageproficiency or knowledge of US culture (to be discussedsubsequently) they recognized the multicultural awareness andunderstanding of studentsrsquo challenges and needs that NNESteachers brought to the classroom

Administrators more readily recognized NNES teachersrsquopedagogical skills (476) with comments such as lsquolsquoThey havelearned English and their experience can assist them in lesson plansand learning strategiesrsquorsquo Administrators also praised NNESteachers for their knowledge of lsquolsquohow to use multiple techniquesrsquorsquolsquolsquocurricular flexibilityrsquorsquo lsquolsquostrong collegialityrsquorsquo lsquolsquodedicationrsquorsquolsquolsquocreativity in the classroomrsquorsquo and lsquolsquohigh standards (expectations)for students (academics and proficiency)rsquorsquo As one administratorexplained NNES teachersrsquo strengths include lsquolsquolove of languagesand cultures ability to create a comfortable atmosphere in class to

408 TESOL Journal

promote learning and cooperation among the students and abilityto reach students with different learning stylesrsquorsquo

Administrators also recognized NNES teachers as being lsquolsquoterrificrole-modelsrsquorsquo (240) and as having and lsquolsquounderstanding experienceof students in livingadapting to another culture and operating inanother languagersquorsquo (240)

These strengths are similar to those described by Arva andMedgyes (2000) However participants in Arva and Medgyesrsquosstudy also mentioned that NNES teachers were often more strictand demanding than their NES counterparts Although theparticipating NES teachers often recognized NNES teachersrsquodedication only one administrator mentioned the lsquolsquohigh standards(expectations) for studentsrsquorsquo as a strength of NNES teachersAnother strength recognized in previous studies (eg Medgyes1994) was NNES teachersrsquo ability to predict studentsrsquo difficultiesHowever this intuitive skill was only mentioned twice in the onlinequestionnaires

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most serious weaknesses of NNES teachersin general if anyrsquorsquo

NNES teachersrsquo self-perceptions of their weaknesses includedtheir lsquolsquoforeign accentrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopronunciationrsquorsquo (390) theirlsquolsquoinsufficient knowledge of idioms nuances of the language andculture resulting in inability to recognize cultural referencesrsquorsquo(335) their lsquolsquolack of confidencersquorsquo (277) and poor knowledge ofthe English language (277) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]donrsquot have the same feel for the languagersquorsquo Interestingly one NNESteacher perceived his or her knowledge of lsquolsquogrammarrsquorsquo as weakwhich clearly contradicts the literature and the numerous NESteachers and administrators who recognized NNES teachersrsquogrammatical knowledge as a strength As another NNES teacherexplained lsquolsquoeven though I know English language rules better thanthe native speakers I just donrsquot feel confident because thatrsquos not myfirst languagersquorsquo Finally one NNES teacher did not appreciate thequestion and responded lsquolsquoNo one is perfect and no one has it all Ifthey are qualified ESL teachers they are qualified ESL teachersPeriod What do you mean by lsquomost serious weaknessesrsquorsquorsquo

When asked about NNES teachersrsquo weaknesses NES teachersoverwhelmingly noted strong foreign accents and lsquolsquobadrsquorsquo pronun-

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 409

ciation (475) although as one teacher pointed out lsquolsquoour studentshave more difficulty understanding our British-accented instructorsthan our NNES teachersrsquorsquo Other responses included lack of UScultural knowledge (282) as well as lsquolsquopoorrsquorsquo self-confidence(153) Some NES teachers also mentioned lsquolsquoa lack of familiaritywith things NES teachers learn as childrenrsquorsquo and lsquolsquosyntactic errorsthat may be fossilized in some [NNES teachers] [These] instructorswill be models for the English language learners causingconfusionrsquorsquo Others explained that NNES teachers are lsquolsquosometimesnot able to emotionally stand up to students who are unhappy thatthey do not have a NES teacherrsquorsquo and that NNES teachers may feellsquolsquothat they are not good enough because English is not their firstlanguage They are not respected enough as educators and theytend to respond by feeling less confidentrsquorsquo

Another weakness mentioned twice was the different teachingmethods with NNES teachers having lsquolsquoallegiance to outmodedmethodologiesrsquorsquo and preferring lsquolsquoto teach using the methods withwhich they were taught which might not be the most current oraccepted in the United Statesrsquorsquo Another negative response was that

students in an IEP pay a large amount of money to come to theUnited States to learn English Most places in the world haveopportunities where a person can learn English however thereason many students come to the United States is to haveinstruction from a native speaker A nonnative speaker ofEnglish in an IEP must have near-native fluency I would bevery upset if I went to England for example to study Shakespear[sic] or English History only to have a professor from the UnitedStates there for a semester-abroad teaching experience

A few NES teachers went as far as saying that NNES teacherslsquolsquoteach incorrect informationrsquorsquo and have a serious lsquolsquolack of aware-ness of studentsrsquorsquo but comments such as these were rare Otherrespondents acknowledged that lsquolsquoall teachers make mistakesrsquorsquo canbe too critical or unkind can lack patience and can have difficultieslsquolsquosimplifying their speech for lower level studentsrsquorsquo Several NESteachers noted that NNES teachers were more harshly criticized bytheir ESL students for these perceived weaknesses whereas theseweaknesses were more readily accepted as lsquolsquonormalrsquorsquo for NESteachers

410 TESOL Journal

Administrators identified three major weaknesses in NNESteachers foreign accent (380) lsquolsquooverdependence on didacticpresentation of grammarrsquorsquo or lsquolsquofocusing too much on grammarrsquorsquo(333) and lack of self-confidence (285) One administrator alsomentioned lsquolsquothe lack of experience with the culture of theclassroomrsquorsquo Several administrators however did not find anymajor weaknesses that were particular to NNES teachers Oneadministrator explained

In general the most serious weakness would be a degree ofdifficulty with pronunciation that leads to stress on the part ofthe students Most often the students are less and less aware ofthe teacherrsquos accent over time If the students are confident in theteacherrsquos knowledge organization and classroom managementskills the students are more forgiving about pronunciation Ihave found that the [NNES teachers] who receive complaints aremore likely to be inexperienced the complaint then is more anexperience issue than a [NNES teacher] issue

Another administrator concluded by saying lsquolsquoIn my opinion[NNES teachersrsquo strongest weakness is] not believing that they havethe right to teach English Their own perception of themselves isflawedrsquorsquo

These comments lead to the conclusion that little has changedover the years and that the lsquolsquoautomatic extrapolation from compe-tent speaker to competent teacher based on linguistic groundsalonersquorsquo (Seidlhofer 1999 p 236) may still exists today NNESteachers are still sometimes perceived by others through the samelens (as inferior in status) and still sometimes perceive themselvesas having essentially the same strengths and weaknesses as wereobserved in the previous decade

Teacher Education and Teaching Practicum

lsquolsquoDuring your training as an ESL teacher (if any) did you take part in anydiscussions or take any classes aimed specifically at future NNESteachersrsquorsquo

Fifty-one teachers answered negatively to this question and 28did not respond at all Only 17 teachers responded lsquolsquoyesrsquorsquo lsquolsquomaybersquorsquoor lsquolsquoit has been a while but I think sorsquorsquo A few teachers mentioneddiscussions about the lsquolsquoimportance of impressions students have

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 411

about [NES teachers] specifically a preference for lsquoblond blue-eyedrsquo speakers of English even if less qualifiedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquogrammarreview for NES teachers and speech assessment for NNESteachersrsquorsquo One NNES teacher took a class in which lsquolsquoit wasexplained to us that the teacher was the model for his or her studentand should therefore be highly proficient in the language Accentwas not really an issuersquorsquo Two NES teachers wrote lsquolsquoWe oftendiscussed studentsrsquo perceptions of [NNES teachers] in classesrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoWe talked about the benefits and disadvantages of [NNESteachers] teaching Englishrsquorsquo

One recurring comment was that some or many lsquolsquomembers ofthe class were nonnative English speakersrsquorsquo which allowed thistype of discussion to take place One NES teacher for exampleexplained lsquolsquoI took an ESL Phonetics class in which the majority ofclass members were nonnative speakers of English We did practiceteaching activities on each other in peer groups particularly inpronunciation areas NNES teachers have difficulty withrsquorsquo

Except for a few other responses such as lsquolsquono such courses wereofferedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquono all students enrolled were native speakersrsquorsquo thesewere all the answers given by the 96 participating teachers Theseresults corroborate the belief that there is a need for more specificinstructions for future teachers native and nonnative speakers alike(Canagarajah 2005 Kamhi-Stein 2004 J Liu 1999)

lsquolsquoDo you feel like your MA TESOL program (or other trainingprogram if any) is preparing or did prepare you well for your teachingassignmentsrsquorsquo

Responses varied widely but most teachers agreed that they hadbeen prepared well for their teaching assignments Many teachers(343) felt that their MA TESOL program lsquolsquoprepared [them] wellbecause it focused on practical teaching and not theory onlyrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoprepared [them] well for forming the theories behind what [they]choose to do in classrsquorsquo On the other hand many teachers (291)complained that it was lsquolsquohard to see how to incorporate all [the]theory into the actual practicersquorsquo or that lsquolsquotherersquos only so much aprogram can do The best preparation is the actual experiencersquorsquo OneNNES teacher also said lsquolsquoIt didnrsquot necessarily prepare me specificallyas a NNES teacher but practical as well as theoretical aspects ofteaching a language have been helpful for my current teaching

412 TESOL Journal

assignmentsrsquorsquo Another NNES teacher commented lsquolsquoIt gave meinsights of the American teaching stylersquorsquo This last comment confirmsBrainersquos (1999) and Eguigurenrsquos (2000) concerns regarding NorthAmerican TESOL programs potentially giving future Englishlanguage teachers a monocentric perspective of pedagogy

A frequent comment from NES as well as NNES teachers wasthat lsquolsquoexperience is still clearly the best teacherrsquorsquo Yet there were alsoseveral negative responses such as lsquolsquo[Our] program did not provideextensive practical training There was no practicum or studentteaching requiredrsquorsquo As one teacher explained lsquolsquoIn this programnonnative-English-speaking TESOL students are allowed to becomeESL instructors only if they are PhD students but not at the MAlevelrsquorsquo This corroborates Mahboobrsquos (2003) findings about the lackof practical training available to many NNES teachers

lsquolsquoHow shouldcould MA TESOL programs (or other teacherpreparation programs) prepare future ESL teachers to become excellentteachersrsquorsquo

IEP administratorsrsquo most common response (523) was lsquolsquoGive[preservice teachers] lots of practice-teaching and teachingopportunitiesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquoa lot of opportunities to observe otherteachersrsquorsquo Other responses from administrators reflected thisstatement lsquolsquoPrepare the teachers to understand culture and tocompensate with visuals if pronunciation is a problemrsquorsquo and toprovide lsquolsquosessions on classroom culturersquorsquo and lsquolsquoextensive reflectionon the professionrsquorsquo Administrators also advised teacher educatorsto help future ESL teachers lsquolsquoby providing a variety of learningopportunities (observations in the IEP course work etc) and bygetting the student teachers to develop their own philosophy forteachingrsquorsquo Other recurrent recommendations included thefollowing lsquolsquo[exposing preservice teachers] to a solid foundation inthe structure of the English language teaching methodology issuesin language pedagogy and policy and theory (eg World Englishescritical pedagogy)rsquorsquo lsquolsquo[increasing their] knowledge of languageacquisition pragmatics sociolinguistics content-basedinstructionrsquorsquo lsquolsquomentoring or partnering [them] with nativespeakersrsquorsquo giving lsquolsquoaccent reduction classrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[encouraging]professionalismrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[teaching] pronunciation and classroommanagement and expectations of nonnative speakers from a variety

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 413

of culturesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[teaching] awareness of nonverbalcommunicationrsquorsquo These suggestions are similar to thoserecommended by several scholars The idea of collaboration forexample was thoroughly discussed and studied by Matsuda andMatsuda (2004) and de Oliveira and Richardson (2001)

Two final comments seemed particularly significant in referenceto the education of NNES teachers

Prepare nonnative speakers mentally for the attitudes that theirstudents may have towards them Share with them strategies forgaining the confidence of their students

The most important training involves the exposure to resourcesnew teachers need to know where they will be able to findanswers in the future Teacher training should also include theprocess of community building Teachers should feel free to askquestions to share their knowledge and to cultivate their ownteaching style All members of the team should be aware of theneeds of the whole and aware of the benefits of their individualcontributions

The previous responses can be sorted into two main categorieson the one hand the need for more solid and extensive practicaltraining for NES and NNES teachers alike and on the other handthe need for focused discussions on the topic of NES and NNESteachersrsquo strengths and weaknesses challenges and successesneeds and achievements

Teaching Experience and Responses to Discrimination

lsquolsquoDo you feel that you are being discriminated against in any way bystudents or colleaguesrsquorsquo

Of the 93 ESL teachers who responded 366 said yes and634 said no Among those who said yes 7 were NNES teachers(representing 38 of all NNES teacher respondents) although oneof the NNES teachers who answered negatively added lsquolsquoI havenever heard any negative comments However I do hear [fromother] teachers that some students donrsquot particularly like mersquorsquo

When asked how they responded or would respond todiscrimination against NNES teachers from ESL students severalNES teachers explained that they tell students about NNESteachersrsquo strengths (grammar knowledge etc) that there are

414 TESOL Journal

different accents even within the United States and that it isimportant to be accustomed to different accents in todayrsquosmulticultural world (see Canagarajah 2005 for a thoroughdiscussion of this concept) As one teacher explained

I ask students how they plan to use English in the futureInevitably they will use it in a context where they will comeacross many types of users of English not just native speakers Istress that being exposed to a variety of accents and uses ofEnglish from a professional and trained teacher will benefitthem in the short and long run

Other teachers replied that they made no attempt to convincestudents that NNES teachers could be good teachers because lsquolsquonowords can convince them that they are in good handsrsquorsquo Others triedto lsquolsquoevaluate the reason behind the commentsrsquorsquo or advised thestudents lsquolsquoto speak to the teacher directlyrsquorsquo Some respondents toldESL students that lsquolsquothere are many different dialects of English that[students] must get used torsquorsquo that lsquolsquo[NNES teachersrsquo] experienceadds a lot to the class that [NES teachers] cannot add becausetheyrsquove never been through the experience of learning Englishrsquorsquoand that lsquolsquo[students] are lucky to have such a good role modelrsquorsquo

Although most NES teachers reported standing up for theirNNES colleagues in response to discriminatory comments one NESteacher responded lsquolsquoI think it is a subject worthy of discussionWould you like to learn to play the violin from someone who didnrsquotplay it wellrsquorsquo Similarly the great majority of NNES teachers felt thatthey could talk to mentors or IEP administrators if they encountereddiscrimination but one disagreed and explained lsquolsquoNo not really If Iwant to keep my job Irsquove been taught to avoid any negativeconfrontation with any individual in an administrative positionrsquorsquo

IEP administrators seemed to be more aware than teachers ofongoing discrimination against NNES teachers When asked howthey reacted or would react to discrimination some administratorsreplied lsquolsquoWe engage students and teachers in conversations aboutspecific issues and a larger conversation about Englishinternationally and in the universityrsquorsquo Others explained to theirstudents that lsquolsquoEnglish is spoken in many different rhythms andwith somewhat different pronunciation and that as citizens of theworld people need to listen and adjust to speaking differencesrsquorsquo and

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 415

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

native and nonnative speakers and confirms that this distinctionno longer applies because of globalization and the intense mixingof cultures currently taking place in the postmodern worldmaking the definitions of the words too blurry and restrictedCanagarajah and other scholars (eg Higgins 2003) explain thatEnglish is no longer owned and dominated by the old inner circlecolonial powers (Kachru 1982) but by a multitude of speakersfrom diverse cultures who need to learn to communicate andnegotiate effectively Indeed English teaching proficiency has to beseen as a lsquolsquoplural systemrsquorsquo that abandons the notion of nativeversus nonnative speakers and instead adopts the distinctionbetween for example lsquolsquonovice and expertrsquorsquo teachers (Canagarajah2005 p xxvii) That is a lsquolsquogoodrsquorsquo teacher should no longer be anative or nonnative speaker but should only be an educatedperson who masters a combination of linguistic pedagogical andmethodological skills (Astor 2000) matching a given context at agiven time and for a given purpose

TEACHER EDUCATION AND TEACHING PRACTICUMDetermining a curriculum for teacher education programs is oftenproblematic because not all native and nonnative speakers have thesame linguistic cultural and educational background Thestandard approach has been to offer the same curriculum to bothwhile establishing distinct admission and graduation requirementsfor each England and Roberts (1989) found that roughly 40 of allMA TESOL students were nonnative English speakers and thattheir admission requirements to most programs differed from thoseof native speakers However although most program administra-tors recognized linguistic and cultural differences between nativeand nonnative speakers many did not see a need for specialadjustments to accommodate nonnative speakersrsquo circumstances DLiu (1999) also confirms that although approximately 40 of allTESOL students in North America Britain and Australia werenonnative speakers they received the same training as nativespeakers

Several scholars have proposed to improve training for bothgroups through targeted programs of study Berry (1990) Cullen(1994) and the contributors to Kamhi-Steinrsquos (2004) volume

402 TESOL Journal

promote tailored classes that would increase nonnative speakersrsquoconfidence facilitate language use in the classroom and presentvaried methodologies for a range of contexts Cullen Lee (2004)and Lin Wang Akamatsu and Riazi (2005) reflect that in factnative as well as nonnative speakers could benefit from courses ingrammar pronunciation vocabulary and culture Moreovercertain scholars (eg Brady amp Gulikers 2004 Pasternak amp Bailey2004) recommend improving native speakersrsquo awareness of andsensitivity to topics such as culture shock language learningdifficulties and other sociolinguistic issues Nelson (1992) Llurda(2004) and Eguiguren (2000) suggest that native speakers alsoneeded training to correct their perception of English as a fixed andcontrolled entity because many varieties of English existthroughout the world even within English-speaking countries (seeKachru 1982) And English language teachers must be prepared toaddress the needs of students who will use English forcross-cultural communication (Canagarajah 2005 Modiano 2001)

Regarding teaching practicum practices Reid (1997) observesthat approximately two-thirds of TESOL programs in the UnitedStates require a supervised teacher training component for everystudent Interestingly although practicum supervisors in Llurdarsquos(2005) study agreed that the NNES preservice teachers in theirprograms had higher language awareness than their NEScounterparts most of these supervisors also said that they wouldrecommend nonnative speakers to teach primarily low-level classesSimilarly most practicum supervisors believed that NNES teacherswould feel more comfortable teaching in their own countries ratherthan in the United States and 16 of the NNES preservice teacherswere recognized as having problematic accents

TEACHERrsquoS PERSPECTIVESFor NNES teachers developing self-esteem and authority in theclassroom seems to present greater challenges than attaininglanguage proficiency Greis (1984) and Medgyes (1994) explain thatmany NNES teachers feel anxiety when in front of students orcolleagues Reves and Medgyes (1994) conducted a studyillustrating that the perpetual fear of studentsrsquo judgment madeNNES teachers self-conscious of their mistakes which in turn made

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 403

them more insecure Samimy and Brutt-Giffler (1999) argue that acombination of external factors (eg age and proficiency level ofstudents goals and objectives of the program personality and skillsof the teachers) significantly affect the perceived success of ateaching experience

Maumrsquos (2003) interviews with NES and NNES teachers revealthat both groups saw their role as ESL teachers quite differentlybased on their perceived strengths and weaknesses and their ownlanguage learning experience NNES teachers also clearly expressedfrustration toward their isolation and lsquolsquomarginalization in theprofessionrsquorsquo (p 162)

LANGUAGE PROGRAM ADMINISTRATORSrsquoPERSPECTIVESLittle research has been conducted regarding IEP administratorsand NNES teachers Researchers (eg Mahboob 2003) have notedsome discrimination against NNES teachers in these programs butfew have directly solicited feedback from IEP administrators abouttheir hiring practices and beliefs

As an IEP administrator Perdreau (1994) believes that mostteachers coming out of TESOL programs lack necessary training fordealing with cultural diversity English language teachers sheexplains should come from different countries and cultures torepresent studentsrsquo diverse cultural ethnic and linguisticbackgrounds TESOL programs should prepare NES and NNESteachers to act as role models for students in accommodatingtolerating and reflecting on cultural diversity

Flynn and Gulikers (2001) explain that an understanding ofthe culture of the country whose variety of English is taught isnecessary Also adequate education in TESOL or applied linguisticsis crucial for all ESL teachers Flynn and Gulikers also advocate forall preservice teachers courses in both applied linguistics andcurriculum design a practicum and the opportunity to observe andteach in different contexts (eg Kndash12 community colleges IEPs)Further they advise IEP administrators to provide mentors to allnew teachers and to encourage collaboration

Having surveyed IEP administrators and TESOL teachereducators Reid (1997) notes that IEP administrators often struggle

404 TESOL Journal

with the ethics of providing English language teachers who do notseem qualified (because of their status as nonnative speakers) toteach students who are paying significant amounts of money tolearn English According to these administrators hiring evenqualified NNES teachers prevented their IEP from achieving thesame financial success as IEPs that hire only NES teachers At thesame time many TESOL teacher educators told Reid that thecourses they could offer to NES and NNES teachers did not alwaysdepend on actual needs but rather on the universityrsquos budget thespecializations of the teachers they could hire and constraints in thelocations and sizes of programs A remarkable conclusion reachedby several TESOL teacher educators and IEP administrators whoparticipated in the survey was that the two groups talked abouttheir academic and administrative roles in markedly different wayshad different goals were lsquolsquofundamentally differentrsquorsquo (p 26) andcould rarely reach a common ground

Mahboob (2003) also investigated IEP administratorsrsquo hiringpractices Of the 122 administrators who responded 598considered lsquolsquonative English speakerrsquorsquo an important or somewhatimportant criteria when hiring ESL teachers Of the 1425 teachersworking in the 122 IEPs only 79 were nonnative speakers

As the preceding discussion indicates few researchers haveinvestigated IEP administratorsrsquo and MA TESOL programadministratorsrsquo perspectives on the training and competence of NESand NNES teachers However based on the previously discussedstudies it appears that few people in such lsquolsquorelationshipsrsquorsquo (IEPadministrators teacher educators ESL teachers etc) have similarexpectations regarding teacher education and the teaching andlearning experience To investigate this further the followingproject was undertaken

THE STUDYThe following research questions directed the study3 and will bediscussed here

3 The research questions discussed here are part of a larger study and have been slightly modified to fitthe articlersquos requirements

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 405

1 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo (self-)perceptions of NNES teachersrsquostrengths and weaknesses and how do the opinions of IEP administratorscorroborate with or differ from the teachersrsquo (self-)perceptions

2 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo opinions regarding their teachingpreparation and how do the opinions of IEP administrators corroboratewith or differ from the teachersrsquo opinions

3 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo opinions regarding their current teachingexperience and how do the opinions of IEP administrators corroborate withor differ from the teachersrsquo opinions

4 What are the criteria used by IEP administrators to hire NNES and NESteachers

Research Design

For practical and theoretical reasons (see Brown 2001 Richards ampLockhart 1994) questionnaires were selected as survey instrumentsfor this project To create questions and statements for the varioussections of the questionnaires constructs (eg knowledge ofgrammar job satisfaction) were first identified from the literaturereview (Brown 2001 Purpura 1998) Then questions and state-ments for each construct were written and distributed to a panel ofexperts who considered issues of clarity length and validity of theconstructs and statements After the questionnaires were pilotedthey were placed online for easy access

Next came the identification of participating IEPs Narrowing thefield to accredited IEPs facilitated the selection of programs that weremost similar to one another in terms of overall quality and organization

E-mails requesting participation were sent to 52 IEP adminis-trators and institutional review board permissions were secured for25 IEPs Participating administrators and teachers were then sentthe URLs and passwords to the online questionnaires By the end ofthe semester 96 teacher questionnaires and 21 administratorquestionnaires had been submitted

The SAS 913 statistical package was used to calculatefrequencies and percentages for each question using the multiple-choice and Likert-scale formats

Participants

Ninety-six ESL teachers from 19 IEPs responded to the teacherquestionnaire 18 were nonnative English speakers 78 were native

406 TESOL Journal

speakers The NNES teachers came from Argentina AzerbaijanBrazil China the Czech Republic Germany Iceland Japan KoreaReunion Island Russia Slovakia and Somalia The NES teacherscame from Canada England Ireland New Zealand and the UnitedStates Of the 96 teachers 71 were female and 23 were male

All the participating teachers held a diploma The majority(781) held masterrsquos degrees in TESOL TESL second languageacquisition second language education applied linguisticslinguistics or another field Some teachers were working toward anMA (52) or a PhD (21)

For participating ESL teachers work experience at their currentIEPs ranged from a few weeks to 27 years they taught a variety ofskills (reading writing listening speaking grammar vocabularyculture pronunciation TOEFL preparation idioms interculturalcommunication academic skills business English English forspecific purposes) and at all levels (beginner intermediate andadvanced)

Twenty-one administrators participated 19 were native Englishspeakers 1 was a bilingual speaker of English and Spanish and 1was a nonnative speaker of English Of the 21 8 were male and 13were female Seventeen of the administrators had hired at least oneNNES teacher during the previous semester

RESULTSThe teacher and administrator questionnaires posed severalquestions to study participants This section addresses thesequestions and the responses

Strengths and Weaknesses

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most valuable qualities of NNES teachers ingeneral if anyrsquorsquo

The most frequent responses given by NNES teachers abouttheir own perceived strengths were their understanding ofstudentsrsquo challenges and needs (805) and their own languagelearning experience (777) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]have an ability to relate to the students in a way that a NES teacherdoes not [We] can help students with difficulties and be a rolemodelrsquorsquo Other comments by NNES teachers included the following

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 407

lsquolsquo[We] are very concerned about accuracy in using the language andknowing the reasons English is the way it isrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[We] look atculture from an outside perspective so [we] can point out thingsthat [NES teachers] may not noticersquorsquo Another strength mentionedby NNES teachers about their own teaching was the lsquolsquodesire tocontinue to learn and to demonstrate their own learning tostudentsrsquorsquo as well as their desire to learn from students (445)

NES teachers recognized NNES teachersrsquo language learningexperience (487) their ability to be lsquolsquogood role models forstudentsrsquorsquo (307) and their lsquolsquoability to understand and explaingrammar rulesrsquorsquo (192) One NES teacher admired lsquolsquoNNESteachersrsquo ability to deal with criticism about being [NNESteachers]rsquorsquo and many recognized qualities such as NNES teachersrsquolsquolsquoresilience hopefulness strength cultural wealth and resourcesrsquorsquo(410) Similarly several NES teachers acknowledged NNESteachersrsquo dedication to teaching their effort their lsquolsquoenthusiasmrsquorsquoand their lsquolsquokindnessrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopatiencersquorsquo toward ESL students (435)no NNES teacher mentioned these Finally few NNES teachers incontrast to 833 of their NES colleagues recognized thelsquolsquoadditional cultural insights [NNES teachers provide] for theEnglish language learnerrsquorsquo

NES teachers frequently cited their admiration of their NNESpeers Although they perhaps questioned NNES teachersrsquo languageproficiency or knowledge of US culture (to be discussedsubsequently) they recognized the multicultural awareness andunderstanding of studentsrsquo challenges and needs that NNESteachers brought to the classroom

Administrators more readily recognized NNES teachersrsquopedagogical skills (476) with comments such as lsquolsquoThey havelearned English and their experience can assist them in lesson plansand learning strategiesrsquorsquo Administrators also praised NNESteachers for their knowledge of lsquolsquohow to use multiple techniquesrsquorsquolsquolsquocurricular flexibilityrsquorsquo lsquolsquostrong collegialityrsquorsquo lsquolsquodedicationrsquorsquolsquolsquocreativity in the classroomrsquorsquo and lsquolsquohigh standards (expectations)for students (academics and proficiency)rsquorsquo As one administratorexplained NNES teachersrsquo strengths include lsquolsquolove of languagesand cultures ability to create a comfortable atmosphere in class to

408 TESOL Journal

promote learning and cooperation among the students and abilityto reach students with different learning stylesrsquorsquo

Administrators also recognized NNES teachers as being lsquolsquoterrificrole-modelsrsquorsquo (240) and as having and lsquolsquounderstanding experienceof students in livingadapting to another culture and operating inanother languagersquorsquo (240)

These strengths are similar to those described by Arva andMedgyes (2000) However participants in Arva and Medgyesrsquosstudy also mentioned that NNES teachers were often more strictand demanding than their NES counterparts Although theparticipating NES teachers often recognized NNES teachersrsquodedication only one administrator mentioned the lsquolsquohigh standards(expectations) for studentsrsquorsquo as a strength of NNES teachersAnother strength recognized in previous studies (eg Medgyes1994) was NNES teachersrsquo ability to predict studentsrsquo difficultiesHowever this intuitive skill was only mentioned twice in the onlinequestionnaires

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most serious weaknesses of NNES teachersin general if anyrsquorsquo

NNES teachersrsquo self-perceptions of their weaknesses includedtheir lsquolsquoforeign accentrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopronunciationrsquorsquo (390) theirlsquolsquoinsufficient knowledge of idioms nuances of the language andculture resulting in inability to recognize cultural referencesrsquorsquo(335) their lsquolsquolack of confidencersquorsquo (277) and poor knowledge ofthe English language (277) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]donrsquot have the same feel for the languagersquorsquo Interestingly one NNESteacher perceived his or her knowledge of lsquolsquogrammarrsquorsquo as weakwhich clearly contradicts the literature and the numerous NESteachers and administrators who recognized NNES teachersrsquogrammatical knowledge as a strength As another NNES teacherexplained lsquolsquoeven though I know English language rules better thanthe native speakers I just donrsquot feel confident because thatrsquos not myfirst languagersquorsquo Finally one NNES teacher did not appreciate thequestion and responded lsquolsquoNo one is perfect and no one has it all Ifthey are qualified ESL teachers they are qualified ESL teachersPeriod What do you mean by lsquomost serious weaknessesrsquorsquorsquo

When asked about NNES teachersrsquo weaknesses NES teachersoverwhelmingly noted strong foreign accents and lsquolsquobadrsquorsquo pronun-

