tourism - public and private partnerships during disasters

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TOURIST OPERATORS AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT By DAVID REID, BA A Major Research Project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS In DISASTER AND EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT We accept this Major Research Project as conforming to the required standard. _____________________________________ Peter Anderson, MA Communication Academic Supervisor _____________________________________ Jean Slick, M.Ed Program Head, MA Disaster and Emergency Management _____________________________________ Gregory Cran, PhD Director, School of Peace and Conflict Management ROYAL ROADS UNIVERSITY April 2010

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TOURIST OPERATORS AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

By

DAVID REID, BA

A Major Research Project submitted in partial fulfillment ofthe requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

In

DISASTER AND EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT

We accept this Major Research Project as conformingto the required standard.

_____________________________________Peter Anderson, MA Communication

Academic Supervisor

_____________________________________Jean Slick, M.Ed

Program Head, MA Disaster and Emergency Management

_____________________________________Gregory Cran, PhD

Director, School of Peace and Conflict Management

ROYAL ROADS UNIVERSITY

April 2010

TOURIST OPERATORS AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

©David Reid, 2010

ii

Running Head: TOURIST OPERATORS AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT i

Abstract

The participation and involvement of tourism operators in emergency

management has been understudied. This project seeks to fill this research gap by

examining the relationships and resource sharing that occurs between a tourism operator

and government response agencies. Eight interviews were conducted in a popular winter

tourism destination with employees of a tourism operator and of local government

response agencies. Each participant was asked eight questions concerning local hazards,

interagency response and past collaborations. These findings were then used to create

recommendations to facilitate future collaborations between tourism operators and

government response agencies.

TOURIST OPERATORS AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Acknowledgements

A sincere thank-you to project participants. It was a pleasure working with all of

you and I appreciate you taking the time from your busy schedules to participate in this

research project.

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my project supervisor and

sponsor. Peter Anderson, thank you for assisting me through this process and acting as

my project supervisor. I arrived at your office from out of the blue and asked you if you

would be willing to take on an unknown student. Thank you for having the courage to

say yes. I could not have successfully written this project without your aid.

Joel Chevalier, my project sponsor, thanks for helping me find participants and providing

guidance. Your willingness to help people is a testament to your character.

I would also like to recognize Paula Vera for being an outstanding friend and

proofreading all my papers over the last three years.

Most importantly I want to thank my wife Petra. None of this could have been

achieved without your assistance. You were willing to take on so many additional tasks

so that I could have the opportunity to work on this project. I would also like to thank my

toddler son Griffin. You were always more than willing to help, you sorted papers, added

text to the paper, and reminded me that play time should be all the time and that nap-time

was optional.

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Table of Contents

Abstract.................................................................................................................................i

Acknowledgements..............................................................................................................ii

Table of Contents................................................................................................................iii

List of Abbreviations..........................................................................................................vi

Focus and Framing...............................................................................................................1

Definitions of Terms........................................................................................................2

Researcher’s Bias.............................................................................................................4

The Need for Public-Private Sector Partnerships in Emergency Management...............5

Significance of the Opportunity.......................................................................................6

Benefits of this Study.......................................................................................................6

The Area of Study............................................................................................................7

Natural Hazards and Human-Induced Hazards................................................................9

Canada’s and British Columbia’s Emergency Management System............................11

Organizational Context .................................................................................................14

Summary........................................................................................................................18

Literature Review..............................................................................................................19

Corporate Social Responsibility ...................................................................................19

Interagency Teamwork..................................................................................................21

Community Disaster Research.......................................................................................22

Tourism Research..........................................................................................................24

Summary........................................................................................................................27

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TOURIST OPERATORS AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Research Conduct and Ethics.............................................................................................29

Theoretical Framework..................................................................................................29

Research Approach........................................................................................................30

Project Participants........................................................................................................32

Data Gathering Tools ....................................................................................................34

Data Analysis Strategies................................................................................................35

Research Ethics..............................................................................................................36

Summary........................................................................................................................37

Project Findings and Conclusions......................................................................................39

Project Findings ............................................................................................................41

Summary of the Findings...............................................................................................55

Project Conclusions.......................................................................................................55

Scope and Limitations of the Research..........................................................................56

Summary........................................................................................................................57

Research Implications........................................................................................................57

Project Recommendations.............................................................................................58

Recommendation 1: Increase familiarity between first response agencies’ and tourism

operators.........................................................................................................................58

Recommendation 2: Engage tourism operators in the emergency planning process....58

Recommendation 3: Create interagency teams to respond to specific hazards............59

Recommendation 4: Develop communication strategies that facilitate communication

between traditional first response agencies and non-traditional response agencies .....60

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TOURIST OPERATORS AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Suggestions for Future Research...................................................................................60

Summary........................................................................................................................61

Lessons Learnt...................................................................................................................62

Project Management......................................................................................................62

Project Process...............................................................................................................63

Summary........................................................................................................................63

References .........................................................................................................................64

Appendix A........................................................................................................................72

Sample Letter of Invitation............................................................................................72

Appendix B........................................................................................................................75

Sample Research Consent Form....................................................................................75

Appendix C........................................................................................................................78

Interview Questions.......................................................................................................78

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TOURIST OPERATORS AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

List of Abbreviations

BC British Columbia

BCAS British Columbia Ambulance Service

CSR Corporate Social Responsibility

EM Emergency Management

EMO Emergency Management Office

EMC Emergency Management Coordinator

EPM Emergency Procedures Manual

ESS Emergency Social Services

GOC Government Operations Center

MRP Major Research Project

PEP Provincial Emergency Program

PREOC Provincial Regional Emergency Operations Center

RCMP Royal Canadian Mounted Police

RMOW Resort Municipality of Whistler

WFRS Whistler Fire Rescue Service

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Focus and Framing

The tourism industry has been identified as an industry that is more prone to

disasters and the lack of research in tourism and disaster management is a concern

(Cioccio & Michael, 2007; Faulkner 2001). Numerous research papers have indicated

that tourism operators need to be incorporated into disaster and emergency management

to ensure that both local residents and tourist populations are cared for during

emergencies and/or disaster events (Murphy & Bayley, 1989; Ritchie, 2008). Research

evidence suggests that by involving tourism operators in disaster management the local

community will be better prepared to respond to and manage future emergency and

disaster events (Murphy & Bayley, 1989; Ritchie 2008).

This project investigated the question of “how can a tourism operator support and

assist the local community during an emergency or disaster event?” The community

where this investigation took place is the Resort Municipality of Whistler (RMOW) and

the tourism operator that was part of the study is the ski resort Whistler Blackcomb. The

central questions include:

1) What hazards would you consider significant in this community? Why are these

hazards significant? Are there plans in place to mitigate or respond to these

hazards?

2) What hazards could overwhelm the community and require additional resources?

What resources could it require?

3) Has Whistler Blackcomb worked with first response agencies or local government

in past emergencies or disasters? If so could you describe the scenario and what

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TOURIST OPERATORS AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

the company did?

4) Is there a process in place for Whistler Blackcomb to interface and collaborate

with local first responder agencies and local government during an emergency or

disaster? If so how does it work? If not what can be done to facilitate this

process?

5) How can Whistler Blackcomb enhance first responder agencies ability to respond

to an emergency or disaster event?

6) What aid or resources can Whistler Blackcomb provide to the community during

an emergency or disaster event?

7) Are there additional ways in which Whistler Blackcomb could assist the

community that has not been used in the past? If so, what are they?

8) Does Whistler Blackcomb have a responsibility to the local community during an

emergency or disaster event? If so, what is its responsibility?

Definitions of Terms

This major research project uses many different terms. This section provides a

brief overview of key terms.

Community: A group of individuals and households living in the same

location and having the same hazard exposure, who can

share the same objectives and goals in disaster risk

reduction (Victoria, 2003)

Disaster: A serious disruption to community life which threatens or

causes death or injury in that community and/or damage to

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TOURIST OPERATORS AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

property which is beyond the day- to-day capacity of the

prescribed statutory authorities and which requires special

mobilization and organization of resources other than those

normally available to those authorities (Coles & Buckle,

2004)

Emergency: A natural or human generated event with negative physical

or economical consequences on people, resources or

property, which does not require the aid of external

resources.

Emergency Management: “The organization and management of resources and

responsibilities for dealing with all aspects of emergencies

and disasters” (UNISDR, 2004, ANNEX 1, P.4). The

current emergency management system is built around four

pillars that include: preparedness, mitigation, response, and

recovery (Geis, 2000).

First Response Agencies: A trained or certified group of individuals who, upon

arriving early to an emergency, assume immediate

responsibility for the protection and preservation of life,

property, evidence and the environment.

Hazard A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or

human activity that may cause the loss of life or injury,

property damage, social and economic disruption or

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TOURIST OPERATORS AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

environmental degradation (UNISDR, 2004).

Phenomenological Research: “A qualitative [research] method that attempts to

understand participants’ perspective and views…” (Leedy

& Armond, 2005, p.108) of the phenomenon being studied.

Semi-structured Interviews: Interviews that are structured around a focused set of

questions. Open, two-way conversation is encouraged and

topics may be discussed that are not specific to the

interview questions.

Tourists: People or individuals who are visiting an area and are not

residents.

Researcher’s Bias

My interest in examining how a tourism operator might assist a community during

an emergency or disaster event was the result of a number of factors. The first was as a

result of past work experience. I have worked as an Emergency Coordinator for

municipal government, the health sector and for the private sector. From this work

experience I discovered that supplies, resources and people required to manage an

emergency event were often available within the local community. However, during

emergencies and/or disasters local resources and personnel were often unused or

forgotten. I believe the reason for this is because first response agencies are often

unaware of the local resources available within a community or have not had discussions

with non-governmental agencies concerning what they might contribute.

Another reason for wanting to conduct this research project is that I have lived

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TOURIST OPERATORS AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

and worked in the Resort Municipality of Whistler (RMOW) for 15 years. During this

period I worked with local government, first responders and the private sector during

many emergency events. This has led me to believe that there is a strong connection

between Whistler Blackcomb, the RMOW and first response agencies. I feel that this

strong connection is worth investigating to better understand the coordination and

collaboration that occurs between Whistler Blackcomb, the RMOW and government

response agencies.

The Need for Public-Private Sector Partnerships in Emergency Management

Worldwide disasters are occurring with greater frequency and having greater

negative social and economic impact (An Emergency Framework for Canada, 2007). The

importance of emergency management to governments, the private sector and the public

is becoming increasingly more relevant and important (Britton, 2002; Geis, 2000).

Disasters require the mobilization of large amounts of people, resources and capital.

Often these events exceed the capacity of traditional first response agencies (Coles &

Buckle, 2004; Drabek, 2000).

