TOPIC 10- LANGUAGE,COGNITION AND

COGNITIVE MASTERY

REASONING

What Is Reasoning?Reasoning is the process of making inferences from a

body of information. Reasoning – The drawing of inferences or conclusions

from known or assumed facts.Logic – The science of correct reasoning.

Examples: “Zeno is a spider”Given the information that Zeno is a spider, it is reasonable

to conclude that Zeno has eight legs. Zeno is a spider.

         

Reasoning

Therefore, Zeno has eight legs

ReasoningReasoning is a form of thinking in which conclusions

are drawn from a set of facts. There are 2 basic forms of reasoning:

Deductive reasoningInductive reasoning

Both inductive and deductive reasoning are used in scientific methodInductive reasoning is used to formulate a hypothesis based

on observationsDeductive reasoning is used in the design of a study

Once formulated, the hypothesis becomes a major premise, and the method used to test it, a minor premise The outcome of the study is the conclusion

Reasoning

Deductive reasoning

Reasoning from the general to the specific, or drawing particular conclusions from general principles

Inductive ReasoningA form of reasoning in which

general conclusions are drawn from particular facts or individual cases

Many people, especially those who don’t listen carefully to instructions or follow them well, have difficulty with formal reasoning problems

‘Inductive Reasoning’ is “reasoning from particular facts [leading] to general principles.”

Examples of Deductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning – A type of logic in which one goes from a general statement to a specific instance.

• All men are mortal. (major premise)

• Socrates is a man. (minor premise)

• Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)

•All students eat McD•Zaiton is a student at UPM•Therefore, Zaiton eats McD

• All athletes work out in the gym• Razak is an athlete.•Therefore, Razak works out in the gym.

Deductive Reasoning Example

All math teachers are over 7 feet tall.

Mr. D. is a math teacher.Therefore, Mr. D is over

7 feet tall.

• All of Prof. Bob’s pencils are yellow

• Daniel has borrowed a pencil from Prof. Bob

• The pencil Daniel borrowed from Prof. Bob is yellow.

The argument is valid, but is certainly not true.

Inductive ReasoningInductive Reasoning is arriving at a conclusion on the basis of

principle facts that can guide you to the conclusion (also called an educated guess).

Inductive reasoning suggests the truth about a statement but does not directly prove the statement the reasoning is mainly based on observations.

Inductive reasoning involves going from a series of specific cases to a general statement. i.e. the conclusion in an inductive argument is never guaranteed.

Example: What is the next number in the sequence 6, 13, 20, 27,…

There is more than one correct answer.

Inductive Reasoning

Here’s the sequence again 6, 13, 20, 27,…Look at the difference of each term.13 – 6 = 7, 20 – 13 = 7, 27 – 20 = 7Thus the next term is 34, because 34 – 27 = 7.

However what if the sequence represents the dates. Then the next number could be 3 (31 days in a month).The next number could be 4 (30 day month)Or it could be 5 (29 day month – Feb. Leap year)Or even 6 (28 day month – Feb.)

Inductive ReasoningStrong Induction

Strong Induction is when you decide to believe the conclusion is true based on the evidence. The conclusion of strong inductions is usually likely to be true i.e. a strong induction statement has to be logical, and have some sort of evidence. E.g. :All the tigers observed in a particular region have black stripes, thus all the tigers native to this region have black stripes. This is a strong induction because it has not been proven false yet, based on observations taken.

Weak Induction Weak induction is when your view on something does not

allow you to see that the conclusion is likely given the evidence. Weak inductions tend to be false, or based on very limited exp/facts often based on a person’s experiences /observations able to be proven false. Eg.: “I always hang pictures on nails, therefore all pictures hang from nails. •This is a weak induction because not every picture is hung from a nail, and not everybody hangs pictures from nails, so it can be proven false”.

Examples of strong and weak Inductive Reasoning

Strong Induction Every cat I have seen has a tail, so all cats have

tails. This is a strong induction because it has not yet

been proven false. Weak Induction

Everybody I know has been to McDonald’s, so everyone has been to McDonald’s.

This is a weak induction, because there are some people who have never been to McDonald’s.

Let’s Use Inductive Reasoning!

She has red hair;

therefore…

she has a temper.

Critic:Kant asks:

“How is it [someone] can observe one fact and straightaway pronounce judgment concerning another different fact not involved in the first?”

Nicholas Rescher asks:

“What sorts of considerations validate our reliance on induction as a method for reasoning in building up our knowledge of the ways of the world?”

Problem Solving

What is Problem Solving?The process of overcoming obstacles to

answer a question or to achieve a goalProblem solving involves various steps

that can be presented in a problem-solving cycle.