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 409

ciation (475) although as one teacher pointed out lsquolsquoour studentshave more difficulty understanding our British-accented instructorsthan our NNES teachersrsquorsquo Other responses included lack of UScultural knowledge (282) as well as lsquolsquopoorrsquorsquo self-confidence(153) Some NES teachers also mentioned lsquolsquoa lack of familiaritywith things NES teachers learn as childrenrsquorsquo and lsquolsquosyntactic errorsthat may be fossilized in some [NNES teachers] [These] instructorswill be models for the English language learners causingconfusionrsquorsquo Others explained that NNES teachers are lsquolsquosometimesnot able to emotionally stand up to students who are unhappy thatthey do not have a NES teacherrsquorsquo and that NNES teachers may feellsquolsquothat they are not good enough because English is not their firstlanguage They are not respected enough as educators and theytend to respond by feeling less confidentrsquorsquo

Another weakness mentioned twice was the different teachingmethods with NNES teachers having lsquolsquoallegiance to outmodedmethodologiesrsquorsquo and preferring lsquolsquoto teach using the methods withwhich they were taught which might not be the most current oraccepted in the United Statesrsquorsquo Another negative response was that

students in an IEP pay a large amount of money to come to theUnited States to learn English Most places in the world haveopportunities where a person can learn English however thereason many students come to the United States is to haveinstruction from a native speaker A nonnative speaker ofEnglish in an IEP must have near-native fluency I would bevery upset if I went to England for example to study Shakespear[sic] or English History only to have a professor from the UnitedStates there for a semester-abroad teaching experience

A few NES teachers went as far as saying that NNES teacherslsquolsquoteach incorrect informationrsquorsquo and have a serious lsquolsquolack of aware-ness of studentsrsquorsquo but comments such as these were rare Otherrespondents acknowledged that lsquolsquoall teachers make mistakesrsquorsquo canbe too critical or unkind can lack patience and can have difficultieslsquolsquosimplifying their speech for lower level studentsrsquorsquo Several NESteachers noted that NNES teachers were more harshly criticized bytheir ESL students for these perceived weaknesses whereas theseweaknesses were more readily accepted as lsquolsquonormalrsquorsquo for NESteachers

410 TESOL Journal

Administrators identified three major weaknesses in NNESteachers foreign accent (380) lsquolsquooverdependence on didacticpresentation of grammarrsquorsquo or lsquolsquofocusing too much on grammarrsquorsquo(333) and lack of self-confidence (285) One administrator alsomentioned lsquolsquothe lack of experience with the culture of theclassroomrsquorsquo Several administrators however did not find anymajor weaknesses that were particular to NNES teachers Oneadministrator explained

In general the most serious weakness would be a degree ofdifficulty with pronunciation that leads to stress on the part ofthe students Most often the students are less and less aware ofthe teacherrsquos accent over time If the students are confident in theteacherrsquos knowledge organization and classroom managementskills the students are more forgiving about pronunciation Ihave found that the [NNES teachers] who receive complaints aremore likely to be inexperienced the complaint then is more anexperience issue than a [NNES teacher] issue

Another administrator concluded by saying lsquolsquoIn my opinion[NNES teachersrsquo strongest weakness is] not believing that they havethe right to teach English Their own perception of themselves isflawedrsquorsquo

These comments lead to the conclusion that little has changedover the years and that the lsquolsquoautomatic extrapolation from compe-tent speaker to competent teacher based on linguistic groundsalonersquorsquo (Seidlhofer 1999 p 236) may still exists today NNESteachers are still sometimes perceived by others through the samelens (as inferior in status) and still sometimes perceive themselvesas having essentially the same strengths and weaknesses as wereobserved in the previous decade

Teacher Education and Teaching Practicum

lsquolsquoDuring your training as an ESL teacher (if any) did you take part in anydiscussions or take any classes aimed specifically at future NNESteachersrsquorsquo

Fifty-one teachers answered negatively to this question and 28did not respond at all Only 17 teachers responded lsquolsquoyesrsquorsquo lsquolsquomaybersquorsquoor lsquolsquoit has been a while but I think sorsquorsquo A few teachers mentioneddiscussions about the lsquolsquoimportance of impressions students have

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 411

about [NES teachers] specifically a preference for lsquoblond blue-eyedrsquo speakers of English even if less qualifiedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquogrammarreview for NES teachers and speech assessment for NNESteachersrsquorsquo One NNES teacher took a class in which lsquolsquoit wasexplained to us that the teacher was the model for his or her studentand should therefore be highly proficient in the language Accentwas not really an issuersquorsquo Two NES teachers wrote lsquolsquoWe oftendiscussed studentsrsquo perceptions of [NNES teachers] in classesrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoWe talked about the benefits and disadvantages of [NNESteachers] teaching Englishrsquorsquo

One recurring comment was that some or many lsquolsquomembers ofthe class were nonnative English speakersrsquorsquo which allowed thistype of discussion to take place One NES teacher for exampleexplained lsquolsquoI took an ESL Phonetics class in which the majority ofclass members were nonnative speakers of English We did practiceteaching activities on each other in peer groups particularly inpronunciation areas NNES teachers have difficulty withrsquorsquo

Except for a few other responses such as lsquolsquono such courses wereofferedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquono all students enrolled were native speakersrsquorsquo thesewere all the answers given by the 96 participating teachers Theseresults corroborate the belief that there is a need for more specificinstructions for future teachers native and nonnative speakers alike(Canagarajah 2005 Kamhi-Stein 2004 J Liu 1999)

lsquolsquoDo you feel like your MA TESOL program (or other trainingprogram if any) is preparing or did prepare you well for your teachingassignmentsrsquorsquo

Responses varied widely but most teachers agreed that they hadbeen prepared well for their teaching assignments Many teachers(343) felt that their MA TESOL program lsquolsquoprepared [them] wellbecause it focused on practical teaching and not theory onlyrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoprepared [them] well for forming the theories behind what [they]choose to do in classrsquorsquo On the other hand many teachers (291)complained that it was lsquolsquohard to see how to incorporate all [the]theory into the actual practicersquorsquo or that lsquolsquotherersquos only so much aprogram can do The best preparation is the actual experiencersquorsquo OneNNES teacher also said lsquolsquoIt didnrsquot necessarily prepare me specificallyas a NNES teacher but practical as well as theoretical aspects ofteaching a language have been helpful for my current teaching

412 TESOL Journal

assignmentsrsquorsquo Another NNES teacher commented lsquolsquoIt gave meinsights of the American teaching stylersquorsquo This last comment confirmsBrainersquos (1999) and Eguigurenrsquos (2000) concerns regarding NorthAmerican TESOL programs potentially giving future Englishlanguage teachers a monocentric perspective of pedagogy

A frequent comment from NES as well as NNES teachers wasthat lsquolsquoexperience is still clearly the best teacherrsquorsquo Yet there were alsoseveral negative responses such as lsquolsquo[Our] program did not provideextensive practical training There was no practicum or studentteaching requiredrsquorsquo As one teacher explained lsquolsquoIn this programnonnative-English-speaking TESOL students are allowed to becomeESL instructors only if they are PhD students but not at the MAlevelrsquorsquo This corroborates Mahboobrsquos (2003) findings about the lackof practical training available to many NNES teachers

lsquolsquoHow shouldcould MA TESOL programs (or other teacherpreparation programs) prepare future ESL teachers to become excellentteachersrsquorsquo

IEP administratorsrsquo most common response (523) was lsquolsquoGive[preservice teachers] lots of practice-teaching and teachingopportunitiesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquoa lot of opportunities to observe otherteachersrsquorsquo Other responses from administrators reflected thisstatement lsquolsquoPrepare the teachers to understand culture and tocompensate with visuals if pronunciation is a problemrsquorsquo and toprovide lsquolsquosessions on classroom culturersquorsquo and lsquolsquoextensive reflectionon the professionrsquorsquo Administrators also advised teacher educatorsto help future ESL teachers lsquolsquoby providing a variety of learningopportunities (observations in the IEP course work etc) and bygetting the student teachers to develop their own philosophy forteachingrsquorsquo Other recurrent recommendations included thefollowing lsquolsquo[exposing preservice teachers] to a solid foundation inthe structure of the English language teaching methodology issuesin language pedagogy and policy and theory (eg World Englishescritical pedagogy)rsquorsquo lsquolsquo[increasing their] knowledge of languageacquisition pragmatics sociolinguistics content-basedinstructionrsquorsquo lsquolsquomentoring or partnering [them] with nativespeakersrsquorsquo giving lsquolsquoaccent reduction classrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[encouraging]professionalismrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[teaching] pronunciation and classroommanagement and expectations of nonnative speakers from a variety

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 413

of culturesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[teaching] awareness of nonverbalcommunicationrsquorsquo These suggestions are similar to thoserecommended by several scholars The idea of collaboration forexample was thoroughly discussed and studied by Matsuda andMatsuda (2004) and de Oliveira and Richardson (2001)

Two final comments seemed particularly significant in referenceto the education of NNES teachers

Prepare nonnative speakers mentally for the attitudes that theirstudents may have towards them Share with them strategies forgaining the confidence of their students

The most important training involves the exposure to resourcesnew teachers need to know where they will be able to findanswers in the future Teacher training should also include theprocess of community building Teachers should feel free to askquestions to share their knowledge and to cultivate their ownteaching style All members of the team should be aware of theneeds of the whole and aware of the benefits of their individualcontributions

The previous responses can be sorted into two main categorieson the one hand the need for more solid and extensive practicaltraining for NES and NNES teachers alike and on the other handthe need for focused discussions on the topic of NES and NNESteachersrsquo strengths and weaknesses challenges and successesneeds and achievements

Teaching Experience and Responses to Discrimination

lsquolsquoDo you feel that you are being discriminated against in any way bystudents or colleaguesrsquorsquo

Of the 93 ESL teachers who responded 366 said yes and634 said no Among those who said yes 7 were NNES teachers(representing 38 of all NNES teacher respondents) although oneof the NNES teachers who answered negatively added lsquolsquoI havenever heard any negative comments However I do hear [fromother] teachers that some students donrsquot particularly like mersquorsquo

When asked how they responded or would respond todiscrimination against NNES teachers from ESL students severalNES teachers explained that they tell students about NNESteachersrsquo strengths (grammar knowledge etc) that there are

414 TESOL Journal

different accents even within the United States and that it isimportant to be accustomed to different accents in todayrsquosmulticultural world (see Canagarajah 2005 for a thoroughdiscussion of this concept) As one teacher explained

I ask students how they plan to use English in the futureInevitably they will use it in a context where they will comeacross many types of users of English not just native speakers Istress that being exposed to a variety of accents and uses ofEnglish from a professional and trained teacher will benefitthem in the short and long run

Other teachers replied that they made no attempt to convincestudents that NNES teachers could be good teachers because lsquolsquonowords can convince them that they are in good handsrsquorsquo Others triedto lsquolsquoevaluate the reason behind the commentsrsquorsquo or advised thestudents lsquolsquoto speak to the teacher directlyrsquorsquo Some respondents toldESL students that lsquolsquothere are many different dialects of English that[students] must get used torsquorsquo that lsquolsquo[NNES teachersrsquo] experienceadds a lot to the class that [NES teachers] cannot add becausetheyrsquove never been through the experience of learning Englishrsquorsquoand that lsquolsquo[students] are lucky to have such a good role modelrsquorsquo

Although most NES teachers reported standing up for theirNNES colleagues in response to discriminatory comments one NESteacher responded lsquolsquoI think it is a subject worthy of discussionWould you like to learn to play the violin from someone who didnrsquotplay it wellrsquorsquo Similarly the great majority of NNES teachers felt thatthey could talk to mentors or IEP administrators if they encountereddiscrimination but one disagreed and explained lsquolsquoNo not really If Iwant to keep my job Irsquove been taught to avoid any negativeconfrontation with any individual in an administrative positionrsquorsquo

IEP administrators seemed to be more aware than teachers ofongoing discrimination against NNES teachers When asked howthey reacted or would react to discrimination some administratorsreplied lsquolsquoWe engage students and teachers in conversations aboutspecific issues and a larger conversation about Englishinternationally and in the universityrsquorsquo Others explained to theirstudents that lsquolsquoEnglish is spoken in many different rhythms andwith somewhat different pronunciation and that as citizens of theworld people need to listen and adjust to speaking differencesrsquorsquo and

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 415

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

promote tailored classes that would increase nonnative speakersrsquoconfidence facilitate language use in the classroom and presentvaried methodologies for a range of contexts Cullen Lee (2004)and Lin Wang Akamatsu and Riazi (2005) reflect that in factnative as well as nonnative speakers could benefit from courses ingrammar pronunciation vocabulary and culture Moreovercertain scholars (eg Brady amp Gulikers 2004 Pasternak amp Bailey2004) recommend improving native speakersrsquo awareness of andsensitivity to topics such as culture shock language learningdifficulties and other sociolinguistic issues Nelson (1992) Llurda(2004) and Eguiguren (2000) suggest that native speakers alsoneeded training to correct their perception of English as a fixed andcontrolled entity because many varieties of English existthroughout the world even within English-speaking countries (seeKachru 1982) And English language teachers must be prepared toaddress the needs of students who will use English forcross-cultural communication (Canagarajah 2005 Modiano 2001)

Regarding teaching practicum practices Reid (1997) observesthat approximately two-thirds of TESOL programs in the UnitedStates require a supervised teacher training component for everystudent Interestingly although practicum supervisors in Llurdarsquos(2005) study agreed that the NNES preservice teachers in theirprograms had higher language awareness than their NEScounterparts most of these supervisors also said that they wouldrecommend nonnative speakers to teach primarily low-level classesSimilarly most practicum supervisors believed that NNES teacherswould feel more comfortable teaching in their own countries ratherthan in the United States and 16 of the NNES preservice teacherswere recognized as having problematic accents

TEACHERrsquoS PERSPECTIVESFor NNES teachers developing self-esteem and authority in theclassroom seems to present greater challenges than attaininglanguage proficiency Greis (1984) and Medgyes (1994) explain thatmany NNES teachers feel anxiety when in front of students orcolleagues Reves and Medgyes (1994) conducted a studyillustrating that the perpetual fear of studentsrsquo judgment madeNNES teachers self-conscious of their mistakes which in turn made

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 403

them more insecure Samimy and Brutt-Giffler (1999) argue that acombination of external factors (eg age and proficiency level ofstudents goals and objectives of the program personality and skillsof the teachers) significantly affect the perceived success of ateaching experience

Maumrsquos (2003) interviews with NES and NNES teachers revealthat both groups saw their role as ESL teachers quite differentlybased on their perceived strengths and weaknesses and their ownlanguage learning experience NNES teachers also clearly expressedfrustration toward their isolation and lsquolsquomarginalization in theprofessionrsquorsquo (p 162)

LANGUAGE PROGRAM ADMINISTRATORSrsquoPERSPECTIVESLittle research has been conducted regarding IEP administratorsand NNES teachers Researchers (eg Mahboob 2003) have notedsome discrimination against NNES teachers in these programs butfew have directly solicited feedback from IEP administrators abouttheir hiring practices and beliefs

As an IEP administrator Perdreau (1994) believes that mostteachers coming out of TESOL programs lack necessary training fordealing with cultural diversity English language teachers sheexplains should come from different countries and cultures torepresent studentsrsquo diverse cultural ethnic and linguisticbackgrounds TESOL programs should prepare NES and NNESteachers to act as role models for students in accommodatingtolerating and reflecting on cultural diversity

Flynn and Gulikers (2001) explain that an understanding ofthe culture of the country whose variety of English is taught isnecessary Also adequate education in TESOL or applied linguisticsis crucial for all ESL teachers Flynn and Gulikers also advocate forall preservice teachers courses in both applied linguistics andcurriculum design a practicum and the opportunity to observe andteach in different contexts (eg Kndash12 community colleges IEPs)Further they advise IEP administrators to provide mentors to allnew teachers and to encourage collaboration

Having surveyed IEP administrators and TESOL teachereducators Reid (1997) notes that IEP administrators often struggle

404 TESOL Journal

with the ethics of providing English language teachers who do notseem qualified (because of their status as nonnative speakers) toteach students who are paying significant amounts of money tolearn English According to these administrators hiring evenqualified NNES teachers prevented their IEP from achieving thesame financial success as IEPs that hire only NES teachers At thesame time many TESOL teacher educators told Reid that thecourses they could offer to NES and NNES teachers did not alwaysdepend on actual needs but rather on the universityrsquos budget thespecializations of the teachers they could hire and constraints in thelocations and sizes of programs A remarkable conclusion reachedby several TESOL teacher educators and IEP administrators whoparticipated in the survey was that the two groups talked abouttheir academic and administrative roles in markedly different wayshad different goals were lsquolsquofundamentally differentrsquorsquo (p 26) andcould rarely reach a common ground

Mahboob (2003) also investigated IEP administratorsrsquo hiringpractices Of the 122 administrators who responded 598considered lsquolsquonative English speakerrsquorsquo an important or somewhatimportant criteria when hiring ESL teachers Of the 1425 teachersworking in the 122 IEPs only 79 were nonnative speakers

As the preceding discussion indicates few researchers haveinvestigated IEP administratorsrsquo and MA TESOL programadministratorsrsquo perspectives on the training and competence of NESand NNES teachers However based on the previously discussedstudies it appears that few people in such lsquolsquorelationshipsrsquorsquo (IEPadministrators teacher educators ESL teachers etc) have similarexpectations regarding teacher education and the teaching andlearning experience To investigate this further the followingproject was undertaken

THE STUDYThe following research questions directed the study3 and will bediscussed here

3 The research questions discussed here are part of a larger study and have been slightly modified to fitthe articlersquos requirements

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 405

1 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo (self-)perceptions of NNES teachersrsquostrengths and weaknesses and how do the opinions of IEP administratorscorroborate with or differ from the teachersrsquo (self-)perceptions

2 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo opinions regarding their teachingpreparation and how do the opinions of IEP administrators corroboratewith or differ from the teachersrsquo opinions

3 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo opinions regarding their current teachingexperience and how do the opinions of IEP administrators corroborate withor differ from the teachersrsquo opinions

4 What are the criteria used by IEP administrators to hire NNES and NESteachers

Research Design

For practical and theoretical reasons (see Brown 2001 Richards ampLockhart 1994) questionnaires were selected as survey instrumentsfor this project To create questions and statements for the varioussections of the questionnaires constructs (eg knowledge ofgrammar job satisfaction) were first identified from the literaturereview (Brown 2001 Purpura 1998) Then questions and state-ments for each construct were written and distributed to a panel ofexperts who considered issues of clarity length and validity of theconstructs and statements After the questionnaires were pilotedthey were placed online for easy access

Next came the identification of participating IEPs Narrowing thefield to accredited IEPs facilitated the selection of programs that weremost similar to one another in terms of overall quality and organization

E-mails requesting participation were sent to 52 IEP adminis-trators and institutional review board permissions were secured for25 IEPs Participating administrators and teachers were then sentthe URLs and passwords to the online questionnaires By the end ofthe semester 96 teacher questionnaires and 21 administratorquestionnaires had been submitted

The SAS 913 statistical package was used to calculatefrequencies and percentages for each question using the multiple-choice and Likert-scale formats

Participants

Ninety-six ESL teachers from 19 IEPs responded to the teacherquestionnaire 18 were nonnative English speakers 78 were native

406 TESOL Journal

speakers The NNES teachers came from Argentina AzerbaijanBrazil China the Czech Republic Germany Iceland Japan KoreaReunion Island Russia Slovakia and Somalia The NES teacherscame from Canada England Ireland New Zealand and the UnitedStates Of the 96 teachers 71 were female and 23 were male

All the participating teachers held a diploma The majority(781) held masterrsquos degrees in TESOL TESL second languageacquisition second language education applied linguisticslinguistics or another field Some teachers were working toward anMA (52) or a PhD (21)

For participating ESL teachers work experience at their currentIEPs ranged from a few weeks to 27 years they taught a variety ofskills (reading writing listening speaking grammar vocabularyculture pronunciation TOEFL preparation idioms interculturalcommunication academic skills business English English forspecific purposes) and at all levels (beginner intermediate andadvanced)

Twenty-one administrators participated 19 were native Englishspeakers 1 was a bilingual speaker of English and Spanish and 1was a nonnative speaker of English Of the 21 8 were male and 13were female Seventeen of the administrators had hired at least oneNNES teacher during the previous semester

RESULTSThe teacher and administrator questionnaires posed severalquestions to study participants This section addresses thesequestions and the responses

Strengths and Weaknesses

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most valuable qualities of NNES teachers ingeneral if anyrsquorsquo

The most frequent responses given by NNES teachers abouttheir own perceived strengths were their understanding ofstudentsrsquo challenges and needs (805) and their own languagelearning experience (777) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]have an ability to relate to the students in a way that a NES teacherdoes not [We] can help students with difficulties and be a rolemodelrsquorsquo Other comments by NNES teachers included the following

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 407

lsquolsquo[We] are very concerned about accuracy in using the language andknowing the reasons English is the way it isrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[We] look atculture from an outside perspective so [we] can point out thingsthat [NES teachers] may not noticersquorsquo Another strength mentionedby NNES teachers about their own teaching was the lsquolsquodesire tocontinue to learn and to demonstrate their own learning tostudentsrsquorsquo as well as their desire to learn from students (445)

NES teachers recognized NNES teachersrsquo language learningexperience (487) their ability to be lsquolsquogood role models forstudentsrsquorsquo (307) and their lsquolsquoability to understand and explaingrammar rulesrsquorsquo (192) One NES teacher admired lsquolsquoNNESteachersrsquo ability to deal with criticism about being [NNESteachers]rsquorsquo and many recognized qualities such as NNES teachersrsquolsquolsquoresilience hopefulness strength cultural wealth and resourcesrsquorsquo(410) Similarly several NES teachers acknowledged NNESteachersrsquo dedication to teaching their effort their lsquolsquoenthusiasmrsquorsquoand their lsquolsquokindnessrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopatiencersquorsquo toward ESL students (435)no NNES teacher mentioned these Finally few NNES teachers incontrast to 833 of their NES colleagues recognized thelsquolsquoadditional cultural insights [NNES teachers provide] for theEnglish language learnerrsquorsquo

NES teachers frequently cited their admiration of their NNESpeers Although they perhaps questioned NNES teachersrsquo languageproficiency or knowledge of US culture (to be discussedsubsequently) they recognized the multicultural awareness andunderstanding of studentsrsquo challenges and needs that NNESteachers brought to the classroom

Administrators more readily recognized NNES teachersrsquopedagogical skills (476) with comments such as lsquolsquoThey havelearned English and their experience can assist them in lesson plansand learning strategiesrsquorsquo Administrators also praised NNESteachers for their knowledge of lsquolsquohow to use multiple techniquesrsquorsquolsquolsquocurricular flexibilityrsquorsquo lsquolsquostrong collegialityrsquorsquo lsquolsquodedicationrsquorsquolsquolsquocreativity in the classroomrsquorsquo and lsquolsquohigh standards (expectations)for students (academics and proficiency)rsquorsquo As one administratorexplained NNES teachersrsquo strengths include lsquolsquolove of languagesand cultures ability to create a comfortable atmosphere in class to

408 TESOL Journal

promote learning and cooperation among the students and abilityto reach students with different learning stylesrsquorsquo

Administrators also recognized NNES teachers as being lsquolsquoterrificrole-modelsrsquorsquo (240) and as having and lsquolsquounderstanding experienceof students in livingadapting to another culture and operating inanother languagersquorsquo (240)

These strengths are similar to those described by Arva andMedgyes (2000) However participants in Arva and Medgyesrsquosstudy also mentioned that NNES teachers were often more strictand demanding than their NES counterparts Although theparticipating NES teachers often recognized NNES teachersrsquodedication only one administrator mentioned the lsquolsquohigh standards(expectations) for studentsrsquorsquo as a strength of NNES teachersAnother strength recognized in previous studies (eg Medgyes1994) was NNES teachersrsquo ability to predict studentsrsquo difficultiesHowever this intuitive skill was only mentioned twice in the onlinequestionnaires

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most serious weaknesses of NNES teachersin general if anyrsquorsquo

NNES teachersrsquo self-perceptions of their weaknesses includedtheir lsquolsquoforeign accentrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopronunciationrsquorsquo (390) theirlsquolsquoinsufficient knowledge of idioms nuances of the language andculture resulting in inability to recognize cultural referencesrsquorsquo(335) their lsquolsquolack of confidencersquorsquo (277) and poor knowledge ofthe English language (277) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]donrsquot have the same feel for the languagersquorsquo Interestingly one NNESteacher perceived his or her knowledge of lsquolsquogrammarrsquorsquo as weakwhich clearly contradicts the literature and the numerous NESteachers and administrators who recognized NNES teachersrsquogrammatical knowledge as a strength As another NNES teacherexplained lsquolsquoeven though I know English language rules better thanthe native speakers I just donrsquot feel confident because thatrsquos not myfirst languagersquorsquo Finally one NNES teacher did not appreciate thequestion and responded lsquolsquoNo one is perfect and no one has it all Ifthey are qualified ESL teachers they are qualified ESL teachersPeriod What do you mean by lsquomost serious weaknessesrsquorsquorsquo

When asked about NNES teachersrsquo weaknesses NES teachersoverwhelmingly noted strong foreign accents and lsquolsquobadrsquorsquo pronun-

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 409

ciation (475) although as one teacher pointed out lsquolsquoour studentshave more difficulty understanding our British-accented instructorsthan our NNES teachersrsquorsquo Other responses included lack of UScultural knowledge (282) as well as lsquolsquopoorrsquorsquo self-confidence(153) Some NES teachers also mentioned lsquolsquoa lack of familiaritywith things NES teachers learn as childrenrsquorsquo and lsquolsquosyntactic errorsthat may be fossilized in some [NNES teachers] [These] instructorswill be models for the English language learners causingconfusionrsquorsquo Others explained that NNES teachers are lsquolsquosometimesnot able to emotionally stand up to students who are unhappy thatthey do not have a NES teacherrsquorsquo and that NNES teachers may feellsquolsquothat they are not good enough because English is not their firstlanguage They are not respected enough as educators and theytend to respond by feeling less confidentrsquorsquo

Another weakness mentioned twice was the different teachingmethods with NNES teachers having lsquolsquoallegiance to outmodedmethodologiesrsquorsquo and preferring lsquolsquoto teach using the methods withwhich they were taught which might not be the most current oraccepted in the United Statesrsquorsquo Another negative response was that

students in an IEP pay a large amount of money to come to theUnited States to learn English Most places in the world haveopportunities where a person can learn English however thereason many students come to the United States is to haveinstruction from a native speaker A nonnative speaker ofEnglish in an IEP must have near-native fluency I would bevery upset if I went to England for example to study Shakespear[sic] or English History only to have a professor from the UnitedStates there for a semester-abroad teaching experience

A few NES teachers went as far as saying that NNES teacherslsquolsquoteach incorrect informationrsquorsquo and have a serious lsquolsquolack of aware-ness of studentsrsquorsquo but comments such as these were rare Otherrespondents acknowledged that lsquolsquoall teachers make mistakesrsquorsquo canbe too critical or unkind can lack patience and can have difficultieslsquolsquosimplifying their speech for lower level studentsrsquorsquo Several NESteachers noted that NNES teachers were more harshly criticized bytheir ESL students for these perceived weaknesses whereas theseweaknesses were more readily accepted as lsquolsquonormalrsquorsquo for NESteachers

410 TESOL Journal

Administrators identified three major weaknesses in NNESteachers foreign accent (380) lsquolsquooverdependence on didacticpresentation of grammarrsquorsquo or lsquolsquofocusing too much on grammarrsquorsquo(333) and lack of self-confidence (285) One administrator alsomentioned lsquolsquothe lack of experience with the culture of theclassroomrsquorsquo Several administrators however did not find anymajor weaknesses that were particular to NNES teachers Oneadministrator explained

In general the most serious weakness would be a degree ofdifficulty with pronunciation that leads to stress on the part ofthe students Most often the students are less and less aware ofthe teacherrsquos accent over time If the students are confident in theteacherrsquos knowledge organization and classroom managementskills the students are more forgiving about pronunciation Ihave found that the [NNES teachers] who receive complaints aremore likely to be inexperienced the complaint then is more anexperience issue than a [NNES teacher] issue

Another administrator concluded by saying lsquolsquoIn my opinion[NNES teachersrsquo strongest weakness is] not believing that they havethe right to teach English Their own perception of themselves isflawedrsquorsquo

These comments lead to the conclusion that little has changedover the years and that the lsquolsquoautomatic extrapolation from compe-tent speaker to competent teacher based on linguistic groundsalonersquorsquo (Seidlhofer 1999 p 236) may still exists today NNESteachers are still sometimes perceived by others through the samelens (as inferior in status) and still sometimes perceive themselvesas having essentially the same strengths and weaknesses as wereobserved in the previous decade

Teacher Education and Teaching Practicum

lsquolsquoDuring your training as an ESL teacher (if any) did you take part in anydiscussions or take any classes aimed specifically at future NNESteachersrsquorsquo

Fifty-one teachers answered negatively to this question and 28did not respond at all Only 17 teachers responded lsquolsquoyesrsquorsquo lsquolsquomaybersquorsquoor lsquolsquoit has been a while but I think sorsquorsquo A few teachers mentioneddiscussions about the lsquolsquoimportance of impressions students have

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 411

about [NES teachers] specifically a preference for lsquoblond blue-eyedrsquo speakers of English even if less qualifiedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquogrammarreview for NES teachers and speech assessment for NNESteachersrsquorsquo One NNES teacher took a class in which lsquolsquoit wasexplained to us that the teacher was the model for his or her studentand should therefore be highly proficient in the language Accentwas not really an issuersquorsquo Two NES teachers wrote lsquolsquoWe oftendiscussed studentsrsquo perceptions of [NNES teachers] in classesrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoWe talked about the benefits and disadvantages of [NNESteachers] teaching Englishrsquorsquo

One recurring comment was that some or many lsquolsquomembers ofthe class were nonnative English speakersrsquorsquo which allowed thistype of discussion to take place One NES teacher for exampleexplained lsquolsquoI took an ESL Phonetics class in which the majority ofclass members were nonnative speakers of English We did practiceteaching activities on each other in peer groups particularly inpronunciation areas NNES teachers have difficulty withrsquorsquo

Except for a few other responses such as lsquolsquono such courses wereofferedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquono all students enrolled were native speakersrsquorsquo thesewere all the answers given by the 96 participating teachers Theseresults corroborate the belief that there is a need for more specificinstructions for future teachers native and nonnative speakers alike(Canagarajah 2005 Kamhi-Stein 2004 J Liu 1999)

lsquolsquoDo you feel like your MA TESOL program (or other trainingprogram if any) is preparing or did prepare you well for your teachingassignmentsrsquorsquo