The responsibility of emergency management practitioners is to develop plans

processes and procedures that enhance public safety and help mitigate the impacts of

emergency and disaster events (Plattner, Plapp, & Hebel, 2006). Coles and Buckle

(2004) have argued that emergency management practitioners should use a participatory

community-oriented approach. They recommend that emergency management

practitioners engage local stake-holders to discover what aid or resources exist within the

community that could complement or assist traditional first response agencies and local

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government. They state that emergency management practitioners “need to engage the

community whose knowledge and capacity are essential components of any response”

(Coles & Buckle, 2004, p. 14).

Significance of the Opportunity

Denis Mileti (1999) has stated that “until fairly recently, studies of the response of

private-sector organizations in disaster situations were virtually non-existent, and to date

very few systematic studies have been done” (p. 224). Researchers have more recently

noted that the contribution of the private sector and tourism sector in emergency

management is understudied (Cioccio & Michael, 2007; Faulkner, 2001). This project

seeks to fill this research gap by examining the relationships and resource sharing that

occurs between a tourism operator and first response agencies.

The project is guided by the recognition that emergencies and disasters are

community events that require community responses. This MRP helps to further

understand the relationship and resource sharing that occurs between a tourism operator,

the local government and local first response agencies within a community. This allows

for a better understanding of how a tourism operator can assist a community’s response to

emergency and disaster events. It is my hope that the knowledge gained from this study

will be used by other communities to help them collaborate with tourism operators in the

management of emergency and disaster events.

Benefits of this Study

This MRP benefits the sponsoring agency, Whistler Blackcomb, because it

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provides knowledge and information concerning ways in which Whistler Blackcomb

might provide assistance to the local community and first response agencies during an

emergency or disaster event. By having this knowledge Whistler Blackcomb will be

better able to respond to and reduce the impact of future emergency or disaster events.

The MRP benefits the RMOW and first response agencies because it provides

information concerning how Whistler Blackcomb might assist the community during

emergencies and disaster events.

This MRP also benefits other communities, because it provides insight and ideas

concerning how tourism operators might enhance the capacity of first response agencies

to respond to emergency and disaster events.

The Area of Study

The RMOW is located in a geographically remote area in the southwest region of

British Columbia (BC). The ground transportation links to the area consist of Highway

99 a two and four lane highway and a single rail line. The RMOW is also accessible by

helicopter and has a heliport. The two adjacent towns are Pemberton and Squamish.

Pemberton is located approximately 30 km north and Squamish is located 50 km south of

the RMOW. Pemberton and Squamish both have small airports that are used for private

aircraft, flying clubs, and other commercial activities. The closest metropolitan area is

Vancouver, which is 124 km south of Whistler.

The 2006 census numbers for permanent residents in the RMOW is listed at 9,595

(Statistics Canada, 2006). During the popular tourist months the population can exceed

40,000 as a result of tourists (Vancouver2010, n.d.). The RMOW holds many festivals

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and events throughout the year and recently served as an Olympic Venue for the 2010

Winter Olympics. The 2010 Winter Olympics was the largest event ever hosted by the

community. During this period the population exceeded 50,000 (Vancouver2010, n.d.)

Whistler Blackcomb Profile. During winter months Whistler Blackcomb, which

is situated in the RMOW, operates North America’s largest ski operation. Whistler

Blackcomb has the largest skiable area in North America at 8,171 acres (33 km2) (Resort

Municipality of Whislter, 2010). During the spring, winter and fall seasons tourists are

attracted to the area for recreational activities such as mountain biking, hiking, fishing,

rafting and golf. Whistler Blackcomb also provides lift service for mountain biking,

hiking, and skiing during the summer months. Whistler Blackcomb off-season skiing

takes place on Blackcomb glacier. Lift serviced mountain biking takes place on Whistler

Mountain. Both mountains provide hiking during summer months.

Whistler Blackcomb Development. Two separate companies originally

developed Whistler and Blackcomb mountains as ski resorts. These two companies

merged in 1997 when Intrawest, the company that owned Blackcomb, purchased

Whistler. The result of the merger was the creation of the company known as Whistler

Blackcomb. Whistler Mountain was developed first and was opened for public skiing in

1965. The original name was London mountain and it was renamed Whistler in 1965.

Blackcomb Mountain opened for skiing in 1980. Whistler Blackcomb has won numerous

awards and has been rated the number one North American ski destination by Skiing

Magazine thirteen times. Whistler Blackcomb regularly receives more than two million

tourist visitors each year (Resort Municipality of Whistler, 2010).

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Resort Municipality of Whistler and Whistler Blackcomb Interface. There

are three separate areas in the RMOW that provide lift access to the Whistler Blackcomb

ski area. These areas are Creekside, Whistler Village and the Upper Whistler Village.

Creekside is the historic village centre and is located four kilometers south of Whistler

Village. To access Whistler Blackcomb from this area there is a gondola. Whistler

Village is the village centre and the primary commercial hub of the area. There are three

separate lifts that provide access to Whistler Blackcomb from Whistler Village. These

consist of a detachable four person chairlift and a gondola which provide access to

Whistler, and another gondola which provides access to Blackcomb. The most recent

developed area is the Upper Whistler Village which is situated at the base of Blackcomb

Mountain. This area has a detachable four person chairlift and a fixed-grip three person

chairlift which provide access to Blackcomb Mountain. Whistler Blackcomb also has a

lift that provides access between the two mountains across the Fitzsimmons River. This

lift is called the Peak 2 Peak Gondola and its total length is 4.4 km (2.7 mi). It has the

longest unsupported span for a lift of its kind in the world at 3.02 km (1.88 mi). In total

the mountain has 38 lifts. The mountain also has 17 restaurants that can seat 6540

people.

Natural Hazards and Human-Induced Hazards

BC is an area that regularly experiences natural hazards and human-induced

hazards. The high number of natural hazards in BC can be attributed to its complex

geography and climate. The British Columbia Provincial Emergency Program (PEP) has

identified fifty-seven different types of hazards that could impact public safety, the

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environment and the economy of the province (Provincial Emergency Program, 2008a)

The RMOW and Whistler Blackcomb have experienced natural and human-induced

emergencies and disasters. Recent hazard events include the Quicksilver chair lift

derailment on December 23, 1995, which killed two people and injured eight, the

Excalibur gondola tower failure on December 16, 2008, which injured ten people, and a

high-alpine forest fire on July 30, 2009, which required the evacuation of 375 people off

of Blackcomb Mountain. The alpine area of Whistler Blackcomb and neighboring

mountains experience snow avalanches during the winter season. The avalanche hazard

within the operational area of Whistler Blackcomb is mitigated through avalanche control

conducted by Whistler Blackcomb ski patrollers.

Some frequent natural hazards that affect the province and the RMOW are listed

below:

• Debris flows and snow avalanche hazards: Landslides and avalanches are a

yearly occurrence within BC that results in damaged roadways, transmission lines

and property damage.

• Flooding hazards: Flooding in BC can be caused by numerous different events

such as rain on snow events, ice jam flooding, storm surges, flash floods, and

natural dam failures or human built dam failures. Flood events typically occur in

the spring and fall as a result of rain on snow events.

• Forest and interface fire hazards: Forest fires and interface fires are yearly

occurrences in BC and are caused by either lighting or human ignition.

• Seismic hazards: Southwestern British Columbia is exposed to the highest seismic

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risk in Canada. The Juan de Fuca and North America plates are believed to be

locked together causing strain to build up in the earth’s crust. Many leading

seismic researchers predict that at some time in the future the two locked plates

will become unlocked which will result in an offshore ‘subduction’ earthquake

(Natural Resources Canada, 2009). It is believed that this type of earthquake

would result in numerous fatalities and massive infrastructure damage in the

southwest region of BC.

Canada’s and British Columbia’s Emergency Management System

Canada’s Emergency Management (EM) system is organized through

partnerships of public, private, non-profit, and volunteer organizations. “The ultimate

purpose of emergency management is to save lives, preserve the environment and protect

property and the economy” (An Emergency Management Framework for Canada, 2007,

p.4). EM is shared between a three-tiered government system that includes federal,

provincial/territorial, and municipal organizations (Wachtendorf, 2001).

The current EM system is built around four pillars that include: preparedness,

mitigation, response, and recovery (Geis, 2000). The present focus of emergency

management is on a comprehensive, all-hazards approach (McEntire, Fuller, Johnston, &

Weber, 2002). This approach does not limit the focus to one agency or one type of

hazard, but instead focuses on the interaction of various agencies and their response to

hazards within a jurisdiction or community (Disaster Preparedness Resource Centre,

1998).

The guiding principle of the Canadian EM system is that management during

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emergency or disaster events lies with local government and/or regional districts. The BC

provincial government has passed legislation that requires local government and regional

districts to plan and prepare for emergencies and disasters within their area of geographic

responsibility (Emergency Program Management Regulation, 1994). In BC the

Emergency Program Act (1996) states that local authorities “must prepare or cause to be

prepared local emergency plans respecting preparation for, response to and recovery from

emergencies and disasters” (Emergency Program Act, 1996). Municipalities and regional

districts usually assign this task to an emergency management coordinator (EMC). The

EMC is responsible for creating emergency plans, developing exercises, and acting as a

liaison with local community stakeholders, municipalities and the private sector. In BC

the role of EMC is often a person from the Fire Department, local police services, or is an

employee of either municipal government or the regional district.

At the provincial level, the Provincial Emergency Program (PEP) is responsible

for overseeing emergency management in BC. PEP is a division of the Ministry of

Public Safety and Solicitor General, Emergency Management BC. PEP will activate a

provincial regional emergency operations center (PREOC) to help assist and coordinate

provincial aid to a municipality or regional district. The PREOC does not manage the

incident but helps coordinate provincial resources to an impacted area.

At the federal level, Public Safety Canada (PSC) holds the leadership role for EM,

coordinating lower levels of government (An Emergency Management Framework for

Canada, 2007). PSC creates the legal and policy frameworks, which outline the direction

and guiding principles for EM across the country. Under this framework provincial and

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territorial governments have the authority to pass legislation on the organization and legal

framework for emergency management in the province or territory. When a disaster

event is beyond the capacity of provincial resources, requests can be made to Public

Safety Canada. Public Safety Canada will activate the Government Operations Center

(GOC). The GOC coordinates all federal departments and agencies during national

emergencies and liaises with international partners such as NATO or other countries.

The provincial government of British Columbia has mandated the use of the

Incident Command System (ICS) by all provincial ministries and agencies (Provincial

Emergency Program, 2008a). BC local governments and regional districts are not legally

mandated to utilize ICS, however, first response agencies and local government are

increasingly adopting ICS as part of their training and as part of their standard operating

procedures.