Problem Solving Cycle

ProblemRecognition

ProblemObservation

ProblemAnalysis

DevelopSolution

ValidateSolution

SustainSolution

ProblemEvaluation

Problem Solving Cycle

1. Problem Recognition – Define the problem

2. Problem Observation – Clarify the current situation

3. Problem Analysis – Thoroughly analyse all data

4. Develop Solution – Design a plan of action

5. Validation Solution – Analyze the results

6. Sustain Solution – Maintenance7. Problem Evaluation – Evaluation and

Follow up

1. Problem Recognition

ProblemRecognition

ProblemObservation

ProblemAnalysis

DevelopSolution

ValidateSolution

SustainSolution

ProblemEvaluation

. Problem RecognitionProblem Identification and recognizing the

problem clearly.Determine the problem in order to find the

suitable solution.Identify the specific symptoms associated with

the problemQuestions to ask. E.g.

What is the probleme? Why are we here? What is the impact?

Is it vital to assess the impact of the problem to you/environment

Assess the sense of urgency this problem justifies

What skills are needed to solve this problem?Has this problem been solved before?

2. Problem Observation

ProblemRecognition

ProblemObservation

ProblemAnalysis

DevelopSolution

ValidateSolution

SustainSolution

ProblemEvaluation

Problem ObservationDefine the problem and its representation.Consider all the available information e.g.

Event logs, Historical Timeline, System Failure timeline, Eye-witness accounts, Visual Inspection, Smells, Sounds, frequency of fault, etc.

Annotate you findingsWriting things down, it can be very helpfulIt can allow other people to helpList what your theories areList tests that you have undertakenList tests to take

Modify the problem statement on the basis of your findings.

3. Problem Analysis

ProblemRecognition

ProblemObservation

ProblemAnalysis

DevelopSolution

ValidateSolution

SustainSolution

ProblemEvaluation

Problem Analysis

Analyse the problems based on all the informations collected Analyse all the data collected.Ask yourself Do we want a

temporary or permanent solution to the problem?

Formulate a strategy plan strategy that may involve analysis or synthesis of the problem.

4. Develop Solution

ProblemRecognition

ProblemObservation

ProblemAnalysis

DevelopSolution

ValidateSolution

SustainSolution

ProblemEvaluation

Develop SolutionEvaluate the solutions by organizing

all the information that is needed to deal effectively with such problem.

Information is organized strategically can help to enable the implementation of strategies.

Questions to ask….e.gWhich is easiest to implement?Who will be impacted by each?Are all solutions safe?What is the action plan for each?

5. Validate Solution

ProblemRecognition

ProblemObservation

ProblemAnalysis

DevelopSolution

ValidateSolution

SustainSolution

ProblemEvaluation

6. Validate SolutionIn problem solving, people may tend to have

problems with limited resources such as time, money, tools etc.

Therefore these questions need to be ask:Did the selected solution actually solve the

problem?Have the desired goals been achieved?Have the results been properly documented?What side-effects has occurred?

If the problem hasn’t been solved, ask these questions:…What is the contingency plan?Is further investigation required?

Make sure the real problem is being solved

Sustain Solution

ProblemRecognition

ProblemObservation

ProblemAnalysis

DevelopSolution

ValidateSolution

SustainSolution

ProblemEvaluation

Sustain SolutionHow to sustain? CONSTANT

MONITORING!This is an important phase that is often

overlookedQuestions to ask:

What changes in your procedures (or maintenance schedule) should you undertake on the basis of the problem solved and the data collected?

7. Problem Evaluation

ProblemRecognition

ProblemObservation

ProblemAnalysis

DevelopSolution

ValidateSolution

SustainSolution

ProblemEvaluation

Problem EvaluationYou must evaluate the solutions made,

when the problem has been solved. A good problem-solving process should

have uncovered other issuesWith your environmentWith your approaches to problem solvingTake time to review all documentationWhat lessons were learned?

By carrying out an evaluation , it will allow the problem to be redefined and new strategies developed.

CREATIVITY

What is Creativity?Creativity

Creativity is any act, idea, or product that changes an existing domain, or that transforms an existing domain into a new one.

The process of producing something that is both original and worthwhile

Creative individuals show creative productivity, producing inventions, insightful discoveries, artistic works, revolutionary paradigms

Creative individuals usually have creative lifestyles, characterized by flexibility, nonstereotypical behaviors, and nonconforming attitudes

Creativity Too Big a TermThree senses:

Those who express unusual thoughts.Those who experience world in novel ways.Those who have changed culture in some

important respect.Two other terms: “talent” and “genius.”

Creativity

Creativity usually involves the following aspects:How Much You ProduceWhat You KnowWho You AreWhere You Are

CreativityHow Much You Produce

Creative individuals can come up with many different ways to solve problems

What You KnowWhat distinguishes remarkably creative

individuals from less remarkable people is their expertise and commitment to their creative endeavor

CreativityWho You Are

Role of personality and motivation in creativity

Intrinsic motivation (enjoyment of the creative process) is essential to creativity, whereas extrinsic motivation (fame, fortune) actually may impede creativity

Where You AreExternal factors that contribute to

creativityContext (time, space, resources) of

creative work

FactorsCreativity is fostered by an environment

Creativity must be valued by a community

Creativity is shaped by those who evaluate itCreator (the individual)

Individuals must be expertsDomain (what is being worked on)Field (the collaborators, colleagues, and

audience)

Does Creativity Really Matter?