Responses varied widely but most teachers agreed that they hadbeen prepared well for their teaching assignments Many teachers(343) felt that their MA TESOL program lsquolsquoprepared [them] wellbecause it focused on practical teaching and not theory onlyrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoprepared [them] well for forming the theories behind what [they]choose to do in classrsquorsquo On the other hand many teachers (291)complained that it was lsquolsquohard to see how to incorporate all [the]theory into the actual practicersquorsquo or that lsquolsquotherersquos only so much aprogram can do The best preparation is the actual experiencersquorsquo OneNNES teacher also said lsquolsquoIt didnrsquot necessarily prepare me specificallyas a NNES teacher but practical as well as theoretical aspects ofteaching a language have been helpful for my current teaching

412 TESOL Journal

assignmentsrsquorsquo Another NNES teacher commented lsquolsquoIt gave meinsights of the American teaching stylersquorsquo This last comment confirmsBrainersquos (1999) and Eguigurenrsquos (2000) concerns regarding NorthAmerican TESOL programs potentially giving future Englishlanguage teachers a monocentric perspective of pedagogy

A frequent comment from NES as well as NNES teachers wasthat lsquolsquoexperience is still clearly the best teacherrsquorsquo Yet there were alsoseveral negative responses such as lsquolsquo[Our] program did not provideextensive practical training There was no practicum or studentteaching requiredrsquorsquo As one teacher explained lsquolsquoIn this programnonnative-English-speaking TESOL students are allowed to becomeESL instructors only if they are PhD students but not at the MAlevelrsquorsquo This corroborates Mahboobrsquos (2003) findings about the lackof practical training available to many NNES teachers

lsquolsquoHow shouldcould MA TESOL programs (or other teacherpreparation programs) prepare future ESL teachers to become excellentteachersrsquorsquo

IEP administratorsrsquo most common response (523) was lsquolsquoGive[preservice teachers] lots of practice-teaching and teachingopportunitiesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquoa lot of opportunities to observe otherteachersrsquorsquo Other responses from administrators reflected thisstatement lsquolsquoPrepare the teachers to understand culture and tocompensate with visuals if pronunciation is a problemrsquorsquo and toprovide lsquolsquosessions on classroom culturersquorsquo and lsquolsquoextensive reflectionon the professionrsquorsquo Administrators also advised teacher educatorsto help future ESL teachers lsquolsquoby providing a variety of learningopportunities (observations in the IEP course work etc) and bygetting the student teachers to develop their own philosophy forteachingrsquorsquo Other recurrent recommendations included thefollowing lsquolsquo[exposing preservice teachers] to a solid foundation inthe structure of the English language teaching methodology issuesin language pedagogy and policy and theory (eg World Englishescritical pedagogy)rsquorsquo lsquolsquo[increasing their] knowledge of languageacquisition pragmatics sociolinguistics content-basedinstructionrsquorsquo lsquolsquomentoring or partnering [them] with nativespeakersrsquorsquo giving lsquolsquoaccent reduction classrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[encouraging]professionalismrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[teaching] pronunciation and classroommanagement and expectations of nonnative speakers from a variety

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 413

of culturesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[teaching] awareness of nonverbalcommunicationrsquorsquo These suggestions are similar to thoserecommended by several scholars The idea of collaboration forexample was thoroughly discussed and studied by Matsuda andMatsuda (2004) and de Oliveira and Richardson (2001)

Two final comments seemed particularly significant in referenceto the education of NNES teachers

Prepare nonnative speakers mentally for the attitudes that theirstudents may have towards them Share with them strategies forgaining the confidence of their students

The most important training involves the exposure to resourcesnew teachers need to know where they will be able to findanswers in the future Teacher training should also include theprocess of community building Teachers should feel free to askquestions to share their knowledge and to cultivate their ownteaching style All members of the team should be aware of theneeds of the whole and aware of the benefits of their individualcontributions

The previous responses can be sorted into two main categorieson the one hand the need for more solid and extensive practicaltraining for NES and NNES teachers alike and on the other handthe need for focused discussions on the topic of NES and NNESteachersrsquo strengths and weaknesses challenges and successesneeds and achievements

Teaching Experience and Responses to Discrimination

lsquolsquoDo you feel that you are being discriminated against in any way bystudents or colleaguesrsquorsquo

Of the 93 ESL teachers who responded 366 said yes and634 said no Among those who said yes 7 were NNES teachers(representing 38 of all NNES teacher respondents) although oneof the NNES teachers who answered negatively added lsquolsquoI havenever heard any negative comments However I do hear [fromother] teachers that some students donrsquot particularly like mersquorsquo

When asked how they responded or would respond todiscrimination against NNES teachers from ESL students severalNES teachers explained that they tell students about NNESteachersrsquo strengths (grammar knowledge etc) that there are

414 TESOL Journal

different accents even within the United States and that it isimportant to be accustomed to different accents in todayrsquosmulticultural world (see Canagarajah 2005 for a thoroughdiscussion of this concept) As one teacher explained

I ask students how they plan to use English in the futureInevitably they will use it in a context where they will comeacross many types of users of English not just native speakers Istress that being exposed to a variety of accents and uses ofEnglish from a professional and trained teacher will benefitthem in the short and long run

Other teachers replied that they made no attempt to convincestudents that NNES teachers could be good teachers because lsquolsquonowords can convince them that they are in good handsrsquorsquo Others triedto lsquolsquoevaluate the reason behind the commentsrsquorsquo or advised thestudents lsquolsquoto speak to the teacher directlyrsquorsquo Some respondents toldESL students that lsquolsquothere are many different dialects of English that[students] must get used torsquorsquo that lsquolsquo[NNES teachersrsquo] experienceadds a lot to the class that [NES teachers] cannot add becausetheyrsquove never been through the experience of learning Englishrsquorsquoand that lsquolsquo[students] are lucky to have such a good role modelrsquorsquo

Although most NES teachers reported standing up for theirNNES colleagues in response to discriminatory comments one NESteacher responded lsquolsquoI think it is a subject worthy of discussionWould you like to learn to play the violin from someone who didnrsquotplay it wellrsquorsquo Similarly the great majority of NNES teachers felt thatthey could talk to mentors or IEP administrators if they encountereddiscrimination but one disagreed and explained lsquolsquoNo not really If Iwant to keep my job Irsquove been taught to avoid any negativeconfrontation with any individual in an administrative positionrsquorsquo

IEP administrators seemed to be more aware than teachers ofongoing discrimination against NNES teachers When asked howthey reacted or would react to discrimination some administratorsreplied lsquolsquoWe engage students and teachers in conversations aboutspecific issues and a larger conversation about Englishinternationally and in the universityrsquorsquo Others explained to theirstudents that lsquolsquoEnglish is spoken in many different rhythms andwith somewhat different pronunciation and that as citizens of theworld people need to listen and adjust to speaking differencesrsquorsquo and

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 415

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

them more insecure Samimy and Brutt-Giffler (1999) argue that acombination of external factors (eg age and proficiency level ofstudents goals and objectives of the program personality and skillsof the teachers) significantly affect the perceived success of ateaching experience

Maumrsquos (2003) interviews with NES and NNES teachers revealthat both groups saw their role as ESL teachers quite differentlybased on their perceived strengths and weaknesses and their ownlanguage learning experience NNES teachers also clearly expressedfrustration toward their isolation and lsquolsquomarginalization in theprofessionrsquorsquo (p 162)

LANGUAGE PROGRAM ADMINISTRATORSrsquoPERSPECTIVESLittle research has been conducted regarding IEP administratorsand NNES teachers Researchers (eg Mahboob 2003) have notedsome discrimination against NNES teachers in these programs butfew have directly solicited feedback from IEP administrators abouttheir hiring practices and beliefs

As an IEP administrator Perdreau (1994) believes that mostteachers coming out of TESOL programs lack necessary training fordealing with cultural diversity English language teachers sheexplains should come from different countries and cultures torepresent studentsrsquo diverse cultural ethnic and linguisticbackgrounds TESOL programs should prepare NES and NNESteachers to act as role models for students in accommodatingtolerating and reflecting on cultural diversity

Flynn and Gulikers (2001) explain that an understanding ofthe culture of the country whose variety of English is taught isnecessary Also adequate education in TESOL or applied linguisticsis crucial for all ESL teachers Flynn and Gulikers also advocate forall preservice teachers courses in both applied linguistics andcurriculum design a practicum and the opportunity to observe andteach in different contexts (eg Kndash12 community colleges IEPs)Further they advise IEP administrators to provide mentors to allnew teachers and to encourage collaboration

Having surveyed IEP administrators and TESOL teachereducators Reid (1997) notes that IEP administrators often struggle

404 TESOL Journal

with the ethics of providing English language teachers who do notseem qualified (because of their status as nonnative speakers) toteach students who are paying significant amounts of money tolearn English According to these administrators hiring evenqualified NNES teachers prevented their IEP from achieving thesame financial success as IEPs that hire only NES teachers At thesame time many TESOL teacher educators told Reid that thecourses they could offer to NES and NNES teachers did not alwaysdepend on actual needs but rather on the universityrsquos budget thespecializations of the teachers they could hire and constraints in thelocations and sizes of programs A remarkable conclusion reachedby several TESOL teacher educators and IEP administrators whoparticipated in the survey was that the two groups talked abouttheir academic and administrative roles in markedly different wayshad different goals were lsquolsquofundamentally differentrsquorsquo (p 26) andcould rarely reach a common ground

Mahboob (2003) also investigated IEP administratorsrsquo hiringpractices Of the 122 administrators who responded 598considered lsquolsquonative English speakerrsquorsquo an important or somewhatimportant criteria when hiring ESL teachers Of the 1425 teachersworking in the 122 IEPs only 79 were nonnative speakers

As the preceding discussion indicates few researchers haveinvestigated IEP administratorsrsquo and MA TESOL programadministratorsrsquo perspectives on the training and competence of NESand NNES teachers However based on the previously discussedstudies it appears that few people in such lsquolsquorelationshipsrsquorsquo (IEPadministrators teacher educators ESL teachers etc) have similarexpectations regarding teacher education and the teaching andlearning experience To investigate this further the followingproject was undertaken

THE STUDYThe following research questions directed the study3 and will bediscussed here

3 The research questions discussed here are part of a larger study and have been slightly modified to fitthe articlersquos requirements

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 405

1 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo (self-)perceptions of NNES teachersrsquostrengths and weaknesses and how do the opinions of IEP administratorscorroborate with or differ from the teachersrsquo (self-)perceptions

2 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo opinions regarding their teachingpreparation and how do the opinions of IEP administrators corroboratewith or differ from the teachersrsquo opinions

3 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo opinions regarding their current teachingexperience and how do the opinions of IEP administrators corroborate withor differ from the teachersrsquo opinions

4 What are the criteria used by IEP administrators to hire NNES and NESteachers

Research Design

For practical and theoretical reasons (see Brown 2001 Richards ampLockhart 1994) questionnaires were selected as survey instrumentsfor this project To create questions and statements for the varioussections of the questionnaires constructs (eg knowledge ofgrammar job satisfaction) were first identified from the literaturereview (Brown 2001 Purpura 1998) Then questions and state-ments for each construct were written and distributed to a panel ofexperts who considered issues of clarity length and validity of theconstructs and statements After the questionnaires were pilotedthey were placed online for easy access

Next came the identification of participating IEPs Narrowing thefield to accredited IEPs facilitated the selection of programs that weremost similar to one another in terms of overall quality and organization

E-mails requesting participation were sent to 52 IEP adminis-trators and institutional review board permissions were secured for25 IEPs Participating administrators and teachers were then sentthe URLs and passwords to the online questionnaires By the end ofthe semester 96 teacher questionnaires and 21 administratorquestionnaires had been submitted

The SAS 913 statistical package was used to calculatefrequencies and percentages for each question using the multiple-choice and Likert-scale formats

Participants

Ninety-six ESL teachers from 19 IEPs responded to the teacherquestionnaire 18 were nonnative English speakers 78 were native

406 TESOL Journal

speakers The NNES teachers came from Argentina AzerbaijanBrazil China the Czech Republic Germany Iceland Japan KoreaReunion Island Russia Slovakia and Somalia The NES teacherscame from Canada England Ireland New Zealand and the UnitedStates Of the 96 teachers 71 were female and 23 were male

All the participating teachers held a diploma The majority(781) held masterrsquos degrees in TESOL TESL second languageacquisition second language education applied linguisticslinguistics or another field Some teachers were working toward anMA (52) or a PhD (21)

For participating ESL teachers work experience at their currentIEPs ranged from a few weeks to 27 years they taught a variety ofskills (reading writing listening speaking grammar vocabularyculture pronunciation TOEFL preparation idioms interculturalcommunication academic skills business English English forspecific purposes) and at all levels (beginner intermediate andadvanced)

Twenty-one administrators participated 19 were native Englishspeakers 1 was a bilingual speaker of English and Spanish and 1was a nonnative speaker of English Of the 21 8 were male and 13were female Seventeen of the administrators had hired at least oneNNES teacher during the previous semester

RESULTSThe teacher and administrator questionnaires posed severalquestions to study participants This section addresses thesequestions and the responses

Strengths and Weaknesses

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most valuable qualities of NNES teachers ingeneral if anyrsquorsquo

The most frequent responses given by NNES teachers abouttheir own perceived strengths were their understanding ofstudentsrsquo challenges and needs (805) and their own languagelearning experience (777) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]have an ability to relate to the students in a way that a NES teacherdoes not [We] can help students with difficulties and be a rolemodelrsquorsquo Other comments by NNES teachers included the following

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 407

lsquolsquo[We] are very concerned about accuracy in using the language andknowing the reasons English is the way it isrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[We] look atculture from an outside perspective so [we] can point out thingsthat [NES teachers] may not noticersquorsquo Another strength mentionedby NNES teachers about their own teaching was the lsquolsquodesire tocontinue to learn and to demonstrate their own learning tostudentsrsquorsquo as well as their desire to learn from students (445)

NES teachers recognized NNES teachersrsquo language learningexperience (487) their ability to be lsquolsquogood role models forstudentsrsquorsquo (307) and their lsquolsquoability to understand and explaingrammar rulesrsquorsquo (192) One NES teacher admired lsquolsquoNNESteachersrsquo ability to deal with criticism about being [NNESteachers]rsquorsquo and many recognized qualities such as NNES teachersrsquolsquolsquoresilience hopefulness strength cultural wealth and resourcesrsquorsquo(410) Similarly several NES teachers acknowledged NNESteachersrsquo dedication to teaching their effort their lsquolsquoenthusiasmrsquorsquoand their lsquolsquokindnessrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopatiencersquorsquo toward ESL students (435)no NNES teacher mentioned these Finally few NNES teachers incontrast to 833 of their NES colleagues recognized thelsquolsquoadditional cultural insights [NNES teachers provide] for theEnglish language learnerrsquorsquo

NES teachers frequently cited their admiration of their NNESpeers Although they perhaps questioned NNES teachersrsquo languageproficiency or knowledge of US culture (to be discussedsubsequently) they recognized the multicultural awareness andunderstanding of studentsrsquo challenges and needs that NNESteachers brought to the classroom

Administrators more readily recognized NNES teachersrsquopedagogical skills (476) with comments such as lsquolsquoThey havelearned English and their experience can assist them in lesson plansand learning strategiesrsquorsquo Administrators also praised NNESteachers for their knowledge of lsquolsquohow to use multiple techniquesrsquorsquolsquolsquocurricular flexibilityrsquorsquo lsquolsquostrong collegialityrsquorsquo lsquolsquodedicationrsquorsquolsquolsquocreativity in the classroomrsquorsquo and lsquolsquohigh standards (expectations)for students (academics and proficiency)rsquorsquo As one administratorexplained NNES teachersrsquo strengths include lsquolsquolove of languagesand cultures ability to create a comfortable atmosphere in class to

408 TESOL Journal

promote learning and cooperation among the students and abilityto reach students with different learning stylesrsquorsquo

Administrators also recognized NNES teachers as being lsquolsquoterrificrole-modelsrsquorsquo (240) and as having and lsquolsquounderstanding experienceof students in livingadapting to another culture and operating inanother languagersquorsquo (240)

These strengths are similar to those described by Arva andMedgyes (2000) However participants in Arva and Medgyesrsquosstudy also mentioned that NNES teachers were often more strictand demanding than their NES counterparts Although theparticipating NES teachers often recognized NNES teachersrsquodedication only one administrator mentioned the lsquolsquohigh standards(expectations) for studentsrsquorsquo as a strength of NNES teachersAnother strength recognized in previous studies (eg Medgyes1994) was NNES teachersrsquo ability to predict studentsrsquo difficultiesHowever this intuitive skill was only mentioned twice in the onlinequestionnaires

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most serious weaknesses of NNES teachersin general if anyrsquorsquo

NNES teachersrsquo self-perceptions of their weaknesses includedtheir lsquolsquoforeign accentrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopronunciationrsquorsquo (390) theirlsquolsquoinsufficient knowledge of idioms nuances of the language andculture resulting in inability to recognize cultural referencesrsquorsquo(335) their lsquolsquolack of confidencersquorsquo (277) and poor knowledge ofthe English language (277) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]donrsquot have the same feel for the languagersquorsquo Interestingly one NNESteacher perceived his or her knowledge of lsquolsquogrammarrsquorsquo as weakwhich clearly contradicts the literature and the numerous NESteachers and administrators who recognized NNES teachersrsquogrammatical knowledge as a strength As another NNES teacherexplained lsquolsquoeven though I know English language rules better thanthe native speakers I just donrsquot feel confident because thatrsquos not myfirst languagersquorsquo Finally one NNES teacher did not appreciate thequestion and responded lsquolsquoNo one is perfect and no one has it all Ifthey are qualified ESL teachers they are qualified ESL teachersPeriod What do you mean by lsquomost serious weaknessesrsquorsquorsquo

When asked about NNES teachersrsquo weaknesses NES teachersoverwhelmingly noted strong foreign accents and lsquolsquobadrsquorsquo pronun-

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 409

ciation (475) although as one teacher pointed out lsquolsquoour studentshave more difficulty understanding our British-accented instructorsthan our NNES teachersrsquorsquo Other responses included lack of UScultural knowledge (282) as well as lsquolsquopoorrsquorsquo self-confidence(153) Some NES teachers also mentioned lsquolsquoa lack of familiaritywith things NES teachers learn as childrenrsquorsquo and lsquolsquosyntactic errorsthat may be fossilized in some [NNES teachers] [These] instructorswill be models for the English language learners causingconfusionrsquorsquo Others explained that NNES teachers are lsquolsquosometimesnot able to emotionally stand up to students who are unhappy thatthey do not have a NES teacherrsquorsquo and that NNES teachers may feellsquolsquothat they are not good enough because English is not their firstlanguage They are not respected enough as educators and theytend to respond by feeling less confidentrsquorsquo

Another weakness mentioned twice was the different teachingmethods with NNES teachers having lsquolsquoallegiance to outmodedmethodologiesrsquorsquo and preferring lsquolsquoto teach using the methods withwhich they were taught which might not be the most current oraccepted in the United Statesrsquorsquo Another negative response was that

students in an IEP pay a large amount of money to come to theUnited States to learn English Most places in the world haveopportunities where a person can learn English however thereason many students come to the United States is to haveinstruction from a native speaker A nonnative speaker ofEnglish in an IEP must have near-native fluency I would bevery upset if I went to England for example to study Shakespear[sic] or English History only to have a professor from the UnitedStates there for a semester-abroad teaching experience

A few NES teachers went as far as saying that NNES teacherslsquolsquoteach incorrect informationrsquorsquo and have a serious lsquolsquolack of aware-ness of studentsrsquorsquo but comments such as these were rare Otherrespondents acknowledged that lsquolsquoall teachers make mistakesrsquorsquo canbe too critical or unkind can lack patience and can have difficultieslsquolsquosimplifying their speech for lower level studentsrsquorsquo Several NESteachers noted that NNES teachers were more harshly criticized bytheir ESL students for these perceived weaknesses whereas theseweaknesses were more readily accepted as lsquolsquonormalrsquorsquo for NESteachers

410 TESOL Journal

Administrators identified three major weaknesses in NNESteachers foreign accent (380) lsquolsquooverdependence on didacticpresentation of grammarrsquorsquo or lsquolsquofocusing too much on grammarrsquorsquo(333) and lack of self-confidence (285) One administrator alsomentioned lsquolsquothe lack of experience with the culture of theclassroomrsquorsquo Several administrators however did not find anymajor weaknesses that were particular to NNES teachers Oneadministrator explained

In general the most serious weakness would be a degree ofdifficulty with pronunciation that leads to stress on the part ofthe students Most often the students are less and less aware ofthe teacherrsquos accent over time If the students are confident in theteacherrsquos knowledge organization and classroom managementskills the students are more forgiving about pronunciation Ihave found that the [NNES teachers] who receive complaints aremore likely to be inexperienced the complaint then is more anexperience issue than a [NNES teacher] issue

Another administrator concluded by saying lsquolsquoIn my opinion[NNES teachersrsquo strongest weakness is] not believing that they havethe right to teach English Their own perception of themselves isflawedrsquorsquo

These comments lead to the conclusion that little has changedover the years and that the lsquolsquoautomatic extrapolation from compe-tent speaker to competent teacher based on linguistic groundsalonersquorsquo (Seidlhofer 1999 p 236) may still exists today NNESteachers are still sometimes perceived by others through the samelens (as inferior in status) and still sometimes perceive themselvesas having essentially the same strengths and weaknesses as wereobserved in the previous decade

Teacher Education and Teaching Practicum

lsquolsquoDuring your training as an ESL teacher (if any) did you take part in anydiscussions or take any classes aimed specifically at future NNESteachersrsquorsquo

Fifty-one teachers answered negatively to this question and 28did not respond at all Only 17 teachers responded lsquolsquoyesrsquorsquo lsquolsquomaybersquorsquoor lsquolsquoit has been a while but I think sorsquorsquo A few teachers mentioneddiscussions about the lsquolsquoimportance of impressions students have

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 411

about [NES teachers] specifically a preference for lsquoblond blue-eyedrsquo speakers of English even if less qualifiedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquogrammarreview for NES teachers and speech assessment for NNESteachersrsquorsquo One NNES teacher took a class in which lsquolsquoit wasexplained to us that the teacher was the model for his or her studentand should therefore be highly proficient in the language Accentwas not really an issuersquorsquo Two NES teachers wrote lsquolsquoWe oftendiscussed studentsrsquo perceptions of [NNES teachers] in classesrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoWe talked about the benefits and disadvantages of [NNESteachers] teaching Englishrsquorsquo

One recurring comment was that some or many lsquolsquomembers ofthe class were nonnative English speakersrsquorsquo which allowed thistype of discussion to take place One NES teacher for exampleexplained lsquolsquoI took an ESL Phonetics class in which the majority ofclass members were nonnative speakers of English We did practiceteaching activities on each other in peer groups particularly inpronunciation areas NNES teachers have difficulty withrsquorsquo

Except for a few other responses such as lsquolsquono such courses wereofferedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquono all students enrolled were native speakersrsquorsquo thesewere all the answers given by the 96 participating teachers Theseresults corroborate the belief that there is a need for more specificinstructions for future teachers native and nonnative speakers alike(Canagarajah 2005 Kamhi-Stein 2004 J Liu 1999)

lsquolsquoDo you feel like your MA TESOL program (or other trainingprogram if any) is preparing or did prepare you well for your teachingassignmentsrsquorsquo

Responses varied widely but most teachers agreed that they hadbeen prepared well for their teaching assignments Many teachers(343) felt that their MA TESOL program lsquolsquoprepared [them] wellbecause it focused on practical teaching and not theory onlyrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoprepared [them] well for forming the theories behind what [they]choose to do in classrsquorsquo On the other hand many teachers (291)complained that it was lsquolsquohard to see how to incorporate all [the]theory into the actual practicersquorsquo or that lsquolsquotherersquos only so much aprogram can do The best preparation is the actual experiencersquorsquo OneNNES teacher also said lsquolsquoIt didnrsquot necessarily prepare me specificallyas a NNES teacher but practical as well as theoretical aspects ofteaching a language have been helpful for my current teaching

412 TESOL Journal

assignmentsrsquorsquo Another NNES teacher commented lsquolsquoIt gave meinsights of the American teaching stylersquorsquo This last comment confirmsBrainersquos (1999) and Eguigurenrsquos (2000) concerns regarding NorthAmerican TESOL programs potentially giving future Englishlanguage teachers a monocentric perspective of pedagogy

A frequent comment from NES as well as NNES teachers wasthat lsquolsquoexperience is still clearly the best teacherrsquorsquo Yet there were alsoseveral negative responses such as lsquolsquo[Our] program did not provideextensive practical training There was no practicum or studentteaching requiredrsquorsquo As one teacher explained lsquolsquoIn this programnonnative-English-speaking TESOL students are allowed to becomeESL instructors only if they are PhD students but not at the MAlevelrsquorsquo This corroborates Mahboobrsquos (2003) findings about the lackof practical training available to many NNES teachers

lsquolsquoHow shouldcould MA TESOL programs (or other teacherpreparation programs) prepare future ESL teachers to become excellentteachersrsquorsquo

IEP administratorsrsquo most common response (523) was lsquolsquoGive[preservice teachers] lots of practice-teaching and teachingopportunitiesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquoa lot of opportunities to observe otherteachersrsquorsquo Other responses from administrators reflected thisstatement lsquolsquoPrepare the teachers to understand culture and tocompensate with visuals if pronunciation is a problemrsquorsquo and toprovide lsquolsquosessions on classroom culturersquorsquo and lsquolsquoextensive reflectionon the professionrsquorsquo Administrators also advised teacher educatorsto help future ESL teachers lsquolsquoby providing a variety of learningopportunities (observations in the IEP course work etc) and bygetting the student teachers to develop their own philosophy forteachingrsquorsquo Other recurrent recommendations included thefollowing lsquolsquo[exposing preservice teachers] to a solid foundation inthe structure of the English language teaching methodology issuesin language pedagogy and policy and theory (eg World Englishescritical pedagogy)rsquorsquo lsquolsquo[increasing their] knowledge of languageacquisition pragmatics sociolinguistics content-basedinstructionrsquorsquo lsquolsquomentoring or partnering [them] with nativespeakersrsquorsquo giving lsquolsquoaccent reduction classrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[encouraging]professionalismrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[teaching] pronunciation and classroommanagement and expectations of nonnative speakers from a variety

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 413

of culturesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[teaching] awareness of nonverbalcommunicationrsquorsquo These suggestions are similar to thoserecommended by several scholars The idea of collaboration forexample was thoroughly discussed and studied by Matsuda andMatsuda (2004) and de Oliveira and Richardson (2001)

Two final comments seemed particularly significant in referenceto the education of NNES teachers

Prepare nonnative speakers mentally for the attitudes that theirstudents may have towards them Share with them strategies forgaining the confidence of their students

The most important training involves the exposure to resourcesnew teachers need to know where they will be able to findanswers in the future Teacher training should also include theprocess of community building Teachers should feel free to askquestions to share their knowledge and to cultivate their ownteaching style All members of the team should be aware of theneeds of the whole and aware of the benefits of their individualcontributions

The previous responses can be sorted into two main categorieson the one hand the need for more solid and extensive practicaltraining for NES and NNES teachers alike and on the other handthe need for focused discussions on the topic of NES and NNESteachersrsquo strengths and weaknesses challenges and successesneeds and achievements

Teaching Experience and Responses to Discrimination

lsquolsquoDo you feel that you are being discriminated against in any way bystudents or colleaguesrsquorsquo

Of the 93 ESL teachers who responded 366 said yes and634 said no Among those who said yes 7 were NNES teachers(representing 38 of all NNES teacher respondents) although oneof the NNES teachers who answered negatively added lsquolsquoI havenever heard any negative comments However I do hear [fromother] teachers that some students donrsquot particularly like mersquorsquo

When asked how they responded or would respond todiscrimination against NNES teachers from ESL students severalNES teachers explained that they tell students about NNESteachersrsquo strengths (grammar knowledge etc) that there are

414 TESOL Journal

different accents even within the United States and that it isimportant to be accustomed to different accents in todayrsquosmulticultural world (see Canagarajah 2005 for a thoroughdiscussion of this concept) As one teacher explained

I ask students how they plan to use English in the futureInevitably they will use it in a context where they will comeacross many types of users of English not just native speakers Istress that being exposed to a variety of accents and uses ofEnglish from a professional and trained teacher will benefitthem in the short and long run

Other teachers replied that they made no attempt to convincestudents that NNES teachers could be good teachers because lsquolsquonowords can convince them that they are in good handsrsquorsquo Others triedto lsquolsquoevaluate the reason behind the commentsrsquorsquo or advised thestudents lsquolsquoto speak to the teacher directlyrsquorsquo Some respondents toldESL students that lsquolsquothere are many different dialects of English that[students] must get used torsquorsquo that lsquolsquo[NNES teachersrsquo] experienceadds a lot to the class that [NES teachers] cannot add becausetheyrsquove never been through the experience of learning Englishrsquorsquoand that lsquolsquo[students] are lucky to have such a good role modelrsquorsquo

Although most NES teachers reported standing up for theirNNES colleagues in response to discriminatory comments one NESteacher responded lsquolsquoI think it is a subject worthy of discussionWould you like to learn to play the violin from someone who didnrsquotplay it wellrsquorsquo Similarly the great majority of NNES teachers felt thatthey could talk to mentors or IEP administrators if they encountereddiscrimination but one disagreed and explained lsquolsquoNo not really If Iwant to keep my job Irsquove been taught to avoid any negativeconfrontation with any individual in an administrative positionrsquorsquo

IEP administrators seemed to be more aware than teachers ofongoing discrimination against NNES teachers When asked howthey reacted or would react to discrimination some administratorsreplied lsquolsquoWe engage students and teachers in conversations aboutspecific issues and a larger conversation about Englishinternationally and in the universityrsquorsquo Others explained to theirstudents that lsquolsquoEnglish is spoken in many different rhythms andwith somewhat different pronunciation and that as citizens of theworld people need to listen and adjust to speaking differencesrsquorsquo and

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 415

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

with the ethics of providing English language teachers who do notseem qualified (because of their status as nonnative speakers) toteach students who are paying significant amounts of money tolearn English According to these administrators hiring evenqualified NNES teachers prevented their IEP from achieving thesame financial success as IEPs that hire only NES teachers At thesame time many TESOL teacher educators told Reid that thecourses they could offer to NES and NNES teachers did not alwaysdepend on actual needs but rather on the universityrsquos budget thespecializations of the teachers they could hire and constraints in thelocations and sizes of programs A remarkable conclusion reachedby several TESOL teacher educators and IEP administrators whoparticipated in the survey was that the two groups talked abouttheir academic and administrative roles in markedly different wayshad different goals were lsquolsquofundamentally differentrsquorsquo (p 26) andcould rarely reach a common ground