ICS is a command and control system delineating job responsibilities within an

organizational structure for the purpose of managing operations during emergency and/or

disaster incidents. ICS provides a mechanism for organizations to shrink or expand as

required to meet the operational needs of an incident. The system is flexible and can be

used to manage either large catastrophic events or smaller emergency events. ICS

functional goals are to: (1) establish clear lines of authority, (2) provide common

terminology, and (3) provide appropriate span of control between different levels within

the response team organization (Auf der Heide, 1989). Some researchers have argued that

ICS might not be the best method of choice for responding to major events due to its

focus on command and control (Kuban, 1996; Watchendorf & Kendra, 2005; Quarantelli,

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1996).

The Justice Institute of British Columbia (JIBC) is Canada’s leading public safety

educator (Justice Institute, 2008d). The JIBC provides training and education to

firefighters, paramedics, police officers and emergency coordinators. ICS courses are a

standard part of these agencies education.

Organizational Context

The Whistler Fire Rescue Service’s (WFRS) Fire Chief is the Emergency

Program Coordinator for the RMOW. The Fire Chief is responsible for the management

and coordination of emergency preparedness, response and recovery activities (Resort

Municipality of Whistler - Emergency Management Plan, 2005). The Emergency

Program Coordinator reports to the Deputy Municipal Administrator and receives policy

direction and support from the Emergency Management Committee. “A prime function

of the Whistler Fire Rescue Service involves both planning and response in the event of a

major incident within the resort community” (Resort Municipality of Whistler

-Emergency Management Plan, 2005 p.21).

The RMOW Emergency Management Committee is a committee responsible for

setting policy direction and ensuring that all aspects of the RMOW’s Emergency Program

are addressed. The Emergency Program Coordinator and/or RMOW Deputy Municipal

Administrator chair the Emergency Management Committee. The Emergency

Management Committee meets 4 times a year and consists of the following

representatives:

Mayor and / or Council Representation, as required

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Municipal Administrator

Deputy Administrator

Emergency Program Coordinator

Fire Chief

RCMP Officer in Charge

BCAS Unit Chief

General Manager of Public Works / Engineering

General Manager of Parks and Recreation

Emergency Social Services Director

Search and Rescue Coordinator

Whistler Health Care Centre Representative

Whistler Blackcomb Representative (Resort Municipality of Whistler -Emergency

Management Plan, 2005 p.21).

Whistler Blackcomb’s corporate emergency management program is part of the

Safety Office. The Safety Office is responsible for conducting accident investigations,

managing the occupational health and safety program, and providing emergency

management training and education for Whistler Blackcomb employees. The Safety

Supervisor and Safety Manager coordinate Whistler Blackcomb’s response to

emergencies and disasters and act as the liaison with external (non Whistler Blackcomb)

agencies. The Safety Supervisor is responsible for updating the Emergency Procedures

Manual (EPM) every year. The EPM acts as Whistler Blackcomb’s Emergency plan. It

describes roles, responsibilities and actions for dealing with on-mountain emergencies (P.

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Jean, personal communication Jan 15, 2010).

The mission statement of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) the policing

agency for the RMOW is to

be a progressive, proactive and innovative organization; provide the highest quality

service through dynamic leadership, education and technology in partnership with the

diverse communities we serve; be accountable and efficient through shared decision-

making; ensure a healthy work environment that encourages team building, open

communication and mutual respect; promote safe communities; demonstrate

leadership in the pursuit of excellence. (Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 2006, p.2)

The employees of the RCMP are committed to communities through:

• unbiased and respectful treatment of all people

• accountability

• mutual problem solving

• cultural sensitivity

• enhancement of public safety

• partnerships and consultation

• open and honest communication

• effective and efficient use of resources

• quality and time service (Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 2006, p.2)

The mission statement for the RCMP emphasizes partnerships, shared decision making,

open communication and promotes the ideal of safe communities. Of note in the RCMP

vision statement is the bullet that states the effective and efficient use of resources. The

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RCMP recognizes that there are limited resources within its operation and that the use

and allocation of resources must be done strategically and systematically (S. LeClair,

personal communication Jan 20, 2010).

“The British Columbia Ambulance Service (BCAS) staff actively participates in

emergency planning, mock disaster exercises, and other joint training initiatives to ensure

disaster preparedness and response capabilities are identified and deployed quickly and

effectively when they are needed most” (British Columbia Ambulance Service -

Emergency Management Section, 2006) BCAS works to ensure that paramedics are

prepared to respond to, and recover from major emergencies. The BCAS Emergency

Management Office (EMO) provides provincial oversight and direction during major

emergencies and disasters. The BCAS EMO develops strategies and plans to mitigate,

manage and respond to regional hazards and provides direction and advice regarding

Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear and Explosive response. (British Columbia

Ambulance Service, 2006)

Emergency Social Services (or ESS) is a provincial emergency response program

for BC. The vision statement for ESS is that it “envisions a province where all

communities have the capacity to effectively respond to the basic short-term needs of

British Columbians affected by an emergency or disaster” (Emergency Social Services,

n.d.). ESS provides short-term assistance to British Columbians who are unable to return

to their homes due to damage caused by fire, floods, earthquakes or other hazards. ESS

provides food, lodging, clothing, and emotional support and family reunification.

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Summary

This chapter provides the context for this MRP. It provides reasons for the

importance of this study, a description of the area, the development history of Whistler

Blackcomb, hazards within the area, an overview of emergency management in BC and

Canada, and participating agencies emergency management structure or commitment.

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Literature Review

Several key topics related to emergency management, tourism and the private

sector were revealed in the literature review. These topics include (a) corporate social

responsibility as an argument explaining why the private sector might assist a

community, (b) research on interagency team work, (c) research validating the use of a

community approach to develop emergency management plans and policies and (d)

research on tourism disaster management.

Corporate Social Responsibility

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) can be broadly defined as ‘actions that

appear to further some social good, beyond the interests of the firm and that which is

required by law’ (McWilliams & Siegal, 2001, p. 117). It encompasses notions of

business ethics and the importance of stakeholders besides owners, investors and

shareholders (Schmidheiny et al., 1997). The underlying rationale is that businesses have

responsibilities other than those, which are strictly commercial in nature and must

support the well being of society (Hillman & Keim, 2001; Hopkins, 2006).

CSR implies that private companies have a responsibility to provide aid and care

for society at large (Hillman & Keim, 2001; Hopkins, 2006). Henderson (2007) has

argued that a company’s CSR requires it to intervene and provide aid during disasters.

However, Henderson (2007) has also stated that recognizing and exercising these

obligations is often a challenging task with uncertainty about appropriate forms of

commitment, responsibilities and actions.

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A socially responsible company should conduct itself in an appropriate manner within

its various spheres of action (Hopkins, 2006). Some important activities, which might be

reasonably expected of it, which are commonly cited in the literature, are summarized

below (Henderson, 2007; Hopkins, 2006).

• Forging of partnerships with government and non-governmental organizations,

including local community groups

• Formulation of policies to avoid damaging social and environmental impacts of

operations.

• Investment and involvement in social welfare and environmental conservation.

• Recruitment and training of local staff and purchase of goods and services from local

suppliers.

• Publication of meaningful and measurable social and environmental goals and regular

reporting on progress towards achievement.

• Full compliance with official regulations and a willingness to exceed these.

• Education and engagement of customers and staff about social and environmental

issues of concern.

While there is no mention of disaster management in the checklist, CSR promotes the

idea that companies should intervene to alleviate the impact of emergency or disaster

events (Henderson 2007; McWilliams & Siegal, 2001). Activities in the list that reflect

EM objectives are the forging of partnerships, the creation of policies to avoid damaging

social and environmental impacts, investments in social welfare, the recruitment and

training of local staff, the purchase of goods and services from local suppliers, and

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education about social and environmental issues. Ritchie (2008) has stated that,

From a tourism disaster perspective, there is a need to consider reducing disasters

to save tourism businesses or destinations substantial economic costs if

vulnerability or risk can be reduced or managed. Furthermore, a disaster, which

impacts upon a destination, could have major sociocultural impact if the local

community are perhaps reliant on income from tourism activities (p. 323)

The basis of this argument is that tourism is an economic driver for many communities

and the loss of tourism due to an event can lead to repercussions on the communities’

economic success and stability. It is important to acknowledge the importance of tourism

for tourism based communities and develop strategies to minimize the impact or

repercussions of emergencies or disasters on the local economy (Ritchie, 2008).

One strategy is to better understand the actions and activities that a tourism

operator might take to assist a tourism destination during an emergency or disaster event.

Henderson (2007) found that in large disasters tourism operators often provide both

assistance and resources. Examples of this aid occurred in the aftermath of the 2004

Indonesia tsunami where tourism operators provided lodging, food and equipment to both

residents and tourists (Henderson, 2007).

Interagency Teamwork

A significant volume of literature exists on the concept of teamwork. Common

aspects attributed to the success of teamwork are (1) working towards a shared goal, (2)

possessing complementary skills, and (3) using a common language (Ketzenbach &

Smith, 1993). A process for creating a teamwork environment is to adopt strategies in

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which team members are familiar with one another and have worked together on past

projects or work initiatives (Paton & Flin, 1999).

Due to the complexity of disaster events response agencies must be flexible in

their response and be willing to work with other agencies and/or other stakeholders

(Kouzes & Posner, 2002; Watchendorf, 2001). A method of developing interagency

teams is to provide opportunities in which members from different agencies participate in

training exercises (Whetstone, 2001). Agencies that interact with one another in training

exercises or other activities are more likely to be familiar with the capabilities, capacity

and resources of each other and have a greater willingness to work together (Auf der

Heide, 1989).

Community Disaster Research

Disasters typically exceed the internal surge capacity of first responder agencies

and require additional equipment and personnel from external agencies (Coles & Buckle,

2004; Drabek, 1985; Dynes, 1970; Dynes, 1976). Donahue and Joyce (2001, p. 728)

have defined disasters as an event that “exceeds the capability of government” and

“overwhelms the administrative and resources capabilities” available in the affected area.

Traditionally, the request for aid and/or resources has been requested from higher levels

of governments. This has often resulted in a failure to capitalize on non-governmental

resources available locally from either the private sector and/or community based

organizations (Dynes, 1970; Dynes 1976).

