tlic3607a - apply safe driving behaviours - learner guide

TLIC3607A Apply safe

driving behaviours

Learner Guide

Contents

What this Learner’s Guide is about ........................................ 2 Planning your learning ........................................................... 3

Section 1............................................................................................. 4 Road law in Victoria ............................................................... 4

Section 2........................................................................................... 49 Driving Techniques .............................................................. 49

Section 3........................................................................................... 60 Driving Techniques, Observation Skills and Risk Factors.... 60

Section 4........................................................................................... 73 Human Perception and Decision Making ............................. 73

Section 5........................................................................................... 87 Evasive Action...................................................................... 87

TLIC3607A Apply safe driving behaviours

© Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009 ADELG1059 1


ADELG1059 © Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009 2

What this Learner’s Guide is about

This learning guide is about the skills and knowledge required to apply high-‐level safe driving skills to enable drivers to apply safe driving behaviours. This includes higher order skills, such as hazard perception, risk control and safe driving judgment, decision making and multi-‐tasking.

The Elements of Competency from the unit TLIC3607A Apply safe driving behaviours covered in this Learner’s Guide are listed below.

Define and apply safe driving behaviours

Interpret and apply low-‐risk driving strategies

Interpret and apply road rules applicable to safe driving

Manage collision when driving a vehicle

This unit of competency is from the Transport and Logistics Training Package (TLI07).



Planning your learning

It is important to plan your learning before you start because you may already have some of the knowledge and skills that are covered in this Learner’s Guide. This might be because:

1. you have been working in the industry for some time, and/or

2. you have already completed training in this area.

Together with your supervisor or trainer use the checklists on the following pages to help you plan your study program. Your answers to the questions in the checklist will help you work out which sections of this Learner’s Guide you need to complete.

This Learner’s Guide is written with the idea that learning is made more relevant when you, the learner, are actually working in the industry. This means that you will have people within the enterprise who can show you things, discuss how things are done and answer any questions you have. Also you can practise what you learn and see how what you learn is applied in the enterprise.

If you are working through this Learner’s Guide and have not yet found a job in the industry, you will need to talk to your trainer about doing work experience or working and learning in some sort of simulated workplace.



Section 1

Road law in Victoria



What Laws do I need to be aware of?

The movement of pedestrians, vehicles, passengers and freight on public roads in Victoria is governed under the Road Safety Act, and the corresponding Road Safety Regulations. The purpose of these laws is to ensure a safe environment for all road users, while maintaining efficient and diverse use of this limited public resource.

Readers should also bear in mind that movement and transport on our roads are also controlled under other laws and acts such as the Dangerous Goods Act, the Environment Protection Act and the Occupational Health and Safety Act, as well as the regulations and by-‐laws of various government and local authorities. Drivers who intend to engage in the transport of goods or passengers should ensure that requirements of these other acts are also met.

Intersections

An intersection is where two or more highways meet.

Intersection: boundaries

Where two or more highways meet at cross roads: junctions of property lines;

Where two or more highways meet not at cross roads: prolongations of the property lines;

Where property lines are not defined the area where vehicles on separate highways may collide.

Modified Intersection

Has sign, island or markings indicating:

carriageway of one highway continues through the intersection, and

the other carriageway(s) do not.

Terminating Intersection

(refer also to definition terminating carriageway)

Is where two or more highways meet other than at a crossroad.

It does not include:



a modified intersection, or an intersection where there is: a roundabout sign a give way to right sign a stop sign; a give way sign, and traffic lights in operation.

Choked Intersections

You must not enter an intersection, if the intersection or the carriageway beyond the intersection is blocked or will become blocked before you can pass through the intersection. This applies even when you are directed by a traffic control signal.

Zones

Shared Zone

Any driver entering or proceeding through a Shared Zone must give way to pedestrians on or about to enter Zone. Speed limit in a shared Zone is 10 kph.

A pedestrian on a shared zone must not unduly obstruct or hinder the passage of any other pedestrian or vehicle on, or about to enter on the shared zone.

Road markings

Double Lines

a) Must not permit any portion of your vehicle to travel on, or over the right of the continuous side of double lines. You can cross from the broken or dotted side when safe to do so.

b) You cannot park alongside the continuous side of double lines unless parking provided.



Giving Way

Meaning of 'Give Way'

When there is danger of collision with other vehicles or pedestrians, or if you would be creating a dangerous situation you should;

Slow down, stop or remain stationary for as long as required to prevent danger of collision.

Giving Way At An Intersection

To whom do you give way at an intersection (including animals driven or ridden)?

a) Approach an intersection at a speed that will enable you to avoid a

collision. b) At a cross intersection where two vehicles each on separate carriageways

approach or enter the intersection and there is danger of collision, give way to the vehicle on your right.

c) At a "Terminating" intersection, give way to all vehicles travelling along or turning from the intersecting carriageway, bicycle path, segregated footway or shared footway.

d) While within an intersection a driver must not impede the progress of a tram from any direction.

EXCEPTIONS ARE: Where the driver having the another vehicle on his right has entered the

intersection in accordance with an instruction of a traffic control signal displaying a green circle.

Where the driver of a vehicle on the right has passed or is passing a Stop or Give Way sign relating to that intersection.

Where the driver of a vehicle on the right is approaching a terminating intersection.

Where the driver of a tramcar is not required to give way to other vehicles while entering, within or leaving a roundabout.

Where give way to the right does not apply when the driver on right is turning or is about to turn from a continuing carriageway at a modified intersection.

Give way turning (Left) Give way to any other vehicle except when the other vehicle intends or

makes a right turn or U turn. Give way to pedestrians, crossing the intersecting carriageway.

Give way turning (Right) Give way to oncoming vehicles.



Give way to pedestrians crossing the intersecting carriageway. Give way to any bicycle that has entered or is approaching the intersection

from the same or the opposite direction along a bicycle path, shared footway or segregated footway.

Give way on a continuing carriage when at a modified intersection to a vehicle coming from other direction of continuing carriageway.

At a modified intersection a vehicle travelling along a continuing carriageway is deemed not to be turning. A vehicle entering or leaving a continuing carriageway is deemed to be turning.

Note: If the driver or bicycle rider is making a right turn from left lane according to regulations, they must give way to all vehicles travelling along the carriageway they are intending to leave as well as pedestrians crossing the street they are turning into.

Giving way while making U Turns You must have clear view for 150 metres of traffic from either direction. Give way to all vehicles except at a roundabout or where another vehicle is

at a Stop or Give Way sign or if approaching a terminating intersection. Give way to pedestrians.

Turns

Left Turns

The driver turning left must start their turn keeping their vehicle to the left of other vehicles and as near as practicable to the left boundary to make their turn.

Exceptions:-‐ Driver of a tram or

Public commercial passenger vehicle who has passed to the right of a safety zone controlled by a traffic light with the appropriate white ‘B’ or ‘T’.

The driver can select a different position provided signs or road markings allow them to use that position. It is the driver’s responsibility nearer or nearest to the left boundary to

remain to the left of other vehicles throughout the turn.

It is the driver’s responsibility to the right of any other vehicles to keep to the right of other vehicles throughout the turn.

Right Turns

The driver making a right hand turn on a two-‐way road



Must start the turn as nearest practicable to the left of the centre of the carriageway;

Turn right of the centre of the intersection and;

Finish the turn as nearest practicable to the left of the centre of the carriageway.

The driver can select a different position provided signs or road markings allow them to use that position. It is the driver’s responsibility nearer or nearest to the centre of the

carriageway to remain to the right of other vehicles throughout the turn.

It is the driver’s responsibility to the left of any other vehicles to keep to the left of other vehicles throughout the turn.

The driver making a right hand turn on a one-‐way carriageway into a one-‐way carriageway Must start the turn as nearest practicable to the right boundary;

Turn right of the centre of the intersection and

Finish the turn as nearest practicable to the right boundary.

Note:-‐

If the driver of a vehicle is turning right from the left of a tram line or safety zone or traffic island or reservation, they must not impede the progress of trams or public commercial vehicles travelling in the same or opposite direction.

Bicycle riders may position for a right turns, parallel and near as practical to the left boundary they are leaving and line up parallel and near as practical to the left boundary of the carriageway they are entering. Note if there is traffic lights that the rider must wait for the green circle in the carriageway they are entering.

Right turn from left lane

Where intersection is so marked with signs, driver must complete right turn, entering the intersection from the left lane and in accord with traffic signals and enter the new carriageway as near as practicable to the left of the carriageway. The driver shall remain as near as practicable to the left boundary of the carriageway that they are about to enter and not leave the intersection until in accordance with a green light in respect to the carriageway that they are entering.

Making A "U" Turn

Give right turn signal. Must have clear view for 150 metres or traffic from either direction.



Give way to all vehicles except at a Roundabout' or where other vehicle is at a Stop of Give Way sign or if approaching a terminating, intersection.

Give way to pedestrians. If you pass a "No U Turn" sign a "U' turn is not permitted until you pass an

intersection more than 6 metres wide.

Stop Signs

A red octagonal sign with the word “Stop” in white with white border.

What Are Your Obligations When Passed Or Passing A Stop Sign?

Stop the vehicle before reaching and as near as practicable to the stop line (if any). If no stop line exists’ stop at the closest point past the sign f v which the driver has a clear view of other vehicles approaching the intersection.

Give way to every vehicle travelling along or turning from any intersecting carriageway, bicycle path, segregated footway and shared footway.

Give Way Signs

Give way to every vehicle travelling along or turning from any intersecting carriageway, bicycle path, segregated footway and shared footway.

Roundabout Signs

When Passed or Passing A Roundabout Sign

Triangle sign, white background, red border, black broken and directional arrows

When Passed or Passing A Roundabout Sign a) Give way to every vehicle within the roundabout, approaching from the

right b) Pass to left of Central Island, give way to any tram within or entering.

Speed

Speed limits

What Are The Victorian Speed Limits?



a) 100 kilometres per hour on any length of highway. b) 40 kilometres per hour local traffic precinct sign. c) Any other speed indicated by a speed restriction sign. d) Where there is provision for lighting by street lamps (built-‐up area) or

urban development and no restriction sign, 60 kilometres per hour must not be exceeded.

a) In a shared zone at a speed not exceeding 10 kph

Miscellaneous

Use of Signals

If the driver intends to suddenly slow down, stop, turn, diverge or make a U Turn they are required to signal for a minium of 30 metres if they are moving. Before moving they must signal for a reasonable amount of time.

Signal must not remain in operation after the completion of the turn or diverging.