Mahboob (2003) also investigated IEP administratorsrsquo hiringpractices Of the 122 administrators who responded 598considered lsquolsquonative English speakerrsquorsquo an important or somewhatimportant criteria when hiring ESL teachers Of the 1425 teachersworking in the 122 IEPs only 79 were nonnative speakers

As the preceding discussion indicates few researchers haveinvestigated IEP administratorsrsquo and MA TESOL programadministratorsrsquo perspectives on the training and competence of NESand NNES teachers However based on the previously discussedstudies it appears that few people in such lsquolsquorelationshipsrsquorsquo (IEPadministrators teacher educators ESL teachers etc) have similarexpectations regarding teacher education and the teaching andlearning experience To investigate this further the followingproject was undertaken

THE STUDYThe following research questions directed the study3 and will bediscussed here

3 The research questions discussed here are part of a larger study and have been slightly modified to fitthe articlersquos requirements

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 405

1 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo (self-)perceptions of NNES teachersrsquostrengths and weaknesses and how do the opinions of IEP administratorscorroborate with or differ from the teachersrsquo (self-)perceptions

2 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo opinions regarding their teachingpreparation and how do the opinions of IEP administrators corroboratewith or differ from the teachersrsquo opinions

3 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo opinions regarding their current teachingexperience and how do the opinions of IEP administrators corroborate withor differ from the teachersrsquo opinions

4 What are the criteria used by IEP administrators to hire NNES and NESteachers

Research Design

For practical and theoretical reasons (see Brown 2001 Richards ampLockhart 1994) questionnaires were selected as survey instrumentsfor this project To create questions and statements for the varioussections of the questionnaires constructs (eg knowledge ofgrammar job satisfaction) were first identified from the literaturereview (Brown 2001 Purpura 1998) Then questions and state-ments for each construct were written and distributed to a panel ofexperts who considered issues of clarity length and validity of theconstructs and statements After the questionnaires were pilotedthey were placed online for easy access

Next came the identification of participating IEPs Narrowing thefield to accredited IEPs facilitated the selection of programs that weremost similar to one another in terms of overall quality and organization

E-mails requesting participation were sent to 52 IEP adminis-trators and institutional review board permissions were secured for25 IEPs Participating administrators and teachers were then sentthe URLs and passwords to the online questionnaires By the end ofthe semester 96 teacher questionnaires and 21 administratorquestionnaires had been submitted

The SAS 913 statistical package was used to calculatefrequencies and percentages for each question using the multiple-choice and Likert-scale formats

Participants

Ninety-six ESL teachers from 19 IEPs responded to the teacherquestionnaire 18 were nonnative English speakers 78 were native

406 TESOL Journal

speakers The NNES teachers came from Argentina AzerbaijanBrazil China the Czech Republic Germany Iceland Japan KoreaReunion Island Russia Slovakia and Somalia The NES teacherscame from Canada England Ireland New Zealand and the UnitedStates Of the 96 teachers 71 were female and 23 were male

All the participating teachers held a diploma The majority(781) held masterrsquos degrees in TESOL TESL second languageacquisition second language education applied linguisticslinguistics or another field Some teachers were working toward anMA (52) or a PhD (21)

For participating ESL teachers work experience at their currentIEPs ranged from a few weeks to 27 years they taught a variety ofskills (reading writing listening speaking grammar vocabularyculture pronunciation TOEFL preparation idioms interculturalcommunication academic skills business English English forspecific purposes) and at all levels (beginner intermediate andadvanced)

Twenty-one administrators participated 19 were native Englishspeakers 1 was a bilingual speaker of English and Spanish and 1was a nonnative speaker of English Of the 21 8 were male and 13were female Seventeen of the administrators had hired at least oneNNES teacher during the previous semester

RESULTSThe teacher and administrator questionnaires posed severalquestions to study participants This section addresses thesequestions and the responses

Strengths and Weaknesses

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most valuable qualities of NNES teachers ingeneral if anyrsquorsquo

The most frequent responses given by NNES teachers abouttheir own perceived strengths were their understanding ofstudentsrsquo challenges and needs (805) and their own languagelearning experience (777) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]have an ability to relate to the students in a way that a NES teacherdoes not [We] can help students with difficulties and be a rolemodelrsquorsquo Other comments by NNES teachers included the following

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 407

lsquolsquo[We] are very concerned about accuracy in using the language andknowing the reasons English is the way it isrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[We] look atculture from an outside perspective so [we] can point out thingsthat [NES teachers] may not noticersquorsquo Another strength mentionedby NNES teachers about their own teaching was the lsquolsquodesire tocontinue to learn and to demonstrate their own learning tostudentsrsquorsquo as well as their desire to learn from students (445)

NES teachers recognized NNES teachersrsquo language learningexperience (487) their ability to be lsquolsquogood role models forstudentsrsquorsquo (307) and their lsquolsquoability to understand and explaingrammar rulesrsquorsquo (192) One NES teacher admired lsquolsquoNNESteachersrsquo ability to deal with criticism about being [NNESteachers]rsquorsquo and many recognized qualities such as NNES teachersrsquolsquolsquoresilience hopefulness strength cultural wealth and resourcesrsquorsquo(410) Similarly several NES teachers acknowledged NNESteachersrsquo dedication to teaching their effort their lsquolsquoenthusiasmrsquorsquoand their lsquolsquokindnessrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopatiencersquorsquo toward ESL students (435)no NNES teacher mentioned these Finally few NNES teachers incontrast to 833 of their NES colleagues recognized thelsquolsquoadditional cultural insights [NNES teachers provide] for theEnglish language learnerrsquorsquo

NES teachers frequently cited their admiration of their NNESpeers Although they perhaps questioned NNES teachersrsquo languageproficiency or knowledge of US culture (to be discussedsubsequently) they recognized the multicultural awareness andunderstanding of studentsrsquo challenges and needs that NNESteachers brought to the classroom

Administrators more readily recognized NNES teachersrsquopedagogical skills (476) with comments such as lsquolsquoThey havelearned English and their experience can assist them in lesson plansand learning strategiesrsquorsquo Administrators also praised NNESteachers for their knowledge of lsquolsquohow to use multiple techniquesrsquorsquolsquolsquocurricular flexibilityrsquorsquo lsquolsquostrong collegialityrsquorsquo lsquolsquodedicationrsquorsquolsquolsquocreativity in the classroomrsquorsquo and lsquolsquohigh standards (expectations)for students (academics and proficiency)rsquorsquo As one administratorexplained NNES teachersrsquo strengths include lsquolsquolove of languagesand cultures ability to create a comfortable atmosphere in class to

408 TESOL Journal

promote learning and cooperation among the students and abilityto reach students with different learning stylesrsquorsquo

Administrators also recognized NNES teachers as being lsquolsquoterrificrole-modelsrsquorsquo (240) and as having and lsquolsquounderstanding experienceof students in livingadapting to another culture and operating inanother languagersquorsquo (240)

These strengths are similar to those described by Arva andMedgyes (2000) However participants in Arva and Medgyesrsquosstudy also mentioned that NNES teachers were often more strictand demanding than their NES counterparts Although theparticipating NES teachers often recognized NNES teachersrsquodedication only one administrator mentioned the lsquolsquohigh standards(expectations) for studentsrsquorsquo as a strength of NNES teachersAnother strength recognized in previous studies (eg Medgyes1994) was NNES teachersrsquo ability to predict studentsrsquo difficultiesHowever this intuitive skill was only mentioned twice in the onlinequestionnaires

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most serious weaknesses of NNES teachersin general if anyrsquorsquo

NNES teachersrsquo self-perceptions of their weaknesses includedtheir lsquolsquoforeign accentrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopronunciationrsquorsquo (390) theirlsquolsquoinsufficient knowledge of idioms nuances of the language andculture resulting in inability to recognize cultural referencesrsquorsquo(335) their lsquolsquolack of confidencersquorsquo (277) and poor knowledge ofthe English language (277) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]donrsquot have the same feel for the languagersquorsquo Interestingly one NNESteacher perceived his or her knowledge of lsquolsquogrammarrsquorsquo as weakwhich clearly contradicts the literature and the numerous NESteachers and administrators who recognized NNES teachersrsquogrammatical knowledge as a strength As another NNES teacherexplained lsquolsquoeven though I know English language rules better thanthe native speakers I just donrsquot feel confident because thatrsquos not myfirst languagersquorsquo Finally one NNES teacher did not appreciate thequestion and responded lsquolsquoNo one is perfect and no one has it all Ifthey are qualified ESL teachers they are qualified ESL teachersPeriod What do you mean by lsquomost serious weaknessesrsquorsquorsquo

When asked about NNES teachersrsquo weaknesses NES teachersoverwhelmingly noted strong foreign accents and lsquolsquobadrsquorsquo pronun-

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 409

ciation (475) although as one teacher pointed out lsquolsquoour studentshave more difficulty understanding our British-accented instructorsthan our NNES teachersrsquorsquo Other responses included lack of UScultural knowledge (282) as well as lsquolsquopoorrsquorsquo self-confidence(153) Some NES teachers also mentioned lsquolsquoa lack of familiaritywith things NES teachers learn as childrenrsquorsquo and lsquolsquosyntactic errorsthat may be fossilized in some [NNES teachers] [These] instructorswill be models for the English language learners causingconfusionrsquorsquo Others explained that NNES teachers are lsquolsquosometimesnot able to emotionally stand up to students who are unhappy thatthey do not have a NES teacherrsquorsquo and that NNES teachers may feellsquolsquothat they are not good enough because English is not their firstlanguage They are not respected enough as educators and theytend to respond by feeling less confidentrsquorsquo

Another weakness mentioned twice was the different teachingmethods with NNES teachers having lsquolsquoallegiance to outmodedmethodologiesrsquorsquo and preferring lsquolsquoto teach using the methods withwhich they were taught which might not be the most current oraccepted in the United Statesrsquorsquo Another negative response was that

students in an IEP pay a large amount of money to come to theUnited States to learn English Most places in the world haveopportunities where a person can learn English however thereason many students come to the United States is to haveinstruction from a native speaker A nonnative speaker ofEnglish in an IEP must have near-native fluency I would bevery upset if I went to England for example to study Shakespear[sic] or English History only to have a professor from the UnitedStates there for a semester-abroad teaching experience

A few NES teachers went as far as saying that NNES teacherslsquolsquoteach incorrect informationrsquorsquo and have a serious lsquolsquolack of aware-ness of studentsrsquorsquo but comments such as these were rare Otherrespondents acknowledged that lsquolsquoall teachers make mistakesrsquorsquo canbe too critical or unkind can lack patience and can have difficultieslsquolsquosimplifying their speech for lower level studentsrsquorsquo Several NESteachers noted that NNES teachers were more harshly criticized bytheir ESL students for these perceived weaknesses whereas theseweaknesses were more readily accepted as lsquolsquonormalrsquorsquo for NESteachers

410 TESOL Journal

Administrators identified three major weaknesses in NNESteachers foreign accent (380) lsquolsquooverdependence on didacticpresentation of grammarrsquorsquo or lsquolsquofocusing too much on grammarrsquorsquo(333) and lack of self-confidence (285) One administrator alsomentioned lsquolsquothe lack of experience with the culture of theclassroomrsquorsquo Several administrators however did not find anymajor weaknesses that were particular to NNES teachers Oneadministrator explained

In general the most serious weakness would be a degree ofdifficulty with pronunciation that leads to stress on the part ofthe students Most often the students are less and less aware ofthe teacherrsquos accent over time If the students are confident in theteacherrsquos knowledge organization and classroom managementskills the students are more forgiving about pronunciation Ihave found that the [NNES teachers] who receive complaints aremore likely to be inexperienced the complaint then is more anexperience issue than a [NNES teacher] issue

Another administrator concluded by saying lsquolsquoIn my opinion[NNES teachersrsquo strongest weakness is] not believing that they havethe right to teach English Their own perception of themselves isflawedrsquorsquo

These comments lead to the conclusion that little has changedover the years and that the lsquolsquoautomatic extrapolation from compe-tent speaker to competent teacher based on linguistic groundsalonersquorsquo (Seidlhofer 1999 p 236) may still exists today NNESteachers are still sometimes perceived by others through the samelens (as inferior in status) and still sometimes perceive themselvesas having essentially the same strengths and weaknesses as wereobserved in the previous decade

Teacher Education and Teaching Practicum

lsquolsquoDuring your training as an ESL teacher (if any) did you take part in anydiscussions or take any classes aimed specifically at future NNESteachersrsquorsquo

Fifty-one teachers answered negatively to this question and 28did not respond at all Only 17 teachers responded lsquolsquoyesrsquorsquo lsquolsquomaybersquorsquoor lsquolsquoit has been a while but I think sorsquorsquo A few teachers mentioneddiscussions about the lsquolsquoimportance of impressions students have

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 411

about [NES teachers] specifically a preference for lsquoblond blue-eyedrsquo speakers of English even if less qualifiedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquogrammarreview for NES teachers and speech assessment for NNESteachersrsquorsquo One NNES teacher took a class in which lsquolsquoit wasexplained to us that the teacher was the model for his or her studentand should therefore be highly proficient in the language Accentwas not really an issuersquorsquo Two NES teachers wrote lsquolsquoWe oftendiscussed studentsrsquo perceptions of [NNES teachers] in classesrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoWe talked about the benefits and disadvantages of [NNESteachers] teaching Englishrsquorsquo

One recurring comment was that some or many lsquolsquomembers ofthe class were nonnative English speakersrsquorsquo which allowed thistype of discussion to take place One NES teacher for exampleexplained lsquolsquoI took an ESL Phonetics class in which the majority ofclass members were nonnative speakers of English We did practiceteaching activities on each other in peer groups particularly inpronunciation areas NNES teachers have difficulty withrsquorsquo

Except for a few other responses such as lsquolsquono such courses wereofferedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquono all students enrolled were native speakersrsquorsquo thesewere all the answers given by the 96 participating teachers Theseresults corroborate the belief that there is a need for more specificinstructions for future teachers native and nonnative speakers alike(Canagarajah 2005 Kamhi-Stein 2004 J Liu 1999)

lsquolsquoDo you feel like your MA TESOL program (or other trainingprogram if any) is preparing or did prepare you well for your teachingassignmentsrsquorsquo

Responses varied widely but most teachers agreed that they hadbeen prepared well for their teaching assignments Many teachers(343) felt that their MA TESOL program lsquolsquoprepared [them] wellbecause it focused on practical teaching and not theory onlyrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoprepared [them] well for forming the theories behind what [they]choose to do in classrsquorsquo On the other hand many teachers (291)complained that it was lsquolsquohard to see how to incorporate all [the]theory into the actual practicersquorsquo or that lsquolsquotherersquos only so much aprogram can do The best preparation is the actual experiencersquorsquo OneNNES teacher also said lsquolsquoIt didnrsquot necessarily prepare me specificallyas a NNES teacher but practical as well as theoretical aspects ofteaching a language have been helpful for my current teaching

412 TESOL Journal

assignmentsrsquorsquo Another NNES teacher commented lsquolsquoIt gave meinsights of the American teaching stylersquorsquo This last comment confirmsBrainersquos (1999) and Eguigurenrsquos (2000) concerns regarding NorthAmerican TESOL programs potentially giving future Englishlanguage teachers a monocentric perspective of pedagogy

A frequent comment from NES as well as NNES teachers wasthat lsquolsquoexperience is still clearly the best teacherrsquorsquo Yet there were alsoseveral negative responses such as lsquolsquo[Our] program did not provideextensive practical training There was no practicum or studentteaching requiredrsquorsquo As one teacher explained lsquolsquoIn this programnonnative-English-speaking TESOL students are allowed to becomeESL instructors only if they are PhD students but not at the MAlevelrsquorsquo This corroborates Mahboobrsquos (2003) findings about the lackof practical training available to many NNES teachers

lsquolsquoHow shouldcould MA TESOL programs (or other teacherpreparation programs) prepare future ESL teachers to become excellentteachersrsquorsquo

IEP administratorsrsquo most common response (523) was lsquolsquoGive[preservice teachers] lots of practice-teaching and teachingopportunitiesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquoa lot of opportunities to observe otherteachersrsquorsquo Other responses from administrators reflected thisstatement lsquolsquoPrepare the teachers to understand culture and tocompensate with visuals if pronunciation is a problemrsquorsquo and toprovide lsquolsquosessions on classroom culturersquorsquo and lsquolsquoextensive reflectionon the professionrsquorsquo Administrators also advised teacher educatorsto help future ESL teachers lsquolsquoby providing a variety of learningopportunities (observations in the IEP course work etc) and bygetting the student teachers to develop their own philosophy forteachingrsquorsquo Other recurrent recommendations included thefollowing lsquolsquo[exposing preservice teachers] to a solid foundation inthe structure of the English language teaching methodology issuesin language pedagogy and policy and theory (eg World Englishescritical pedagogy)rsquorsquo lsquolsquo[increasing their] knowledge of languageacquisition pragmatics sociolinguistics content-basedinstructionrsquorsquo lsquolsquomentoring or partnering [them] with nativespeakersrsquorsquo giving lsquolsquoaccent reduction classrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[encouraging]professionalismrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[teaching] pronunciation and classroommanagement and expectations of nonnative speakers from a variety

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 413

of culturesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[teaching] awareness of nonverbalcommunicationrsquorsquo These suggestions are similar to thoserecommended by several scholars The idea of collaboration forexample was thoroughly discussed and studied by Matsuda andMatsuda (2004) and de Oliveira and Richardson (2001)

Two final comments seemed particularly significant in referenceto the education of NNES teachers

Prepare nonnative speakers mentally for the attitudes that theirstudents may have towards them Share with them strategies forgaining the confidence of their students

The most important training involves the exposure to resourcesnew teachers need to know where they will be able to findanswers in the future Teacher training should also include theprocess of community building Teachers should feel free to askquestions to share their knowledge and to cultivate their ownteaching style All members of the team should be aware of theneeds of the whole and aware of the benefits of their individualcontributions

The previous responses can be sorted into two main categorieson the one hand the need for more solid and extensive practicaltraining for NES and NNES teachers alike and on the other handthe need for focused discussions on the topic of NES and NNESteachersrsquo strengths and weaknesses challenges and successesneeds and achievements

Teaching Experience and Responses to Discrimination

lsquolsquoDo you feel that you are being discriminated against in any way bystudents or colleaguesrsquorsquo

Of the 93 ESL teachers who responded 366 said yes and634 said no Among those who said yes 7 were NNES teachers(representing 38 of all NNES teacher respondents) although oneof the NNES teachers who answered negatively added lsquolsquoI havenever heard any negative comments However I do hear [fromother] teachers that some students donrsquot particularly like mersquorsquo

When asked how they responded or would respond todiscrimination against NNES teachers from ESL students severalNES teachers explained that they tell students about NNESteachersrsquo strengths (grammar knowledge etc) that there are

414 TESOL Journal

different accents even within the United States and that it isimportant to be accustomed to different accents in todayrsquosmulticultural world (see Canagarajah 2005 for a thoroughdiscussion of this concept) As one teacher explained

I ask students how they plan to use English in the futureInevitably they will use it in a context where they will comeacross many types of users of English not just native speakers Istress that being exposed to a variety of accents and uses ofEnglish from a professional and trained teacher will benefitthem in the short and long run

Other teachers replied that they made no attempt to convincestudents that NNES teachers could be good teachers because lsquolsquonowords can convince them that they are in good handsrsquorsquo Others triedto lsquolsquoevaluate the reason behind the commentsrsquorsquo or advised thestudents lsquolsquoto speak to the teacher directlyrsquorsquo Some respondents toldESL students that lsquolsquothere are many different dialects of English that[students] must get used torsquorsquo that lsquolsquo[NNES teachersrsquo] experienceadds a lot to the class that [NES teachers] cannot add becausetheyrsquove never been through the experience of learning Englishrsquorsquoand that lsquolsquo[students] are lucky to have such a good role modelrsquorsquo

Although most NES teachers reported standing up for theirNNES colleagues in response to discriminatory comments one NESteacher responded lsquolsquoI think it is a subject worthy of discussionWould you like to learn to play the violin from someone who didnrsquotplay it wellrsquorsquo Similarly the great majority of NNES teachers felt thatthey could talk to mentors or IEP administrators if they encountereddiscrimination but one disagreed and explained lsquolsquoNo not really If Iwant to keep my job Irsquove been taught to avoid any negativeconfrontation with any individual in an administrative positionrsquorsquo

IEP administrators seemed to be more aware than teachers ofongoing discrimination against NNES teachers When asked howthey reacted or would react to discrimination some administratorsreplied lsquolsquoWe engage students and teachers in conversations aboutspecific issues and a larger conversation about Englishinternationally and in the universityrsquorsquo Others explained to theirstudents that lsquolsquoEnglish is spoken in many different rhythms andwith somewhat different pronunciation and that as citizens of theworld people need to listen and adjust to speaking differencesrsquorsquo and

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 415

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

1 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo (self-)perceptions of NNES teachersrsquostrengths and weaknesses and how do the opinions of IEP administratorscorroborate with or differ from the teachersrsquo (self-)perceptions

2 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo opinions regarding their teachingpreparation and how do the opinions of IEP administrators corroboratewith or differ from the teachersrsquo opinions

3 What are NES and NNES teachersrsquo opinions regarding their current teachingexperience and how do the opinions of IEP administrators corroborate withor differ from the teachersrsquo opinions

4 What are the criteria used by IEP administrators to hire NNES and NESteachers

Research Design

For practical and theoretical reasons (see Brown 2001 Richards ampLockhart 1994) questionnaires were selected as survey instrumentsfor this project To create questions and statements for the varioussections of the questionnaires constructs (eg knowledge ofgrammar job satisfaction) were first identified from the literaturereview (Brown 2001 Purpura 1998) Then questions and state-ments for each construct were written and distributed to a panel ofexperts who considered issues of clarity length and validity of theconstructs and statements After the questionnaires were pilotedthey were placed online for easy access

Next came the identification of participating IEPs Narrowing thefield to accredited IEPs facilitated the selection of programs that weremost similar to one another in terms of overall quality and organization

E-mails requesting participation were sent to 52 IEP adminis-trators and institutional review board permissions were secured for25 IEPs Participating administrators and teachers were then sentthe URLs and passwords to the online questionnaires By the end ofthe semester 96 teacher questionnaires and 21 administratorquestionnaires had been submitted

The SAS 913 statistical package was used to calculatefrequencies and percentages for each question using the multiple-choice and Likert-scale formats

Participants

Ninety-six ESL teachers from 19 IEPs responded to the teacherquestionnaire 18 were nonnative English speakers 78 were native

406 TESOL Journal

speakers The NNES teachers came from Argentina AzerbaijanBrazil China the Czech Republic Germany Iceland Japan KoreaReunion Island Russia Slovakia and Somalia The NES teacherscame from Canada England Ireland New Zealand and the UnitedStates Of the 96 teachers 71 were female and 23 were male

All the participating teachers held a diploma The majority(781) held masterrsquos degrees in TESOL TESL second languageacquisition second language education applied linguisticslinguistics or another field Some teachers were working toward anMA (52) or a PhD (21)

For participating ESL teachers work experience at their currentIEPs ranged from a few weeks to 27 years they taught a variety ofskills (reading writing listening speaking grammar vocabularyculture pronunciation TOEFL preparation idioms interculturalcommunication academic skills business English English forspecific purposes) and at all levels (beginner intermediate andadvanced)

Twenty-one administrators participated 19 were native Englishspeakers 1 was a bilingual speaker of English and Spanish and 1was a nonnative speaker of English Of the 21 8 were male and 13were female Seventeen of the administrators had hired at least oneNNES teacher during the previous semester

RESULTSThe teacher and administrator questionnaires posed severalquestions to study participants This section addresses thesequestions and the responses

Strengths and Weaknesses

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most valuable qualities of NNES teachers ingeneral if anyrsquorsquo

The most frequent responses given by NNES teachers abouttheir own perceived strengths were their understanding ofstudentsrsquo challenges and needs (805) and their own languagelearning experience (777) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]have an ability to relate to the students in a way that a NES teacherdoes not [We] can help students with difficulties and be a rolemodelrsquorsquo Other comments by NNES teachers included the following

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 407

lsquolsquo[We] are very concerned about accuracy in using the language andknowing the reasons English is the way it isrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[We] look atculture from an outside perspective so [we] can point out thingsthat [NES teachers] may not noticersquorsquo Another strength mentionedby NNES teachers about their own teaching was the lsquolsquodesire tocontinue to learn and to demonstrate their own learning tostudentsrsquorsquo as well as their desire to learn from students (445)

NES teachers recognized NNES teachersrsquo language learningexperience (487) their ability to be lsquolsquogood role models forstudentsrsquorsquo (307) and their lsquolsquoability to understand and explaingrammar rulesrsquorsquo (192) One NES teacher admired lsquolsquoNNESteachersrsquo ability to deal with criticism about being [NNESteachers]rsquorsquo and many recognized qualities such as NNES teachersrsquolsquolsquoresilience hopefulness strength cultural wealth and resourcesrsquorsquo(410) Similarly several NES teachers acknowledged NNESteachersrsquo dedication to teaching their effort their lsquolsquoenthusiasmrsquorsquoand their lsquolsquokindnessrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopatiencersquorsquo toward ESL students (435)no NNES teacher mentioned these Finally few NNES teachers incontrast to 833 of their NES colleagues recognized thelsquolsquoadditional cultural insights [NNES teachers provide] for theEnglish language learnerrsquorsquo

NES teachers frequently cited their admiration of their NNESpeers Although they perhaps questioned NNES teachersrsquo languageproficiency or knowledge of US culture (to be discussedsubsequently) they recognized the multicultural awareness andunderstanding of studentsrsquo challenges and needs that NNESteachers brought to the classroom

Administrators more readily recognized NNES teachersrsquopedagogical skills (476) with comments such as lsquolsquoThey havelearned English and their experience can assist them in lesson plansand learning strategiesrsquorsquo Administrators also praised NNESteachers for their knowledge of lsquolsquohow to use multiple techniquesrsquorsquolsquolsquocurricular flexibilityrsquorsquo lsquolsquostrong collegialityrsquorsquo lsquolsquodedicationrsquorsquolsquolsquocreativity in the classroomrsquorsquo and lsquolsquohigh standards (expectations)for students (academics and proficiency)rsquorsquo As one administratorexplained NNES teachersrsquo strengths include lsquolsquolove of languagesand cultures ability to create a comfortable atmosphere in class to

408 TESOL Journal

promote learning and cooperation among the students and abilityto reach students with different learning stylesrsquorsquo

Administrators also recognized NNES teachers as being lsquolsquoterrificrole-modelsrsquorsquo (240) and as having and lsquolsquounderstanding experienceof students in livingadapting to another culture and operating inanother languagersquorsquo (240)

These strengths are similar to those described by Arva andMedgyes (2000) However participants in Arva and Medgyesrsquosstudy also mentioned that NNES teachers were often more strictand demanding than their NES counterparts Although theparticipating NES teachers often recognized NNES teachersrsquodedication only one administrator mentioned the lsquolsquohigh standards(expectations) for studentsrsquorsquo as a strength of NNES teachersAnother strength recognized in previous studies (eg Medgyes1994) was NNES teachersrsquo ability to predict studentsrsquo difficultiesHowever this intuitive skill was only mentioned twice in the onlinequestionnaires

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most serious weaknesses of NNES teachersin general if anyrsquorsquo

NNES teachersrsquo self-perceptions of their weaknesses includedtheir lsquolsquoforeign accentrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopronunciationrsquorsquo (390) theirlsquolsquoinsufficient knowledge of idioms nuances of the language andculture resulting in inability to recognize cultural referencesrsquorsquo(335) their lsquolsquolack of confidencersquorsquo (277) and poor knowledge ofthe English language (277) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]donrsquot have the same feel for the languagersquorsquo Interestingly one NNESteacher perceived his or her knowledge of lsquolsquogrammarrsquorsquo as weakwhich clearly contradicts the literature and the numerous NESteachers and administrators who recognized NNES teachersrsquogrammatical knowledge as a strength As another NNES teacherexplained lsquolsquoeven though I know English language rules better thanthe native speakers I just donrsquot feel confident because thatrsquos not myfirst languagersquorsquo Finally one NNES teacher did not appreciate thequestion and responded lsquolsquoNo one is perfect and no one has it all Ifthey are qualified ESL teachers they are qualified ESL teachersPeriod What do you mean by lsquomost serious weaknessesrsquorsquorsquo

When asked about NNES teachersrsquo weaknesses NES teachersoverwhelmingly noted strong foreign accents and lsquolsquobadrsquorsquo pronun-

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 409

ciation (475) although as one teacher pointed out lsquolsquoour studentshave more difficulty understanding our British-accented instructorsthan our NNES teachersrsquorsquo Other responses included lack of UScultural knowledge (282) as well as lsquolsquopoorrsquorsquo self-confidence(153) Some NES teachers also mentioned lsquolsquoa lack of familiaritywith things NES teachers learn as childrenrsquorsquo and lsquolsquosyntactic errorsthat may be fossilized in some [NNES teachers] [These] instructorswill be models for the English language learners causingconfusionrsquorsquo Others explained that NNES teachers are lsquolsquosometimesnot able to emotionally stand up to students who are unhappy thatthey do not have a NES teacherrsquorsquo and that NNES teachers may feellsquolsquothat they are not good enough because English is not their firstlanguage They are not respected enough as educators and theytend to respond by feeling less confidentrsquorsquo

Another weakness mentioned twice was the different teachingmethods with NNES teachers having lsquolsquoallegiance to outmodedmethodologiesrsquorsquo and preferring lsquolsquoto teach using the methods withwhich they were taught which might not be the most current oraccepted in the United Statesrsquorsquo Another negative response was that

students in an IEP pay a large amount of money to come to theUnited States to learn English Most places in the world haveopportunities where a person can learn English however thereason many students come to the United States is to haveinstruction from a native speaker A nonnative speaker ofEnglish in an IEP must have near-native fluency I would bevery upset if I went to England for example to study Shakespear[sic] or English History only to have a professor from the UnitedStates there for a semester-abroad teaching experience