Assessing for Creative Thinking - examples

Ceative:Draw the Earth from an insect’s point of view.How could you tell if there space aliens hiding

among us ?

Less creative:Test their knowledge of countries on the Earth

to see if they know what the names of the major countries are

What would the world be like today if some major event in history had come out differently?

Creative Essay: “What if…”If the Trojans had heeded Laocoon’s advice and

thrown Odysseus’ wooden horse into the sea, they would have defeated the Greeks at Troy. Aeneas would then never have had reason to flee the city, and he would never have ventured to Italy to found Rome. Without Rome, neither the Roman Republic nor a Roman Empire would have existed. Concrete, the arch, plumbing, and the sauna might never have been invented. The modern implications of Rome never having existed are indeed drastic. Lacking even concrete floors, people would resort to sleeping in the mud, and, without plumbing or saunas, they would be perpetually filthy and, generally, quite chilly. France could not have built the base of the Eiffel Tower without arches, so tourists would be unable to purchase miniature collectible Towers in Parisian convenience stores.

Good but Less Creative Essay:“What if…”What if the ratification of the nineteenth

amendment did not pass and women were never given the right to vote? What would life for women, like me, be like in the United States? For one thing, I probably would not be writing this essay. If women were not given their right to vote, I probably would stop going to school after this year and it would be unlikely that I would receive a college education. Without suffrage, my career options would be limited, if a career were a possibility at all. My accepted practices would be limited to staying home and taking care of the family. Rather than being equals, women would be subservient to men. I might not drive, I might not dress in the way in which I choose to, and I might not be able to live my life the way that I can in the twenty-first century.

LATERAL THINKING

What is Lateral Thinking?

Lateral thinking is solving problems through an indirect and creative approach, using reasoning that is not immediately obvious and involving ideas that may not be obtainable by using only traditional step-by-step logic.

Lateral Thinking is a way of thinking that seeks a solution to an intractable problem through unorthodox methods or elements that would normally be ignored by logical thinking i.e. the ability to think creatively or "outside the box“

Lateral thinking involves discarding the obvious, leaving behind traditional modes of thought, and throwing away preconceptions.

The term lateral thinking was coined by Edward de Bono in the book New Think: The Use of Lateral Thinking published in 1967.

Lateral Thinking is: Seeking to solve problems by apparently illogical means A process and willingness to look at things in A different

way A relatively new type of thinking that complements

analytical and critical thinking not part of our mainstream education - yet A fast, effective tool used to help individuals, companies and teams solve tough problems and create new ideas, new products, new processes and new services

A term that is used interchangeably with creativity

How to Develop Your Lateral Thinking SkillsEmulate/imitate lateral thinkers – You have to pay

attention and look for it. When someone comes up with surprising answers or seems to think differently from others, pay attention to what they say and do.

Study subjects you know nothing about, especially if they involve skills - If you are used to numbers and spreadsheets, read about creative writing, or poets.

Practice your lateral thinking with creativity exercises -spend some time each week, or better yet each day, pushing your mental envelope.

Look for ways to apply what you learn in everyday life-Lateral thinking, like any skill, takes time to learn. And as with any skill, you learn more by applying it to real problems than you do by just doing exercises.

One of the most famous situation puzzles is told similar to this:

A man walks into a bar, and asks the bartender for a drink of water. The bartender pulls out a gun, points it at the man, and cocks it. The man says "Thank you" and leaves. What happened?Question: Could the bartender hear him? Answer: YesQuestion: Was the bartender angry for some reason? A: NoQuestion: Was the gun a water pistol? A: NoQuestion: Did they know each other from before? A: No (or:

"irrelevant" since either way it does not affect the outcome)Question: Was the man's "Thank you" sarcastic? A: No (or

with a small hint: "No, he was genuinely grateful for some reason")

Question: Did the man ask for water in an offensive way? A: No

Question: Did the man ask for water in some strange way? A: Yes

One of the most famous situation puzzles is told similar to this:

A man walks into a bar, and asks the bartender for a drink of water. The bartender pulls out a gun, points it at the man, and cocks it. The man says "Thank you" and leaves. What happened?

Eventually the questions lead up to the conclusion that the man had the HICCUPS, and that his reason for requesting a drink of water was not to quench his thirst but to cure his hiccups. The bartender realized this and chose instead to cure the hiccups by frightening the man with the gun. Once the man realized that his hiccups were gone, he no longer needed a drink of water, gratefully thanked the bartender, and left.