Note: You do not have to show a signal if you are proceeding straight at a roundabout.

Opening Doors and Alighting From Vehicle

A person must not: a) open or leave open a door of a vehicle; or b) alight from a vehicle—

so as— a) to cause danger to other persons , or b) to impede the passage of traffic

Use Of Horns Etc.

A person must not use the warning instrument on a vehicle, except

a) when necessary as a traffic warning or

b) as an indication that the vehicle intends to overtake another vehicle.

Choked Intersections

Despite any instruction of a traffic-‐control signal to proceed, a driver of a vehicle must not enter on, or attempt to cross an intersection, if a) the intersection: or b) the carriageway beyond the intersection—

is blocked or is likely to become blocked by vehicles before the driver can pass through the inters.



Reversing

A vehicle on a carriageway is permitted when it is safe to do so and the distance is reasonable.

Towing a) Maximum distance between motor cycles and maximum length of tow rope

2.5 metres. b) Flag, cloth or other material, minium. 30 centimetres square and illuminated at

night. c) Defective brakes -‐ must use approved rigid towing device. d) Both drivers must be licensed for vehicle type. e) If towing a caravan or trailer safety chains required. f) If towing at night, towed vehicle must be fitted with legal rear red lamp.

Note:

a) A "P" driver is permitted to tow or be towed

b) A "L" driver is not permitted to tow, or be towed.

Towed Vehicles

You must not drive a vehicle with another motor vehicle attached behind, which has the wheels in contact with the ground, unless:-‐

a driver, licensed to drive that type of vehicle, is in charge of the towed vehicle,

-exception:

road grader owned or used by a highway authority attached by rigid steering device and effective lights.

the towed vehicle can be controlled safely; and

the brakes of the towed vehicle are not defective;

-exception:

if the towed vehicle is attached by means of an approved coupling and drawbar

the space between the vehicles is no more than 3.5 metres (car etc); or if either vehicle is a motor cycle—2.5 metres; and

if the vehicles are joined by a rope, chain or wire, there is clearly visible a flag or cloth not less than 30 centimetres square, fixed to the centre of the rope,

at night,

flag must be lit by white light from towed vehicle, so lit is visible.

towed vehicle must have approved rear red lamp(tail lamp)



Trailer You must not tow a trailer in which a person is riding. A person must not ride on or in a trailer being towed,

except:

trailer, (not a caravan), towed by a tractor at less than 25 kph, or a machine designed for construction and maintenance work, or an articulated tram, or an articulated commercial passenger vehicle

Communication Equipment

The driver of a motor vehicle must not, while driving the vehicle, use a hand held— telephone; or microphone; or similar instrument or apparatus— in the vehicle

Signs

“ No Right Turn” Sign

You cannot make a right turn

You cannot make a U turn.

“No Overtaking Or Passing” Sign

No two vehicles shall be abreast of each other between the signs.

Regulatory Signs

These signs inform us of laws that must be obeyed and the appropriate action that should be taken.

Warning signs

These signs inform you of possible danger ahead so the appropriate action can be taken.

Temporary work signs

Temporary work signs are normally erected at work sites to give advice of potential danger.

Freeway and guidance signs

These signs are there to give information and a general warning.



Regulatory Signs

Shared footway

Segregated footway

Tram signs

Transit lane

Truck lane

The footway is shared by both pedestrians and bicycles; Bicycles must give way to pedestrians entering or on a shared footway.

End shared Footway

Shared Zone—zone is shared by pedestrians and motor vehicles. Maximum speed is 10 km/h. Pedestrians must not obstruct vehicles.

End shared zone sign

Tram Lane sign. You must not travel on the tram lane when the tram lane sign is in operation.

End Tram Lane Transit Lane.

Buses, taxis, or vehicles carrying 2 or more occupants, and motor cycles can travel in this lane. Some

End Transit Lane

Truck Lane Only trucks & buses can use this lane, unless you are entering or leaving the lane within 50 metres of

End Truck Lane



may permit bicycles

making a turn.

Bicycle lane

Bus lane

No bicycle

No goods carrying vehicle

Local traffic precinct

Segregated Footway: pedestrians and bicycles must keep to their section. Pedestrians must not stand, or obstruct bicycles on bicycle side.

End Segregated Footway

Bicycle Lane This lane is for Bicycles only and may only be used by cars if parking, making left turns within 50 metres of the intersection or if overtaking RHT vehicles turning.

End Bicycle Lane

Bus Lane This lane is for buses and may only be used by cars within 50 metres of an intersection you are turning into.



End Bus Lane No bicycles. Riding of bicycles is prohibited.

No goods carrying vehicles over 4.5 tonnes allowed to pass sign without permit from VicRoads or the council

Local Traffic Precinct: Maximum Speed Limit 40 kph

End local traffic area

Share zone

Speed restriction sign

Stop here on red signal

No overtaking

Keep left unless overtaking

Over dimension route

End local traffic precinct

Shared Zone for pedestrians and vehicles. Speed limit (10 kph) and pedestrians must not obstruct vehicles

Signifies end of zone shared by pedestrians and vehicles.

Speed restriction sign, usually found at start of speed zone: Maximum speed 60 kph

Speed restriction zone: Maximum speed 100 kph



Speed Zone sign 110 kph (This only found on certain major highway).

Vehicles must not proceed while red light is displayed.

Indicates narrow or dangerous road or bridge.

On multi-‐laned carriageway, vehicles must keep left unless overtaking other vehicles

Vehicles with over dimension permit must follow specific routes in metropolitan area. OD sign indicates route.

Pedestrian crossing

Children's crossing

Safety zone

Railway crossing

Give way to pedestrians

Handheld stop sign

This sign is placed at a pedestrian crossing. It may also be found at the rear of a tram to remind you to watch for pedestrians.

Pedestrian Crossing You must give way to all pedestrians on the crossing.

Pedestrian crossing MAY also have alternating flashing amber lights erected.

You must STOP if any pedestrian is on the crossing or if any vehicle travelling in the same direction has stopped

This sign is placed on a structure alongside a tram track and erected for the safety of tram passengers. You must keep left of structure at all times.



Uncontrolled Railway crossing ahead approach with caution.

You must stop at stop line or before crossing, and check for trains. When safe, select low gear and do not change gears until across if you are in a heavy vehicle.

Controlled railway crossing, (2 tracks). Stop if lights are flashing (or bell sounding?). Do not proceed until lights stop flashing.

Drivers must give way to pedestrians before proceeding. Often seen at entrance/ exit of driveway, lanes etc

Hand held stop sign used by roadwork team to control traffic.

Give way sign

Give way to the right sign

Roundabout signs

Stop signs

No entry sign

Bridge load limit

No right turn

No left turn

Give way to all traffic travelling along or turning from any intersecting carriageway, bicycle path, shared or segregated footway.

Drivers must give way to vehicles on the right.

Roundabout give-‐way sign. Give way to all vehicles on the roundabout, approaching you from the right.

You must STOP at stop line and then give way to all traffic travelling along or turning from any intersecting carriageway, bicycle path etc.

Vehicles may not pass this sign.



Load Limit Sign; Maximum Gross Vehicle Mass or Gross Train Mass indicated on sign.

No right turn sign. This also means 'no U-‐turn until you pass a intersection 6 metres or more wide.

No left turn sign

Clearway signs Parking signs

Clearway zone. No standing or parking during indicated times.

End Clearway Advises of Clearway. No standing within the times specified on the sign. May also indicate: 'tow away zone' on sign.

Clearway no standing. If time limited, times will be displayed on the sign.

End of Clearway If no other signs, you are permitted to stand / park beyond this sign.



No parking area You must not leave a vehicle standing for more than 15 minutes.

End of no parking area

Designated parking area Park within marked bays or lines if any.

No parking sign.

Controlled parking: number and fraction beside letter P indicates maximum time allowed in hours. Eg 2P means 2 hours.

Parking Standing signs

No parking at any time (unless specific times are indicated.)

Parking permitted, subject to any restrictions denoted on the sign.

No parking. If limited, times or conditions will be denoted on the sign.

Parking permitted. If limited time, hours indicated by number / fraction. Other conditions also written on sign. (eg tickets)

Denotes end of previous parking area.



No Standing Area You may not leave a vehicle standing in this area at any time.

End of no standing area.

No Standing Area (as previous)

No standing You must not leave vehicle standing, in direction of arrow

No standing-‐ If limited, conditions written on sign



Standing signs

Loading zone

Permit zone

Directional signs

No standing or parking, subject to any conditions listed on the sign. May also be indicated by arrow(s) on sign.

End of parking area which has a two hour time limit

* Zone (may be bus, taxi, truck, mail or other) Only vehicles of type shown on sign may stand or park here.

Loading Zone Only vehicles setting down or taking up goods, and vehicle is a truck, a courier, or a delivery vehicle..

Only vehicles with the appropriate permit are permitted to stand/ park here.

This lane only turns right – you must turn right.

This lane only turns left – you must turn left.

Vehicles must only proceed only in the direction shown. Left or right turns are not permitted.

Indicates all traffic must turn right – even if more than one lane.

Indicates all traffic must turn left – even if more than one lane.



No right turn from left lane

Left and right turning only lanes

Emergency stoping lane

You must not make a left, right or U turn.

You must not proceed beyond this sign.

A U turn may be made legally

Indicates that the carriageway carries traffic in two directions.

Right turn from left lane only. After entering intersection, you must stop, and wait for lights on right before completing turn.

Left lane may only be used by traffic turning left. From this lane you must not proceed straight ahead or turn right.

Lane may only be used by traffic turning left.

Right lane may only be used by traffic turning right. From this lane you must not proceed straight ahead or turn left.

Lane may only be used by traffic turning right

No stopping or parking in lane, except in case of emergency. Erected on freeway



Warning sings

Type of bend Type of intersection

Winding road ahead. Use caution and reduce speed.

Hair-‐pin turn (to the left)

Road bends to left..

Road bends sharply to left.

Road bends sharply to left, then sharply to the right

Road bends right, then left

You are approaching the end of a divided road and entering a two way carriageway. Beware of oncoming traffic

Intersection: Cross roads

Y Intersection: Y road junction

T intersection Road terminates at a T intersection.

Stop sign ahead

Roundabout ahead

Number of lanes in either direction

Traffic lights ahead

Children ahead

Pedestrians ahead

Railway crossing



You are approaching a stop sign ahead, which may not be clearly visible.

You are approaching a roundabout. Slow down and prepare to give way to the right

There is one lane available for traffic in the direction you are travelling, and two lanes available for traffic travelling in the opposite direction.