Russell Dynes (1970) has argued that the community needs to be part of disaster

management as it is the unit, which is affected by a disaster, and more importantly

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responds to and deals with the event. Researchers have argued that the reliance on

external agencies to help mitigate the impact of a disaster is flawed because external

agencies often arrive too late, are unfamiliar with the area impacted, and often fail to

address local needs (Coles & Buckle, 2004; Dynes, 1970; Victoria, 2003; Quarantelli,

1996). In order to address these needs, emergency planners are increasingly focused on

enhancing local capacity through the involvement of local stakeholders from non-

governmental organizations (Coles & Buckle, 2004; Drabek, 1999; Dynes, 1970; Murphy

& Bayley, 1989; Ritchie, 2004). The “community as a resource” model has become the

accepted standard for emergency management models and practices (Lichterman; 2000,

p. 265). These types of partnerships often result in the availability of additional resources

and personnel. This results in an increased capacity for the community to respond and

mitigate the impact of emergency or disaster events.

A community is defined as “a group of individuals and/or households living in the

same location and having the same hazard exposure, who can share the same objectives

and goals in disaster risk reduction” (Victoria, 2003). Tourists are often not considered

as a part of the community as they do not reside or “live” in the area. However, tourists

should be viewed as temporary residents and emergency management should create plans

to ensure their safety (Ritchie, 2008). Emergency management has typically focused on

actions that increase residents’ safety. This has often meant that EM plans have failed to

plan for tourists’ needs and issues (Ritchie, 2008).

Community based emergency planning needs to ensure that both resident and

non-resident populations are cared for during an emergency or disaster event (Miyaguchi

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& Shaw, 2007). A strategic approach is to develop EM strategies and plans that mitigate

the effects of a disaster for both residents and non-residents. An approach to developing

this capacity is to include tourism operators in EM to help develop strategies that assist in

the care and management of both resident and tourist populations (Bird, Gisladottir, &

Dominey-Howes, 2010; Miyaguchi & Shaw, 2007; Ritchie, 2008).

Tourism Research

Evidence from research suggests that safety and security are necessary for a

prosperous tourism industry (Chauhan, 2007). Cohen (1984) found that tourism is

associated with relaxation and enjoyment, and that tourists generally rank security and

comfort as essential when choosing a destination. His research shows that travelers will

stay away from destinations that are considered to be life threatening or hazardous.

Recent studies have since supported this supposition (George, 2003; Lepp & Gibson,

2003; Lepp & Gibson, 2008; Mawby, Brunt & Hambly, 2000; Pizam, Tarlow, & Bloom,

1997; Sonmez & Graefe, 1998). Researchers have shown the negative effects that

violence, crime and terrorism have on the success of tourist destinations (Bloom, 1996;

Cohen, 1984; Cohen 1987; Levantis & Gani, 2000; Pinhey & Iverson; 1994, Sonmez &

Graefe, 1998; Tarlow & Santana, 2002). Sonmez and Graefe (1998, p. 120) go so far as

to state that “if the destination choice is narrowed down to two alternatives which

promise similar benefits, i.e. one which is less costly and another that is safe from threat,

the safer, even if it is more costly is likely to be chosen”.

Tourist locations are often situated in scenically spectacular, high hazard areas.

Oceanfront locations can be subjected to hurricanes and tsunamis while mountain areas

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are prone to avalanches and wild land forest fires (Eitzinger & Wiedemann, 2007).

Tourism publications rarely provide information to tourists about local hazards (Drabek,

1999). A reason that tourism operators often do not publish information on hazards is the

concern that this type of information will deter tourists from visiting a tourism area (Bird,

Gisladottir & Dominey-Howes, 2010; Drabek, 1999).

Researchers have surveyed tourists to better understand what they consider to be

risky or hazardous and whom they would assign blame to should something hazardous or

life threatening occur (Eitzinger & Wiedemann, 2007; Eitzinger & Wiedemann, 2008;

Lepp and Gibson, 2003; Sonmez & Graefe, 1998). These studies have concluded that

tourists typically consider natural hazard events as “acts of god” and do not assign blame

or responsibility to a single person or organization (Eitzinger, & Wiedemann, 2007).

However, when hazards result in the failure of infrastructure or industrial equipment the

blame and responsibility is usually assigned to the organization or corporation

responsible for managing the resource and/or equipment (Eitzinger & Wiedemann, 2007;

Lepp and Gibson, 2003; Sonmez & Graefe, 1998).

Tourists typically rely on the local community and tourism operators to provide

assistance and aid when a disaster occurs. The World Tourism Organization and the

White House Conference on Travel and Tourism have stated, “ that the protection and

organization of tourists prior to and during a disaster event is the joint responsibility of

the tourism industry and public sector” (White House Conference on Travel and Tourism,

1995 p.18).

Research has shown that tourists rely on tourism operators for information on

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what actions they should take during an emergency or disaster event (Bird, Gisladottir &

Dominey-Howes, 2010; Drabek, 1999). Tourism research has shown that local residents

are made aware of an impending hazard much earlier than tourists (Bird, Gisladottir &

Dominey-Howes, 2010; Drabek, 1999). This is attributed to a number of issues, (1)

tourists are often unaware of local news and events, because of their inability to

understand the local language, (2) they are often physically separated from the media (i.e.

located on a beach, at a temple, or exploring local attractions), (3) the reluctance of

tourism operators to inform their guests about a hazard, and (4) tourists lack knowledge

and education with regards to their risk to a local hazard (Bird, Gisladottir & Dominey-

Howes, 2010; Drabek, 1999)

Tourist populations have more difficulty evacuating or sheltering in an area when

compared to local residents (Drabek, 1986). Tourists are often unaware of local transit,

do not know the location of shelters and often do not know what actions to take when

experiencing a hazard event (Drabek, 1986). Local residents forced to evacuate an area

will usually find shelter with friends or family (Auf Der Heide, 1989; Drabek, 1986).

However, tourists lack familial contacts in an area and will usually be dependent on

group sheltering. In addition, tourists often travel to a destination by air and do not have a

vehicle. As a result, their ability to either evacuate an area or get to shelters is further

exacerbated (Drabek, 1986).

When a tourist area suffers a disaster there is an increase in the presence of the

international media (Murphy & Bayley, 1989; Patterson, 2006). This occurs because an

international audience will want to know the scope of the disaster, which areas are

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affected, and the number of injured people or fatalities. This can be problematic since

often the reported information can be erroneous and raise the anxiety levels of people

who have loved ones located in the area (Patterson, 2006). Sensationalized reporting can

also have residual negative long-term effects on an area (Murphy & Bayley, 1989).

Research has shown that disasters are not necessarily bad for tourism-based

communities. Post-disaster strategies can attract tourist back to an area (Coles, 2003). An

example of such a strategy is the Mount St-Helens visitor center that uses the disastrous

eruption of the 1980 volcano as an educational tool to draw in tourists (Murphy &

Bayley, 1989). The center capitalizes on people’s interest in disasters and also helps to

educate people on volcanic eruptions. Post-disaster marketing strategies can attract

customers to a disaster area by tapping into the publics’ curiosity for devastated areas

(Murphy & Bayley, 1989).

Summary

The literature review focused on several different key topics related to this MRP.

The first part of the literature review provided information on the theory of corporate

social responsibility. This theory provides an argument explaining why the private sector

might participate in emergency management. The second topic of the literature review

focused on teamwork. This topic focused on theories on the development of successful

teams and why teams are important in disaster management. The third topic established

the rationale for community based emergency management. This provided the argument

concerning why stake-holders such as tourism operators should be included in emergency

management. The final section provided information on the specific issues and concerns

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for tourists and tourism operators.

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Research Conduct and Ethics

The primary research question for this MRP is: how can a tourism operator

support and assist the local community during an emergency or disaster event? To

conduct this research a qualitative, action research approach was used. Participants in this

research project were interviewed and asked a number of open-ended questions. The

interviews were informal and participants were encouraged to ask questions of the

researcher with regards to research findings from the researcher’s literature review. The

action research design was used because it provided the greatest opportunity for

participants to be engaged in the project and also allowed for information sharing

between the researcher and participants. In this chapter, I will discuss the theoretical

framework, research approach, project participants, data-gathering tools, data-analysis

strategies, and ethical considerations.

Theoretical Framework

A post-positivist framed research approach was used for this project. The

information gathered was from the participants’ perspectives. It is assumed that the

opinions of the participants have been influenced by their experiences, backgrounds, and

organizational contexts. A qualitative research approach was used, in that the

perspectives of participants could not be measured. This approach was chosen to allow

the opportunity to interact with the participants and understand the phenomena from their

point of view.

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Research Approach

Overview. The purpose of this project was to better understand the resources and

aid that a tourism operator could provide to the local community during an emergency or

disaster event. To accomplish this, employees of first response agencies, local

government and the private sector were interviewed. Participants were asked during the

interviews, the hazards they considered to be significant for the community, the resources

that were available to manage hazard events, the resources that might be requested from

Whistler Blackcomb, past collaborations and interactions between Whistler Blackcomb,

the RMOW and local first response agencies, and what they believed Whistler

Blackcomb’s responsibility was to the local community during a disaster event. By

examining past interactions between Whistler Blackcomb, the RMOW and first response

agencies as well as by discussing how equipment and resources might be shared between

these agencies this study provides an understanding of how a tourism operator might

assist the local community to manage and mitigate the impact of future emergency or

disaster event.

A phenomenological study was used. “Phenomenological research is a strategy of

inquiry in which the researcher identifies the essence of human experiences about a

phenomenon as described by participants” (Creswell, 2008, p.13). In other words, the

researcher attempts to understand the phenomenon from the perspective of the study

participants. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews with participants. The

semi-structured interviews were focused around a general set of prepared questions.

Because of the informal structure, conversation and two-way communication was

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possible between the participants and researcher. This allowed the researcher to share

information and ideas during the interview. By conducting the research in this way both

the participants and the researcher were able to come to a better understanding of the

phenomenon being studied.

Qualitative Research. Qualitative research is a method of collecting data

through in-depth, verbal methods that allows for the interpretation of data for patterns and

meaning. In qualitative research, researchers gather in-depth information and details from

a small number of participants, as opposed to quantitative methods that focus on samples

from large populations (Ambert, Adler, Adler, & Detzner, 1995). Qualitative approaches

gather information focused on how and why people behave the way they do, and on

motivations and deterrents for certain behaviours (Ambert, Adler, Adler, & Detzner,

1995). “A particular strength of qualitative methods is their value in explaining what goes

on in organizations” (Avison, Lau, Myers, & Nielsen, 1999, p.94).

A qualitative research approach for this project was chosen because it allowed

participants to freely discus how they envisioned their agencies working with others

during a disaster event. Considering this project focused on many different

agencies/organizations it was necessary to use a research method that would assist in

investigating the beliefs of participants from these agencies, and also provide information

concerning how their respective agencies/organizations might work together.