A few NES teachers went as far as saying that NNES teacherslsquolsquoteach incorrect informationrsquorsquo and have a serious lsquolsquolack of aware-ness of studentsrsquorsquo but comments such as these were rare Otherrespondents acknowledged that lsquolsquoall teachers make mistakesrsquorsquo canbe too critical or unkind can lack patience and can have difficultieslsquolsquosimplifying their speech for lower level studentsrsquorsquo Several NESteachers noted that NNES teachers were more harshly criticized bytheir ESL students for these perceived weaknesses whereas theseweaknesses were more readily accepted as lsquolsquonormalrsquorsquo for NESteachers

410 TESOL Journal

Administrators identified three major weaknesses in NNESteachers foreign accent (380) lsquolsquooverdependence on didacticpresentation of grammarrsquorsquo or lsquolsquofocusing too much on grammarrsquorsquo(333) and lack of self-confidence (285) One administrator alsomentioned lsquolsquothe lack of experience with the culture of theclassroomrsquorsquo Several administrators however did not find anymajor weaknesses that were particular to NNES teachers Oneadministrator explained

In general the most serious weakness would be a degree ofdifficulty with pronunciation that leads to stress on the part ofthe students Most often the students are less and less aware ofthe teacherrsquos accent over time If the students are confident in theteacherrsquos knowledge organization and classroom managementskills the students are more forgiving about pronunciation Ihave found that the [NNES teachers] who receive complaints aremore likely to be inexperienced the complaint then is more anexperience issue than a [NNES teacher] issue

Another administrator concluded by saying lsquolsquoIn my opinion[NNES teachersrsquo strongest weakness is] not believing that they havethe right to teach English Their own perception of themselves isflawedrsquorsquo

These comments lead to the conclusion that little has changedover the years and that the lsquolsquoautomatic extrapolation from compe-tent speaker to competent teacher based on linguistic groundsalonersquorsquo (Seidlhofer 1999 p 236) may still exists today NNESteachers are still sometimes perceived by others through the samelens (as inferior in status) and still sometimes perceive themselvesas having essentially the same strengths and weaknesses as wereobserved in the previous decade

Teacher Education and Teaching Practicum

lsquolsquoDuring your training as an ESL teacher (if any) did you take part in anydiscussions or take any classes aimed specifically at future NNESteachersrsquorsquo

Fifty-one teachers answered negatively to this question and 28did not respond at all Only 17 teachers responded lsquolsquoyesrsquorsquo lsquolsquomaybersquorsquoor lsquolsquoit has been a while but I think sorsquorsquo A few teachers mentioneddiscussions about the lsquolsquoimportance of impressions students have

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 411

about [NES teachers] specifically a preference for lsquoblond blue-eyedrsquo speakers of English even if less qualifiedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquogrammarreview for NES teachers and speech assessment for NNESteachersrsquorsquo One NNES teacher took a class in which lsquolsquoit wasexplained to us that the teacher was the model for his or her studentand should therefore be highly proficient in the language Accentwas not really an issuersquorsquo Two NES teachers wrote lsquolsquoWe oftendiscussed studentsrsquo perceptions of [NNES teachers] in classesrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoWe talked about the benefits and disadvantages of [NNESteachers] teaching Englishrsquorsquo

One recurring comment was that some or many lsquolsquomembers ofthe class were nonnative English speakersrsquorsquo which allowed thistype of discussion to take place One NES teacher for exampleexplained lsquolsquoI took an ESL Phonetics class in which the majority ofclass members were nonnative speakers of English We did practiceteaching activities on each other in peer groups particularly inpronunciation areas NNES teachers have difficulty withrsquorsquo

Except for a few other responses such as lsquolsquono such courses wereofferedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquono all students enrolled were native speakersrsquorsquo thesewere all the answers given by the 96 participating teachers Theseresults corroborate the belief that there is a need for more specificinstructions for future teachers native and nonnative speakers alike(Canagarajah 2005 Kamhi-Stein 2004 J Liu 1999)

lsquolsquoDo you feel like your MA TESOL program (or other trainingprogram if any) is preparing or did prepare you well for your teachingassignmentsrsquorsquo

Responses varied widely but most teachers agreed that they hadbeen prepared well for their teaching assignments Many teachers(343) felt that their MA TESOL program lsquolsquoprepared [them] wellbecause it focused on practical teaching and not theory onlyrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoprepared [them] well for forming the theories behind what [they]choose to do in classrsquorsquo On the other hand many teachers (291)complained that it was lsquolsquohard to see how to incorporate all [the]theory into the actual practicersquorsquo or that lsquolsquotherersquos only so much aprogram can do The best preparation is the actual experiencersquorsquo OneNNES teacher also said lsquolsquoIt didnrsquot necessarily prepare me specificallyas a NNES teacher but practical as well as theoretical aspects ofteaching a language have been helpful for my current teaching

412 TESOL Journal

assignmentsrsquorsquo Another NNES teacher commented lsquolsquoIt gave meinsights of the American teaching stylersquorsquo This last comment confirmsBrainersquos (1999) and Eguigurenrsquos (2000) concerns regarding NorthAmerican TESOL programs potentially giving future Englishlanguage teachers a monocentric perspective of pedagogy

A frequent comment from NES as well as NNES teachers wasthat lsquolsquoexperience is still clearly the best teacherrsquorsquo Yet there were alsoseveral negative responses such as lsquolsquo[Our] program did not provideextensive practical training There was no practicum or studentteaching requiredrsquorsquo As one teacher explained lsquolsquoIn this programnonnative-English-speaking TESOL students are allowed to becomeESL instructors only if they are PhD students but not at the MAlevelrsquorsquo This corroborates Mahboobrsquos (2003) findings about the lackof practical training available to many NNES teachers

lsquolsquoHow shouldcould MA TESOL programs (or other teacherpreparation programs) prepare future ESL teachers to become excellentteachersrsquorsquo

IEP administratorsrsquo most common response (523) was lsquolsquoGive[preservice teachers] lots of practice-teaching and teachingopportunitiesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquoa lot of opportunities to observe otherteachersrsquorsquo Other responses from administrators reflected thisstatement lsquolsquoPrepare the teachers to understand culture and tocompensate with visuals if pronunciation is a problemrsquorsquo and toprovide lsquolsquosessions on classroom culturersquorsquo and lsquolsquoextensive reflectionon the professionrsquorsquo Administrators also advised teacher educatorsto help future ESL teachers lsquolsquoby providing a variety of learningopportunities (observations in the IEP course work etc) and bygetting the student teachers to develop their own philosophy forteachingrsquorsquo Other recurrent recommendations included thefollowing lsquolsquo[exposing preservice teachers] to a solid foundation inthe structure of the English language teaching methodology issuesin language pedagogy and policy and theory (eg World Englishescritical pedagogy)rsquorsquo lsquolsquo[increasing their] knowledge of languageacquisition pragmatics sociolinguistics content-basedinstructionrsquorsquo lsquolsquomentoring or partnering [them] with nativespeakersrsquorsquo giving lsquolsquoaccent reduction classrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[encouraging]professionalismrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[teaching] pronunciation and classroommanagement and expectations of nonnative speakers from a variety

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 413

of culturesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[teaching] awareness of nonverbalcommunicationrsquorsquo These suggestions are similar to thoserecommended by several scholars The idea of collaboration forexample was thoroughly discussed and studied by Matsuda andMatsuda (2004) and de Oliveira and Richardson (2001)

Two final comments seemed particularly significant in referenceto the education of NNES teachers

Prepare nonnative speakers mentally for the attitudes that theirstudents may have towards them Share with them strategies forgaining the confidence of their students

The most important training involves the exposure to resourcesnew teachers need to know where they will be able to findanswers in the future Teacher training should also include theprocess of community building Teachers should feel free to askquestions to share their knowledge and to cultivate their ownteaching style All members of the team should be aware of theneeds of the whole and aware of the benefits of their individualcontributions

The previous responses can be sorted into two main categorieson the one hand the need for more solid and extensive practicaltraining for NES and NNES teachers alike and on the other handthe need for focused discussions on the topic of NES and NNESteachersrsquo strengths and weaknesses challenges and successesneeds and achievements

Teaching Experience and Responses to Discrimination

lsquolsquoDo you feel that you are being discriminated against in any way bystudents or colleaguesrsquorsquo

Of the 93 ESL teachers who responded 366 said yes and634 said no Among those who said yes 7 were NNES teachers(representing 38 of all NNES teacher respondents) although oneof the NNES teachers who answered negatively added lsquolsquoI havenever heard any negative comments However I do hear [fromother] teachers that some students donrsquot particularly like mersquorsquo

When asked how they responded or would respond todiscrimination against NNES teachers from ESL students severalNES teachers explained that they tell students about NNESteachersrsquo strengths (grammar knowledge etc) that there are

414 TESOL Journal

different accents even within the United States and that it isimportant to be accustomed to different accents in todayrsquosmulticultural world (see Canagarajah 2005 for a thoroughdiscussion of this concept) As one teacher explained

I ask students how they plan to use English in the futureInevitably they will use it in a context where they will comeacross many types of users of English not just native speakers Istress that being exposed to a variety of accents and uses ofEnglish from a professional and trained teacher will benefitthem in the short and long run

Other teachers replied that they made no attempt to convincestudents that NNES teachers could be good teachers because lsquolsquonowords can convince them that they are in good handsrsquorsquo Others triedto lsquolsquoevaluate the reason behind the commentsrsquorsquo or advised thestudents lsquolsquoto speak to the teacher directlyrsquorsquo Some respondents toldESL students that lsquolsquothere are many different dialects of English that[students] must get used torsquorsquo that lsquolsquo[NNES teachersrsquo] experienceadds a lot to the class that [NES teachers] cannot add becausetheyrsquove never been through the experience of learning Englishrsquorsquoand that lsquolsquo[students] are lucky to have such a good role modelrsquorsquo

Although most NES teachers reported standing up for theirNNES colleagues in response to discriminatory comments one NESteacher responded lsquolsquoI think it is a subject worthy of discussionWould you like to learn to play the violin from someone who didnrsquotplay it wellrsquorsquo Similarly the great majority of NNES teachers felt thatthey could talk to mentors or IEP administrators if they encountereddiscrimination but one disagreed and explained lsquolsquoNo not really If Iwant to keep my job Irsquove been taught to avoid any negativeconfrontation with any individual in an administrative positionrsquorsquo

IEP administrators seemed to be more aware than teachers ofongoing discrimination against NNES teachers When asked howthey reacted or would react to discrimination some administratorsreplied lsquolsquoWe engage students and teachers in conversations aboutspecific issues and a larger conversation about Englishinternationally and in the universityrsquorsquo Others explained to theirstudents that lsquolsquoEnglish is spoken in many different rhythms andwith somewhat different pronunciation and that as citizens of theworld people need to listen and adjust to speaking differencesrsquorsquo and

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 415

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

speakers The NNES teachers came from Argentina AzerbaijanBrazil China the Czech Republic Germany Iceland Japan KoreaReunion Island Russia Slovakia and Somalia The NES teacherscame from Canada England Ireland New Zealand and the UnitedStates Of the 96 teachers 71 were female and 23 were male

All the participating teachers held a diploma The majority(781) held masterrsquos degrees in TESOL TESL second languageacquisition second language education applied linguisticslinguistics or another field Some teachers were working toward anMA (52) or a PhD (21)

For participating ESL teachers work experience at their currentIEPs ranged from a few weeks to 27 years they taught a variety ofskills (reading writing listening speaking grammar vocabularyculture pronunciation TOEFL preparation idioms interculturalcommunication academic skills business English English forspecific purposes) and at all levels (beginner intermediate andadvanced)

Twenty-one administrators participated 19 were native Englishspeakers 1 was a bilingual speaker of English and Spanish and 1was a nonnative speaker of English Of the 21 8 were male and 13were female Seventeen of the administrators had hired at least oneNNES teacher during the previous semester

RESULTSThe teacher and administrator questionnaires posed severalquestions to study participants This section addresses thesequestions and the responses

Strengths and Weaknesses

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most valuable qualities of NNES teachers ingeneral if anyrsquorsquo

The most frequent responses given by NNES teachers abouttheir own perceived strengths were their understanding ofstudentsrsquo challenges and needs (805) and their own languagelearning experience (777) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]have an ability to relate to the students in a way that a NES teacherdoes not [We] can help students with difficulties and be a rolemodelrsquorsquo Other comments by NNES teachers included the following

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 407

lsquolsquo[We] are very concerned about accuracy in using the language andknowing the reasons English is the way it isrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[We] look atculture from an outside perspective so [we] can point out thingsthat [NES teachers] may not noticersquorsquo Another strength mentionedby NNES teachers about their own teaching was the lsquolsquodesire tocontinue to learn and to demonstrate their own learning tostudentsrsquorsquo as well as their desire to learn from students (445)

NES teachers recognized NNES teachersrsquo language learningexperience (487) their ability to be lsquolsquogood role models forstudentsrsquorsquo (307) and their lsquolsquoability to understand and explaingrammar rulesrsquorsquo (192) One NES teacher admired lsquolsquoNNESteachersrsquo ability to deal with criticism about being [NNESteachers]rsquorsquo and many recognized qualities such as NNES teachersrsquolsquolsquoresilience hopefulness strength cultural wealth and resourcesrsquorsquo(410) Similarly several NES teachers acknowledged NNESteachersrsquo dedication to teaching their effort their lsquolsquoenthusiasmrsquorsquoand their lsquolsquokindnessrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopatiencersquorsquo toward ESL students (435)no NNES teacher mentioned these Finally few NNES teachers incontrast to 833 of their NES colleagues recognized thelsquolsquoadditional cultural insights [NNES teachers provide] for theEnglish language learnerrsquorsquo

NES teachers frequently cited their admiration of their NNESpeers Although they perhaps questioned NNES teachersrsquo languageproficiency or knowledge of US culture (to be discussedsubsequently) they recognized the multicultural awareness andunderstanding of studentsrsquo challenges and needs that NNESteachers brought to the classroom

Administrators more readily recognized NNES teachersrsquopedagogical skills (476) with comments such as lsquolsquoThey havelearned English and their experience can assist them in lesson plansand learning strategiesrsquorsquo Administrators also praised NNESteachers for their knowledge of lsquolsquohow to use multiple techniquesrsquorsquolsquolsquocurricular flexibilityrsquorsquo lsquolsquostrong collegialityrsquorsquo lsquolsquodedicationrsquorsquolsquolsquocreativity in the classroomrsquorsquo and lsquolsquohigh standards (expectations)for students (academics and proficiency)rsquorsquo As one administratorexplained NNES teachersrsquo strengths include lsquolsquolove of languagesand cultures ability to create a comfortable atmosphere in class to

408 TESOL Journal

promote learning and cooperation among the students and abilityto reach students with different learning stylesrsquorsquo

Administrators also recognized NNES teachers as being lsquolsquoterrificrole-modelsrsquorsquo (240) and as having and lsquolsquounderstanding experienceof students in livingadapting to another culture and operating inanother languagersquorsquo (240)

These strengths are similar to those described by Arva andMedgyes (2000) However participants in Arva and Medgyesrsquosstudy also mentioned that NNES teachers were often more strictand demanding than their NES counterparts Although theparticipating NES teachers often recognized NNES teachersrsquodedication only one administrator mentioned the lsquolsquohigh standards(expectations) for studentsrsquorsquo as a strength of NNES teachersAnother strength recognized in previous studies (eg Medgyes1994) was NNES teachersrsquo ability to predict studentsrsquo difficultiesHowever this intuitive skill was only mentioned twice in the onlinequestionnaires

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most serious weaknesses of NNES teachersin general if anyrsquorsquo

NNES teachersrsquo self-perceptions of their weaknesses includedtheir lsquolsquoforeign accentrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopronunciationrsquorsquo (390) theirlsquolsquoinsufficient knowledge of idioms nuances of the language andculture resulting in inability to recognize cultural referencesrsquorsquo(335) their lsquolsquolack of confidencersquorsquo (277) and poor knowledge ofthe English language (277) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]donrsquot have the same feel for the languagersquorsquo Interestingly one NNESteacher perceived his or her knowledge of lsquolsquogrammarrsquorsquo as weakwhich clearly contradicts the literature and the numerous NESteachers and administrators who recognized NNES teachersrsquogrammatical knowledge as a strength As another NNES teacherexplained lsquolsquoeven though I know English language rules better thanthe native speakers I just donrsquot feel confident because thatrsquos not myfirst languagersquorsquo Finally one NNES teacher did not appreciate thequestion and responded lsquolsquoNo one is perfect and no one has it all Ifthey are qualified ESL teachers they are qualified ESL teachersPeriod What do you mean by lsquomost serious weaknessesrsquorsquorsquo

When asked about NNES teachersrsquo weaknesses NES teachersoverwhelmingly noted strong foreign accents and lsquolsquobadrsquorsquo pronun-

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 409

ciation (475) although as one teacher pointed out lsquolsquoour studentshave more difficulty understanding our British-accented instructorsthan our NNES teachersrsquorsquo Other responses included lack of UScultural knowledge (282) as well as lsquolsquopoorrsquorsquo self-confidence(153) Some NES teachers also mentioned lsquolsquoa lack of familiaritywith things NES teachers learn as childrenrsquorsquo and lsquolsquosyntactic errorsthat may be fossilized in some [NNES teachers] [These] instructorswill be models for the English language learners causingconfusionrsquorsquo Others explained that NNES teachers are lsquolsquosometimesnot able to emotionally stand up to students who are unhappy thatthey do not have a NES teacherrsquorsquo and that NNES teachers may feellsquolsquothat they are not good enough because English is not their firstlanguage They are not respected enough as educators and theytend to respond by feeling less confidentrsquorsquo

Another weakness mentioned twice was the different teachingmethods with NNES teachers having lsquolsquoallegiance to outmodedmethodologiesrsquorsquo and preferring lsquolsquoto teach using the methods withwhich they were taught which might not be the most current oraccepted in the United Statesrsquorsquo Another negative response was that

students in an IEP pay a large amount of money to come to theUnited States to learn English Most places in the world haveopportunities where a person can learn English however thereason many students come to the United States is to haveinstruction from a native speaker A nonnative speaker ofEnglish in an IEP must have near-native fluency I would bevery upset if I went to England for example to study Shakespear[sic] or English History only to have a professor from the UnitedStates there for a semester-abroad teaching experience

A few NES teachers went as far as saying that NNES teacherslsquolsquoteach incorrect informationrsquorsquo and have a serious lsquolsquolack of aware-ness of studentsrsquorsquo but comments such as these were rare Otherrespondents acknowledged that lsquolsquoall teachers make mistakesrsquorsquo canbe too critical or unkind can lack patience and can have difficultieslsquolsquosimplifying their speech for lower level studentsrsquorsquo Several NESteachers noted that NNES teachers were more harshly criticized bytheir ESL students for these perceived weaknesses whereas theseweaknesses were more readily accepted as lsquolsquonormalrsquorsquo for NESteachers

410 TESOL Journal

Administrators identified three major weaknesses in NNESteachers foreign accent (380) lsquolsquooverdependence on didacticpresentation of grammarrsquorsquo or lsquolsquofocusing too much on grammarrsquorsquo(333) and lack of self-confidence (285) One administrator alsomentioned lsquolsquothe lack of experience with the culture of theclassroomrsquorsquo Several administrators however did not find anymajor weaknesses that were particular to NNES teachers Oneadministrator explained

In general the most serious weakness would be a degree ofdifficulty with pronunciation that leads to stress on the part ofthe students Most often the students are less and less aware ofthe teacherrsquos accent over time If the students are confident in theteacherrsquos knowledge organization and classroom managementskills the students are more forgiving about pronunciation Ihave found that the [NNES teachers] who receive complaints aremore likely to be inexperienced the complaint then is more anexperience issue than a [NNES teacher] issue

Another administrator concluded by saying lsquolsquoIn my opinion[NNES teachersrsquo strongest weakness is] not believing that they havethe right to teach English Their own perception of themselves isflawedrsquorsquo

These comments lead to the conclusion that little has changedover the years and that the lsquolsquoautomatic extrapolation from compe-tent speaker to competent teacher based on linguistic groundsalonersquorsquo (Seidlhofer 1999 p 236) may still exists today NNESteachers are still sometimes perceived by others through the samelens (as inferior in status) and still sometimes perceive themselvesas having essentially the same strengths and weaknesses as wereobserved in the previous decade

Teacher Education and Teaching Practicum

lsquolsquoDuring your training as an ESL teacher (if any) did you take part in anydiscussions or take any classes aimed specifically at future NNESteachersrsquorsquo

Fifty-one teachers answered negatively to this question and 28did not respond at all Only 17 teachers responded lsquolsquoyesrsquorsquo lsquolsquomaybersquorsquoor lsquolsquoit has been a while but I think sorsquorsquo A few teachers mentioneddiscussions about the lsquolsquoimportance of impressions students have

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 411

about [NES teachers] specifically a preference for lsquoblond blue-eyedrsquo speakers of English even if less qualifiedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquogrammarreview for NES teachers and speech assessment for NNESteachersrsquorsquo One NNES teacher took a class in which lsquolsquoit wasexplained to us that the teacher was the model for his or her studentand should therefore be highly proficient in the language Accentwas not really an issuersquorsquo Two NES teachers wrote lsquolsquoWe oftendiscussed studentsrsquo perceptions of [NNES teachers] in classesrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoWe talked about the benefits and disadvantages of [NNESteachers] teaching Englishrsquorsquo

One recurring comment was that some or many lsquolsquomembers ofthe class were nonnative English speakersrsquorsquo which allowed thistype of discussion to take place One NES teacher for exampleexplained lsquolsquoI took an ESL Phonetics class in which the majority ofclass members were nonnative speakers of English We did practiceteaching activities on each other in peer groups particularly inpronunciation areas NNES teachers have difficulty withrsquorsquo

Except for a few other responses such as lsquolsquono such courses wereofferedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquono all students enrolled were native speakersrsquorsquo thesewere all the answers given by the 96 participating teachers Theseresults corroborate the belief that there is a need for more specificinstructions for future teachers native and nonnative speakers alike(Canagarajah 2005 Kamhi-Stein 2004 J Liu 1999)

lsquolsquoDo you feel like your MA TESOL program (or other trainingprogram if any) is preparing or did prepare you well for your teachingassignmentsrsquorsquo

Responses varied widely but most teachers agreed that they hadbeen prepared well for their teaching assignments Many teachers(343) felt that their MA TESOL program lsquolsquoprepared [them] wellbecause it focused on practical teaching and not theory onlyrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoprepared [them] well for forming the theories behind what [they]choose to do in classrsquorsquo On the other hand many teachers (291)complained that it was lsquolsquohard to see how to incorporate all [the]theory into the actual practicersquorsquo or that lsquolsquotherersquos only so much aprogram can do The best preparation is the actual experiencersquorsquo OneNNES teacher also said lsquolsquoIt didnrsquot necessarily prepare me specificallyas a NNES teacher but practical as well as theoretical aspects ofteaching a language have been helpful for my current teaching

412 TESOL Journal

assignmentsrsquorsquo Another NNES teacher commented lsquolsquoIt gave meinsights of the American teaching stylersquorsquo This last comment confirmsBrainersquos (1999) and Eguigurenrsquos (2000) concerns regarding NorthAmerican TESOL programs potentially giving future Englishlanguage teachers a monocentric perspective of pedagogy

A frequent comment from NES as well as NNES teachers wasthat lsquolsquoexperience is still clearly the best teacherrsquorsquo Yet there were alsoseveral negative responses such as lsquolsquo[Our] program did not provideextensive practical training There was no practicum or studentteaching requiredrsquorsquo As one teacher explained lsquolsquoIn this programnonnative-English-speaking TESOL students are allowed to becomeESL instructors only if they are PhD students but not at the MAlevelrsquorsquo This corroborates Mahboobrsquos (2003) findings about the lackof practical training available to many NNES teachers

lsquolsquoHow shouldcould MA TESOL programs (or other teacherpreparation programs) prepare future ESL teachers to become excellentteachersrsquorsquo

IEP administratorsrsquo most common response (523) was lsquolsquoGive[preservice teachers] lots of practice-teaching and teachingopportunitiesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquoa lot of opportunities to observe otherteachersrsquorsquo Other responses from administrators reflected thisstatement lsquolsquoPrepare the teachers to understand culture and tocompensate with visuals if pronunciation is a problemrsquorsquo and toprovide lsquolsquosessions on classroom culturersquorsquo and lsquolsquoextensive reflectionon the professionrsquorsquo Administrators also advised teacher educatorsto help future ESL teachers lsquolsquoby providing a variety of learningopportunities (observations in the IEP course work etc) and bygetting the student teachers to develop their own philosophy forteachingrsquorsquo Other recurrent recommendations included thefollowing lsquolsquo[exposing preservice teachers] to a solid foundation inthe structure of the English language teaching methodology issuesin language pedagogy and policy and theory (eg World Englishescritical pedagogy)rsquorsquo lsquolsquo[increasing their] knowledge of languageacquisition pragmatics sociolinguistics content-basedinstructionrsquorsquo lsquolsquomentoring or partnering [them] with nativespeakersrsquorsquo giving lsquolsquoaccent reduction classrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[encouraging]professionalismrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[teaching] pronunciation and classroommanagement and expectations of nonnative speakers from a variety

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 413

of culturesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[teaching] awareness of nonverbalcommunicationrsquorsquo These suggestions are similar to thoserecommended by several scholars The idea of collaboration forexample was thoroughly discussed and studied by Matsuda andMatsuda (2004) and de Oliveira and Richardson (2001)

Two final comments seemed particularly significant in referenceto the education of NNES teachers

Prepare nonnative speakers mentally for the attitudes that theirstudents may have towards them Share with them strategies forgaining the confidence of their students

The most important training involves the exposure to resourcesnew teachers need to know where they will be able to findanswers in the future Teacher training should also include theprocess of community building Teachers should feel free to askquestions to share their knowledge and to cultivate their ownteaching style All members of the team should be aware of theneeds of the whole and aware of the benefits of their individualcontributions

The previous responses can be sorted into two main categorieson the one hand the need for more solid and extensive practicaltraining for NES and NNES teachers alike and on the other handthe need for focused discussions on the topic of NES and NNESteachersrsquo strengths and weaknesses challenges and successesneeds and achievements

Teaching Experience and Responses to Discrimination

lsquolsquoDo you feel that you are being discriminated against in any way bystudents or colleaguesrsquorsquo

Of the 93 ESL teachers who responded 366 said yes and634 said no Among those who said yes 7 were NNES teachers(representing 38 of all NNES teacher respondents) although oneof the NNES teachers who answered negatively added lsquolsquoI havenever heard any negative comments However I do hear [fromother] teachers that some students donrsquot particularly like mersquorsquo

When asked how they responded or would respond todiscrimination against NNES teachers from ESL students severalNES teachers explained that they tell students about NNESteachersrsquo strengths (grammar knowledge etc) that there are

414 TESOL Journal

different accents even within the United States and that it isimportant to be accustomed to different accents in todayrsquosmulticultural world (see Canagarajah 2005 for a thoroughdiscussion of this concept) As one teacher explained

I ask students how they plan to use English in the futureInevitably they will use it in a context where they will comeacross many types of users of English not just native speakers Istress that being exposed to a variety of accents and uses ofEnglish from a professional and trained teacher will benefitthem in the short and long run

Other teachers replied that they made no attempt to convincestudents that NNES teachers could be good teachers because lsquolsquonowords can convince them that they are in good handsrsquorsquo Others triedto lsquolsquoevaluate the reason behind the commentsrsquorsquo or advised thestudents lsquolsquoto speak to the teacher directlyrsquorsquo Some respondents toldESL students that lsquolsquothere are many different dialects of English that[students] must get used torsquorsquo that lsquolsquo[NNES teachersrsquo] experienceadds a lot to the class that [NES teachers] cannot add becausetheyrsquove never been through the experience of learning Englishrsquorsquoand that lsquolsquo[students] are lucky to have such a good role modelrsquorsquo

Although most NES teachers reported standing up for theirNNES colleagues in response to discriminatory comments one NESteacher responded lsquolsquoI think it is a subject worthy of discussionWould you like to learn to play the violin from someone who didnrsquotplay it wellrsquorsquo Similarly the great majority of NNES teachers felt thatthey could talk to mentors or IEP administrators if they encountereddiscrimination but one disagreed and explained lsquolsquoNo not really If Iwant to keep my job Irsquove been taught to avoid any negativeconfrontation with any individual in an administrative positionrsquorsquo

IEP administrators seemed to be more aware than teachers ofongoing discrimination against NNES teachers When asked howthey reacted or would react to discrimination some administratorsreplied lsquolsquoWe engage students and teachers in conversations aboutspecific issues and a larger conversation about Englishinternationally and in the universityrsquorsquo Others explained to theirstudents that lsquolsquoEnglish is spoken in many different rhythms andwith somewhat different pronunciation and that as citizens of theworld people need to listen and adjust to speaking differencesrsquorsquo and

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 415

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

lsquolsquo[We] are very concerned about accuracy in using the language andknowing the reasons English is the way it isrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[We] look atculture from an outside perspective so [we] can point out thingsthat [NES teachers] may not noticersquorsquo Another strength mentionedby NNES teachers about their own teaching was the lsquolsquodesire tocontinue to learn and to demonstrate their own learning tostudentsrsquorsquo as well as their desire to learn from students (445)

NES teachers recognized NNES teachersrsquo language learningexperience (487) their ability to be lsquolsquogood role models forstudentsrsquorsquo (307) and their lsquolsquoability to understand and explaingrammar rulesrsquorsquo (192) One NES teacher admired lsquolsquoNNESteachersrsquo ability to deal with criticism about being [NNESteachers]rsquorsquo and many recognized qualities such as NNES teachersrsquolsquolsquoresilience hopefulness strength cultural wealth and resourcesrsquorsquo(410) Similarly several NES teachers acknowledged NNESteachersrsquo dedication to teaching their effort their lsquolsquoenthusiasmrsquorsquoand their lsquolsquokindnessrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopatiencersquorsquo toward ESL students (435)no NNES teacher mentioned these Finally few NNES teachers incontrast to 833 of their NES colleagues recognized thelsquolsquoadditional cultural insights [NNES teachers provide] for theEnglish language learnerrsquorsquo

NES teachers frequently cited their admiration of their NNESpeers Although they perhaps questioned NNES teachersrsquo languageproficiency or knowledge of US culture (to be discussedsubsequently) they recognized the multicultural awareness andunderstanding of studentsrsquo challenges and needs that NNESteachers brought to the classroom