You have a restricted view of traffic signals ahead. Slow down and be prepared to stop

Warning: children crossing the road

Pedestrians crossing the road

Approaching a railway crossing – proceed with caution

Approaching a railway crossing with lights-‐ proceed with caution

Approaching an uncontrolled railway crossing. Proceed with caution.

Approaching an uncontrolled railway crossing on an angle. Proceed with caution.

Railway crossing

Stock crossing

Merging traffic

Gravel roads

Narrow bridge

Dip

Steep decent



Slippery when wet

Kangaroo ahead

Railway crossing on the road you could be turning into

Railway line ahead. Caution: trains

Farm animals cross road at this point

Road / carriageway merges other road at this point

Gravel road – reduced traction

Narrow bridge ahead. Take care when passing or overtaking other vehicles.

Your view of approaching traffic may be restricted because of a depression in the road. Beware of approaching traffic and keep to your left.

You are approaching a steep down hill slope. Reduce speed and select a lower gear if necessary.

Slippery conditions ahead if wet, icy or snowy conditions.

Watch for kangaroos on road or roadside areas (Especially at dusk).

Advisory bend speed

Tourist route

National and State route numbers

Truck parking area

Play ground

Low clearance

Height gauge for heavy vehicles



Advisory maximum speed for bend (in good conditions) is 55 km/h.

Tourist Route

National and State route marking signs – applying to major highways and roads.

Indicates the area on highway where heavy vehicles may be lawfully parked.

Warns drivers to be aware children playing in the area.

Low clearance sign. Bridges etc. Indicates clearance in metres. Placed where the clearance is less than 4.3 m

Indicates clearance in metres. Placed where clearance is low but more than 4.3 m

Petrol available here – as indicated by sign.

Telephone available here – as indicated by sign.

High vehicles should use this lane; Gauge will indicate (flashing lights) if vehicle will not pass clearance.

Freeway & Guidance Signs

Freeway

Wrong way

Prohibited things on freeway

Temporary warning signs

Prepare to stop

Road works ahead

Number of lanes in certain directions



Entrance to existing freeway

Beginning of freeway.

You are entering the wrong direction of a one way street. Found at exit of a Freeway.

Sign indicating that pedestrians, bicycles, animals (or other things as indicated on sign) are prohibited on the freeway

Warning drivers of roadworks; Traffic delays expected.

Temporary roadworks sign. Traffic should proceed slowly.

Temporary roadworks sign. You must stop.

Road works ahead. Advises drivers to approach with caution

Left land ends, merge right.

Road works

Part road closed

Loose gravel

Advanced warning of roadworks ahead.



Alcohol and Other Drugs

It is an offence to drive a motor vehicle while: under the influence of an intoxicating liquor or of any other drug to the

extent of not having proper control of the vehicle or having more than the prescribed level of alcohol in their blood (BAC)

NOTE: having lower than the prescribed level BAC does not excuse the driver from the offence of driving under the influence of alcohol.

Alcohol

Prescribed concentration: Maximum Blood Alcohol Content (BAC) allowed in Victoria is 0.05%. LEARNER DRIVERS and PROBATIONARY DRIVERS are restricted to 0.00 %

BAC Drivers of Heavy Vehicles and taxis are also restricted to 0.00% BAC.

Refer to course notes on alcohol and its effects for safe drinking levels.

Drivers required to undergo preliminary breath test, breath analysis test or blood test, when required to do so. Testing may be random or specific. It is an offence to refuse a breath or blood test

However: If you give blood test, you don't also have to take breath test A second test may be required of you. Test must be conducted within 3 hours of you having driven, (or believed

to have driven) Test is not lawful if conducted within 15 minutes of having consumed

alcohol

Crossings

School Crossings

Marked cross walks with a sign or a red flag with white writing or an orange flag with black writing marked “children crossing” and

an orange with black writing or red with white writing “STOP” sign held across or partly across carriageway. (Supervisor)

Approaching A School Crossing

A driver of a vehicle must approach at a speed which would enable that driver to stop before reaching the crossing if necessary.



Stop At A School Crossing

When: a pedestrian is on the crossing. a vehicle travelling in the same direction is stopped. a barrier or stop sign is facing a driver.

Proceed Through the School Crossing

When the crossing is clear of all pedestrians and stop signs.

Pedestrian Crossings alternate black and white stripes parallel to centre of carriageway or white

stripes if road surface has enough contrast and pedestrian crossing sign (walking leg sign) and may have twin diagonally opposed alternating flashing yellow lights may be erected

Approaching a Pedestrian Crossing

A driver of a vehicle must approach at a speed that would enable that driver to stop before reaching the crossing if necessary.

Stop At a Pedestrian Crossing

When:-‐ a pedestrian is on the crossing and there is danger of collision. a vehicle travelling in the same direction is stopped.

Proceed after having ‘given way” to any pedestrian on the crossing.

Your Vehicle

Registration It is an offence to an unregistered motor vehicle or trailer on a highway It is an offence to own an unregistered motor vehicle or trailer which is

used on a highway,

Unless the vehicle is exempted from requirement to be registered.

Exempt trailers: Under 200 kg Under 3 m in length (including draw bar) No wider than vehicle towing it, Not being a boat trailer.

Other vehicles exempted from registration requirement



A motor vehicle being towed on a highway Agricultural implements and certain agricultural transport bins etc. Special vehicles operating within 25 m of approved properties, in accord

with permission.

Maintenance and condition

Vehicles to be in good order

A person must not drive a vehicle or a combination of a vehicle that is not in a safe condition.

Seat belts

Must be worn correctly adjusted and fastened by all persons seated in a moving vehicle:-‐

Exceptions:-‐ VicRoads exception. Driving vehicle in reverse Medical reasons (certificates). Deliveries of goods but at no greater speed than 25 kph.

Child Restraints Seat belts must be suitable for children's size and mass, properly fitted and

adjusted If a child less than 18 years of age the driver must ensure that the child is

properly restrained.

unless: vehicle is not required to be equipped by seatbelts, and is not equipped with a suitable belt or restraint, or the vehicle is an ambulance, or a proper medical certificate excepting use of restraint

No offence if child is in rear seat, and driver proves to the court that it was not possible to use a restraint..

However, this excuse does not apply to children under 1 year old, unless vehicle is a taxi, or is registered in another state, or there is no seating position that is not already occupied..

Lights

Stationary vehicle at night

Lamps required:-‐



Front clearance lamps One white light on each side of front of vehicle visible for 200 metres' (if

one, must be right of centre). Rear clearance lamps One or two red lamps on rear (if one, must be right of centre). White light to illuminate rear numberplate, visible for 20 metres. Rear reflectors. These lights are not required when the vehicle is less than

2.2 metres wide and is clearly visible for 200 metres by street lamps.

Vehicle driven on a highway

Lamps required:-‐ Two headlamps (or two alternative headlamps or two fog lamps). Two parking lamps. One or two rear red lamps (if one' must be right of centre). If registered

after 7 March 1972 must have two brake lamps. One or two rear red lamps (if one' must be right of centre). White light to illuminate rear number plate, visible for 20 metres Two reflectors.

Fog lamps

May only be used during abnormal atmospheric conditions and other headlights must be extinguished.

Use of Hazard Warning Lights The driver of a vehicle fitted with hazard warning lights must activate

those lights when— a) the vehicle is stationary in a hazardous position on a carriageway and b) in the case of a vehicle licensed by the Roads Corporation for the

carriage of school children to the exclusion of other passengers (other than teachers or supervisors)-‐-‐ the vehicle is stationary on a carriageway for the purpose of picking up or setting down a school child.

“hazard warning lights” are amber signal lamps which can be operated to flash simultaneously and regularly at the front and rear of the vehicle and on both sides of it.

Heavy Vehicles: safety equipment

Portable Warning Signs for Disabled Heavy Vehicles

Must be 3 portable warning devices of a type approved by VicRoads carried if the vehicle exceeds 4.5 tonnes GVM when:-‐ outside a built-‐up area; or



in a built-‐up area between sunset and sunrise and each of which is capable of being visible at a distance of 200 metres to oncoming traffic when placed on the carriageway.

Loading A person must not drive a motor vehicle or a motor vehicle to which is

attached a trailer unless the load or equipment of that vehicle, trailer or other vehicle is secured a) by appropriate equipment and b) will prevent the load or equipment from— c) hanging or projecting from the vehicle in a manner likely— d) to cause injury or damage to a person or property e) to cause a hazard to other road users; or f) becoming dislodged or falling from the vehicle.

Loading of Pole-‐Type Articulated Vehicle

A person must not drive a pole-‐type articulated vehicle loaded with logs or timber carried length ways unless the load is—

a) supported by steel chocks; and

b) securely chained to the vehicle by 2 or more sets of chains.

Drive safely

Driving In A Dangerous Manner

A person must not drive a vehicle in a careless, dangerous or reckless m manner.

Occupants (Positions of Drivers And Passengers)

Except for a motor cycle, a driver or passenger of a motor vehicle must not have any part of their body— ÷ in contact with any external step, the roof or the bonnet; ÷ protrude through any door, window or other opening; ÷ to extend or protrude beyond the side, front, rear or extremities of the

vehicle

Exceptions A driver may give authorised hand signals a person (other than the driver of a garbage vehicle) engaged in the

collection of garbage or waste if— o the speed of the vehicle does not exceed 25 kilometres an hour;

and



o the person is on an adequately constructed step or footboard and holding on to hand grips firmly attached to the vehicle.

o if the vehicle is an emergency vehicle.

Motorcycles

A person must not drive a motor cycle with any person riding or being carried on the motor cycle other than—

securely seated in the side-‐car, or securely seated on a pillion seat behind the driver’s seat, Driver and pillion passenger must wear approved type helmet A pillion passenger must be seated astride and facing forward. To carry a pillion passenger, the seat must be equipped with secure hand

grips, and the motor cycle equipped with footrest (independent of the driver’s) each side for the pillion passenger.

Position on Road

The driver must keep as near as practicable to the left boundary of the carriageway.

Exceptions Left lane is blocked for other usage. If the driver is about to turn right. You intend to overtake. The carriageway is divided by two or more lanes and is exclusive for

vehicles in the same direction (reservation). This does not apply if you are in a ‘keep left unless overtaking’ zone.

The lane is allocated for other uses, eg ‘bus lane’

Overtaking

When overtaking a moving vehicle, other than a tram, the driver of the vehicle must pass to the right of the vehicle at a safe distance.