Action Research. Action research was the method used in this study. Action

research is defined as a participatory method of collecting information that allows

researchers to interact with study participants to determine study problems and activities,

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and to reflect on processes (Avison, Lau, Myers, & Nielsen, 1999, p.94). “Action

research combines theory and practice (and researchers and practitioners) through change

and reflection in an immediate problematic situation within a mutually acceptable ethical

framework” (Avison, Lau, Myers, & Nielsen, 1999). Action research is especially helpful

when solutions to problems are not clear or when answers to problems are not as simple

as yes or no (Avison, Lau, Myers, & Nielsen, 1999). Action research gives researchers

the opportunity to understand organizations and to understand the objectives and attitudes

of the participants from those organizations. Action research is “unique in the way it

associates research and practice, so research informs practice and practice informs

research” (Avison, Lau, Myers, & Nielsen, 1999, p.94).

Project Participants

The Supervisory Committee. The role of the supervisory committee was to

approve various stages of the project, provide consultation and guidance, and ensure that

the project met the pre-determined academic standards laid out by Royal Roads

University (RRU). My supervisory committee consisted of three individuals, all with

strong backgrounds in academia and in the field of EM. The Program Head of the Master

of Arts in Disaster and Emergency Management Program at RRU, Miss Jean Slick, was

the committee chair of the project, and approved the other committee members and

monitored the project for its academic integrity. Mr. Peter Anderson, Director,

Telematics Research Lab and Associate Professor, School of Communication Simon

Fraser University was the academic supervisor of the project. Mr. Anderson advised me

on how to meet academic standards and provided advice and feedback throughout the

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project. The third committee member was Mr. Joel Chevalier, Director of Employee

Experience for Whistler Blackcomb. Mr. Chevalier assisted me by providing interview

contacts as well as by providing feedback throughout the project.

The Researcher. The researcher was responsible for completing all aspects of

the study, including interviewing, data analysis, and final report writing. The researcher

the measurement instrument since most of the data depended on direct contact with the

participants.

Participants. A total of eight participants contributed to this project. These

consisted of four participants from first response agencies and local government and four

participants from Whistler Blackcomb. Participants were given a copy of the questions

and the project’s literature review prior to being interviewed. Interview lengths ranged

from 20 to 45 minutes. Participants also agreed that they could be contacted by either e-

mail or phone for clarification about any information gathered during the interview.

Participants were chosen based on pre-selected criteria. All participants were either of a

senior level within their respective organization or had worked within their organization

for a period no less than two years. The reason for this condition was that the study was

designed to better understand what aid or assistance Whistler Blackcomb might be able to

provide during a emergency or disaster event. To succeed in this endeavor it was

assumed that employees who had worked for a period longer than two years might have a

better understanding concerning the mandate of their respective organizations, could

comment on resources that might be required, and have had responded to past emergency

events. Interviews were arranged by invitation via email messages or phone calls. Joel

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Chevalier assisted by providing contact information for the participants and advising

participants about the project. The researcher provided all participants with an invite

letter detailing the purpose and the focus of the project. (Appendix A).

Data Gathering Tools

Interviews. In-depth semi-structured interviews were used to collect data in this

project. The same open-ended questions were asked in each interview and although

similar topics were discussed, conversation evolved differently with each participant.

This format gave a structure to the interviews, but also allowed enough flexibility so that

other topics could be discussed as they arose. This ensured that information was complete

and that no emphasis was placed on certain questions versus others. “Asking questions is

widely accepted as a cost-efficient (and sometimes the only) way of gathering

information about past behaviors and experiences, private actions and motives, and

beliefs, values, and attitudes (i.e., subjective variables that cannot be measured directly)”

(Foddy, 1994, p.1).

Each participant was interviewed once. Interview questions were based on themes

discovered from the literature review and approved by both the project sponsor and

supervisor. In the interview, participants were asked a series of questions related to local

hazards, the communities ability to respond to these hazards and what additional

resources were available or might be required. Participants were also asked to comment

on whether they believed that Whistler Blackcomb has a responsibility to the community

and if so what that responsibility might be (See Appendix C for the full set of interview

questions).

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This project is considered an action research method, since the practitioners

helped to identify issues and barriers, by way of the interview process. The interview

process was structured so that both researcher and participant shared information and

knowledge. As a result, both the researcher and the participant benefited from being

involved in the study.

Project Site. Data was collected at the participants’ places of employment, which

allowed for the observation of the participants in their regular work environment and

organizational contexts. However, this was not always achieved due to participants

schedules and workloads. Two of the interviews were conducted at other locations.

Tools for Data collection. The tools for data collection included pen, paper, and

a digital audio-recorder. The interviews were recorded, with permission from the

participants, to allow for easier data analysis after the interviews. I transcribed the raw

data following the interviews and prior to formal data analysis.

Data Analysis Strategies

Overview. The goal of the data analysis was to extract meaning from the large

amount of collected data. Before analysis began, the data was processed from the digital

recording into text format. This allowed for greater familiarization with the data. Prior to

formally analyzing the data some of the commonalities and differences in the different

interviews were identified. A data analysis spiral (as described by Leedy and Ormond,

2005) was used to organize and interpret the collected data during the interview process.

Step 1 – The data was examined for commonalities between all participants.

Step 2 – The data was then organized into two different subgroups: subgroup A

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and subgroup B. Subgroup A consisted of the participants that worked for

Whistler Blackcomb. Subgroup B consisted of the participants that either worked

for first response agencies or local government.

Step 3 – Each subgroup was examined for meaningful patterns.

Step 4 – Theoretical and practical guidelines were established (as shown later in

this paper).

Research Ethics

“Ethical issues are present for any kind of research” (Eisenhauer, Orb, &

Wynaden, 2001, p.93). Ethics is concerned with avoiding harm to study participants

(Eisenhauer, Orb, & Wynaden, 2001). In this project, data was collected through

interactions with human subjects in the form of interviews. The project research was

guided by the RRU Research Ethics Policy (2007) and the RRU Policy on Integrity and

Misconduct in Research and Scholarship (2000). The RRU Research Ethics Policy has

established guidelines to ensure that research is conducted in a manner that is ethically

responsible. Because this project involved human subjects, it followed pre-determined

guidelines set out by RRU, as follows: (1) Respect for Human Dignity; (2) Respect for

Free and Informed Consent; (3) Respect for Vulnerable Persons; (4) Respect for Privacy

and Confidentiality; (5) Respect for Justice and Inclusiveness; (6) Balancing Harms and

Benefits, Minimizing Harm; and (7) Maximizing Benefit (RRU Academic Council, 2007,

Section D). A complete ethical review was required for this project and was submitted to

the RRU Ethical Review Board for review and approval prior to the commencement of

data collection.

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All of the ethics guidelines were followed throughout the project, and particularly

the guidelines for respect for free and informed consent, respect for privacy and

confidentiality, and minimizing harm and maximizing benefit. To ensure that all

participants understood their rights for respect for free and informed consent, all

participants read and signed a consent form prior to their participation (see Appendix B).

The consent form clearly outlined that participants could withdraw from the study at any

time without judgment and any data collected prior to their withdrawal would be

destroyed. To ensure respect for privacy and confidentiality, all information was kept

confidential throughout the study and no names, including personal names, or any

identifying characteristics would appear in the final report. The Royal Roads University

Research Ethics Board approved questions used in this study. Participants were also

provided a copy of the MRP before it was submitted to Royal Roads University and

asked to read and review the document before it was submitted. Participants were

informed that after reading the MRP any changes they requested concerning information

that might be attributed to them or their agency/organization in the research paper would

be made.

Summary

This chapter provided the research approach, why it was chosen and how the

project was conducted. It explained the role of the supervisory committee. It provided

information on the number of participants and the criteria for selecting them. It included

a section on the manner the data was gathered and organized. Finally, the chapter

included a section on how the research process was guided by the RRU Research Ethics

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Policy (2007) and the RRU Policy on Integrity and Misconduct in Research and

Scholarship (2000) to ensure that the project was completed in an ethically responsible

manner.

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Project Findings and Conclusions

The purpose of this project was to determine how a tourism operator could support

and assist the local community during an emergency or disaster event. Participants

representing local first response agencies, local government and Whistler Blackcomb

were asked the following questions:

1) What hazards would you consider significant in this community? Why are these

hazards significant? Are there plans in place to mitigate or respond to these

hazards?

2) What hazards could overwhelm the community and require additional resources.

What resources could it require?

3) Has Whistler Blackcomb worked with first response agencies or local government

in past emergencies or disasters? If so, could you describe the scenario and what

the company did?

4) Is there a process in place for Whistler Blackcomb to interface and collaborate

with local first responder agencies and local government during an emergency or

disaster? If so, how does it work? If not, what can be done to facilitate this

process.

5) How can Whistler Blackcomb enhance first responder agencies ability to respond

to an emergency or disaster event?

6) What aid or resources can Whistler Blackcomb provide to the community during

an emergency or disaster event?

7) Are there additional ways in which Whistler Blackcomb could assist the

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community that has not been used in the past? If so, what are the ways?

8) Does Whistler Blackcomb have a responsibility to the local community during an

emergency or disaster event? If so, what is its responsibility?

As stated in chapter 3 – Research Conduct and Ethics, the collected data was

divided into two different subgroups (subgroups A and B). Subgroup A (n=4) consisted

of participants who worked for first responder agencies or local government, and

Subgroup B (n=4) consisted of employees who worked for Whistler Blackcomb. For the

purpose of data analysis participants in subgroup A were labeled A-1, A-2, A-3, A-4; and

the participants of subgroup B were labeled B-1, B-2, B-3, B-4.

The data was reviewed from subgroup A and subgroup B and the following

themes became evident: (a) the importance of interagency communication, (b) the

importance of interagency teams, (c) familiarity of people within the local community,

(d) the benefit of public-private partnerships and (e) the responsibility of the corporate

sector to the community. This chapter will discuss the results from the data analysis. It

provides quoted statements from participants that illustrate the themes and also includes a

section that provides the reader with a summary of each theme.

Participant Background. It is assumed within the research that the participants’

professional experiences would have affected their interview responses, and ultimately,

the research findings. The views of the participants represent their personal views and

may not necessarily represent the views of their respective agencies. The following

paragraphs provide brief backgrounds of the participants. Participants have provided

consent to having the following information included in this document.

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Participant A-1 has worked for the RMOW for three years in a management

position and presently works with Emergency Social Services. Prior to working for the

RMOW Participant A-1 worked for Whistler Blackcomb. Participant A-2 has worked for

the WFRS for ten years as a firefighter. Participant A-3 has worked at the upper

management level for the BCAS in Whistler for over 15 years. Participant A-4 has

worked for 4 years at the upper management level of the Whistler/Pemberton RCMP.