Administrators more readily recognized NNES teachersrsquopedagogical skills (476) with comments such as lsquolsquoThey havelearned English and their experience can assist them in lesson plansand learning strategiesrsquorsquo Administrators also praised NNESteachers for their knowledge of lsquolsquohow to use multiple techniquesrsquorsquolsquolsquocurricular flexibilityrsquorsquo lsquolsquostrong collegialityrsquorsquo lsquolsquodedicationrsquorsquolsquolsquocreativity in the classroomrsquorsquo and lsquolsquohigh standards (expectations)for students (academics and proficiency)rsquorsquo As one administratorexplained NNES teachersrsquo strengths include lsquolsquolove of languagesand cultures ability to create a comfortable atmosphere in class to

408 TESOL Journal

promote learning and cooperation among the students and abilityto reach students with different learning stylesrsquorsquo

Administrators also recognized NNES teachers as being lsquolsquoterrificrole-modelsrsquorsquo (240) and as having and lsquolsquounderstanding experienceof students in livingadapting to another culture and operating inanother languagersquorsquo (240)

These strengths are similar to those described by Arva andMedgyes (2000) However participants in Arva and Medgyesrsquosstudy also mentioned that NNES teachers were often more strictand demanding than their NES counterparts Although theparticipating NES teachers often recognized NNES teachersrsquodedication only one administrator mentioned the lsquolsquohigh standards(expectations) for studentsrsquorsquo as a strength of NNES teachersAnother strength recognized in previous studies (eg Medgyes1994) was NNES teachersrsquo ability to predict studentsrsquo difficultiesHowever this intuitive skill was only mentioned twice in the onlinequestionnaires

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most serious weaknesses of NNES teachersin general if anyrsquorsquo

NNES teachersrsquo self-perceptions of their weaknesses includedtheir lsquolsquoforeign accentrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopronunciationrsquorsquo (390) theirlsquolsquoinsufficient knowledge of idioms nuances of the language andculture resulting in inability to recognize cultural referencesrsquorsquo(335) their lsquolsquolack of confidencersquorsquo (277) and poor knowledge ofthe English language (277) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]donrsquot have the same feel for the languagersquorsquo Interestingly one NNESteacher perceived his or her knowledge of lsquolsquogrammarrsquorsquo as weakwhich clearly contradicts the literature and the numerous NESteachers and administrators who recognized NNES teachersrsquogrammatical knowledge as a strength As another NNES teacherexplained lsquolsquoeven though I know English language rules better thanthe native speakers I just donrsquot feel confident because thatrsquos not myfirst languagersquorsquo Finally one NNES teacher did not appreciate thequestion and responded lsquolsquoNo one is perfect and no one has it all Ifthey are qualified ESL teachers they are qualified ESL teachersPeriod What do you mean by lsquomost serious weaknessesrsquorsquorsquo

When asked about NNES teachersrsquo weaknesses NES teachersoverwhelmingly noted strong foreign accents and lsquolsquobadrsquorsquo pronun-

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 409

ciation (475) although as one teacher pointed out lsquolsquoour studentshave more difficulty understanding our British-accented instructorsthan our NNES teachersrsquorsquo Other responses included lack of UScultural knowledge (282) as well as lsquolsquopoorrsquorsquo self-confidence(153) Some NES teachers also mentioned lsquolsquoa lack of familiaritywith things NES teachers learn as childrenrsquorsquo and lsquolsquosyntactic errorsthat may be fossilized in some [NNES teachers] [These] instructorswill be models for the English language learners causingconfusionrsquorsquo Others explained that NNES teachers are lsquolsquosometimesnot able to emotionally stand up to students who are unhappy thatthey do not have a NES teacherrsquorsquo and that NNES teachers may feellsquolsquothat they are not good enough because English is not their firstlanguage They are not respected enough as educators and theytend to respond by feeling less confidentrsquorsquo

Another weakness mentioned twice was the different teachingmethods with NNES teachers having lsquolsquoallegiance to outmodedmethodologiesrsquorsquo and preferring lsquolsquoto teach using the methods withwhich they were taught which might not be the most current oraccepted in the United Statesrsquorsquo Another negative response was that

students in an IEP pay a large amount of money to come to theUnited States to learn English Most places in the world haveopportunities where a person can learn English however thereason many students come to the United States is to haveinstruction from a native speaker A nonnative speaker ofEnglish in an IEP must have near-native fluency I would bevery upset if I went to England for example to study Shakespear[sic] or English History only to have a professor from the UnitedStates there for a semester-abroad teaching experience

A few NES teachers went as far as saying that NNES teacherslsquolsquoteach incorrect informationrsquorsquo and have a serious lsquolsquolack of aware-ness of studentsrsquorsquo but comments such as these were rare Otherrespondents acknowledged that lsquolsquoall teachers make mistakesrsquorsquo canbe too critical or unkind can lack patience and can have difficultieslsquolsquosimplifying their speech for lower level studentsrsquorsquo Several NESteachers noted that NNES teachers were more harshly criticized bytheir ESL students for these perceived weaknesses whereas theseweaknesses were more readily accepted as lsquolsquonormalrsquorsquo for NESteachers

410 TESOL Journal

Administrators identified three major weaknesses in NNESteachers foreign accent (380) lsquolsquooverdependence on didacticpresentation of grammarrsquorsquo or lsquolsquofocusing too much on grammarrsquorsquo(333) and lack of self-confidence (285) One administrator alsomentioned lsquolsquothe lack of experience with the culture of theclassroomrsquorsquo Several administrators however did not find anymajor weaknesses that were particular to NNES teachers Oneadministrator explained

In general the most serious weakness would be a degree ofdifficulty with pronunciation that leads to stress on the part ofthe students Most often the students are less and less aware ofthe teacherrsquos accent over time If the students are confident in theteacherrsquos knowledge organization and classroom managementskills the students are more forgiving about pronunciation Ihave found that the [NNES teachers] who receive complaints aremore likely to be inexperienced the complaint then is more anexperience issue than a [NNES teacher] issue

Another administrator concluded by saying lsquolsquoIn my opinion[NNES teachersrsquo strongest weakness is] not believing that they havethe right to teach English Their own perception of themselves isflawedrsquorsquo

These comments lead to the conclusion that little has changedover the years and that the lsquolsquoautomatic extrapolation from compe-tent speaker to competent teacher based on linguistic groundsalonersquorsquo (Seidlhofer 1999 p 236) may still exists today NNESteachers are still sometimes perceived by others through the samelens (as inferior in status) and still sometimes perceive themselvesas having essentially the same strengths and weaknesses as wereobserved in the previous decade

Teacher Education and Teaching Practicum

lsquolsquoDuring your training as an ESL teacher (if any) did you take part in anydiscussions or take any classes aimed specifically at future NNESteachersrsquorsquo

Fifty-one teachers answered negatively to this question and 28did not respond at all Only 17 teachers responded lsquolsquoyesrsquorsquo lsquolsquomaybersquorsquoor lsquolsquoit has been a while but I think sorsquorsquo A few teachers mentioneddiscussions about the lsquolsquoimportance of impressions students have

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 411

about [NES teachers] specifically a preference for lsquoblond blue-eyedrsquo speakers of English even if less qualifiedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquogrammarreview for NES teachers and speech assessment for NNESteachersrsquorsquo One NNES teacher took a class in which lsquolsquoit wasexplained to us that the teacher was the model for his or her studentand should therefore be highly proficient in the language Accentwas not really an issuersquorsquo Two NES teachers wrote lsquolsquoWe oftendiscussed studentsrsquo perceptions of [NNES teachers] in classesrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoWe talked about the benefits and disadvantages of [NNESteachers] teaching Englishrsquorsquo

One recurring comment was that some or many lsquolsquomembers ofthe class were nonnative English speakersrsquorsquo which allowed thistype of discussion to take place One NES teacher for exampleexplained lsquolsquoI took an ESL Phonetics class in which the majority ofclass members were nonnative speakers of English We did practiceteaching activities on each other in peer groups particularly inpronunciation areas NNES teachers have difficulty withrsquorsquo

Except for a few other responses such as lsquolsquono such courses wereofferedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquono all students enrolled were native speakersrsquorsquo thesewere all the answers given by the 96 participating teachers Theseresults corroborate the belief that there is a need for more specificinstructions for future teachers native and nonnative speakers alike(Canagarajah 2005 Kamhi-Stein 2004 J Liu 1999)

lsquolsquoDo you feel like your MA TESOL program (or other trainingprogram if any) is preparing or did prepare you well for your teachingassignmentsrsquorsquo

Responses varied widely but most teachers agreed that they hadbeen prepared well for their teaching assignments Many teachers(343) felt that their MA TESOL program lsquolsquoprepared [them] wellbecause it focused on practical teaching and not theory onlyrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoprepared [them] well for forming the theories behind what [they]choose to do in classrsquorsquo On the other hand many teachers (291)complained that it was lsquolsquohard to see how to incorporate all [the]theory into the actual practicersquorsquo or that lsquolsquotherersquos only so much aprogram can do The best preparation is the actual experiencersquorsquo OneNNES teacher also said lsquolsquoIt didnrsquot necessarily prepare me specificallyas a NNES teacher but practical as well as theoretical aspects ofteaching a language have been helpful for my current teaching

412 TESOL Journal

assignmentsrsquorsquo Another NNES teacher commented lsquolsquoIt gave meinsights of the American teaching stylersquorsquo This last comment confirmsBrainersquos (1999) and Eguigurenrsquos (2000) concerns regarding NorthAmerican TESOL programs potentially giving future Englishlanguage teachers a monocentric perspective of pedagogy

A frequent comment from NES as well as NNES teachers wasthat lsquolsquoexperience is still clearly the best teacherrsquorsquo Yet there were alsoseveral negative responses such as lsquolsquo[Our] program did not provideextensive practical training There was no practicum or studentteaching requiredrsquorsquo As one teacher explained lsquolsquoIn this programnonnative-English-speaking TESOL students are allowed to becomeESL instructors only if they are PhD students but not at the MAlevelrsquorsquo This corroborates Mahboobrsquos (2003) findings about the lackof practical training available to many NNES teachers

lsquolsquoHow shouldcould MA TESOL programs (or other teacherpreparation programs) prepare future ESL teachers to become excellentteachersrsquorsquo

IEP administratorsrsquo most common response (523) was lsquolsquoGive[preservice teachers] lots of practice-teaching and teachingopportunitiesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquoa lot of opportunities to observe otherteachersrsquorsquo Other responses from administrators reflected thisstatement lsquolsquoPrepare the teachers to understand culture and tocompensate with visuals if pronunciation is a problemrsquorsquo and toprovide lsquolsquosessions on classroom culturersquorsquo and lsquolsquoextensive reflectionon the professionrsquorsquo Administrators also advised teacher educatorsto help future ESL teachers lsquolsquoby providing a variety of learningopportunities (observations in the IEP course work etc) and bygetting the student teachers to develop their own philosophy forteachingrsquorsquo Other recurrent recommendations included thefollowing lsquolsquo[exposing preservice teachers] to a solid foundation inthe structure of the English language teaching methodology issuesin language pedagogy and policy and theory (eg World Englishescritical pedagogy)rsquorsquo lsquolsquo[increasing their] knowledge of languageacquisition pragmatics sociolinguistics content-basedinstructionrsquorsquo lsquolsquomentoring or partnering [them] with nativespeakersrsquorsquo giving lsquolsquoaccent reduction classrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[encouraging]professionalismrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[teaching] pronunciation and classroommanagement and expectations of nonnative speakers from a variety

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 413

of culturesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[teaching] awareness of nonverbalcommunicationrsquorsquo These suggestions are similar to thoserecommended by several scholars The idea of collaboration forexample was thoroughly discussed and studied by Matsuda andMatsuda (2004) and de Oliveira and Richardson (2001)

Two final comments seemed particularly significant in referenceto the education of NNES teachers

Prepare nonnative speakers mentally for the attitudes that theirstudents may have towards them Share with them strategies forgaining the confidence of their students

The most important training involves the exposure to resourcesnew teachers need to know where they will be able to findanswers in the future Teacher training should also include theprocess of community building Teachers should feel free to askquestions to share their knowledge and to cultivate their ownteaching style All members of the team should be aware of theneeds of the whole and aware of the benefits of their individualcontributions

The previous responses can be sorted into two main categorieson the one hand the need for more solid and extensive practicaltraining for NES and NNES teachers alike and on the other handthe need for focused discussions on the topic of NES and NNESteachersrsquo strengths and weaknesses challenges and successesneeds and achievements

Teaching Experience and Responses to Discrimination

lsquolsquoDo you feel that you are being discriminated against in any way bystudents or colleaguesrsquorsquo

Of the 93 ESL teachers who responded 366 said yes and634 said no Among those who said yes 7 were NNES teachers(representing 38 of all NNES teacher respondents) although oneof the NNES teachers who answered negatively added lsquolsquoI havenever heard any negative comments However I do hear [fromother] teachers that some students donrsquot particularly like mersquorsquo

When asked how they responded or would respond todiscrimination against NNES teachers from ESL students severalNES teachers explained that they tell students about NNESteachersrsquo strengths (grammar knowledge etc) that there are

414 TESOL Journal

different accents even within the United States and that it isimportant to be accustomed to different accents in todayrsquosmulticultural world (see Canagarajah 2005 for a thoroughdiscussion of this concept) As one teacher explained

I ask students how they plan to use English in the futureInevitably they will use it in a context where they will comeacross many types of users of English not just native speakers Istress that being exposed to a variety of accents and uses ofEnglish from a professional and trained teacher will benefitthem in the short and long run

Other teachers replied that they made no attempt to convincestudents that NNES teachers could be good teachers because lsquolsquonowords can convince them that they are in good handsrsquorsquo Others triedto lsquolsquoevaluate the reason behind the commentsrsquorsquo or advised thestudents lsquolsquoto speak to the teacher directlyrsquorsquo Some respondents toldESL students that lsquolsquothere are many different dialects of English that[students] must get used torsquorsquo that lsquolsquo[NNES teachersrsquo] experienceadds a lot to the class that [NES teachers] cannot add becausetheyrsquove never been through the experience of learning Englishrsquorsquoand that lsquolsquo[students] are lucky to have such a good role modelrsquorsquo

Although most NES teachers reported standing up for theirNNES colleagues in response to discriminatory comments one NESteacher responded lsquolsquoI think it is a subject worthy of discussionWould you like to learn to play the violin from someone who didnrsquotplay it wellrsquorsquo Similarly the great majority of NNES teachers felt thatthey could talk to mentors or IEP administrators if they encountereddiscrimination but one disagreed and explained lsquolsquoNo not really If Iwant to keep my job Irsquove been taught to avoid any negativeconfrontation with any individual in an administrative positionrsquorsquo

IEP administrators seemed to be more aware than teachers ofongoing discrimination against NNES teachers When asked howthey reacted or would react to discrimination some administratorsreplied lsquolsquoWe engage students and teachers in conversations aboutspecific issues and a larger conversation about Englishinternationally and in the universityrsquorsquo Others explained to theirstudents that lsquolsquoEnglish is spoken in many different rhythms andwith somewhat different pronunciation and that as citizens of theworld people need to listen and adjust to speaking differencesrsquorsquo and

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 415

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

promote learning and cooperation among the students and abilityto reach students with different learning stylesrsquorsquo

Administrators also recognized NNES teachers as being lsquolsquoterrificrole-modelsrsquorsquo (240) and as having and lsquolsquounderstanding experienceof students in livingadapting to another culture and operating inanother languagersquorsquo (240)

These strengths are similar to those described by Arva andMedgyes (2000) However participants in Arva and Medgyesrsquosstudy also mentioned that NNES teachers were often more strictand demanding than their NES counterparts Although theparticipating NES teachers often recognized NNES teachersrsquodedication only one administrator mentioned the lsquolsquohigh standards(expectations) for studentsrsquorsquo as a strength of NNES teachersAnother strength recognized in previous studies (eg Medgyes1994) was NNES teachersrsquo ability to predict studentsrsquo difficultiesHowever this intuitive skill was only mentioned twice in the onlinequestionnaires

lsquolsquoWhat do you think are the most serious weaknesses of NNES teachersin general if anyrsquorsquo

NNES teachersrsquo self-perceptions of their weaknesses includedtheir lsquolsquoforeign accentrsquorsquo and lsquolsquopronunciationrsquorsquo (390) theirlsquolsquoinsufficient knowledge of idioms nuances of the language andculture resulting in inability to recognize cultural referencesrsquorsquo(335) their lsquolsquolack of confidencersquorsquo (277) and poor knowledge ofthe English language (277) As one participant explained lsquolsquo[We]donrsquot have the same feel for the languagersquorsquo Interestingly one NNESteacher perceived his or her knowledge of lsquolsquogrammarrsquorsquo as weakwhich clearly contradicts the literature and the numerous NESteachers and administrators who recognized NNES teachersrsquogrammatical knowledge as a strength As another NNES teacherexplained lsquolsquoeven though I know English language rules better thanthe native speakers I just donrsquot feel confident because thatrsquos not myfirst languagersquorsquo Finally one NNES teacher did not appreciate thequestion and responded lsquolsquoNo one is perfect and no one has it all Ifthey are qualified ESL teachers they are qualified ESL teachersPeriod What do you mean by lsquomost serious weaknessesrsquorsquorsquo

When asked about NNES teachersrsquo weaknesses NES teachersoverwhelmingly noted strong foreign accents and lsquolsquobadrsquorsquo pronun-

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 409

ciation (475) although as one teacher pointed out lsquolsquoour studentshave more difficulty understanding our British-accented instructorsthan our NNES teachersrsquorsquo Other responses included lack of UScultural knowledge (282) as well as lsquolsquopoorrsquorsquo self-confidence(153) Some NES teachers also mentioned lsquolsquoa lack of familiaritywith things NES teachers learn as childrenrsquorsquo and lsquolsquosyntactic errorsthat may be fossilized in some [NNES teachers] [These] instructorswill be models for the English language learners causingconfusionrsquorsquo Others explained that NNES teachers are lsquolsquosometimesnot able to emotionally stand up to students who are unhappy thatthey do not have a NES teacherrsquorsquo and that NNES teachers may feellsquolsquothat they are not good enough because English is not their firstlanguage They are not respected enough as educators and theytend to respond by feeling less confidentrsquorsquo

Another weakness mentioned twice was the different teachingmethods with NNES teachers having lsquolsquoallegiance to outmodedmethodologiesrsquorsquo and preferring lsquolsquoto teach using the methods withwhich they were taught which might not be the most current oraccepted in the United Statesrsquorsquo Another negative response was that

students in an IEP pay a large amount of money to come to theUnited States to learn English Most places in the world haveopportunities where a person can learn English however thereason many students come to the United States is to haveinstruction from a native speaker A nonnative speaker ofEnglish in an IEP must have near-native fluency I would bevery upset if I went to England for example to study Shakespear[sic] or English History only to have a professor from the UnitedStates there for a semester-abroad teaching experience

A few NES teachers went as far as saying that NNES teacherslsquolsquoteach incorrect informationrsquorsquo and have a serious lsquolsquolack of aware-ness of studentsrsquorsquo but comments such as these were rare Otherrespondents acknowledged that lsquolsquoall teachers make mistakesrsquorsquo canbe too critical or unkind can lack patience and can have difficultieslsquolsquosimplifying their speech for lower level studentsrsquorsquo Several NESteachers noted that NNES teachers were more harshly criticized bytheir ESL students for these perceived weaknesses whereas theseweaknesses were more readily accepted as lsquolsquonormalrsquorsquo for NESteachers

410 TESOL Journal

Administrators identified three major weaknesses in NNESteachers foreign accent (380) lsquolsquooverdependence on didacticpresentation of grammarrsquorsquo or lsquolsquofocusing too much on grammarrsquorsquo(333) and lack of self-confidence (285) One administrator alsomentioned lsquolsquothe lack of experience with the culture of theclassroomrsquorsquo Several administrators however did not find anymajor weaknesses that were particular to NNES teachers Oneadministrator explained

In general the most serious weakness would be a degree ofdifficulty with pronunciation that leads to stress on the part ofthe students Most often the students are less and less aware ofthe teacherrsquos accent over time If the students are confident in theteacherrsquos knowledge organization and classroom managementskills the students are more forgiving about pronunciation Ihave found that the [NNES teachers] who receive complaints aremore likely to be inexperienced the complaint then is more anexperience issue than a [NNES teacher] issue

Another administrator concluded by saying lsquolsquoIn my opinion[NNES teachersrsquo strongest weakness is] not believing that they havethe right to teach English Their own perception of themselves isflawedrsquorsquo

These comments lead to the conclusion that little has changedover the years and that the lsquolsquoautomatic extrapolation from compe-tent speaker to competent teacher based on linguistic groundsalonersquorsquo (Seidlhofer 1999 p 236) may still exists today NNESteachers are still sometimes perceived by others through the samelens (as inferior in status) and still sometimes perceive themselvesas having essentially the same strengths and weaknesses as wereobserved in the previous decade

Teacher Education and Teaching Practicum

lsquolsquoDuring your training as an ESL teacher (if any) did you take part in anydiscussions or take any classes aimed specifically at future NNESteachersrsquorsquo

Fifty-one teachers answered negatively to this question and 28did not respond at all Only 17 teachers responded lsquolsquoyesrsquorsquo lsquolsquomaybersquorsquoor lsquolsquoit has been a while but I think sorsquorsquo A few teachers mentioneddiscussions about the lsquolsquoimportance of impressions students have

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 411

about [NES teachers] specifically a preference for lsquoblond blue-eyedrsquo speakers of English even if less qualifiedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquogrammarreview for NES teachers and speech assessment for NNESteachersrsquorsquo One NNES teacher took a class in which lsquolsquoit wasexplained to us that the teacher was the model for his or her studentand should therefore be highly proficient in the language Accentwas not really an issuersquorsquo Two NES teachers wrote lsquolsquoWe oftendiscussed studentsrsquo perceptions of [NNES teachers] in classesrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoWe talked about the benefits and disadvantages of [NNESteachers] teaching Englishrsquorsquo

One recurring comment was that some or many lsquolsquomembers ofthe class were nonnative English speakersrsquorsquo which allowed thistype of discussion to take place One NES teacher for exampleexplained lsquolsquoI took an ESL Phonetics class in which the majority ofclass members were nonnative speakers of English We did practiceteaching activities on each other in peer groups particularly inpronunciation areas NNES teachers have difficulty withrsquorsquo

Except for a few other responses such as lsquolsquono such courses wereofferedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquono all students enrolled were native speakersrsquorsquo thesewere all the answers given by the 96 participating teachers Theseresults corroborate the belief that there is a need for more specificinstructions for future teachers native and nonnative speakers alike(Canagarajah 2005 Kamhi-Stein 2004 J Liu 1999)

lsquolsquoDo you feel like your MA TESOL program (or other trainingprogram if any) is preparing or did prepare you well for your teachingassignmentsrsquorsquo

Responses varied widely but most teachers agreed that they hadbeen prepared well for their teaching assignments Many teachers(343) felt that their MA TESOL program lsquolsquoprepared [them] wellbecause it focused on practical teaching and not theory onlyrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoprepared [them] well for forming the theories behind what [they]choose to do in classrsquorsquo On the other hand many teachers (291)complained that it was lsquolsquohard to see how to incorporate all [the]theory into the actual practicersquorsquo or that lsquolsquotherersquos only so much aprogram can do The best preparation is the actual experiencersquorsquo OneNNES teacher also said lsquolsquoIt didnrsquot necessarily prepare me specificallyas a NNES teacher but practical as well as theoretical aspects ofteaching a language have been helpful for my current teaching

412 TESOL Journal

assignmentsrsquorsquo Another NNES teacher commented lsquolsquoIt gave meinsights of the American teaching stylersquorsquo This last comment confirmsBrainersquos (1999) and Eguigurenrsquos (2000) concerns regarding NorthAmerican TESOL programs potentially giving future Englishlanguage teachers a monocentric perspective of pedagogy

A frequent comment from NES as well as NNES teachers wasthat lsquolsquoexperience is still clearly the best teacherrsquorsquo Yet there were alsoseveral negative responses such as lsquolsquo[Our] program did not provideextensive practical training There was no practicum or studentteaching requiredrsquorsquo As one teacher explained lsquolsquoIn this programnonnative-English-speaking TESOL students are allowed to becomeESL instructors only if they are PhD students but not at the MAlevelrsquorsquo This corroborates Mahboobrsquos (2003) findings about the lackof practical training available to many NNES teachers

lsquolsquoHow shouldcould MA TESOL programs (or other teacherpreparation programs) prepare future ESL teachers to become excellentteachersrsquorsquo

IEP administratorsrsquo most common response (523) was lsquolsquoGive[preservice teachers] lots of practice-teaching and teachingopportunitiesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquoa lot of opportunities to observe otherteachersrsquorsquo Other responses from administrators reflected thisstatement lsquolsquoPrepare the teachers to understand culture and tocompensate with visuals if pronunciation is a problemrsquorsquo and toprovide lsquolsquosessions on classroom culturersquorsquo and lsquolsquoextensive reflectionon the professionrsquorsquo Administrators also advised teacher educatorsto help future ESL teachers lsquolsquoby providing a variety of learningopportunities (observations in the IEP course work etc) and bygetting the student teachers to develop their own philosophy forteachingrsquorsquo Other recurrent recommendations included thefollowing lsquolsquo[exposing preservice teachers] to a solid foundation inthe structure of the English language teaching methodology issuesin language pedagogy and policy and theory (eg World Englishescritical pedagogy)rsquorsquo lsquolsquo[increasing their] knowledge of languageacquisition pragmatics sociolinguistics content-basedinstructionrsquorsquo lsquolsquomentoring or partnering [them] with nativespeakersrsquorsquo giving lsquolsquoaccent reduction classrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[encouraging]professionalismrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[teaching] pronunciation and classroommanagement and expectations of nonnative speakers from a variety

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 413

of culturesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[teaching] awareness of nonverbalcommunicationrsquorsquo These suggestions are similar to thoserecommended by several scholars The idea of collaboration forexample was thoroughly discussed and studied by Matsuda andMatsuda (2004) and de Oliveira and Richardson (2001)

Two final comments seemed particularly significant in referenceto the education of NNES teachers

Prepare nonnative speakers mentally for the attitudes that theirstudents may have towards them Share with them strategies forgaining the confidence of their students

The most important training involves the exposure to resourcesnew teachers need to know where they will be able to findanswers in the future Teacher training should also include theprocess of community building Teachers should feel free to askquestions to share their knowledge and to cultivate their ownteaching style All members of the team should be aware of theneeds of the whole and aware of the benefits of their individualcontributions

The previous responses can be sorted into two main categorieson the one hand the need for more solid and extensive practicaltraining for NES and NNES teachers alike and on the other handthe need for focused discussions on the topic of NES and NNESteachersrsquo strengths and weaknesses challenges and successesneeds and achievements

Teaching Experience and Responses to Discrimination

lsquolsquoDo you feel that you are being discriminated against in any way bystudents or colleaguesrsquorsquo

Of the 93 ESL teachers who responded 366 said yes and634 said no Among those who said yes 7 were NNES teachers(representing 38 of all NNES teacher respondents) although oneof the NNES teachers who answered negatively added lsquolsquoI havenever heard any negative comments However I do hear [fromother] teachers that some students donrsquot particularly like mersquorsquo

When asked how they responded or would respond todiscrimination against NNES teachers from ESL students severalNES teachers explained that they tell students about NNESteachersrsquo strengths (grammar knowledge etc) that there are

414 TESOL Journal

different accents even within the United States and that it isimportant to be accustomed to different accents in todayrsquosmulticultural world (see Canagarajah 2005 for a thoroughdiscussion of this concept) As one teacher explained

I ask students how they plan to use English in the futureInevitably they will use it in a context where they will comeacross many types of users of English not just native speakers Istress that being exposed to a variety of accents and uses ofEnglish from a professional and trained teacher will benefitthem in the short and long run

Other teachers replied that they made no attempt to convincestudents that NNES teachers could be good teachers because lsquolsquonowords can convince them that they are in good handsrsquorsquo Others triedto lsquolsquoevaluate the reason behind the commentsrsquorsquo or advised thestudents lsquolsquoto speak to the teacher directlyrsquorsquo Some respondents toldESL students that lsquolsquothere are many different dialects of English that[students] must get used torsquorsquo that lsquolsquo[NNES teachersrsquo] experienceadds a lot to the class that [NES teachers] cannot add becausetheyrsquove never been through the experience of learning Englishrsquorsquoand that lsquolsquo[students] are lucky to have such a good role modelrsquorsquo

Although most NES teachers reported standing up for theirNNES colleagues in response to discriminatory comments one NESteacher responded lsquolsquoI think it is a subject worthy of discussionWould you like to learn to play the violin from someone who didnrsquotplay it wellrsquorsquo Similarly the great majority of NNES teachers felt thatthey could talk to mentors or IEP administrators if they encountereddiscrimination but one disagreed and explained lsquolsquoNo not really If Iwant to keep my job Irsquove been taught to avoid any negativeconfrontation with any individual in an administrative positionrsquorsquo

IEP administrators seemed to be more aware than teachers ofongoing discrimination against NNES teachers When asked howthey reacted or would react to discrimination some administratorsreplied lsquolsquoWe engage students and teachers in conversations aboutspecific issues and a larger conversation about Englishinternationally and in the universityrsquorsquo Others explained to theirstudents that lsquolsquoEnglish is spoken in many different rhythms andwith somewhat different pronunciation and that as citizens of theworld people need to listen and adjust to speaking differencesrsquorsquo and

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 415

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

ciation (475) although as one teacher pointed out lsquolsquoour studentshave more difficulty understanding our British-accented instructorsthan our NNES teachersrsquorsquo Other responses included lack of UScultural knowledge (282) as well as lsquolsquopoorrsquorsquo self-confidence(153) Some NES teachers also mentioned lsquolsquoa lack of familiaritywith things NES teachers learn as childrenrsquorsquo and lsquolsquosyntactic errorsthat may be fossilized in some [NNES teachers] [These] instructorswill be models for the English language learners causingconfusionrsquorsquo Others explained that NNES teachers are lsquolsquosometimesnot able to emotionally stand up to students who are unhappy thatthey do not have a NES teacherrsquorsquo and that NNES teachers may feellsquolsquothat they are not good enough because English is not their firstlanguage They are not respected enough as educators and theytend to respond by feeling less confidentrsquorsquo