Exceptions: If the other vehicle is making a right hand turn, you may overtake on the

left if safe to do so. If the carriageway has 2 or more marked lanes provided its safe.

Note: You must not overtake a vehicle on any side if the other vehicle is making

any turn whilst that vehicle is displaying a sign ‘do not overtake turning vehicle’.

You must not overtake any vehicle unless it is safe to do so from oncoming vehicles.

Overtaking trams whether stationary or moving must be on the left side.



Bicycles must not overtake vehicles on the left, if the other vehicle is turning or intends to turn left. ( If the other vehicle is not turning then a bicycle can overtake on the left)

The horn may be used to warn the other driver that you intend to overtake.

You must not resume your position in front of the other vehicle unless you are safely clear of that vehicle.

If there is 3 to 5 marked lanes, you may overtake in the centre lane provided the centre lane is free of oncoming vehicles.

Except;

When signs or lights prohibit the use of this lane.

Passing Vehicles

You must keep to the left when passing a vehicle travelling in the opposite direction.

Following Too Closely

The driver of a vehicle must keep the vehicle a safe distance from the rear of any preceding vehicle.

The driver of a long vehicle, except when overtaking, if the conditions permit must keep the vehicle at least 100 metres from the rear of any preceding long vehicle.

“long vehicle” means a vehicle. or a combination of vehicles which, together with any load or projection, exceeds 7.5 metres in length.

but this does not apply— in a built up area; or if the vehicle is on a dual, divided carriageway

Accidents

What is an accident ?

An accident is where a motor vehicle is involved in a collision, and there is injury to a person or damage to property. Property includes other vehicles, private and public property and buildings, roadside fittings and equipment -‐ signs, poles, markers etc.

Who is involved ?

If a your vehicle has caused or contributed to an accident, or is part of that accident then you are involved. The current law states:



“...if owing to the presence of a motor vehicle an accident occurs...”

This regulation is very wide. It includes vehicles being driven, or stopped or left parked on the highway in a way that causes a hazard to other road users. It is not necessary that your vehicle actually has come in contact with another vehicle or object, only that the accident was partly caused by the presence of your vehicle, which includes its occupants, load, trailer or other fittings.

I am in an accident. What must I do ?

You have legal responsibilities that are set out below.

You must stop immediately. You must give whatever assistance you can, especially to injured persons. At the scene of the accident you must provide your full particulars to:−

a) all injured persons or their representative(s), and b) the owner(s) of property damaged or destroyed, or their

representative, and c) any police officer present.

The particulars you must give are: a) The driver’s name and address, and b) The owner’s name and address, and c) Any identifying number (registration number) of the vehicle.

Reporting an accident.

You must report an accident to police if: a person is injured, or property is damaged or destroyed, and the owner or owner’s

representative is not present.

In this case, if police do not attend, the accident must be reported to the police station nearest the scene of the accident.

If the owner of the damaged property or his/her representative is present, and nobody is injured, you are not legally obliged to report the accident to the police.

Showing your licence

You must show your licence to any police officer who requests it. Drivers of heavy vehicles must also show their licence to VicRoads officers in uniform, when requested to do so. You are not legally required to show your licence to other drivers.

Alcohol and Accidents



Injured:

After an accident any injured person taken to hospital is required by law to allow a blood sample to be taken by the doctor. This applies to drivers, passengers and pedestrians. There are heavy penalties for those who refuse this blood test.

Driver: Even if you are not injured, a police officer who attends the accident may

require the driver to take a Preliminary Breath Test which gives an indication of the level of alcohol in your blood.

If this test indicates your BAC is over the legal limit, the police officer will also require you to immediately attend a formal Breath Analysis Test or blood test. This test may not be conducted within 15 minutes of you having consumed alcohol,(RSPR 303) and must be within 3 hours of you having last driven (RSA 48.1).

The results of these tests are admissible in court as evidence of an offence. You must comply, and there are very tough penalties for those who refuse these tests.

Responsibility for damage caused

Both the driver and the owner of the vehicle are responsible for any injury or damage directly caused by that vehicle.

Violence -‐ “Road Rage”

Often accidents or near misses can lead to strong emotional responses and vigorous discussions over who was at fault. However all forms of aggressive behaviour on the roads are prohibited. There are regulations dealing with road violence -‐ often called ‘road rage’-‐ and the penalties are very severe. This offence includes threats, violence, driving in a dangerous or intimidatory manner and general aggressive behaviour on the highway. The penalties may even include a gaol term.

Cleaning up afterwards

Whoever removes the vehicle from the roadway also has the responsibility to ensure that the road is cleared of debris, such as broken glass, other parts or spilt load. Debris must not be left on the road creating a hazard for other vehicles.

Damage to you vehicle

You must not drive an unroadworthy vehicle on the road. If accident damage to your vehicle makes it unroadworthy, the vehicle must be repaired before it can be driven further. In many cases it may be necessary to tow the vehicle away from the scene.



Entering and Leaving a Highway

You must not turn from a highway into a private drive or entry unless the turn can be made safely.

A vehicle turning from a highway into a private driveway must: if turning left, as near as practicable as for a left turn at an intersection; if turning right, as nearly as practicable as for making a right turn at an

intersection.

At Night

When driving a vehicle on a highway at night, the driver should adjust his or her speed so that, in the case of an emergency, they are able to stop within the distance that you can see. This is your head light range.

Road Position

A driver must keep as near as practical to the left unless:-‐

• Making a right hand turn.

• Overtaking.

• If lane on left is allocated for other uses.

• Two or more marked lanes exclusive for vehicles travelling in the same direction as the driver.

If facing sign keep left unless overtaking you must keep left unless overtaking or making a right hand turn or traffic condition require otherwise.

Lanes

Transit Lane

Marked lanes on carriageway with signs indicating you must not drive in lane

except within 50 metres of making a left turn.

Exceptions are:

A vehicle with two or more people.

Tram.

Bicycle



Taxi or motor cycle.

Public commercial passenger vehicle.

Truck Lane

You may not drive in a truck lane unless driving a vehicle with a gross vehicle mass or gross train mass exceeding:-‐

(a) 4.5 tonnes; or

(b) any other GVM specified on a truck lane sign;

exceptions:

(a) when entering or turning from the highway, or

(b) when overtaking on the left of a vehicle turning right, or

(c) when leaving parking area at boundary of carriageway.

exception only applies within 50 metres of point of turning, overtaking or entering.

Driver may drive in truck lane if truck lane sign, with words or symbols, allows that class of vehicle.

Multi-‐Lane Carriageways

÷ On a two-‐way carriageway divided into 3 or 5 marked lanes, the driver of a vehicle must not drive the vehicle in— (#RSR 503).

a) the centre lane, except— i. to overtake another vehicle; or ii. in preparation for a right turn: or iii. if the centre lane is at the time allocated exclusively to vehicles travelling in the direction in which the driver is travelling; or

b) any lane to the right of the centre line, unless the lane is marked for that use.

÷ On a two-‐way carriageway divided into 4 marked lanes the driver vehicle must not drive in the far right lane.

Driving Within Lanes Or Single Line Of Traffic ÷ You must drive entirely, or as nearly as practicable, in a single lane or line of traffic. ÷ You must not move laterally unless safe to do so.



÷ A vehicle or vehicle combination, having length over 7.5 metres, with approved sign saying “DO NOT OVERTAKE TURNING VEHICLE” affixed to rear (or rear of trailer), may move out of marked lane if:

i. it is not practicable for turn to be made entirely from within lane, and ii. can diverge safely, and iii. is within 50 metres of making turn. (RSR # 507).

Parking General Rule: Driver is permitted to park a vehicle on a highway (refer definition of highway) unless particular restrictions apply. These may be : ÷ restricted areas, where only particular classes of vehicles can park, or ÷ prohibited areas, where no vehicle may park, or ÷ time limited, controlled parking areas How to Park ÷ Vehicle must be parked as near as practicable, and parallel to the left hand boundary of a two-‐way carriageway, or to either boundary of a one way carriageway, unless parking restriction signs are erected. ÷ In a marked parking area, vehicles must be left parked entirely within the marked bays. Centre Road Parking It is not permitted to reverse from these areas.

Unattended Vehicle Should be parked so that:-‐ ÷ their wheels are turned to the kerb on grade; ÷ the handbrake on; ÷ leave in gear; ÷ stop the engine; ÷ lock the ignition; ÷ remove the key; ÷ secure the vehicle by locking the doors. Note: ÷ Automatic leave in park. ÷ Manual leave in low gear.



Summary Of Parking Distances And Restrictions Bicycle ÷ may be parked on footway if not obstructing

pedestrians or other vehicles ÷ may be left standing in bicycle rack.

Bicycle Lane ÷ parking restrictions as indicated on the signs

Bicycle Path ÷ do not park vehicles in front of bicycle path

Bridge ÷ not unless bridge is as wide as approaches, if no

other restrictions

Bus Lane ÷ parking restrictions as indicated on the signs

Bus Stop ÷ 18 metres approach side,

÷ 9 metres departure side ÷ only attended public commercial buses permitted to park in bus stop.

Clearway ÷ no parking during times clearway is in operation

Disabled ÷ no parking in disabled zone, unless displaying

disabled sticker. ÷ vehicles with disabled sticker may park in time restricted parking area for double the normal time restriction

Double lines ÷ do not park opposite double, unbroken lines

÷ if double lines, broken on one side, do not park opposite unbroken side.

Driveway ÷ do not park in front of or so close to driveway, as to restrict access to driveway, passage, right-‐of-‐way

Excavations ÷ no parking alongside and obstruction or

excavations on carriageway, if traffic will be obstructed.



Fire Hydrant, ÷ 1 metre both sides(include: plug, white diamond,

blue marker)

Footway ÷ do not park on footway

÷ do not park in front of footway

Freeway ÷ no parking on freeway

Intersection with carriageway under 6 metres wide

÷ 9 metre restriction from intersection, when crossing carriageway is less than 6 metres wide.

Intersection: (Controlled)

÷ 18 metres approach, 9 metres departure

Intersection: (Uncontrolled)

÷ 9 metres both sides ÷ no parking in intersection, except along the continuing side of a T intersection, and. if parking is not otherwise restricted.

Keep Clear ÷ no parking in keep clear area or zone

Large Vehicles ÷ if over 6 m in length, no more than 1 hour in built-‐

up area. ÷ outside built-‐up are, may park on shoulder of carriageway, (if no restrictions)

Letter Box (Australia Post)

÷ 3 metres: approach and departure. Only Australia Post vehicles permitted to stop at letter box.(after signed ‘Mail Zone’)

Motor cycle ÷ may be left standing on footway, if not

obstructing pedestrians or other vehicles.