Participant B-1 has worked at Whistler Blackcomb for over 25 years. Participant

B-2 has worked for Whistler Blackcomb for over 10 years and also volunteers as a

Search and Rescue leader for Whistler Search and Rescue. Participant B-3 has worked

for Whistler Blackcomb for over 10 years. Participant B-4 has worked for Whistler

Blackcomb for over 10 years and volunteers for Pemberton Search and Rescue.

Project Findings

Interagency Communication. All project participants stressed the importance of

interagency communication when responding to emergency and/or disasters. Project

participants felt that poor communication was often the problem that hampered

coordination, response and resource sharing during large events. Project participants

noted that initial communication between agencies were often difficult but improved over

the duration of the response. Remarking on this issue participant A-1 stated, “There is

always confusion about who is the lead… We need to develop plans and training to

improve this”.

Subgroup A noted that many strategies have been adopted to improve interagency

communication such as using a combined events radio channel for first response

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agencies. However, participants of subgroup A did remark that communication plans and

strategies often failed to stay operational over time and did not usually include Whistler

Blackcomb. Participant A-3 stated that:

If you want a cohesive community that has access to all your resources at that

given time, that one moment, you need great communication. Communication is

the issue that you always need to work on… We all received an integrated pager

in the past linking everyone together. The problem is that it never lasted… The

intent was good; the idea was good but it did not last.

Another communication problem mentioned was that Whistler Blackcomb responders do

not have access to the combined events radio channel used by police, fire and ambulance.

As a result, while first responders had a strategy to communicate among themselves, they

did not have a strategy of communicating with Whistler Blackcomb’s first responders.

This was considered a significant issue for the safety of people working at an incident site

and for those managing or directing activities at the site.

Subgroup B participants noted that it was often difficult during an emergency

event to collaborate and communicate with first response agencies. Participant B-3 stated,

“It is hard for us to be heard. It is difficult sometimes to tell others what we have. All I

can really do is show them what we have and make them realize that we have resources”.

Many of subgroup B participants stated that though Whistler Blackcomb had trained

professional staff and resources that could assist during an incident it was often difficult

for them to be viewed as a resource and included in the incident response team.

Participant B-1 reinforced this issue by stating:

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The only challenge we get is the sometimes-rigorous chain of command of some

first response agencies… The chain of command is there to ensure that resource

use is optimized… and a dog like me can recognize that the egos sometimes get in

the way of them wanting to listen to an outsider like me about our resources.

Interagency Communication – Summary. In summary all participants

remarked that communication between agencies and Whistler Blackcomb was

problematic during large events. Participants from subgroup A noted that first response

agencies could communicate amongst themselves by using the combined events channel,

It was stated by both subgroup A and subgroup B participants that communication

strategies need to be further developed to create a means for Whistler Blackcomb

responders to communicate with first response agencies. Subgroup B also made the

observation that because Whistler Blackcomb is not a traditional first response agency

it’s resources were often overlooked.

Interagency Teams. A solution to improve interagency communication and

response was proposed by many of the participants from both subgroups. The solution

was to create interagency teams consisting of staff with either specialized skills or

resources to respond to specific hazards. Participant A-3 stated “you need to have people

who are part of your team that are aware of local resources. They need to be connected;

they need to know one another well”. Participant A-4 provided an example of an

interagency team that responds to lost people in the backcountry or people involved in

avalanches. Participant A-4 stated that:

Whistler Blackcomb have staff that has greater skills, expertise and ability to

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respond to certain types of backcountry or mountain hazards. We will call upon

Whistler Blackcomb to respond to events that require mountain skills. Whistler

Blackcomb will provide staff to respond to these types of events…RCMP is

responsible for missing people and part of our interagency response plan to look

for missing people is a partnership between RCMP, Whistler Blackcomb and

SAR. Whistler Blackcomb will provide both staff and equipment to search for

missing people or to search for people buried in avalanches. They will respond to

events beyond their tenure and boundary and have done this in the past. In this

way we capitalize on the skills of each agency.

Participants from both subgroup A and subgroup B stated that there would be a

benefit in creating small teams or “strike forces” to respond to specific hazards. Another

example given would be the creation of an interagency response team to respond to local

interface or forest fires. This team could consist of staff from Whistler Blackcomb, first

response agencies and local government. Participant B-4 stated:

The forest fire is significant because we are an interface community. There are

plans, whether the plans would be effective is another matter. The fires I have

recently seen rage through the area move through so fast that by the time you start

to respond to the fire, the fire has gone through. An idea that we might need to

look into is a fire force. A group of people that can come together very quickly to

build firebreaks and respond to an interface fire event.

Participant A-2 further endorsed the idea of an interagency fire-fighting team by stating:

First off the top of my head, we could use people from Whistler Blackcomb.

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They do not necessary need fire training. A lot of fire-work is grunt work. We

could use people to lug hose, build fire lines, etc. We might need people to assist

with managing and evacuating people once outside of the buildings. We could

use Whistler Blackcomb personnel and equipment.

Interagency Teams – Summary. All respondents felt that there was value in

having Whistler Blackcomb assist and respond to emergencies and disasters. An idea

that was frequently mentioned was the creation of interagency teams that would respond

to specific types of hazards. These teams would capitalize on the different skill sets and

resources from both Whistler Blackcomb and each first response agency. These

interagency teams would not respond to all hazards but would respond to specific hazard

events.

Familiarity between Agencies. All participants stated that since the RMOW was

a small community that there were strong familial connections between first response

agencies and Whistler Blackcomb employees. Participant A-3 stated the “The size of the

community lends well to everyone knowing one another. Not only do we work together

we play together and everyone has a general respect for one another”. This sentiment was

further reiterated by Participant B4 who stated, “We are lucky, because guys we ski and

hang out with work for the other response agencies. I can contact people that are my

friends for help; I can call an agency and say I want to talk to John”.

Participant A-4 further elaborated on the interconnectedness within the RMOW

between first response agencies and Whistler Blackcomb. Participant A-4 stated that:

There is so much cross-contamination of emergency personnel in Whistler.

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People know one another. You have firefighters that are volunteer ski patrollers,

professional ski patrollers that are volunteer firefighters. You have EHS people

that are volunteer auxiliary police officers, you have police officers that have

patrolled the mountain and for the most part they all know and like one another.

There is a really good working relationship. The interface is really good. It is a

small town and it has a really well knit community.

The linkages between first response agencies and Whistler Blackcomb were also

highlighted by Participant B-4 who stated:

Whistler Blackcomb works with emergency response organizations everyday,

multiple times a day. We interface with fire and ambulance every day, ten times a

day, we know their truck numbers, and we know their staff by name. We have

even trained our staff in the same manner as the provincial emergency health

services are with regards to terminology and technique so that we can interface

more smoothly with them.

Participant B-2 did provide a unique perspective concerning how the

interconnectedness between Whistler Blackcomb and first response agencies could

hamper the ability to respond to large events. Participant B-2 stated that:

When does the valley run-out of resources due to the interagency work that

people do? For instance when someone is working for the mountain and

volunteering for the fire department, it means that at some point one agency takes

precedence even though both might be in need of personnel to respond to events.

While it is great for everyone to be familiar with everyone due to work

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relationships, at some point this also affects us in a bad way. When one person is

working for three agencies you lose staff for two agencies when they are tasked

with any single agency response.

Familiarity between Agencies – Summary. Participants stated that there was

familiarity between first response agencies employees and Whistler Blackcomb

employees. A number of reasons were provided for why this familiarity existed. Stated

reasons were that (1) the RMOW is a recreational area and people often recreate together,

(2) the small size of the community lends to people knowing one another, (3) people

within the first response community often work or have worked for the various different

agencies and Whistler Blackcomb, and (4) the frequent daily interaction between first

response agencies and Whistler Blackcomb employees. It was generally agreed that this

familiarity facilitated team-work between the various agencies. One issue was mentioned

with regards to interagency employment. This issue had to do with the potential inability

of employees who had commitments to more than one response agency to respond to

incidents when already tasked by another agency.

Public-Private Partnerships in Emergency Response. All project participants

felt that there were resources and skills that Whistler Blackcomb could provide that

would assist local government and first response agencies during an emergency or

disaster event. Many examples were given with regards to present agreements and

partnerships. Both subgroups noted that Whistler Blackcomb had lots of skilled staff,

equipment and infrastructure that could be used to help respond to emergency or disaster

events. Equipment resources that were commonly mentioned were vehicles, machinery,

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and first aid equipment. Infrastructure resources that were commonly mentioned were

buildings and restaurants. Personnel resources that were mentioned included employees

with specialized skills and employees willing to assist with heavy labor. Examples of the

resource sharing are provided in the following paragraphs.

Participant A-1 stated that ESS regularly requests aid from Whistler Blackcomb

to help provide lodging for people who have either been evacuated from an area or when

a home is impacted in some way that prevents it from being occupied.

They (Whistler Blackcomb) know what they are doing. It is easier for us (ESS) to

rely on them (Whistler Blackcomb) to set up group lodging. They (Whistler

Blackcomb) have experience in setting up staff housing for their staff every year

during the start of the winter season. As a result they know how to register people

and set up rooms for people. They have a process that occurs every year to

provide lodging for their staff. It is much easier for us to rely on Whistler

Blackcomb to set up lodging then to try and set it up at a local school or

recreation center.

Participant A-1 also provided an example of Whistler Blackcomb providing assistance to

ESS. Participant A-1 stated:

This summer during the fires we were planning on taking on a large number of

evacuees. Whistler Blackcomb has the capacity of housing four hundred people.

They were willing to bring in staff during the night to set up the staff housing

buildings. Fortunately, we only received six people and we were able to find

places for them to stay… We will call Whistler Blackcomb before we even call

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hotels to assist us with finding group lodging. We have always had a great

relationship with Whistler Blackcomb and their staff housing people. Many of

our volunteer staff work for Whistler Blackcomb in senior positions which helps

when we need to get help from Whistler Blackcomb.

Participant A-4 stated that the RCMP has many responsibilities to the local community

and that there are numerous situations in which they interact and work with Whistler

Blackcomb to manage or respond to an event. Participant A-4 stated that:

Whistler Blackcomb has staff that have greater skills, expertise and ability to

respond to certain types of backcountry or mountain hazards. We will call upon

Whistler Blackcomb to respond to events that require mountain skills. Whistler

Blackcomb will provide staff to respond to these types of events…RCMP is

responsible for missing people and part of our interagency response plan to look

for missing people is a partnership between RCMP, Whistler Blackcomb. and

SAR. Whistler Blackcomb will provide both staff and equipment to search for

missing people or to search for people buried in avalanches. They will respond to

events beyond their tenure and boundary and have done this in the past

Participant A-4 also stated that they have used Whistler Blackcomb for traffic control in

the past during emergency situations.