Another weakness mentioned twice was the different teachingmethods with NNES teachers having lsquolsquoallegiance to outmodedmethodologiesrsquorsquo and preferring lsquolsquoto teach using the methods withwhich they were taught which might not be the most current oraccepted in the United Statesrsquorsquo Another negative response was that

students in an IEP pay a large amount of money to come to theUnited States to learn English Most places in the world haveopportunities where a person can learn English however thereason many students come to the United States is to haveinstruction from a native speaker A nonnative speaker ofEnglish in an IEP must have near-native fluency I would bevery upset if I went to England for example to study Shakespear[sic] or English History only to have a professor from the UnitedStates there for a semester-abroad teaching experience

A few NES teachers went as far as saying that NNES teacherslsquolsquoteach incorrect informationrsquorsquo and have a serious lsquolsquolack of aware-ness of studentsrsquorsquo but comments such as these were rare Otherrespondents acknowledged that lsquolsquoall teachers make mistakesrsquorsquo canbe too critical or unkind can lack patience and can have difficultieslsquolsquosimplifying their speech for lower level studentsrsquorsquo Several NESteachers noted that NNES teachers were more harshly criticized bytheir ESL students for these perceived weaknesses whereas theseweaknesses were more readily accepted as lsquolsquonormalrsquorsquo for NESteachers

410 TESOL Journal

Administrators identified three major weaknesses in NNESteachers foreign accent (380) lsquolsquooverdependence on didacticpresentation of grammarrsquorsquo or lsquolsquofocusing too much on grammarrsquorsquo(333) and lack of self-confidence (285) One administrator alsomentioned lsquolsquothe lack of experience with the culture of theclassroomrsquorsquo Several administrators however did not find anymajor weaknesses that were particular to NNES teachers Oneadministrator explained

In general the most serious weakness would be a degree ofdifficulty with pronunciation that leads to stress on the part ofthe students Most often the students are less and less aware ofthe teacherrsquos accent over time If the students are confident in theteacherrsquos knowledge organization and classroom managementskills the students are more forgiving about pronunciation Ihave found that the [NNES teachers] who receive complaints aremore likely to be inexperienced the complaint then is more anexperience issue than a [NNES teacher] issue

Another administrator concluded by saying lsquolsquoIn my opinion[NNES teachersrsquo strongest weakness is] not believing that they havethe right to teach English Their own perception of themselves isflawedrsquorsquo

These comments lead to the conclusion that little has changedover the years and that the lsquolsquoautomatic extrapolation from compe-tent speaker to competent teacher based on linguistic groundsalonersquorsquo (Seidlhofer 1999 p 236) may still exists today NNESteachers are still sometimes perceived by others through the samelens (as inferior in status) and still sometimes perceive themselvesas having essentially the same strengths and weaknesses as wereobserved in the previous decade

Teacher Education and Teaching Practicum

lsquolsquoDuring your training as an ESL teacher (if any) did you take part in anydiscussions or take any classes aimed specifically at future NNESteachersrsquorsquo

Fifty-one teachers answered negatively to this question and 28did not respond at all Only 17 teachers responded lsquolsquoyesrsquorsquo lsquolsquomaybersquorsquoor lsquolsquoit has been a while but I think sorsquorsquo A few teachers mentioneddiscussions about the lsquolsquoimportance of impressions students have

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 411

about [NES teachers] specifically a preference for lsquoblond blue-eyedrsquo speakers of English even if less qualifiedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquogrammarreview for NES teachers and speech assessment for NNESteachersrsquorsquo One NNES teacher took a class in which lsquolsquoit wasexplained to us that the teacher was the model for his or her studentand should therefore be highly proficient in the language Accentwas not really an issuersquorsquo Two NES teachers wrote lsquolsquoWe oftendiscussed studentsrsquo perceptions of [NNES teachers] in classesrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoWe talked about the benefits and disadvantages of [NNESteachers] teaching Englishrsquorsquo

One recurring comment was that some or many lsquolsquomembers ofthe class were nonnative English speakersrsquorsquo which allowed thistype of discussion to take place One NES teacher for exampleexplained lsquolsquoI took an ESL Phonetics class in which the majority ofclass members were nonnative speakers of English We did practiceteaching activities on each other in peer groups particularly inpronunciation areas NNES teachers have difficulty withrsquorsquo

Except for a few other responses such as lsquolsquono such courses wereofferedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquono all students enrolled were native speakersrsquorsquo thesewere all the answers given by the 96 participating teachers Theseresults corroborate the belief that there is a need for more specificinstructions for future teachers native and nonnative speakers alike(Canagarajah 2005 Kamhi-Stein 2004 J Liu 1999)

lsquolsquoDo you feel like your MA TESOL program (or other trainingprogram if any) is preparing or did prepare you well for your teachingassignmentsrsquorsquo

Responses varied widely but most teachers agreed that they hadbeen prepared well for their teaching assignments Many teachers(343) felt that their MA TESOL program lsquolsquoprepared [them] wellbecause it focused on practical teaching and not theory onlyrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoprepared [them] well for forming the theories behind what [they]choose to do in classrsquorsquo On the other hand many teachers (291)complained that it was lsquolsquohard to see how to incorporate all [the]theory into the actual practicersquorsquo or that lsquolsquotherersquos only so much aprogram can do The best preparation is the actual experiencersquorsquo OneNNES teacher also said lsquolsquoIt didnrsquot necessarily prepare me specificallyas a NNES teacher but practical as well as theoretical aspects ofteaching a language have been helpful for my current teaching

412 TESOL Journal

assignmentsrsquorsquo Another NNES teacher commented lsquolsquoIt gave meinsights of the American teaching stylersquorsquo This last comment confirmsBrainersquos (1999) and Eguigurenrsquos (2000) concerns regarding NorthAmerican TESOL programs potentially giving future Englishlanguage teachers a monocentric perspective of pedagogy

A frequent comment from NES as well as NNES teachers wasthat lsquolsquoexperience is still clearly the best teacherrsquorsquo Yet there were alsoseveral negative responses such as lsquolsquo[Our] program did not provideextensive practical training There was no practicum or studentteaching requiredrsquorsquo As one teacher explained lsquolsquoIn this programnonnative-English-speaking TESOL students are allowed to becomeESL instructors only if they are PhD students but not at the MAlevelrsquorsquo This corroborates Mahboobrsquos (2003) findings about the lackof practical training available to many NNES teachers

lsquolsquoHow shouldcould MA TESOL programs (or other teacherpreparation programs) prepare future ESL teachers to become excellentteachersrsquorsquo

IEP administratorsrsquo most common response (523) was lsquolsquoGive[preservice teachers] lots of practice-teaching and teachingopportunitiesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquoa lot of opportunities to observe otherteachersrsquorsquo Other responses from administrators reflected thisstatement lsquolsquoPrepare the teachers to understand culture and tocompensate with visuals if pronunciation is a problemrsquorsquo and toprovide lsquolsquosessions on classroom culturersquorsquo and lsquolsquoextensive reflectionon the professionrsquorsquo Administrators also advised teacher educatorsto help future ESL teachers lsquolsquoby providing a variety of learningopportunities (observations in the IEP course work etc) and bygetting the student teachers to develop their own philosophy forteachingrsquorsquo Other recurrent recommendations included thefollowing lsquolsquo[exposing preservice teachers] to a solid foundation inthe structure of the English language teaching methodology issuesin language pedagogy and policy and theory (eg World Englishescritical pedagogy)rsquorsquo lsquolsquo[increasing their] knowledge of languageacquisition pragmatics sociolinguistics content-basedinstructionrsquorsquo lsquolsquomentoring or partnering [them] with nativespeakersrsquorsquo giving lsquolsquoaccent reduction classrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[encouraging]professionalismrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[teaching] pronunciation and classroommanagement and expectations of nonnative speakers from a variety

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 413

of culturesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[teaching] awareness of nonverbalcommunicationrsquorsquo These suggestions are similar to thoserecommended by several scholars The idea of collaboration forexample was thoroughly discussed and studied by Matsuda andMatsuda (2004) and de Oliveira and Richardson (2001)

Two final comments seemed particularly significant in referenceto the education of NNES teachers

Prepare nonnative speakers mentally for the attitudes that theirstudents may have towards them Share with them strategies forgaining the confidence of their students

The most important training involves the exposure to resourcesnew teachers need to know where they will be able to findanswers in the future Teacher training should also include theprocess of community building Teachers should feel free to askquestions to share their knowledge and to cultivate their ownteaching style All members of the team should be aware of theneeds of the whole and aware of the benefits of their individualcontributions

The previous responses can be sorted into two main categorieson the one hand the need for more solid and extensive practicaltraining for NES and NNES teachers alike and on the other handthe need for focused discussions on the topic of NES and NNESteachersrsquo strengths and weaknesses challenges and successesneeds and achievements

Teaching Experience and Responses to Discrimination

lsquolsquoDo you feel that you are being discriminated against in any way bystudents or colleaguesrsquorsquo

Of the 93 ESL teachers who responded 366 said yes and634 said no Among those who said yes 7 were NNES teachers(representing 38 of all NNES teacher respondents) although oneof the NNES teachers who answered negatively added lsquolsquoI havenever heard any negative comments However I do hear [fromother] teachers that some students donrsquot particularly like mersquorsquo

When asked how they responded or would respond todiscrimination against NNES teachers from ESL students severalNES teachers explained that they tell students about NNESteachersrsquo strengths (grammar knowledge etc) that there are

414 TESOL Journal

different accents even within the United States and that it isimportant to be accustomed to different accents in todayrsquosmulticultural world (see Canagarajah 2005 for a thoroughdiscussion of this concept) As one teacher explained

I ask students how they plan to use English in the futureInevitably they will use it in a context where they will comeacross many types of users of English not just native speakers Istress that being exposed to a variety of accents and uses ofEnglish from a professional and trained teacher will benefitthem in the short and long run

Other teachers replied that they made no attempt to convincestudents that NNES teachers could be good teachers because lsquolsquonowords can convince them that they are in good handsrsquorsquo Others triedto lsquolsquoevaluate the reason behind the commentsrsquorsquo or advised thestudents lsquolsquoto speak to the teacher directlyrsquorsquo Some respondents toldESL students that lsquolsquothere are many different dialects of English that[students] must get used torsquorsquo that lsquolsquo[NNES teachersrsquo] experienceadds a lot to the class that [NES teachers] cannot add becausetheyrsquove never been through the experience of learning Englishrsquorsquoand that lsquolsquo[students] are lucky to have such a good role modelrsquorsquo

Although most NES teachers reported standing up for theirNNES colleagues in response to discriminatory comments one NESteacher responded lsquolsquoI think it is a subject worthy of discussionWould you like to learn to play the violin from someone who didnrsquotplay it wellrsquorsquo Similarly the great majority of NNES teachers felt thatthey could talk to mentors or IEP administrators if they encountereddiscrimination but one disagreed and explained lsquolsquoNo not really If Iwant to keep my job Irsquove been taught to avoid any negativeconfrontation with any individual in an administrative positionrsquorsquo

IEP administrators seemed to be more aware than teachers ofongoing discrimination against NNES teachers When asked howthey reacted or would react to discrimination some administratorsreplied lsquolsquoWe engage students and teachers in conversations aboutspecific issues and a larger conversation about Englishinternationally and in the universityrsquorsquo Others explained to theirstudents that lsquolsquoEnglish is spoken in many different rhythms andwith somewhat different pronunciation and that as citizens of theworld people need to listen and adjust to speaking differencesrsquorsquo and

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 415

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

Administrators identified three major weaknesses in NNESteachers foreign accent (380) lsquolsquooverdependence on didacticpresentation of grammarrsquorsquo or lsquolsquofocusing too much on grammarrsquorsquo(333) and lack of self-confidence (285) One administrator alsomentioned lsquolsquothe lack of experience with the culture of theclassroomrsquorsquo Several administrators however did not find anymajor weaknesses that were particular to NNES teachers Oneadministrator explained

In general the most serious weakness would be a degree ofdifficulty with pronunciation that leads to stress on the part ofthe students Most often the students are less and less aware ofthe teacherrsquos accent over time If the students are confident in theteacherrsquos knowledge organization and classroom managementskills the students are more forgiving about pronunciation Ihave found that the [NNES teachers] who receive complaints aremore likely to be inexperienced the complaint then is more anexperience issue than a [NNES teacher] issue

Another administrator concluded by saying lsquolsquoIn my opinion[NNES teachersrsquo strongest weakness is] not believing that they havethe right to teach English Their own perception of themselves isflawedrsquorsquo

These comments lead to the conclusion that little has changedover the years and that the lsquolsquoautomatic extrapolation from compe-tent speaker to competent teacher based on linguistic groundsalonersquorsquo (Seidlhofer 1999 p 236) may still exists today NNESteachers are still sometimes perceived by others through the samelens (as inferior in status) and still sometimes perceive themselvesas having essentially the same strengths and weaknesses as wereobserved in the previous decade

Teacher Education and Teaching Practicum

lsquolsquoDuring your training as an ESL teacher (if any) did you take part in anydiscussions or take any classes aimed specifically at future NNESteachersrsquorsquo

Fifty-one teachers answered negatively to this question and 28did not respond at all Only 17 teachers responded lsquolsquoyesrsquorsquo lsquolsquomaybersquorsquoor lsquolsquoit has been a while but I think sorsquorsquo A few teachers mentioneddiscussions about the lsquolsquoimportance of impressions students have

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 411

about [NES teachers] specifically a preference for lsquoblond blue-eyedrsquo speakers of English even if less qualifiedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquogrammarreview for NES teachers and speech assessment for NNESteachersrsquorsquo One NNES teacher took a class in which lsquolsquoit wasexplained to us that the teacher was the model for his or her studentand should therefore be highly proficient in the language Accentwas not really an issuersquorsquo Two NES teachers wrote lsquolsquoWe oftendiscussed studentsrsquo perceptions of [NNES teachers] in classesrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoWe talked about the benefits and disadvantages of [NNESteachers] teaching Englishrsquorsquo

One recurring comment was that some or many lsquolsquomembers ofthe class were nonnative English speakersrsquorsquo which allowed thistype of discussion to take place One NES teacher for exampleexplained lsquolsquoI took an ESL Phonetics class in which the majority ofclass members were nonnative speakers of English We did practiceteaching activities on each other in peer groups particularly inpronunciation areas NNES teachers have difficulty withrsquorsquo

Except for a few other responses such as lsquolsquono such courses wereofferedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquono all students enrolled were native speakersrsquorsquo thesewere all the answers given by the 96 participating teachers Theseresults corroborate the belief that there is a need for more specificinstructions for future teachers native and nonnative speakers alike(Canagarajah 2005 Kamhi-Stein 2004 J Liu 1999)

lsquolsquoDo you feel like your MA TESOL program (or other trainingprogram if any) is preparing or did prepare you well for your teachingassignmentsrsquorsquo

Responses varied widely but most teachers agreed that they hadbeen prepared well for their teaching assignments Many teachers(343) felt that their MA TESOL program lsquolsquoprepared [them] wellbecause it focused on practical teaching and not theory onlyrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoprepared [them] well for forming the theories behind what [they]choose to do in classrsquorsquo On the other hand many teachers (291)complained that it was lsquolsquohard to see how to incorporate all [the]theory into the actual practicersquorsquo or that lsquolsquotherersquos only so much aprogram can do The best preparation is the actual experiencersquorsquo OneNNES teacher also said lsquolsquoIt didnrsquot necessarily prepare me specificallyas a NNES teacher but practical as well as theoretical aspects ofteaching a language have been helpful for my current teaching

412 TESOL Journal

assignmentsrsquorsquo Another NNES teacher commented lsquolsquoIt gave meinsights of the American teaching stylersquorsquo This last comment confirmsBrainersquos (1999) and Eguigurenrsquos (2000) concerns regarding NorthAmerican TESOL programs potentially giving future Englishlanguage teachers a monocentric perspective of pedagogy

A frequent comment from NES as well as NNES teachers wasthat lsquolsquoexperience is still clearly the best teacherrsquorsquo Yet there were alsoseveral negative responses such as lsquolsquo[Our] program did not provideextensive practical training There was no practicum or studentteaching requiredrsquorsquo As one teacher explained lsquolsquoIn this programnonnative-English-speaking TESOL students are allowed to becomeESL instructors only if they are PhD students but not at the MAlevelrsquorsquo This corroborates Mahboobrsquos (2003) findings about the lackof practical training available to many NNES teachers

lsquolsquoHow shouldcould MA TESOL programs (or other teacherpreparation programs) prepare future ESL teachers to become excellentteachersrsquorsquo

IEP administratorsrsquo most common response (523) was lsquolsquoGive[preservice teachers] lots of practice-teaching and teachingopportunitiesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquoa lot of opportunities to observe otherteachersrsquorsquo Other responses from administrators reflected thisstatement lsquolsquoPrepare the teachers to understand culture and tocompensate with visuals if pronunciation is a problemrsquorsquo and toprovide lsquolsquosessions on classroom culturersquorsquo and lsquolsquoextensive reflectionon the professionrsquorsquo Administrators also advised teacher educatorsto help future ESL teachers lsquolsquoby providing a variety of learningopportunities (observations in the IEP course work etc) and bygetting the student teachers to develop their own philosophy forteachingrsquorsquo Other recurrent recommendations included thefollowing lsquolsquo[exposing preservice teachers] to a solid foundation inthe structure of the English language teaching methodology issuesin language pedagogy and policy and theory (eg World Englishescritical pedagogy)rsquorsquo lsquolsquo[increasing their] knowledge of languageacquisition pragmatics sociolinguistics content-basedinstructionrsquorsquo lsquolsquomentoring or partnering [them] with nativespeakersrsquorsquo giving lsquolsquoaccent reduction classrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[encouraging]professionalismrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[teaching] pronunciation and classroommanagement and expectations of nonnative speakers from a variety

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 413

of culturesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[teaching] awareness of nonverbalcommunicationrsquorsquo These suggestions are similar to thoserecommended by several scholars The idea of collaboration forexample was thoroughly discussed and studied by Matsuda andMatsuda (2004) and de Oliveira and Richardson (2001)

Two final comments seemed particularly significant in referenceto the education of NNES teachers

Prepare nonnative speakers mentally for the attitudes that theirstudents may have towards them Share with them strategies forgaining the confidence of their students

The most important training involves the exposure to resourcesnew teachers need to know where they will be able to findanswers in the future Teacher training should also include theprocess of community building Teachers should feel free to askquestions to share their knowledge and to cultivate their ownteaching style All members of the team should be aware of theneeds of the whole and aware of the benefits of their individualcontributions

The previous responses can be sorted into two main categorieson the one hand the need for more solid and extensive practicaltraining for NES and NNES teachers alike and on the other handthe need for focused discussions on the topic of NES and NNESteachersrsquo strengths and weaknesses challenges and successesneeds and achievements

Teaching Experience and Responses to Discrimination

lsquolsquoDo you feel that you are being discriminated against in any way bystudents or colleaguesrsquorsquo

Of the 93 ESL teachers who responded 366 said yes and634 said no Among those who said yes 7 were NNES teachers(representing 38 of all NNES teacher respondents) although oneof the NNES teachers who answered negatively added lsquolsquoI havenever heard any negative comments However I do hear [fromother] teachers that some students donrsquot particularly like mersquorsquo

When asked how they responded or would respond todiscrimination against NNES teachers from ESL students severalNES teachers explained that they tell students about NNESteachersrsquo strengths (grammar knowledge etc) that there are

414 TESOL Journal

different accents even within the United States and that it isimportant to be accustomed to different accents in todayrsquosmulticultural world (see Canagarajah 2005 for a thoroughdiscussion of this concept) As one teacher explained

I ask students how they plan to use English in the futureInevitably they will use it in a context where they will comeacross many types of users of English not just native speakers Istress that being exposed to a variety of accents and uses ofEnglish from a professional and trained teacher will benefitthem in the short and long run

Other teachers replied that they made no attempt to convincestudents that NNES teachers could be good teachers because lsquolsquonowords can convince them that they are in good handsrsquorsquo Others triedto lsquolsquoevaluate the reason behind the commentsrsquorsquo or advised thestudents lsquolsquoto speak to the teacher directlyrsquorsquo Some respondents toldESL students that lsquolsquothere are many different dialects of English that[students] must get used torsquorsquo that lsquolsquo[NNES teachersrsquo] experienceadds a lot to the class that [NES teachers] cannot add becausetheyrsquove never been through the experience of learning Englishrsquorsquoand that lsquolsquo[students] are lucky to have such a good role modelrsquorsquo

Although most NES teachers reported standing up for theirNNES colleagues in response to discriminatory comments one NESteacher responded lsquolsquoI think it is a subject worthy of discussionWould you like to learn to play the violin from someone who didnrsquotplay it wellrsquorsquo Similarly the great majority of NNES teachers felt thatthey could talk to mentors or IEP administrators if they encountereddiscrimination but one disagreed and explained lsquolsquoNo not really If Iwant to keep my job Irsquove been taught to avoid any negativeconfrontation with any individual in an administrative positionrsquorsquo

IEP administrators seemed to be more aware than teachers ofongoing discrimination against NNES teachers When asked howthey reacted or would react to discrimination some administratorsreplied lsquolsquoWe engage students and teachers in conversations aboutspecific issues and a larger conversation about Englishinternationally and in the universityrsquorsquo Others explained to theirstudents that lsquolsquoEnglish is spoken in many different rhythms andwith somewhat different pronunciation and that as citizens of theworld people need to listen and adjust to speaking differencesrsquorsquo and

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 415

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

about [NES teachers] specifically a preference for lsquoblond blue-eyedrsquo speakers of English even if less qualifiedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquogrammarreview for NES teachers and speech assessment for NNESteachersrsquorsquo One NNES teacher took a class in which lsquolsquoit wasexplained to us that the teacher was the model for his or her studentand should therefore be highly proficient in the language Accentwas not really an issuersquorsquo Two NES teachers wrote lsquolsquoWe oftendiscussed studentsrsquo perceptions of [NNES teachers] in classesrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoWe talked about the benefits and disadvantages of [NNESteachers] teaching Englishrsquorsquo

One recurring comment was that some or many lsquolsquomembers ofthe class were nonnative English speakersrsquorsquo which allowed thistype of discussion to take place One NES teacher for exampleexplained lsquolsquoI took an ESL Phonetics class in which the majority ofclass members were nonnative speakers of English We did practiceteaching activities on each other in peer groups particularly inpronunciation areas NNES teachers have difficulty withrsquorsquo

Except for a few other responses such as lsquolsquono such courses wereofferedrsquorsquo and lsquolsquono all students enrolled were native speakersrsquorsquo thesewere all the answers given by the 96 participating teachers Theseresults corroborate the belief that there is a need for more specificinstructions for future teachers native and nonnative speakers alike(Canagarajah 2005 Kamhi-Stein 2004 J Liu 1999)

lsquolsquoDo you feel like your MA TESOL program (or other trainingprogram if any) is preparing or did prepare you well for your teachingassignmentsrsquorsquo

Responses varied widely but most teachers agreed that they hadbeen prepared well for their teaching assignments Many teachers(343) felt that their MA TESOL program lsquolsquoprepared [them] wellbecause it focused on practical teaching and not theory onlyrsquorsquo andlsquolsquoprepared [them] well for forming the theories behind what [they]choose to do in classrsquorsquo On the other hand many teachers (291)complained that it was lsquolsquohard to see how to incorporate all [the]theory into the actual practicersquorsquo or that lsquolsquotherersquos only so much aprogram can do The best preparation is the actual experiencersquorsquo OneNNES teacher also said lsquolsquoIt didnrsquot necessarily prepare me specificallyas a NNES teacher but practical as well as theoretical aspects ofteaching a language have been helpful for my current teaching

412 TESOL Journal

assignmentsrsquorsquo Another NNES teacher commented lsquolsquoIt gave meinsights of the American teaching stylersquorsquo This last comment confirmsBrainersquos (1999) and Eguigurenrsquos (2000) concerns regarding NorthAmerican TESOL programs potentially giving future Englishlanguage teachers a monocentric perspective of pedagogy

A frequent comment from NES as well as NNES teachers wasthat lsquolsquoexperience is still clearly the best teacherrsquorsquo Yet there were alsoseveral negative responses such as lsquolsquo[Our] program did not provideextensive practical training There was no practicum or studentteaching requiredrsquorsquo As one teacher explained lsquolsquoIn this programnonnative-English-speaking TESOL students are allowed to becomeESL instructors only if they are PhD students but not at the MAlevelrsquorsquo This corroborates Mahboobrsquos (2003) findings about the lackof practical training available to many NNES teachers

lsquolsquoHow shouldcould MA TESOL programs (or other teacherpreparation programs) prepare future ESL teachers to become excellentteachersrsquorsquo

IEP administratorsrsquo most common response (523) was lsquolsquoGive[preservice teachers] lots of practice-teaching and teachingopportunitiesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquoa lot of opportunities to observe otherteachersrsquorsquo Other responses from administrators reflected thisstatement lsquolsquoPrepare the teachers to understand culture and tocompensate with visuals if pronunciation is a problemrsquorsquo and toprovide lsquolsquosessions on classroom culturersquorsquo and lsquolsquoextensive reflectionon the professionrsquorsquo Administrators also advised teacher educatorsto help future ESL teachers lsquolsquoby providing a variety of learningopportunities (observations in the IEP course work etc) and bygetting the student teachers to develop their own philosophy forteachingrsquorsquo Other recurrent recommendations included thefollowing lsquolsquo[exposing preservice teachers] to a solid foundation inthe structure of the English language teaching methodology issuesin language pedagogy and policy and theory (eg World Englishescritical pedagogy)rsquorsquo lsquolsquo[increasing their] knowledge of languageacquisition pragmatics sociolinguistics content-basedinstructionrsquorsquo lsquolsquomentoring or partnering [them] with nativespeakersrsquorsquo giving lsquolsquoaccent reduction classrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[encouraging]professionalismrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[teaching] pronunciation and classroommanagement and expectations of nonnative speakers from a variety

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 413

of culturesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[teaching] awareness of nonverbalcommunicationrsquorsquo These suggestions are similar to thoserecommended by several scholars The idea of collaboration forexample was thoroughly discussed and studied by Matsuda andMatsuda (2004) and de Oliveira and Richardson (2001)

Two final comments seemed particularly significant in referenceto the education of NNES teachers

Prepare nonnative speakers mentally for the attitudes that theirstudents may have towards them Share with them strategies forgaining the confidence of their students

The most important training involves the exposure to resourcesnew teachers need to know where they will be able to findanswers in the future Teacher training should also include theprocess of community building Teachers should feel free to askquestions to share their knowledge and to cultivate their ownteaching style All members of the team should be aware of theneeds of the whole and aware of the benefits of their individualcontributions

The previous responses can be sorted into two main categorieson the one hand the need for more solid and extensive practicaltraining for NES and NNES teachers alike and on the other handthe need for focused discussions on the topic of NES and NNESteachersrsquo strengths and weaknesses challenges and successesneeds and achievements

Teaching Experience and Responses to Discrimination

lsquolsquoDo you feel that you are being discriminated against in any way bystudents or colleaguesrsquorsquo

Of the 93 ESL teachers who responded 366 said yes and634 said no Among those who said yes 7 were NNES teachers(representing 38 of all NNES teacher respondents) although oneof the NNES teachers who answered negatively added lsquolsquoI havenever heard any negative comments However I do hear [fromother] teachers that some students donrsquot particularly like mersquorsquo

When asked how they responded or would respond todiscrimination against NNES teachers from ESL students severalNES teachers explained that they tell students about NNESteachersrsquo strengths (grammar knowledge etc) that there are

414 TESOL Journal

different accents even within the United States and that it isimportant to be accustomed to different accents in todayrsquosmulticultural world (see Canagarajah 2005 for a thoroughdiscussion of this concept) As one teacher explained

I ask students how they plan to use English in the futureInevitably they will use it in a context where they will comeacross many types of users of English not just native speakers Istress that being exposed to a variety of accents and uses ofEnglish from a professional and trained teacher will benefitthem in the short and long run

Other teachers replied that they made no attempt to convincestudents that NNES teachers could be good teachers because lsquolsquonowords can convince them that they are in good handsrsquorsquo Others triedto lsquolsquoevaluate the reason behind the commentsrsquorsquo or advised thestudents lsquolsquoto speak to the teacher directlyrsquorsquo Some respondents toldESL students that lsquolsquothere are many different dialects of English that[students] must get used torsquorsquo that lsquolsquo[NNES teachersrsquo] experienceadds a lot to the class that [NES teachers] cannot add becausetheyrsquove never been through the experience of learning Englishrsquorsquoand that lsquolsquo[students] are lucky to have such a good role modelrsquorsquo

Although most NES teachers reported standing up for theirNNES colleagues in response to discriminatory comments one NESteacher responded lsquolsquoI think it is a subject worthy of discussionWould you like to learn to play the violin from someone who didnrsquotplay it wellrsquorsquo Similarly the great majority of NNES teachers felt thatthey could talk to mentors or IEP administrators if they encountereddiscrimination but one disagreed and explained lsquolsquoNo not really If Iwant to keep my job Irsquove been taught to avoid any negativeconfrontation with any individual in an administrative positionrsquorsquo

IEP administrators seemed to be more aware than teachers ofongoing discrimination against NNES teachers When asked howthey reacted or would react to discrimination some administratorsreplied lsquolsquoWe engage students and teachers in conversations aboutspecific issues and a larger conversation about Englishinternationally and in the universityrsquorsquo Others explained to theirstudents that lsquolsquoEnglish is spoken in many different rhythms andwith somewhat different pronunciation and that as citizens of theworld people need to listen and adjust to speaking differencesrsquorsquo and

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 415

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

assignmentsrsquorsquo Another NNES teacher commented lsquolsquoIt gave meinsights of the American teaching stylersquorsquo This last comment confirmsBrainersquos (1999) and Eguigurenrsquos (2000) concerns regarding NorthAmerican TESOL programs potentially giving future Englishlanguage teachers a monocentric perspective of pedagogy

A frequent comment from NES as well as NNES teachers wasthat lsquolsquoexperience is still clearly the best teacherrsquorsquo Yet there were alsoseveral negative responses such as lsquolsquo[Our] program did not provideextensive practical training There was no practicum or studentteaching requiredrsquorsquo As one teacher explained lsquolsquoIn this programnonnative-English-speaking TESOL students are allowed to becomeESL instructors only if they are PhD students but not at the MAlevelrsquorsquo This corroborates Mahboobrsquos (2003) findings about the lackof practical training available to many NNES teachers

lsquolsquoHow shouldcould MA TESOL programs (or other teacherpreparation programs) prepare future ESL teachers to become excellentteachersrsquorsquo