No Parking Sign ÷ not permitted to park in that area for more than

15 minutes in any one hour, during the times of the restriction



No Standing Sign ÷ not permitted to park in that area during the times of

the restriction

Pedestrian Crossing ÷ 9 metres both sides ( two way carriageway)

÷ 9 metres approach side (one way carriageway).

Railway Crossing: ÷ 18 metres from nearest rail

Reservation ÷ do not park on reservation, unless parking has been

allowed by the Highway Authority.

Safety Zone ÷ not between safety zone and kerb

÷ and 9 metres both sides of safety zone

School Crossing ÷ 18 metres both sided (two way carriageway)

÷ 18 metres approach side (one way carriageway)

Taxi Zone ÷ only attended taxis permitted to park

Traffic Control Signals (Not At Intersection-‐-‐includes intersections under 6 m wide)

÷ 9 metres, both sides

Traffic island ÷ 9 metres from that park of carriageway opposite traffic island

Traffic-‐Control Signals (At An Intersection)

÷ 18 metres approach side, 9 metres departure side

Tram Stop ÷ 9 metres approach side

Transit Lane ÷ parking restrictions as indicated on the signs



Truck Lane ÷ parking restrictions as indicated on the signs

Tunnel ÷ not unless tunnel is as wide as approaches, and if no

other restrictions



Lights

Standard traffic light (three circles)

Traffic lights with extra tram control lights

Standard traffic lights with single green arrow

Standard traffic lights with green and amber arrows

Standard traffic lights with green, amber and red arrows

Flashing red lights at fire stations

Green light: You are free to proceed ahead, or turn left or right, when safe to do so.

Amber light: You must stop when you see this signal unless it is dangerous to do so.

Red light: You must not proceed in any direction when facing this signal

Tram is controlled by their own light.

Traffic is permitted to turn left, proceed ahead and turn right.

All traffic must stop, except for left turn traffic.

All traffic must stop, except right turn traffic.

Traffic is permitted to proceed straight ahead and turn left. Right turn traffic must stop.

Buses only (and taxis where indicated) are permitted to proceed.

Flashing red lights erected at fire station: Stop and give way to fire trucks leaving fire station.



Pedestrian lights

Overhead lane control lights

Green, walking figure: Pedestrians may cross.

Flashing red. Pedestrians must not begin to cross, but may complete crossing if they have already commenced.

Red stationary figure: Pedestrians must STOP and wait for a green signal

Coloured arrows and X's over lanes on road.: Green arrow -‐ you may travel in that lane; Red X -‐ you may not travel in that lane.

Road markings

Right turn only lanes

Centre line markings

Hazard ahead road warning markings

Slip lanes

Road markings warns of a right turn only. It is best to take position left of centre of the carriageway as early as practicable to stop overtaking vehicles.

With double lines surrounding the entry markings, you must not travel on or above double lines and be careful of overtaking vehicles on the right breaking

These line markings warn drivers of approaching danger.

You can go on or above a single white line provided that it is safe to do so.

You can go on or above a broken white line provided that it is safe to do so.



the law.

Overtaking can only occur with the vehicle which has the unbroken section and when safe to do so.

Double lines mean that you must not go on or above these lines.

You must not travel in bike lane unless you are turning and within 50 metres of the intersection, or you are overtaking a right turning vehicle. You can park the vehicle as long as there are no signs stating differently.

A Continuous longitudinal yellow line marked on a carriageway to the left of a tram track.

The slip lane is not controlled by the traffic lights. You must give way to pedestrians as well as all vehicles.

Stop lines



Stop line is a single line or 2 lines not more than 300 millimetres apart across the whole or part of the carriageway.



Section 2

Driving Techniques



The road safety picture

Each year around 2,000 people are killed and another 30,000 seriously injured as a result of road crashes.

Road crashes are the fourth most likely cause of death among Australians in terms of years of potential life lost. This follows cancer, heart disease and suicide.

On an international scale, Australia is recognised as world leaders in road safety. Australia has performed very strongly both in terms of fatalities per 10,000 vehicles, where we are second only to the UK and fatalities per 100,000 population, where we are fourth behind the UK, Netherlands and Japan. (Federal Office of Road Safety, 1997)

Road deaths have fallen from a high of 3,800 in 1970 to 2,015 in 1995.

The introduction of Australian Design Rules for motor vehicles and compulsory seat belt wearing in 1970 and the introduction of random breath testing for drink driving in 1978, were both important in terms of reducing the road toll (Federal Office of Road Safety, 1997). A major social and economic issue which costs the Australian community $6.1 billion annually. To put this annual cost in perspective, it's worthwhile considering that this is more than the total national expenditure on roads each year (Federal Office of Road Safety, 1997). Each fatal crash is estimated to cost $750,000 and each serious injury $115,000 with an annual total cost of well over $1 billion (Federal Office of Road Safety, 1997). The Bureau of Transport and Communications Economics, estimates there is over half a million road crashes each year. The social cost to the community is incalculable. The effect on families, friends and the local community can be devastating and remain forever.

18-‐25: young drivers

Drivers aged between 18-‐20 years have 2.5 times the accident rate of older drivers, with drink driving and inexperience remaining the critical issues for young drivers up to 25 years of age.

Young male drivers are more likely than young females to be involved in crashes due to excessive speed, while young females appear to be more involved than males in crashes due to inadequate driving skills.

Young people aged between 18 and 25 years make up 12% of the population but represented 30% of all road fatalities in 1996 (Victorian Government, 1996). Young drivers travel more at high-‐risk times than older drivers, for example, late at night.

The needs of novice drivers



As a group, researchers believe that drivers take between five to seven years to reach mature risk levels.

Skills and abilities of novice drivers

New drivers lack important skills, particularly those needed to acquire and process information. They are less able to maintain full attention and less likely to take in the information they need from the driving environment.

Normally novice drivers are not as good as experienced drivers in scanning the environment, recognising potential hazards while at a safe distance to make tough decisions quickly. They tend to underestimate the danger of certain risky situations and overestimate if in others as well as overestimate their own driving ability to handle emergencies.

Improved skills alone are not sufficient to ensure novice drivers safety, but tends to build overconfidence and increases exposure to risks.

Choices and behaviourism's of novice drivers

Crashes are caused by decisions drivers make as much as by what they are able or unable to do. The majority of novice drivers' risk taking, comes from inappropriate behaviour reflected from taking deliberate risks to seek stimulation. They are travelling at high speeds and often while impaired by drugs or alcohol.

Compared to more experienced drivers, novice drivers more often choose to drive too fast and follow other vehicles too closely. They run yellow lights, accept smaller gaps in traffic, and allow less room for safety. As a result of their choices, and perhaps because of skill deficiencies as well, they have more rear-‐end crashes and run-‐off-‐the-‐road crashes than experienced drivers.

In traditional driver training many novice drivers do not have the experience to control their vehicle in an emergency situation. They tend to rely too much on their reflexes.

They often do not leave enough space between themselves and the vehicle in front. Therefore, there is a higher risk from having to brake very hard and lose control of the car or be hit from behind. Many novice drivers reduce their vision by following the vehicle in front too closely. Therefore, they have to concentrate on its actions rather than looking further ahead to see if there are potential hazards. They have less time to scan to the sides and make sure that they are not a danger to other road users, including pedestrians and cyclists.

As part of a driver training strategy, learners must be encouraged to understand that they must wear the emotional, financial, legal and medical consequences of a possible crash.



Novice drivers need to be made aware that the impatient driver behind them can just drive off and are not very important.

General rules about novice drivers

Speeding

Young drivers in their first three years of holding a license are over-‐represented in serious speeding offences.

Passengers

Novice drivers have a much greater chance of having an accident while carrying two or more passengers.

Seat belts

Novice drivers have a lower usage of seat belts than other driving groups.

Accidents involving young drivers

Over confidence is a major factor as to why novice drivers are over represented in road crashes and this can be due to poor training, doubtful motivation, personal and social environment, showing off, and peer group pressure.

Their attention skills may be inadequate due to inexperience. They drive more in the conscious realm instead of doing things automatically in the subconscious realm. The other factors effecting attention may be due to the influence of drugs and/or alcohol

Driver judgement may be poor, due to lack of training and guided experience, influenced by drugs and/or alcohol, or the effects of fatigue and vision.

Information processing capabilities may not be properly developed due to lack of interest or proper training and experience in detecting potential hazards, making sound driving decisions on how to protect from that danger.

Decision making skills may be poorly developed due to lack of guidance as they pick up experiential experience from different road and whether environments, volume of traffic and the time of day.

Human error

Approximately 95% of crashes involve human error

Learning to drive is different from other kinds of learning such as using a computer. Unlike a trained computer operator, the newly licensed driver is not sitting safely in an office.



Mistakes made when driving can have serious consequences and lead to injury or even death.

Since nearly all road crashes are a result of human error, the practise of low risk driving behaviour can help avoid unnecessary mistakes.

Travelling at high speed

The human body was designed for pedestrian speeds. In fact, our reactions to what we see and hear are geared to movement at about 5 km/h, yet vehicles move at a speed many times faster.

60 and over age group

Fatalities

The 60 years and over age group makes up 16% of the population and comprised 21% of all road fatalities in 1996. In the same year, 14% of drivers killed were aged 60 and over. Although the absolute number is comparatively low, they are disproportionately involved on a distance travelled basis (especially from age 70 onwards).

One of the reasons for this over representation comes from the tendency for older drivers to become slower to react, declining vision and hearing impairment.

Generally, older drivers are involved in more fatal and serious accidents during the week than on weekends. They also have a higher concentration of accidents from mid-‐morning to mid-‐afternoon.

Older drivers tend to be in more accidents at intersections because of the complex decision making required.

They do however tend to take fewer risks and are generally more cautious. Usually they are less likely to be involved in crashes due to speeding, drink driving or fatigue.

Age related problems

Eye sight.

Eyesight can cause difficulty when reading signs and reduce a persons ability to scan the roadway judge speed, conditions and distance of their own vehicle, other vehicles and pedestrians. Vision is also effected by bright lights, such as the glare from oncoming vehicles at night and multiple lights in busy built up areas.



Information processing.

Age often causes a slow down of information processing which makes it hard to focus attention between multi hazards.

Experience

Older drivers with many years of experience are also generally very safety conscious in their approach to driving and this reduces the risks they consciously choose to take whilst driving.