Participant A-3 reiterated the role Whistler Blackcomb plays in local Search and

Rescue operations stating that:

Whistler Blackcomb is used by SAR now. They (Whistler Blackcomb) are

helping out the community. The local SAR and Provincial group (PEP) cannot

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provide the necessary immediately response to local events that is needed. They

(Whistler Blackcomb) can provide this service. They (Whistler Blackcomb) are

an asset to the community. I imagine that without them many past rescues that

needed a quick and efficient response would have turned out poorly

Participant A-3 also stated that they would contact Whistler Blackcomb for

assistance should they need additional first aid attendants to respond to a major event.

Participant A-3 stated that part of planning and preparation for the 2010 Winter Olympic

Games involved analyzing the capacity for health to respond to major events. Participant

A-3 stated that:

When I was creating the package for the Olympics one of the things we did was

profile the resources available within the community. We found out that Whistler

Blackcomb could supply up to 75 professional patrollers that had medical

expertise. This is a great resource. Should we have an event requiring medical

care there are many medical care type professionals that could assist us via the

mountain (Whistler Blackcomb).

While all respondents believed Whistler Blackcomb would respond to an event,

an issue that was mentioned by subgroup B participants had to do with cost recovery.

Presently, Whistler Blackcomb does provide staff and resources to assist in response

activities. During these activities Whistler Blackcomb incurs some of the operational

costs for staff time as well as equipment use. However, Participant B-4 stated, “if it was

something classified as a disaster and we were asked to assist, we would. We would also

have to find a way to get our money back”. Participant B-4 also specified that cost-

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recovery was an issue for disaster type events and not for smaller emergency events. The

reason was that the loss of personnel and resources for a significant period of time could

potentially affect Whistler Blackcomb’s daily operations and its business.

Public-Private Partnerships in Emergency Response – Summary. All

participants noted that Whistler Blackcomb frequently contributed resources and/or

personnel to assist in responding to emergency events. Participants also stated that there

were many resources that Whistler Blackcomb had that could be used to help respond to

events. It was also noted that due to the complexity and size of Whistler Blackcomb’s

operations that resources, employees and infrastructure were available to the community

that are not typically available within other communities. One issue that did come up had

to do with cost-recovery for Whistler Blackcomb. This was only considered significant if

Whistler Blackcomb was requested to provide personnel and resources for an extended

period of time and when this might negatively impact daily mountain operations.

Corporate Responsibility to the Community. All project participants were

asked “Does Whistler Blackcomb have a responsibility to the local community during an

emergency or disaster event? If so what is its responsibility?” The goal for asking this

question was to investigate the concept of corporate social responsibility. All respondents

stated that they believed that Whistler Blackcomb was a “good” corporate citizen and

gave freely to the community.

One of the reasons commonly put forward by subgroup A as to why Whistler

Blackcomb had a responsibility to the community had to do with the idea of it acting “as

a good host”. It was remarked that because Whistler Blackcomb is reliant on tourism and

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its success is dependent on attracting tourists; it had an added responsibility of providing

care for tourists. It was also stated that the success of Whistler Blackcomb was

dependent on tourists and therefore, it was in the company’s best interest to mitigate the

impact of emergency or disaster events as a means to lessen any negative affect on the

community and its business interests. Participant A-3 stated, “I would say that they have

to accept part of the responsibility because they are the reason why the tourists are here”.

Participant A-4 reiterated this sentiment by stating:

I think they do have a responsibility and they step up to it. They are the draw in

the community. They are what bring people here… They have a responsibility to

be a good corporate citizen and they act on that responsibility. They act as a good

host.

Another reason that was expressed concerning why Whistler Blackcomb had a

responsibility to the community had to do with the size of the company in relation to the

community. Whistler Blackcomb is the largest employer in the community. As a result,

members of subgroup A stated that Whistler Blackcomb had a responsibility to care for

its employees and that that care would naturally extend to the community.

Participants from both subgroups stated that there was no clear boundary between

Whistler Blackcomb’s organization and the community. The reason stated for this belief

was that employees for Whistler Blackcomb live in the community and have a vested

interest in mitigating the impact of an emergency or disaster event within the community.

As a result, Whistler Blackcomb employees would want to provide Whistler Blackcomb

resources and staff to mitigate the impact of an emergency or disaster event within the

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community because these events would also impact them, their loved ones and possibly

their homes.

A member of sub-group A did express a dissenting view concerning Whistler

Blackcomb’s responsibility to respond to local emergencies or disasters. Participant A-2

stated that:

They (Whistler Blackcomb) do not have a responsibility to the community

because that is why we have fire departments and search and rescue and that kind

of thing. They are not responsible unless they create the hazard. As a business

move it makes sense for W/B (Whistler Blackcomb) to respond and aid the

community. I do not believe that this should be bound by law.

Participant A-2 also stated that because no laws require Whistler Blackcomb to respond

that it should not be viewed as a responsibility but as something done out of goodwill.

Participant A-2 also felt that the community should not have expectations of Whistler

Blackcomb to respond to an event nor should there be any repercussions should the

company choose not to respond. Participant A-2 stated that first response agencies have

a responsibility to the community because they are required by law to respond to events

and it is part of their mandate to respond.

Participants of subgroup B believed that Whistler Blackcomb should provide aid

to the community. Participant B-1 stated, “We have a responsibility to provide

everything within our capacity to respond to the event”. A theme that differed between

subgroup A and subgroup B had to do with the added responsibility to tourists. As stated

earlier in this section, participants of subgroup A believed that Whistler Blackcomb had a

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responsibility as a “good host” and that responsibility extended specifically to the care of

tourists. However, subgroup B did not view the tourist population as a subgroup within

the local population nor did they view this as a group that Whistler Blackcomb had an

additional responsibility to. Instead, the participants stated that they were prepared to

assist whomever was in need. Participant B-1 mentioned the idea of “guest” but noted

that all public should be viewed as guests and that those most in need should be cared for.

Participant B-1 stated “We certainly have an obligation to our guests. I find it difficult to

separate guests from residents. Whomever, needs help should get it. The public is the

public and should not be differentiated”. This view was also shared by participant B-4

who stated, “We have a responsibility to the community. We have a responsibility to not

just the Whistler community (i.e. residents), but we have a responsibility to the recreation

community (i.e. people who recreate in the area) Whistler is built on”.

Subgroup B participants also stated that they felt that Whistler Blackcomb acted

in a socially responsible manner within the community. Participant B-2 stated,

I see the commitment of the mountain to the community through SAR. I see it

with the charities that they (Whistler Blackcomb) fund and donate to… They try

to be a good corporate citizen… The company (Whistler Blackcomb) goes

forward and offers assistance even when they are not asked. They are proactive

in trying to help. It is in the mountains best interest to keep the community going.

Corporate Responsibility to the Community – Summary. The view of acting

in the best interest of the community reflects ideals of corporate social responsibility.

The comments of participants of subgroup B illustrate that Whistler Blackcomb

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employees believe the company acts in a socially responsible manner and is willing to

provide assistance and aid to the community. The comments provide evidence that

Whistler Blackcomb’s is a socially responsible company. Participants of subgroup A

also stated that they believed Whistler Blackcomb has willingly provided assistance in

the past and would provide assistance in the future to respond to community emergency

or disaster events. Respondents also stated that there was no true division between the

community and Whistler Blackcomb because employees of Whistler Blackcomb were

residents of the community.

Summary of the Findings

Participants agreed that there was value in having Whistler Blackcomb work with

local government and first response agencies to assist in the response to emergency and

disaster events. Both subgroups provided insights with regards to how their agencies

worked with one another and how this could be facilitated in the future. All participants

provided evidence of past work collaborations and provided insights into how to improve

future interagency collaborations. Participants also provided numerous reasons why they

believed that Whistler Blackcomb would be willing to assist the community respond to

emergency or disaster events.

Project Conclusions

The primary goal of this project was to answer the question of “how can a tourism

operator support and assist the local community during an emergency or disaster event?”

To answer this question interviews were conducted in the Resort Municipality of

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Whistler of individuals who worked for either local government, first response agencies,

or for a private tourism company called Whistler Blackcomb. Participants were asked

questions concerning the local hazards they considered significant, the resources that

Whistler Blackcomb could provide, past examples of working with Whistler Blackcomb

on past emergencies or disasters, and whether they believed that Whistler Blackcomb has

a responsibility to the community.

The five major conclusions of this study are:

• Communication between agencies can be problematic

• There is value in creating small interagency teams to respond to certain

hazards

• Familiarity between employees of different agencies helps in creating

interagency teams

• There is value in including the private sector in emergency management

• Privately based tourism companies are willing to assist the community

during emergency and disasters.

Scope and Limitations of the Research

This qualitative research study was designed as an exploratory study to provide

insights into how a tourism operator might assist a community during an emergency or

disaster event. This study was limited to one area and its findings might not be

applicable to other tourism destinations. More research is needed in other tourism areas

with other tourism operators to ensure that the findings of this study have legitimacy. In

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addition, due to the small sample size used in this project, more research is needed to

conclusively validate the data and study conclusions. To accomplish this it would be

necessary to include more participants in a future study. This might be accomplished by

using a survey method as a means of capturing data from more participants.

Summary

This chapter synthesized the data collected from the participants of this study.

The data was grouped into themes and quotes from participants were used to illustrate

examples of the themes. Each theme was then summarized in a paragraph. This chapter

also provided project conclusions. Finally, this chapter discussed the limitations of the

study.

Research Implications

The aim of this project was to investigate the question of “how can a tourism

operator support and assist the local community during an emergency or disaster event?”

Data was collected by conducting interviews with employees of first response agencies,

local government and a tourism operator. The data was then analyzed with a data

analysis spiral (as described by Leedy & Ormond, 2005), and the conclusions were

presented and discussed.

This section outlines and discusses recommendations that were produced from

this study. Most of the recommendations were based on findings from this study.

However, some of the recommendations are also based on observations drawn from the

literature review. These recommendations are a product of this project and further

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research study is required to validate them. If implemented, these recommendations

might assist tourism sectors in their response to future emergencies and/or disaster

events.

Project Recommendations

The 5 recommendations are as follows:

1) Increase familiarity between first response agencies’ and tourism operators.

2) Engage all agencies in the emergency planning process.

3) Create interagency teams to respond to specific hazards.

4) Develop communication strategies that facilitate communication between

traditional first response agencies and non-traditional response agencies.