IEP administratorsrsquo most common response (523) was lsquolsquoGive[preservice teachers] lots of practice-teaching and teachingopportunitiesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquoa lot of opportunities to observe otherteachersrsquorsquo Other responses from administrators reflected thisstatement lsquolsquoPrepare the teachers to understand culture and tocompensate with visuals if pronunciation is a problemrsquorsquo and toprovide lsquolsquosessions on classroom culturersquorsquo and lsquolsquoextensive reflectionon the professionrsquorsquo Administrators also advised teacher educatorsto help future ESL teachers lsquolsquoby providing a variety of learningopportunities (observations in the IEP course work etc) and bygetting the student teachers to develop their own philosophy forteachingrsquorsquo Other recurrent recommendations included thefollowing lsquolsquo[exposing preservice teachers] to a solid foundation inthe structure of the English language teaching methodology issuesin language pedagogy and policy and theory (eg World Englishescritical pedagogy)rsquorsquo lsquolsquo[increasing their] knowledge of languageacquisition pragmatics sociolinguistics content-basedinstructionrsquorsquo lsquolsquomentoring or partnering [them] with nativespeakersrsquorsquo giving lsquolsquoaccent reduction classrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[encouraging]professionalismrsquorsquo lsquolsquo[teaching] pronunciation and classroommanagement and expectations of nonnative speakers from a variety

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 413

of culturesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[teaching] awareness of nonverbalcommunicationrsquorsquo These suggestions are similar to thoserecommended by several scholars The idea of collaboration forexample was thoroughly discussed and studied by Matsuda andMatsuda (2004) and de Oliveira and Richardson (2001)

Two final comments seemed particularly significant in referenceto the education of NNES teachers

Prepare nonnative speakers mentally for the attitudes that theirstudents may have towards them Share with them strategies forgaining the confidence of their students

The most important training involves the exposure to resourcesnew teachers need to know where they will be able to findanswers in the future Teacher training should also include theprocess of community building Teachers should feel free to askquestions to share their knowledge and to cultivate their ownteaching style All members of the team should be aware of theneeds of the whole and aware of the benefits of their individualcontributions

The previous responses can be sorted into two main categorieson the one hand the need for more solid and extensive practicaltraining for NES and NNES teachers alike and on the other handthe need for focused discussions on the topic of NES and NNESteachersrsquo strengths and weaknesses challenges and successesneeds and achievements

Teaching Experience and Responses to Discrimination

lsquolsquoDo you feel that you are being discriminated against in any way bystudents or colleaguesrsquorsquo

Of the 93 ESL teachers who responded 366 said yes and634 said no Among those who said yes 7 were NNES teachers(representing 38 of all NNES teacher respondents) although oneof the NNES teachers who answered negatively added lsquolsquoI havenever heard any negative comments However I do hear [fromother] teachers that some students donrsquot particularly like mersquorsquo

When asked how they responded or would respond todiscrimination against NNES teachers from ESL students severalNES teachers explained that they tell students about NNESteachersrsquo strengths (grammar knowledge etc) that there are

414 TESOL Journal

different accents even within the United States and that it isimportant to be accustomed to different accents in todayrsquosmulticultural world (see Canagarajah 2005 for a thoroughdiscussion of this concept) As one teacher explained

I ask students how they plan to use English in the futureInevitably they will use it in a context where they will comeacross many types of users of English not just native speakers Istress that being exposed to a variety of accents and uses ofEnglish from a professional and trained teacher will benefitthem in the short and long run

Other teachers replied that they made no attempt to convincestudents that NNES teachers could be good teachers because lsquolsquonowords can convince them that they are in good handsrsquorsquo Others triedto lsquolsquoevaluate the reason behind the commentsrsquorsquo or advised thestudents lsquolsquoto speak to the teacher directlyrsquorsquo Some respondents toldESL students that lsquolsquothere are many different dialects of English that[students] must get used torsquorsquo that lsquolsquo[NNES teachersrsquo] experienceadds a lot to the class that [NES teachers] cannot add becausetheyrsquove never been through the experience of learning Englishrsquorsquoand that lsquolsquo[students] are lucky to have such a good role modelrsquorsquo

Although most NES teachers reported standing up for theirNNES colleagues in response to discriminatory comments one NESteacher responded lsquolsquoI think it is a subject worthy of discussionWould you like to learn to play the violin from someone who didnrsquotplay it wellrsquorsquo Similarly the great majority of NNES teachers felt thatthey could talk to mentors or IEP administrators if they encountereddiscrimination but one disagreed and explained lsquolsquoNo not really If Iwant to keep my job Irsquove been taught to avoid any negativeconfrontation with any individual in an administrative positionrsquorsquo

IEP administrators seemed to be more aware than teachers ofongoing discrimination against NNES teachers When asked howthey reacted or would react to discrimination some administratorsreplied lsquolsquoWe engage students and teachers in conversations aboutspecific issues and a larger conversation about Englishinternationally and in the universityrsquorsquo Others explained to theirstudents that lsquolsquoEnglish is spoken in many different rhythms andwith somewhat different pronunciation and that as citizens of theworld people need to listen and adjust to speaking differencesrsquorsquo and

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 415

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

of culturesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquo[teaching] awareness of nonverbalcommunicationrsquorsquo These suggestions are similar to thoserecommended by several scholars The idea of collaboration forexample was thoroughly discussed and studied by Matsuda andMatsuda (2004) and de Oliveira and Richardson (2001)

Two final comments seemed particularly significant in referenceto the education of NNES teachers

Prepare nonnative speakers mentally for the attitudes that theirstudents may have towards them Share with them strategies forgaining the confidence of their students

The most important training involves the exposure to resourcesnew teachers need to know where they will be able to findanswers in the future Teacher training should also include theprocess of community building Teachers should feel free to askquestions to share their knowledge and to cultivate their ownteaching style All members of the team should be aware of theneeds of the whole and aware of the benefits of their individualcontributions

The previous responses can be sorted into two main categorieson the one hand the need for more solid and extensive practicaltraining for NES and NNES teachers alike and on the other handthe need for focused discussions on the topic of NES and NNESteachersrsquo strengths and weaknesses challenges and successesneeds and achievements

Teaching Experience and Responses to Discrimination

lsquolsquoDo you feel that you are being discriminated against in any way bystudents or colleaguesrsquorsquo

Of the 93 ESL teachers who responded 366 said yes and634 said no Among those who said yes 7 were NNES teachers(representing 38 of all NNES teacher respondents) although oneof the NNES teachers who answered negatively added lsquolsquoI havenever heard any negative comments However I do hear [fromother] teachers that some students donrsquot particularly like mersquorsquo

When asked how they responded or would respond todiscrimination against NNES teachers from ESL students severalNES teachers explained that they tell students about NNESteachersrsquo strengths (grammar knowledge etc) that there are

414 TESOL Journal

different accents even within the United States and that it isimportant to be accustomed to different accents in todayrsquosmulticultural world (see Canagarajah 2005 for a thoroughdiscussion of this concept) As one teacher explained

I ask students how they plan to use English in the futureInevitably they will use it in a context where they will comeacross many types of users of English not just native speakers Istress that being exposed to a variety of accents and uses ofEnglish from a professional and trained teacher will benefitthem in the short and long run

Other teachers replied that they made no attempt to convincestudents that NNES teachers could be good teachers because lsquolsquonowords can convince them that they are in good handsrsquorsquo Others triedto lsquolsquoevaluate the reason behind the commentsrsquorsquo or advised thestudents lsquolsquoto speak to the teacher directlyrsquorsquo Some respondents toldESL students that lsquolsquothere are many different dialects of English that[students] must get used torsquorsquo that lsquolsquo[NNES teachersrsquo] experienceadds a lot to the class that [NES teachers] cannot add becausetheyrsquove never been through the experience of learning Englishrsquorsquoand that lsquolsquo[students] are lucky to have such a good role modelrsquorsquo

Although most NES teachers reported standing up for theirNNES colleagues in response to discriminatory comments one NESteacher responded lsquolsquoI think it is a subject worthy of discussionWould you like to learn to play the violin from someone who didnrsquotplay it wellrsquorsquo Similarly the great majority of NNES teachers felt thatthey could talk to mentors or IEP administrators if they encountereddiscrimination but one disagreed and explained lsquolsquoNo not really If Iwant to keep my job Irsquove been taught to avoid any negativeconfrontation with any individual in an administrative positionrsquorsquo

IEP administrators seemed to be more aware than teachers ofongoing discrimination against NNES teachers When asked howthey reacted or would react to discrimination some administratorsreplied lsquolsquoWe engage students and teachers in conversations aboutspecific issues and a larger conversation about Englishinternationally and in the universityrsquorsquo Others explained to theirstudents that lsquolsquoEnglish is spoken in many different rhythms andwith somewhat different pronunciation and that as citizens of theworld people need to listen and adjust to speaking differencesrsquorsquo and

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 415

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

different accents even within the United States and that it isimportant to be accustomed to different accents in todayrsquosmulticultural world (see Canagarajah 2005 for a thoroughdiscussion of this concept) As one teacher explained

I ask students how they plan to use English in the futureInevitably they will use it in a context where they will comeacross many types of users of English not just native speakers Istress that being exposed to a variety of accents and uses ofEnglish from a professional and trained teacher will benefitthem in the short and long run

Other teachers replied that they made no attempt to convincestudents that NNES teachers could be good teachers because lsquolsquonowords can convince them that they are in good handsrsquorsquo Others triedto lsquolsquoevaluate the reason behind the commentsrsquorsquo or advised thestudents lsquolsquoto speak to the teacher directlyrsquorsquo Some respondents toldESL students that lsquolsquothere are many different dialects of English that[students] must get used torsquorsquo that lsquolsquo[NNES teachersrsquo] experienceadds a lot to the class that [NES teachers] cannot add becausetheyrsquove never been through the experience of learning Englishrsquorsquoand that lsquolsquo[students] are lucky to have such a good role modelrsquorsquo

Although most NES teachers reported standing up for theirNNES colleagues in response to discriminatory comments one NESteacher responded lsquolsquoI think it is a subject worthy of discussionWould you like to learn to play the violin from someone who didnrsquotplay it wellrsquorsquo Similarly the great majority of NNES teachers felt thatthey could talk to mentors or IEP administrators if they encountereddiscrimination but one disagreed and explained lsquolsquoNo not really If Iwant to keep my job Irsquove been taught to avoid any negativeconfrontation with any individual in an administrative positionrsquorsquo

IEP administrators seemed to be more aware than teachers ofongoing discrimination against NNES teachers When asked howthey reacted or would react to discrimination some administratorsreplied lsquolsquoWe engage students and teachers in conversations aboutspecific issues and a larger conversation about Englishinternationally and in the universityrsquorsquo Others explained to theirstudents that lsquolsquoEnglish is spoken in many different rhythms andwith somewhat different pronunciation and that as citizens of theworld people need to listen and adjust to speaking differencesrsquorsquo and

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 415

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

moreover lsquolsquothere are many lsquoEnglishesrsquo in the world And no oneincluding native speakers is always correct all of the timersquorsquo Yetanother administrator responded

We hire instructors based on their preparation to teach not onwhether they speak English as their native language If studentsexpress concerns I tell them that the NNES teacher is an excellentrole model for them and they should try to learn to speak readetc as well as the NNES teacher

A different perspective came from one administrator whoexplained that if students in her program complained about NNESteachers she lsquolsquowould explore the studentsrsquo comments and feelingswith them to determine whether the students are projecting theirown frustrations and insecurities onto a teacher which is the mostlikely scenariorsquorsquo One IEP administrator gave a comprehensiveresponse to studentsrsquo complaints

I have responded in several ways (1) I point out that the NNESteacher is a good example of how proficient someone can get inanother language (to the point of being able to teach thelanguage) (2) I also explain that this instructor is well equippedto help students with strategies to learn the language becauseshe has gone through the same process as the current student(3) Finally I ask the student if they would rather I hire someoneoff the streets just because they are native speakers or if theywould rather have a professional who knows what she isdoing That usually causes the student to pause and realize thathe isnrsquot being very fair

In the end when asked if their overall experience as a teacher attheir current IEP was positive 555 of the NNES teachers and666 of the NES teachers strongly agreed only 55 of the NNESteachers and 38 of the NES teachers strongly disagreed LikewiseIEP administrators strongly agreed (294) or agreed (706) thatteachersrsquo work experiences at their IEP appeared to be positive ingeneral

The native and nonnative speakersrsquo teaching experiences thusappeared positive overall even if some discrimination seemed toexist It was unclear however whether this discrimination felt bysome teachers was uniquely geared toward NNES teachers or

416 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

whether it was the normal result of differences in teaching stylespersonalities contexts and other personal and external variables

Hiring and Employment Practices

lsquolsquoWhat criteria do you use for hiring ESL teachers in your IEPrsquorsquoIEP administratorsrsquo responses included the following in

decreasing order of frequency4

N past teaching experience (2ndash5 years) 952

N masterrsquos degree (or enrollment in a TESOL certificate or MA program) in oneof these fields ESLeducation TESL intercultural communication Englishlinguistics and applied linguistics 810

N ability to work effectively with international students experience overseas(lsquolsquomust have lived abroadrsquorsquo) learning other languages (lsquolsquoat least one languageother than Englishrsquorsquo) 285

N a personal interview (lsquolsquo[This] is an absolute must during which I evaluatehow the person presents himselfherself how the person communicates inEnglish in this situation and how well the person may fit into our programrsquorsquo)238

N if NNES teachers native-like fluency in English or lsquolsquonative quality Englishlevelrsquorsquo 190

N good references and letters of recommendation 95

N lsquolsquoa particular content area of expertiseexperience (Writing Reading etc)rsquorsquo47

N lsquolsquowhere that teaching experience wasmdashand the teaching situationmdashdoes theperson have any experience dealing with multiple languages and cultures ina single classroom an ESL situationrsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquomission fit (personality enthusiasm dedication)rsquorsquo 47

N lsquolsquoa commitment to teach at any level and any subject arearsquorsquo 47

Interestingly these results did not compare well withMahboobrsquos (2003) findings probably because of the differentnumber of participants and research methods In this studyadministrators responded that they relied more on past teachingexperience diplomas and international experience than on thelanguage skills of applicants Unlike Mahboobrsquos respondents noadministrator in this study noted nativeness ethnicity citizenshipor accent as hiring criteria However the criteria noted by the IEPadministrators in this study corresponded quite well to the criteriarecommended by Flynn and Gulikers (2001)

4 The total of these percentages does not add to 100 because each administrator might have givenmore than one response

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 417

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

lsquolsquoIf you hire nonnative speakers (or have hired nonnative speakers inthe past) do you assign them to specific teaching situations (class subjectsize structure etc) during their first year on the jobrsquorsquo

Thirteen administrators responded that NNES teachers wereassigned to teach the same classes as NES teachers although oneadministrator added lsquolsquoThe only restriction is that new hires do notteach in our highest level during their first semesterrsquorsquo Many alsoresponded that it lsquolsquodepends on their qualifications and whatvacancies we haversquorsquo and many comments also reflected thissentiment

All teachers (NES and NNES) are given assignments that matchtheir specific needs and preferences Not all teachers whetherNES or NNES are effective throughout the whole range of levelsSome but not all native speakers are effective at the highestlevels where composition is stressed Some but not all nonnativespeakers are effective at that same level

Another common response (380) was lsquolsquoWe work with each ofthem to decide which class they will teach each semester We usetheir input as the greatest factor in assigning them a classrsquorsquo Onlyone administrator talked about assigning specific classes to NNESteachers explaining that lsquolsquothe NNES teachers we have hired havetaught lower level classesrsquorsquo and only one added lsquolsquoWe will assign amentor teacher to NNES teachers to help them adjust during thefirst yearrsquorsquo

Final Thoughts

lsquolsquoIs there anything else you would like to addrsquorsquoOne NES teacher said lsquolsquoWe love our NNES instructorsrsquorsquo One

NNES teacher wrote lsquolsquoGlad to be [an NNES teacher] (anopportunity I might not have had elsewhere) but I often wonderwhat the native teachers and students really thinkrsquorsquo

Two comments articulate particularly well the problem of andpossible solution to studentsrsquo misconceptions regarding NNESteachers

Students wish to be taught by native speakers even if thenonnative speaker is as good in English as the native speakerThe perception needs to be changed for students to respond well

418 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

I believe that nonnative speakers are just as good and in somecases better than native speakers when it comes to teachingEnglish However I believe that the reality is that students donrsquotfeel this way Especially students who are only coming to Americato study English These students will really be unhappy if theydonrsquot get a native English speaker I think itrsquos a shame but itrsquos trueIf we want the situation to change we need to have moreinformation out there about the advantages of NNES teachers

In the end several participants acknowledged that the hiring (ornot) of NNES teachers was a complex issue As one administratorexplained lsquolsquoThe problem is political in nature Who should teachEnglish is the question not the accent a person has It is a questionof power in the workplace and one of perceptionrsquorsquo

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study elicited personal reflections and little quantifiable dataFurthermore a number of limitations (few participants more NESteachers than NNES teachers self-selection of participants etc)must be taken into consideration when reviewing the results Stillsome trends can be observed

Summary of Responses

Most participants agreed that language learning experience isinvaluable Also NNES teachers are great role models for studentsand bring diversity and cultural knowledge to the classroomConversely a number of participants noted that linguistic andcultural barriers could adversely affect NNES teachersrsquo teachingexperience Their lack of self-confidence was also perceived asproblematic and regrettable

Regarding teacher preparation ESL teachers recognized a lack ofdiscussion about cultural pedagogical and linguistic differencesbetween NES and NNES teachers Many also wished they had beengiven more firsthand teaching opportunities IEP administratorsstrongly emphasized experience as the best preparation and wishedthat TESOL programs exposed preservice teachers to a more solidlinguistic cultural and pedagogical foundation Several IEPadministrators also stressed the importance of helping NNES teachersimprove their language skills and exposing NES teachers to discussionsabout world cultures sociolinguistics and World Englishes

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 419

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

Although most of the participating teachers and administratorsacknowledged that discrimination against NNES teachers didexist5 many NNES teachers seemed quite content with their currentteaching experiences The teachers and administrators whoresponded to discriminatory comments against NNES teachersusually did so by educating students on World Englishes issues

Finally criteria used by IEP administrators to hire ESL teachersincluded first and foremost experience education and culturalawareness Language skills and linguistic awareness were alsodecisive factors

Recommendations

In light of these responses and the review of literature severalrecommendations can be made Although these may not fit allcontexts at all times they can provide ideas for discussions andmodifications at all levels and contexts of the English teachingprofession

For Teacher Educators

N If possible allow all TESOL students to complete a teaching practicum (seeFlynn amp Gulikers 2001)

N Discuss World Englishes and sociolinguistics issues often (see Eguiguren2000 Llurda 2004 Rampton 1990)

N Discuss differences in ESL and EFL pedagogies because many NNES andNES teachers will find teaching positions in various countries Braine (2005)and Canagarajah (2005) among others are excellent sources of informationabout the EFL context

N Invite successful NNES and NES teachers to present and discuss these topicswith preservice teachers

N Encourage collaboration to allow NNES and NES teachers to discover anduse their respective strengths Matsuda and Matsuda (2004) list successfulsuggestions for such collaboration

N Encourage and support research professional presentations and publica-tions See Kamhi-Stein (2000) for more ideas on this topic

N Encourage professional development in individual areas (eg technologyprofessional writing English for specific purposes) to enable teachers tobecome experts (and be consequently more marketable see Graddol 2006)

N Offer supplemental help to NNES teachers who desire it and who seem toneed it

5 Interestingly discrimination seemed to be more prevalent in IEPs with few NNES teachers(proportionally) and practically nonexistent in IEPs that had hired large numbers of NNES teachers

420 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

N Discuss the challenges that NNES and NES teachers may face in the classroomissues of self-confidence and possible responses to discrimination

N Create an environment of support and open communication between TESOLstudents teacher educators IEP administrators and ESL students regardingthe differences between NNES and NES teachers

N Encourage all TESOL students to learn new languages travel teach abroadand learn about various cultures

N Discuss different cultural and pedagogical contexts (eg ESL vs EFL Kndash12vs higher education)

N Provide TESOL students and ESL teachers with a wide variety of culturalpedagogical theoretical and linguistic resources

For IEP Administrators

N Mentor all new teachers especially during their first semester teaching

N Allow NES and NNES teachers to teach the classes they feel most comfortableteaching during their first semester

N Allow IEP students to visit mainstream university classes taught byinternational teaching assistants and professors This can help them realizethat they will encounter teachers with different accents in the lsquolsquoreal worldrsquorsquo too

N Discuss real-life examples of World Englishes in all communication(listeningspeaking) courses Topics of potential discussions include thefollowing (see Crystal 2003 for other examples and ideas)

a historical developments of English as a global languageb the world economy (eg outsourcing Bill Gates pleading for relaxed

immigration regulations because the majority of Microsoft engineers areforeigners)

c brain-drain (ESL students in IEPs are themselves a good example of thebrain-drain phenomenon)

d the politics of immigration (eg Canadarsquos search for professionalimmigrants in certain domains)

e the political and educational influence of English (eg Switzerlandrsquosswitch to the primacy of English learning over national languages)

f the spread of English through the Internet and other media (eg MTVmovies music advertising chat rooms blogs)

g the different varieties of Englishes (eg in England New Zealand KenyaIreland Canada)

h the propagation of local varieties of English (eg in Hong KongSingapore)

CONCLUSIONThe lsquolsquononnativenessrsquorsquo of NNES teachers of English has long beenconsidered a fundamental weakness slowly however it is being

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 421

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

transformed into one of their greatest perceived strengths NNESteachers are gaining appreciation for their unique experientialknowledge and consequently efforts to address these teachersrsquoconcerns are increasing (see eg Graddol 2006 TESOL 2006)

In this study NNES teachersrsquo greatest self-perceived strengthwas their experiential and linguistic knowledge They often cited alack of cultural knowledge as a self-perceived weakness but themost consistent weakness recognized by NES as well as NNESteachers was the insecurity felt by many NNES teachers regardingtheir authority to teach English

This studyrsquos results are encouraging in that ESL teachers and IEPadministrators alike seemed aware of the positive impact that NNESteachers could have on teacher education programs and in the ESLclassroom Interesting and constructive suggestions were offered bythe participating administrators and teachers which demonstratesthat although much work must still be done awareness of thelimitations and strengths of NES and NNES teachers is growing

THE AUTHORLucie Moussu has a bachelorrsquos degree in design a masterrsquos degree inTESOL from Brigham Young University and a PhD from PurdueUniversity She is now the director of the University of AlbertarsquosCentre for Writers and a faculty member in the English and FilmStudies Department Her research interests include English as asecondforeign language the Canadian bilingual context the admin-istration of writing centers the strengths of native- and nonnative-English-speaking ESLEFL teachers and second language writing

REFERENCESArva V amp Medgyes P (2000) Native and non-native teachers in

the classroom System 28 355ndash372 doi101016S0346-251X(00)00017-8

Astor A (2000) A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher issecond to none in the field TESOL Matters 10(2) 18ndash19

Berry R (1990) The role of language improvement in teachertraining Killing two birds with one stone System 18 97ndash105doi1010160346-251X(90)90032-Z

422 TESOL Journal

Brady B amp Gulikers G (2004) Enhancing the MA in TESOLpracticum course for nonnative English-speaking studentteachers In L Kamhi-Stein (Ed) Learning and teaching fromexperience Perspectives on nonnative English-speaking professionals(pp 206ndash229) Ann Arbor University of Michigan Press

Braine G (Ed) (1999) Nonnative educators in English languageteaching Mahwah NJ Lawrence Erlbaum

Braine G (2005) Teaching English to the world History curriculumand practice Mahwah NJ Lawrence Erlbaum

Brown J D (2001) Using surveys in language programs New YorkNY Cambridge University Press

Canagarajah A S (1999) Interrogating the lsquolsquonative speakerfallacyrsquorsquo Non-linguistic roots non-pedagogical results In GBraine (Ed) Nonnative educators in English language teaching (pp77ndash92) Mahwah NJ Lawrence Erlbaum

Canagarajah A S (2005) Reclaiming the local in language policy andpractice Mahwah NJ Lawrence Erlbaum

Chomsky N (1986) Knowledge of language New York NY PraegerCrystal D (2003) English as a global language (2nd ed) Cambridge

England Cambridge University PressCullen R (1994) Incorporating a language improvement

component in teacher training programmes ELT Journal 84162ndash172 doi101093elt482162

de Oliveira L amp Richardson S (2001) Collaboration betweennative and nonnative English-speaking educators CATESOLJournal 13(1) 123ndash134

Eguiguren A (2000) Expanding TESOL programs to include a WorldEnglishes perspective Australian Language Matters 8(3) 3ndash4

England L amp Roberts C (1989 March) A survey of foreign studentsand MA-TESOL programs Paper presented at the 23rd AnnualTESOL Convention and Exhibit San Antonio TX (ERICDocument Reproduction Service No 306754)

Flynn K amp Gulikers G (2001) Issues in hiring nonnative English-speaking professionals to teach English as a second languageCATESOL Journal 13(1) 151ndash161

Graddol D (2006) English next London England British CouncilRetrieved from httpwwwbritishcouncildepdfenglish-next-2006pdf

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 423

Greis N (1984) Toward a better preparation of the nonnative ESOLteacher In P Larson E L Judd amp D S Messerschmitt (Eds)On TESOL rsquo84 A brave new world for TESOL (pp 317ndash324)Washington DC TESOL

Higgins C (2003) lsquolsquoOwnershiprsquorsquo of English in the outer circle Analternative to the NS-NNS dichotomy TESOL Quarterly 37 615ndash644 doi1023073588215

Kachru B (1982) Models for non-native Englishes In B Kachru(Ed) The other tongue English across cultures (pp 49ndash74)Chicago University of Illinois Press

Kamhi-Stein L (2000) Adapting US-based TESOL teachereducation to meet the needs of nonnative English speakersTESOL Journal 9(3) 10ndash14

Kamhi-Stein L (Ed) (2004) Learning and teaching from experiencePerspectives on nonnative English-speaking professionals AnnArbor University of Michigan Press

Lee I (2004) Preparing nonnative English speakers for EFLteaching in Hong Kong In L Kamhi-Stein (Ed) Learning andteaching from experience Perspectives on nonnative English-speakingprofessionals (pp 230ndash250) Ann Arbor University of MichiganPress

Lin A Wang W Akamatsu N amp Riazi M (2005) InternationalTESOL professionals and teaching English for glocalizedcommunication (TEGLOM) In A S Canagarajah (Ed)Reclaiming the local in language policy and practice (pp 197ndash224)Mahwah NJ Lawrence Erlbaum

Liu D (1999) Training non-native TESOL students Challenges forTESOL teacher education in the West In G Braine (Ed)Nonnative educators in English language teaching (pp 197ndash210)Mahwah NJ Lawrence Erlbaum

Liu J (1999) From their own perspectives The impact of non-native ESL professionals on their students In G Braine (Ed)Nonnative educators in English language teaching (pp 159ndash176)Mahwah NJ Lawrence Erlbaum

Llurda E (2004) Non-native-speaker teachers and English as aninternational language International Journal of Applied Linguistics14 314ndash323 doi101111j1473-4192200400068x

424 TESOL Journal

Llurda E (2005) Non-native TESOL students as seen by practicumsupervisors In E Llurda (Ed) Non-native language teachersPerceptions challenges and contributions to the profession (pp 131ndash154) New York NY Springer

Mahboob A (2003) Status of nonnative English-speaking teachers inthe United States (Unpublished doctoral dissertation) IndianaUniversity Bloomington IN

Matsuda A amp Matsuda P K (2004) Autonomy and collaborationin teacher education Journal sharing among native andnonnative English-speaking teachers In L Kamhi-Stein (Ed)Learning and teaching from experience Perspectives on nonnativeEnglish-speaking professionals (pp 176ndash189) Ann ArborUniversity of Michigan Press

Maum R (2003) A comparison of native and nonnative English-speaking teachersrsquo beliefs about teaching English as a second languageto adult English language learners (Unpublished doctoraldissertation) University of Louisville Louisville KY

Medgyes P (1994) The non-native teacher London EnglandMacmillan

Modiano M (2001) Ideology and the ELT practitioner InternationalJournal of Applied Linguistics 11 159ndash173 doi1011111473-419200012

Nelson C (1992) Intelligibility and world Englishes in theclassroom World Englishes 14 273ndash279 doi101111j1467-971X1995tb00356x

Pasternak M amp Bailey K M (2004) Preparing nonnative andnative English-speaking teachers Issues of professionalism andproficiency In L Kamhi-Stein (Ed) Learning and teaching fromexperience Perspectives on nonnative English-speaking professionals(pp 155ndash175) Ann Arbor University of Michigan Press

Perdreau C (1994) Roles responsibilities and priorities of theintensive English programs Journal of Intensive English Studies 81ndash25

Phillipson R (1992) Linguistic imperialism Oxford England OxfordUniversity Press

Purpura J (1998) The development and construct validation of aninstrument designed to investigate the selected cognitivebackground characteristics of test takers In A J Kunnan (Ed)

Conversation Between ESL Teachers and IEP Administrators 425

Validation in language assessment (pp 11ndash130) Mahwah NJLawrence Erlbaum

Rampton M B H (1990) Displacing the lsquolsquonative speakerrsquorsquoExpertise affiliation and inheritance ELT Journal 44 97ndash101doi101093elt44297

Reid J (1997) Fostering common ground The strategic relationshipbetween the IEP and the MATESOL program in US highereducation Journal of Intensive English Studies 11 19ndash39

Reves T amp Medgyes P (1994) The non-native English speakingEFLESL teacherrsquos self image An international survey System22 353ndash357 doi1010160346-251X(94)90021-3

Richards J amp Lockhart C (1994) Reflective teaching in secondlanguage classrooms New York NY Cambridge University Press

Samimy K amp Brutt-Giffler J (1999) To be a native or non-nativespeaker Perceptions of lsquolsquonon-nativersquorsquo students in a graduateTESOL program In G Braine (Ed) Non-native educators inEnglish language teaching (pp 127ndash144) Mahwah NJ LawrenceErlbaum

Seidlhofer B (1999) Double standards Teacher education in theexpanding circle World Englishes 18) 233ndash245 doi1011111467-971X00136

TESOL (2006) Position statement against discrimination of nonnativespeakers of English in the field of TESOL Retrieved from httpwwwtesolorgs_tesolbinaspCID532ampDID55889ampDOC5FILEPDF

426 TESOL Journal