Towards the year 2011

The number of licence holders aged over 65 will increase more than six fold, from around 100,000 to about 600,000 in year 2011.

Vehicle safety

Anti-‐lock braking systems (abs)

The distance it takes to stop a vehicle is widely influenced by many factors and it is subject to the same laws of physics for any other moving body.

Applying the brakes too heavily can causes the vehicle to skid thus resulting in an increased stopping distance. Finally the vehicle comes to a halt due to frictional forces. Ensuring that these frictional forces are maximised continually, means reducing the amount of skidding. This can be reduced with Anti Lock brakes.

Braking distances sometimes can be significantly reduced in wet weather with an ABS vehicle but the real winner is having positive steering when turning and manoeuvring. Basically, ABS allows the wheels to continue turning, enabling the driver of the vehicle to steer and still maintain maximum braking potential around hazards.

In short, the ABS senses the rotation of the wheels starting to stop turning and then it releases the brake pressure enough to allow rotation again. This technique can be duplicated manually by a highly trained driver. Even a highly trained professional may not achieve the same amount of precision as a ABS system. It takes many hours of practise on an off road skid area to achieve similar results.

Traction control

When traction control is engaged, it automatically reduces engine power and if required, applies braking pressure to the spinning wheel to ensure smooth acceleration with maximum control under varying road conditions.

The human collision



The focus of road safety has been measuring the number of fatalities but modernised emergency services and procedures along with safer cars and improved roads, means that serious injuries is occurring more than the normal fatalities experienced in the past.

Experts believe that approximately 50% of road accident victim admissions consist of brain injury and approximately 70% of these victims are below 25 years of age. This figures are sourced from at least 3000 road crash victims according to one hospital's records. (Source Holden Australia)

The human body experiences rapid deceleration during a crash and because it cannot defy Newton's first law which states that "a body continues in its state of rest, or motion in a straight line, at constant speed, unless it is compelled to change that state by an external force acting upon it." When travelling at 60 kmp/h before an accident both you and the car will try to continue in that state of motion.

The large force which acts on the car is exerted by the object which the car strikes stopping momentum while the occupants of the car continue travelling at 60 kmp/h until the force acts upon them.

The occupants come to rest and this is the difference between survival and death. The wearing of a correctly fitted seat belt is going to be a major contributing factor as to whether a person survives or not. When the crash occurs parts of the human body that are in direct contact with the safety belt are halted at approximately the same rate as the vehicle but the rest of the body, head and limbs continue to move according to Newtons Law.

The parts of the body not restrained by the seat belt in a high speed crash can strike different parts of the vehicle. The knees of the driver and front passenger usually strike the underside of the dashboard. The arms usually strike the upper side of the dashboard. Leg and arm injuries are a lot easier to heal than head injuries. The head, supported and halted by the neck may strike the steering wheel, dashboard or windscreen depending on an enormous amount of variables (Holden). According to Volvo's crash testing data the body weight is equal to 3000 kg in a crash at 50 km/h which explains why the seat belts stretches and catches the person and why there should not be any loose items in the back of the vehicle.

Inertial effects are primary causes of brain injury. A large amount of force on a small area equates to a large amount of pressure.

As explained in the Holden crash testing information, brain injury occurs through inertial effects refers to the brain's state of motion. Before the collision the brain is travelling at 60 km/h. Immediately after the collision the brain is at rest. The brain is surrounded by a fluid and supported in place by small membranes. The fluid and membranes try and cushion the brain during its sudden and rapid deceleration. If the brain collides into the skull, bruising occurs. The extent of the collision determines the amount of bruising and



corresponding brain damage. Damage to the brain can lead to concussion, permanent brain damage, comatisation or death.

The organs around the abdomen often receive enormous injuries as they are essentially squashed by the seat belt. The organs protected by the ribs are relatively safe provided the rib cage doesn't break. When a rib breaks it may result in a punctured or collapsed lung.

The air bag.

Many of today's survivors would have died instantly at the scene of the accident if it was not for the seat belt. As described earlier, seat belts play a most important role in slowing down the momentum of the body within the vehicle in a catching effect but because of the limitations of the human body and the potential striking of objects in the vehicles a person can still receive serious injuries or possibly die.

Prevention of some of these injuries can come from the use of an air bag. Imagine a large bag of soft cushioning air inflating in front of you as the car comes to a sudden halt. The benefits are obvious.

With an almighty BANG, the air bag leaps into action. In less than a few thousandths of a second the air bag is inflated. Within a few milliseconds the air bag starts to deflate.

As stated in the Holden crash testing information, an air bag is designed to inflate only when the vehicle experiences an impact with a solid object at around 18 kmp/h to 20 kmp/h. Deceleration must be very high to detonate the air bag. The computer that controls the air bag makes a decision in a few milliseconds to detonate the gas cylinders that will inflate the air bag. The propellant detonates and inflates the air bag while the driver collapses towards the dashboard. As the body lunges forward into the air bag, the bag deflates, allowing the body to sink comfortably towards the dashboard with minimal injury minimised.

The timing of the airbag is critical. There are two main possible faults with an air bag. If the airbag is inflated too early it will already be deflating when the driver's head strikes the airbag. This would result in a reduction of effectiveness due to its failure to support the driver's head. The other possible fault is if the airbag is too late and the driver's head is too close to the steering wheel it may be struck suddenly by the inflating airbag. The result would effectively reduce impact time and therefore increase the impact forces.

The air bag is only one link in a series of many that form an integral chain of events that unfold during a collision. It most certainly is not designed to replace the seat belt. A safety belt alone gives much better protection than an airbag alone. The combination of the two safety devices increases the chances of surviving a collision with minimal injury.



The occupant survival zone.

As stated in the Holden crash testing information, the collision between the car and the object being struck is different to the collision that the occupant of the vehicle experiences. The occupant may experience much higher forces than the vehicle.

As the vehicle crumples, the occupant of the vehicle is still in a state of motion. Older style seat belts had a lot of slack (these belts were not always adjusted to fit properly). They allowed the occupants to continue moving forward until they received a solid jolt from the seat belt.

A short and sudden stopping distance caused by an inelastic and poorly fitted safety belt creates enormous forces. Modern, inertia type safety belts are much better. During a collision the seat belt locks. There is still a considerable amount of spooling that takes place. Spooling is the tensioning of the slack on the real of the seat belt. Webbing clamps reduce the amount of spooling that takes place during a collision.

The lap sash seat belt is much better than the lap belt. The New Commodores and many other modern vehicles are fitted with lap sash belts for all seating positions. The lap portion of the seat belt should pass across the hipbone. This bone is very strong and can withstand relatively large forces. The lap portion of the belt should not be allowed to rise up to the abdomen. The abdomen has very little bone structure and consists mainly of soft organs. The soft organs in the abdomen can be easily damaged in the event of a collision.

The sash portion of the seat belt should fit snugly across the shoulder. It should not be allowed to ride up towards the neck. It is designed to restrict the movement of the main torso. The main torso contains a large percentage of the body's mass and therefore requires a large force to halt its movement during a collision.

The arms and legs of the occupants of the vehicle are still left unsupported. It is not practical to restrict the movements of the arms and legs during the normal course of travelling. It must therefor be assumed that these limbs will be left to the mercy of the objects they collide with during an accident. It is for this reason that the materials used inside the cabin are energy absorbing and contain no sharp edges.

The backs of seats are well padded for the rear passengers. The dashboard is also padded and set back as far as possible to reduce the likelihood of injury. The legs of the front seat passengers are still likely to strike the dashboard area. Knee bolsters are fitted to minimise injury. There are no sharp objects left in the dashboard area.

Modem radios have replaced the older style that contained dangerous knobs. Air vent controllers no longer contain long levers that can easily penetrate the skin in the case of a serious accident.



The crumple zone.

Solid old cars are not safer than new cars (Holden Australia, 1995). New cars are designed to crumple. A car that crumples absorbs energy reducing the severity of impact on the vehicle's occupants. There are several simple comparisons which can be made to assist the understanding of this principle.

Imagine you are jumping up and down on a trampoline. It is easy to reach heights of three meters above the trampoline. As you jump on the trampoline, the springs on the trampoline gradually retard your motion. The result is a smooth and harmless collision. Compare this situation to jumping off the roof of a house and landing on concrete. It is quite easy to break your legs or ankles. The collision is considerably more severe. The major difference is the stopping distance. The increased stopping distance of the trampoline results in a much smaller impact force. The increased stopping distance of a car designed to crumple, brings the occupants to a more gradual stop. A greater stopping distance provides a smaller risk of injury.

Another example of this principle is catching a hard ball. Imagine if someone was to drop a 7.5 kg bowling ball into your waiting hands. Even from a height of 50cms it would be possible to catch the ball without risk of injury. Now consider the same event, this time imagine your hands are fiat on the concrete when the ball is dropped. The catch would most likely result in injury.

In the first example the hands of the catcher are allowed to gradually absorb the energy of the collision process. In the second example the hands of the catcher would most likely be crushed. The reason for this is that the concrete will not move much as a result of the bowling ball landing. There is only a very small deformation distance on the hand. The action will create enormous forces because of the short stopping distance.

A critical factor in an accident is the ability of a vehicle structure to deform to the maximum possible extent without intrusion into the cabin space. The cabin is the survival capsule. The passenger capsule is often referred to as the occupants' survival space.

Objects should not be allowed to penetrate the cabin space. Some of the existing penetrable objects are designed to retract when an impact is occurs. The foot pedals in the Holden Commodore for example are designed to bend back leaving the maximum amount of occupant protection space.

When designing a car, it is important to make sure that the car will crumple progressively.

The engine and its components must not be allowed to intrude into the cabin of the vehicle. Car engines are now mounted in such a way that in the event of an accident the engine will be pushed downwards, under the vehicle. Engine components that are very rigid, such as an air conditioner compressor, the master brake cylinder and the alternator, are staggered throughout the



engine bay. If these solid components were all in line, they would not allow the engine bay to crumple. Alternately, they would deform the firewall of the cabin and intrude into the survival space.

The 'speed kills' campaign looks at the effect that a change in velocity has on the forces involved in a collision. Strictly speaking it is not the speed that counts but the change in speed or velocity that counts. Clearly a smaller impact speed will result in considerably smaller impact forces.



Section 3

Driving Techniques, Observation Skills and Risk Factors



Road conditions

It is important to evaluate what the road is like. The road itself is one reason why you always need to be adjusting your speed. Urban and rural roads can require different driving techniques and skills to each, adding another dimension to the scope of conditions.