Recommendation 1: Increase familiarity between first response agencies’ and

tourism operators

Knowledge among tourism operators and response agencies of each other’s

resources and capacity to respond can result in a more efficient cooperative response. To

achieve this emergency responders of local government and the private sector should be

encouraged to familiarize one another with each other’s roles, responsibility and capacity

to respond. A means of achieving this would be by providing interagency orientations

and training sessions and conducting joint exercises.

Recommendation 2: Engage tourism operators in the emergency planning process

Emergency and disaster planning is an ongoing process that requires constant

revision as new threats emerge and the capacity of agencies to respond to events changes.

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Wachtendorf (2005) stated, “the development of a plan should be secondary importance

to the planning process… good planning enables flexibility, construction of shared

visions, awareness of capacities and vulnerabilities, and communication that facilitates

the improvisation that is needed in a disaster” (p.5). Too often, plans are the product of

administrative staff and not the users of the plans (Auf der Heide, 1989).

Interagency meetings should be scheduled throughout the year and include

tourism operators. Participants of these meetings should discuss local hazards and discuss

potential collaborative solutions to mitigate and respond to these hazards. By providing

regular meetings a professional forum is created. This type of forum provides an

opportunity to better understand the linkages between each group/agency and how they

could collaborate to respond to complex events.

Recommendation 3: Create interagency teams to respond to specific hazards

Significant hazards with a community are often well known and require

interagency teams to respond. It is recommended that interagency teams be created to

respond to specific hazards. These teams should discuss how they would respond to

these hazards and develop a process or agreement concerning how they will work

together and share costs. These teams should also include personnel from tourism

operators who have specialized skills or access to needed resources or equipment.

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Recommendation 4: Develop communication strategies that facilitate

communication between traditional first response agencies and non-traditional

response agencies

Auf der Heide (1989) stated, “coordination of mulitorganizational task

accomplishment, situational analysis, and resource management requires interagency

communication… both communications hardware and communications procedures”

(p.64). Participants of the study noted that there was not a system for non-traditional first

responders to communicate with first responder agencies at an incident. This was

considered a significant issue because it placed responders at greater risk and was a

barrier to site level management. It is recommended that emergency response

communication plans should include strategies to provide radio inter-operability between

all responders (private and public) working at an incident site.

Suggestions for Future Research

Future research could: (a) attempt to verify the conclusions of this exploratory

study; (b) conduct case studies of tourism areas that have been impacted by a disaster and

the contributions of tourism operators during these events; (c) examine cost sharing

agreements and compensation between the public and private sector in different countries

with regards to emergency management; and (d) further studies of corporate social

responsibility and how it might apply to tourism operators.

This study was an exploratory, qualitative study with a small (n=8) number of

participants. Four participants were from a single private company. The other four

participants represented each a single governmental agency. The governmental agencies

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represented were Emergency Social Services, the RCMP (Canada’s policing service, the

WFRS (the Fire Department for the RMOW) and BCAS (the provincial paramedic

ambulance service). Future research should involve more participants from

governmental agencies to further validate this study’s findings. This study was limited to

a single geographic area and a single private company. Future studies should be

conducted in other tourism areas and involve other tourism operators.

A final suggestion for future research would be an in-depth look at the

relationships between traditional first response agencies and non-traditional first response

agencies. This could further explore this study’s finding concerning the linkages between

these groups. Future research could also include a study of interagency employment.

Such a study could examine employment history within first responder agencies. It could

also study whether working for more than one agency results in reduced capacity to

respond to multiple events.

Summary

In this chapter themes and conclusions were developed and recommendations

were made concerning steps to improve/facilitate the involvement of tourism operators in

emergency management. If implemented, these recommendations could enhance a

community’s ability to respond to emergency or disaster events through the inclusion of

tourism operators in emergency management.

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Lessons Learnt

This project provided many opportunities for learning, for me as a researcher. As

a learner I had many successes and many failures. The main lesson from this study was

managing a project of this size and scope. In this chapter, I will discuss what worked and

what I would do differently in the future.

Project Management

My advisory team for this project aided me greatly in completing this project. My

project supervisor provided encouragement throughout the process and was very positive

in delivering feedback. He was enthusiastic about the topic and made suggestions based

on his extensive experience in the field of EM. Similarly, my choice of project sponsor

was also highly beneficial. My project sponsor assisted me in finding participants and

helped with the development of this paper by providing suggestions.

On several occasions I became overwhelmed by the size and requirements of the

project. Nevertheless, several months into the project, I paused and used common sense

to determine how best to proceed. I would read the paper and ask myself frequently

“What is this about? Does this make sense? Is this relevant?” After asking these

questions I would often delete or move sections. I also realized that a project of this size

could not be simply done off the corner of my desk. As a result, I took time off from

work to completely focus on this project without distractions.

Every part of the project took longer than I anticipated. I would recommend to

anyone who takes on a project of this size to devote a large block of uninterrupted time to

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it. I would also recommend that they not work on other projects at the same time. Many

times I asked myself if I was crazy to have embarked on a masters program. During my

masters program I started a new job, had a child and was part of the emergency

management planning for the 2010 Winter Olympics. This resulted, in a struggle to find

time to my family, work and this project.

Project Process

Throughout the project, I was interested in my study topic, and never regretted my

choice. I found the knowledge gained through interviews very interesting and believed

that the study of private – public partnerships was well warranted. I felt that using action

research was appropriate, as participants could be found and were interested in the

study’s topic.

In the future I would like to spend more time developing my interviewing skills.

When listening to my recorded interviews I often found that I either interrupted

participants or provided answers to my own questions. Fortunately, I learnt from

listening to the recordings and improved my interview skills over the course of the

project. In the future, I would consider taking a course on interview techniques and skills

to be more proficient in this task.

Summary

This project involved both successes and failures. Those components that should

be useful or avoided, if possible, in future projects have been identified. In general, this

project has been a valuable experience. I have learnt a great deal about the field of EM

and the process of research, writing and conducting a major project.

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Appendix A

Sample Letter of Invitation

[Date]

Dear Participant;

My name is David Reid and I would like to invite you to be part of a research project that

I am conducting. This project is part of the requirement for a Master’s Degree in Disaster

and Emergency Management, at Royal Roads University. My credentials with Royal

Roads University can be established by calling Jean Slick the Program Head at### ###

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#### extension ####.

The objective of my research project is to determine how a tourism operator might assist

the local community during an emergency or disaster event.

In addition to submitting my final report to Royal Roads University in partial fulfillment

for a Master’s Degree in Disaster and Emergency Management, I will also be sharing my

research findings with Whistler Blackcomb.

My research project will consist of one interview that is foreseen to last one hour. The

interviews will involve questions related to local hazards, past emergency and/or disaster

events. The focus of the project is on the question of “how can a tourism operator assist

the local community during an emergency or disaster event?”

Your name was chosen as a prospective participant because of your employment with

Whistler Blackcomb or because you are employed by either a first response agency or the

RMOW and work in Whistler.

Information will be recorded in an audio-recorded format and, where appropriate

summarized, in anonymous format, in the body of the final report. At no time will any

specific comments be attributed to any individual unless your specific agreement has

been obtained beforehand. All documentation will be kept strictly confidential.

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A copy of the final report will be published. A copy will be housed at Royal Roads

University, available online through UMI/Proquest and the Theses Canada portal and will

be publicly accessible. Access and distribution will be unrestricted.

Please feel free to contact me at any time should you have additional questions regarding

the project and its outcomes. There will be an opportunity for a debriefing session

following the interviews.

You are not compelled to participate in this research project. If you do choose to

participate, you are free to withdraw at any time without prejudice. Similarly, if you

choose not to participate in this research project, this information will also be maintained

in confidence.

If you would like to participate in my research project, please contact me at:

Name: David Reid

Email: #####@####.###

Telephone: ### ### ###

Sincerely,

David Reid

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Appendix B

Sample Research Consent Form

My name is David Reid, and this research project is part of the requirement for the

Masters of Arts Disaster and Emergency Management Program at Royal Roads

University. My credentials with Royal Roads University can be established by

telephoning Jean Slick the Program Head at ### ### #### extension ####.

This document constitutes an agreement to participate in my research project, the

objective of which to determine how a private tourism company (Whistler Blackcomb)

might assist the local community during an emergency or disaster event.

The research will consist of one interview with open-ended questions that in total will

take approximately 2 hours over the next few months. The foreseen questions will refer

to significant local hazards that threaten the Whistler community, the resources and aid

that a private tourism company (Whistler Blackcomb) might provide to assist the local

community and the means in which the private tourism company (Whistler Blackcomb)

might interact and collaborate with local government and local first response agencies

during an emergency or disaster event.

I have estimated that it will take participants about an hour to read the final paper, if

participants wish to do so. In addition to submitting my final report to Royal Roads

University in partial fulfillment for a Disaster and Emergency Management Master’s

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Degree, I will also be sharing my research findings with Whistler Blackcomb.

Information will be recorded using a digital audio-recorder and, where appropriate,

summarized, in anonymous format, in the body of the final report. Interviews will only be

digitally audio-recorded with permission of the participant. At no time will any specific

comments be attributed to any individual unless specific agreement has been obtained

beforehand. All documentation will be kept strictly confidential.

A copy of the final report will be published. A copy will be housed at Royal Roads

University, available online through UMI/Proquest and the Theses Canada portal and will

be publicly accessible. Access and distribution will be unrestricted.

You are not compelled to participate in this research project. If you do choose to

participate, you are free to withdraw at any time without prejudice. Similarly, if you

choose not to participate in this research project, this information will also be maintained

in confidence.

By signing this letter, you give free and informed consent to participate in this project.

Name: (Please Print): __________________________________________________

Signed: _____________________________________________________________

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Date: _______________________________________________________________

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Appendix C

Interview Questions

1) What hazards would you consider significant in this community? Why are these

hazards significant? Are there plans in place to mitigate or respond to these

hazards?

2) What hazards could overwhelm the community and require additional resources.

What resources could it require?

3) Has Whistler Blackcomb worked with first response agencies or local government

in past emergencies or disasters? If so could you describe the scenario and what

the company did?

4) Is there a process in place for Whistler Blackcomb to interface and collaborate

with local first responder agencies and local government during an emergency or

disaster? If so how does it work? If not what can be done to facilitate this

process.

5) How can Whistler Blackcomb enhance first responder agencies ability to respond

to an emergency or disaster event?

6) What aid or resources can Whistler Blackcomb provide to the community during

an emergency or disaster event?

7) Are there additional ways in which Whistler Blackcomb could assist the

community that has not been used in the past? If so what?

8) Does Whistler Blackcomb have a responsibility to the local community during an

emergency or disaster event? If so what is its responsibility?

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