Poor road surfaces

You will need to slow down for: Pot holes, dirt and gravel roads. Road works need extra care. Loose gravel is especially dangerous.

Curves

Slowing down (relevant to the angle and camber of the curve) before entering a curve is the best driving practice, then accelerate slightly whilst driving out of the curve in a front wheel drive. In a rear wheel drive once the vehicle is balanced, you can accelerate gently after you pass the apex of the curve, throwing the vehicles weight back onto the drive wheels. Braking heavily in the middle of a curve can be extremely dangerous. Too much speed on the approach to and in a curve is a common cause of skidding.

Slippery roads

These may be caused by moisture, gravel, dirt, mud or ice. Some areas that are often slippery will be signposted. There are two main times when there is far less traction than from gentle steady rain. When it first starts to rain, mixing oil, rubber and dirt on the road surface and after some time this is eventually washed away. The other time is when it has been raining heavily and there is a build up of water on the surface and in turn causing a build up of water between the tyres and the road surface creating hydroplaning/aquaplaning.

On sealed roads in poor conditions, you should double your space cushion and with unsealed roads, triple the space cushion.

Reading the road surface

The types and conditions of road surface affect the stability of a vehicle.

Signs to look out for Change from bitumen to loose gavel, which could cause instability

and potential braking problems.



Types of cambers. (Positive, negative and crown cambers)

Oil, dust and rubber build up at traffic lights (particularly when wet and it has not rained for some time).

Deterioration in the road condition adversely affects braking and cornering.

Negative cambers, which cause cornering problems.

Other conditions which affect driving greatly. Danger signs

Noticing traffic congesting ahead should prompt drivers to develop a defence procedure and escape route for that situation.

Looking out for speed scatter on freeways, causing variation in traffic flow.

Shoulders of the road may be made of gravel and fall negatively away from the sealed surfaces. They may be soft or wet causing nearside wheels to run on unstable ground (problems with braking, steering or sudden acceleration).

When the shoulder is lower than the sealed road, driving back onto the road can have a tram line effect, preventing the near side wheels returning to the road.

Unsealed roads

Unsealed roads have distinctive problems associated with them:-‐

Road markings cannot be painted on the surface, eg., centre lines and edge-‐lines.

It is difficult to distinguish between the edge of the gravelled road and the soft shoulders.

Rain severely deteriorates the road surface, causing run off.

Tyre traction significantly reduced.

Dry weather dust is a problem.

Other vehicles throwing stones.

Scattered potholes and corrugations minimise vehicle stability.

Added care is needed to drive on these looses surfaces.



Damaging the suspension as well as throwing the vehicle around are adverse effects that are dramatically increased with speed.

Be very wary of on coming vehicles on blind corners as the driver may not having total control of their vehicle.

Corrugated roads

The ridges of the corrugations are evenly spaced but give a rough ride unless the vehicle is driven at or above a certain speed. To ride corrugations smoothly, the steering linkage, suspension and particularly the shock absorbers must be in good condition. You should not accelerate powerfully or it could provoke axle tramp and instability.

Hairpin bends and zigzag roads

These type of corners are reasonably straight forward when negotiating a right-‐hand corner but left-‐hand corners are more difficult as the curve is far tighter from the correct side of the road and may be smaller than the minimum turning circle of the vehicle. If the vehicle approaches a left-‐hand corner whilst keeping close to the left, it may be impossible to exit on the correct side of the road, so choose an approach path out from hard left. This increases the chance of having a head on accident, especially if other vehicles have too much speed causing understeer.

Hazardous periods

Dusk and sunrise bring additional visibility hazards. Picking out objects and the natural movement of stock and wildlife are major concerns as well as some blindness.

Slippery surfaces

Reduce speed as soon as you even suspect that the road surface is likely to change (snow and surface road water are obvious) and try to adopt a speed which will require as little variation (braking or acceleration) as possible. A vehicle will not usually lose traction if there is no change in speed or direction unless the gradient or crossfall of the surface is steep.

If you have to stop for any reason, ensure that the driving wheels of your vehicle are on the most stable part of the road so as to be able to move off again more safely. If you have to turn round and retrace your tracks and are forced to place either the front or the rear wheels on less stable ground in doing so, always keep your driving wheels on the most stable surface.



When descending a very slippery surface always select a lower gear to avoid using the brakes as they will most likely lock very easily and be difficult to remedy.

Driving in fog

In daylight, headlights should be switched on, not for their lighting effect but to make you more visible to other drivers. Drive at a speed that will able you to stop within the distance of your forward vision. Centre line or edge markings are useful guidelines in fog, both day and night. High beam must not be used in fog, because the light reflects back from the moisture-‐laden air, further affecting visibility so if you have fog lights, switch of your headlights and only use fog lights.

Use of lights

The driver of a vehicle must turn on headlights between sunset and sunrise. The non-‐use of lights during the hours of twilight or dusk has been the cause of many accidents.

Headlights must be dipped within 200 metres of the rear of a vehicle that you are following and within 200 metres of an oncoming vehicle.

The use of high beam may be very helpful when two vehicles are approaching each other on a blind corner. A high beam may illuminate trees, fence or road cuttings and be visible to an oncoming driver several seconds before he comes into view. They can also be use to make other drivers aware that you are present in daylight.

Night driving

Spotlessly clean windows and particularly the front and rear screens, both inside and out is extremely important in night driving. It is important that you select a speed relevant to the visibility you headlights create. Remember, after dipping your head lights 200 metres before the other vehicle, you may need to quickly flash your high beam to determine what is between you and the oncoming vehicle or the vehicle you are following.

Avoid looking directly into the lights of an oncoming displaying high beam on because it may blind you. Instead angle your eyes down and to the left and guide the vehicle by the left side or shoulder of the road, never the middle. You should, without blinding your self quickly glance to determine the oncoming vehicle's position because it may have drifted to your side.

Your eyes at night



When bright headlights are about 30 metres away, it is very difficult to see objects beside or beyond the approaching vehicle. After the vehicle has passed, your vision does not return to normal for some time.

Even the lights of a single vehicle can create complex eye adjustments between the time you first see them and the time they pass.

Observation

Central vision and peripheral vision

Faulty seeing habits are a major cause of accidents because the novice driver fails to see the hazard and react appropriately without being rushed.

Central vision is used to focus, giving clarity. At 30m the central cone is only a bare 1.5m wide, at 91m the cone is 5m wide, and at 305m, it becomes 16m wide. This is why when the person looks further up the road, effectively their central eye sight widens.

Poor or inexperienced drivers normally make the mistake of using central vision for steering, gluing their eyes to the road so fixedly that significant changes in the wider traffic pattern may be missed.

Peripheral vision, often called fringe vision works up, down and side to side, acting as the attractor so as central vision can be used more freely.

Many novice drivers use peripheral vision for judging turns and gaps associated with other vehicles, which at times can be dangerous without reassessment using central vision.

Visual search techniques

Aim high in steering

This means look well ahead with the eyes aimed high. The basic rule is the faster the speed, the further it will be necessary to aim your vision. Straight line steering can be assisted using high aim steering path selection determined by the central vision which should cause the novice driver to track the vehicle in the middle of this path in their early stage of development. Many novice drivers fix their eyes on objects they are worried about hitting such as kerbs, trees, poles and other vehicles. This can be distracting not only in terms of attention but also the vehicle may start to track towards these objects.



It is important when training novice drivers that they learn to train their eyes to work between long and short range so as the mind thinks between long, medium and short range also.

With oncoming vehicles, a driver should check lane position and other vehicles stability while they are still a long distance away. At night, the driver should keep glancing well in front of his headlight spray, looking for dark shapes on the road before turning high beam according to regulations. The driver central vision must determine whether there is a potential hazard between them and the oncoming vehicle.

If the oncoming vehicle is dazzling a driver with high beam, it is important that central vision determines road position, using either the left-‐hand lane markings or road edge to minimise potential blindness.

You should also be aware of an oncoming vehicle's road position, using your peripheral vision closes to your central vision for quick glances, in order to determine whether the oncoming vehicle has drifted towards you.

See the whole scene

Seeing the whole scene is observing all the road and traffic situations both ahead and behind. Following distance is critical to achieving big picture observation because it is important that objects such as other vehicles, pedestrians, road markings, signs and poles ahead are only a small part of the traffic scene.

Keep the eyes on the move

Keeping the eyes moving helps detecting changes in the speed and direction of other vehicles and observe potential risks. Part of the reason eyes must keep moving is the need to base decisions on a holistic approach as well as remove potential blind spots from the eyes and things which cause vision block.

Mental awareness

We see with our eyes but we observe with the mind. Your eyes are only the lenses but your mind is the film and it selects what it wants to see.

Depth perception

Depth perception refers to your ability to judge the distance between you and an object that you see. It is also concerned with the size and shape of the object in terms of depth and plays a major role in your



decision making in relation to how people and pedestrians approach you and how you approach other objects, vehicles and pedestrians.

Vision acuity

Clearness of vision is called ‘visual acuity’

Eye sight problems

Eye blind spot

If you are teaching a person who has only one eye, it is important to teach scanning techniques to compensate the natural blind spot in the eye.

Source: D.Oldfield. Basic and Advance Driving Handbook. 1986 Gregory's Scientific Publications, Universal Press Pty Ltd

In every human eye there is a natural blind spot. In the right eye it is about 15 degrees to the right of the straight-‐ahead line or visual axis and for the left eye the same amount to the left. The angle of blindness is usually about 5.5 degrees horizontally and about 7.5 degrees vertically.

At 50 metres this would represent an area of 3 metres x 4.5 metres, enough to conceal a cyclist, pedestrian or even a car.

This can be demonstrated by a very simple test. On a blank sheet of paper draw 2 similar marks approximately 6 centimetres apart. To test the right eye, cover (do not close) the left eye and look straight ahead at the left mark. Begin by holding the page about 30 centimetres from the eye and gradually move the page closer. Initially the right mark will be visible in the peripheral field of the right eye, but there will be a stage, when the page is about 20 centimetres away from the eye, or a little more, when the right mark will vanish momentarily. It will reappear as the page is moved closer still.

This natural occurrence can come into play any time the bridge on the nose blocks either eye from compensating the other eye. Eg such as looking left and right at intersection when the person relies on turning the eyes only with a slight head movement or the car pillar interferes with one of the eyes vision.



Night blindness

Night driving requires special visual techniques because even if the driver has good vision or advance observation skills they are still limited in many ways by the range of headlights.

It is clear that many experienced drivers do not recognise the visual limitations of driving with headlight illumination only (eg., Leibowitz and Owens, 1986), and this needs to be clearly illustrated and linked to an appropriate feeling of discomfort at “driving blind.”

Eyes adjust much more slowly to darkness than to light. Although most of the adjustment takes place in the first few minutes, there is still substantial adjustment taking place for as long as half an hour in a dark place.

The role of the iris to regulate the amount of light that enters the eye. If the iris cannot operate fast enough to allow more light in the adjustment back to dark is very slow.

The problem is that even the lights of one single vehicle causes complex eye adjustments from the time the light becomes visible, grows in intensity and then reduces.

Factors which effect driving

Choice of speed

Safety margins

Novice drivers must commit to proper and moderate speed choice. To do this they have to recognise the effects of excessive travelling speeds and error correction time required by both themselves and drivers. The main speed selected should be based on the road and weather conditions, as well as the amount of hazard density. Speed should be selected to give the driver time to observe and make appropriate decisions to avoid the risk.

Safe gap acceptance

Novice drivers should be able to define safe gap acceptance and perform cognitive skills related to estimating and verifying the time of impact relevant to the closing rate of approaching and oncoming vehicles. Both road and weather conditions should be taken into account.

As part of a training strategy, the driver should be able to discuss the effects of frustration on gap acceptance and a safe and unsafe gap.



They also must be able to demonstrate safe gap selection in different manoeuvres, such as pulling out and passing, giving way at intersections, following, overtaking and passing gaps.

Note: When turning or pulling out in front of other vehicles, it is important that the driver checks mirrors to verify safe gap selection and the closing rate of an approaching vehicle.

Risk priortisation

Novice drivers need to priorities the risks in context, situations and actions that contribute to crashes. To do this the trainer must show the trainee how to priorities hazards in order of approach, where there is potential high risk, other vehicles or pedestrians.

Personal limitations in risk assessment

It is important for novice drivers to personalise their limits, particularly in evaluation of risk. It is a good training strategy in order to evaluate the novice drivers personal risk assessment and to encourage a running risk commentary on their evaluation of potential risk. This will allow you to provide feedback showing the limits of risk assessment as well as enhancing appraisal and maybe self-‐monitoring of their own ability.

Considering other peoples differing point of view

It is important that a driver can learn to predict the likely actions of others as well as taking into account what they think the other driver can see from their positions and in effect what they are trying to do or expect to do.

Space and use of safety cushion

Safety cushion

Of all the defensive driving techniques people use, one of the most important for people with high or low skill levels in situations where there is a concentration or variation in vehicles, bad road or weather conditions, is a personalised safety cushion.

In short it maximises the time needed to stop or manoeuvre to avoid danger of collision from any direction. As the speed increases so should the space around you. If the space is reduced the speed must be reduced to fit the space available. Safety cushion is achieved front and rear by using correct following distances. Increase the forward following distance if the following vehicle does not keep sufficient distance by adding the number of seconds required by the following vehicle to the front of your vehicle. Safety cushion also needs to be



created when passing or overtaking so position on the road should be taken as early as practicable.

Be seen

It is very important to be are seen by other vehicles and you must take into account that because a person looks at you it does not mean that they have seen you. They may not be mentally thinking about you, such as people not looking for motor bikes but just cars. Also you must observe whether the person can see you with both their eyes so as the blind spot in eyes is removed.

Our primary aid in making ourselves seen is by the use of signals, when stopping or turning. Sounding the horn or flashing the headlights can be used to attract attention. Don't place your car in the blind spot of others. Don't be obstructed by large vehicles. Sometimes you can check if you have been seen by using eye contact with the other driver.

Have an escape

As part of the decision-‐making process when driving along you should consider alternatives if something were to go wrong. This would allow an escape route and possibly prevent an accident. The other factor is if an accident is unavoidable, you will need to decide where the safest impact is. Don't drive in the right lane because it increases your potential of having a head on collision. When approaching intersections at any speed, you should cover the brake so as to minimise stopping distance, thus, reducing the potential of having a high impact collision.

Intersection safety

Worldwide, approximately half of all road crashes occur at intersections, so it is of the utmost importance to develop training strategies that make the trainee mentally aware of safety factors relevant to approaching intersections.

"T" intersections are dangerous but not as dangerous as cross intersections. At cross intersections other vehicles can be driven at high speed through the intersection. The reality is that red lights or stop and give way signs are not a physical barriers that will stop the other vehicle. Because human error plays a major role when drivers are distracted by many internal and external problems, sometimes they are temporarily unaware of traffic conditions. The general rule is that intersections, where traffic is stationary is generally safer than a clear intersection where a vehicle is more likely to speed through and cause the crash.



Vision blockout

Vision blockout basically relates to an external object or internal part of the vehicle like the car pillar which blocks visibility. Some examples of blockout are trees, plants, parked cars, car pillars, passengers, fences, poles, other vehicles and buildings that block vision in some way.

Two important factors that relate to vision blockout that which always be taken into account when driving. 1. Never make a decision to proceed in any direction unless that

decision is based on a clear uninterrupted view of all potential danger.

2. Never approach a hazard that has vision blockout at a speed that will your vehicle or a following vehicle to break heavily to avoid danger of collision.

Approach speed at intersections

Stopping distance, sight distance and the amount of vision blockout as well as other vehicles, should govern speed approach to intersections. Statistics show that the average driver approaches intersections 18 kmp/h above a safe speed for stopping, which can be shown by the percentage of brake pressure required to stop. If a following vehicle is driving aggressively with a poor following distance, due to the added reaction time the brake pressure will be even greater for the following vehicle, sometimes causing rear end crashes when the first vehicle unexpectedly stops.

As stated in the law, vehicles must approach intersections at a speed that will enable them to stop if necessary. It is very important that we approach the intersection at a speed which will enable you to control the speed of the following vehicle and this in effect allows us flexibility in our driving actions if something goes wrong.

Fatigue

Drivers often make the mistake of staring fixedly at the road ahead creating tunnel vision and highway hypnosis when they start to go to sleep. This tends to be most apparent on freeways during long trips. Another factor that causes this highway hypnosis is motor sound creating a constant dull hum.

The general rules which apply when feeling tired:-‐. If someone else is with you and they are not tired then let them

drive.



Have at least a 15 minute break to rest every one to two hours.

Do not rely on coffee or "stay awake" drugs.

Rest up before long trip.

Do not drive during times that you normally sleep. (Most crashes are caused by fatigue occurring between 11 PM and 8 AM)

Shifting your eyes and thoughts from one area of the road to another.

Another high-‐risk time is early to mid-‐afternoon, but this does not mean that fatigue will not occur at other times.

If you are on medication, check the labels and ask your doctor or pharmacist about how they would effect your driving and any possible side effects.

Stress

It is important to try to relieve stress because it can affect your driving and you could be up to 5 times more likely to be involved in a crash. If you have any problems with health, family or work then this might take your concentration away from the tasks of driving.



Section 4

Human Perception and Decision Making



Human perception and decision making is very subjective and hard to measure.

Motivations and attitudes play a major role in how people perceive what is happening around them and how they behave. Everyone interprets information differently and this is why interpretations are subjective when evaluating the cause of event, the degree of control we feel we have over a situation and knowledge gained by past experiences.

People tend to draw conclusions based on previous experience.

Drivers must be trained to perceive potential danger, by learning to perceive hazard causing events that they may not have experienced before.

Perception consists of the mental processing of information by the senses. The mind observes and processes making an interpretation relevant to visual patterns (templates or schemers) which results in the recognition and identification of potential hazards.

These visual patterns are strongly influenced by what we tend to expect to see. For example, as we drive down the road things that interest us grab our attention like a particular model or colour of car we may like or want to buy.

Perception is also influenced by other senses beside vision such as hearing, balance and muscle senses. These factors play a large part in detecting problems in special hazardous situations and high-‐performance driving, but less so than vision in routine driving, especially for novices.

Perception limitations

The driver is able to observe and perceive only a small fraction of the information available in the environment. This limitation plays a major role in hazard selection and how the mind then starts to priorities and effect recognition of different closing rates of approaching vehicles and pedestrians.

Motivation

Emotions, drives and appetites are internal forces imposing individual to solicit gratification of individual requirements. It is this motivation which influences behaviour and direct choices.



While motivation comes from within, it may be closely associated with external factors such as individual incentives and disincentives (eg., Wilde, 1994a) as well as more internal motivators such as personal norms (Parker et al., 1992) or “active caring” (Geller, 1991).

In terms of how motivation relates to driving, motivations tend to influence what the driver chooses to do, as opposed to what they are able to do.

Skills and experience

If you have never been taught correct driving skills from the initial stages, experience you gain over a period of time may not be of benefit to you. Good driving doesn’t come naturally and it is reliant on good tuition and guided experience over a period of time. In many occasions, novice drivers are extremely lucky to survive as they build experience both good and bad in an experiential way, relying heavily on trial and error which can have major consequences in hazardous situations.

To decrease risk to the novice driver, experience should be assisted by encouraging the novice driver to provide a sound “margin for error", while enhancing skill level. It is useful (wise) to encourage the novice driver to strive to master more difficult driving tasks such as those required on an extended trip, night driving, negotiating different terrain and conditions.



Information processing

Novice driver v's the experienced driver

Taken from Drummond, 'A Review and Discussion of Issues Related to Training.'

Skill Perception Novice driver Experienced driver

Perceives non-‐moving hazards being more dangerous

Analyses each feature separately and independently, therefore cannot process as much information

Generally interprets moving hazards as being more dangerous

Perceives recurrent general patterns, eg. perceives a pattern as a single chunk therefore does not have to search and integrate as much

Integration Has difficulty in integrating diverse information into overall assessment of hazardous situations.

Attention Fails to switch attention

Poor in attending to relevant aspects of the driving environment

Develops effective and flexible priortising

Strategies therefore can switch attention rapidly between sub-‐tasks

Judgement Has difficulty in judging gap clearance and closure speeds

Reaction times Slow for complex traffic situations

Fast for complex traffic situations

Search Looks near the vehicle. Monitors only obviously dangerous situations

Monitors vehicle controls and uses mirrors frequently

Turns head while changing lanes.

Looks further away from the vehicle Monitors potentially dangerous situations

Monitors vehicle controls infrequently and uses mirrors less frequently



Skill Novice driver Experienced driver

Car control Braking and acceleration often abrupt.

Slow recovery after avoidance manoeuvres

Smoother braking and acceleration

Fast recovery after avoidance manoeuvres

Speed Average speed increases during the first year of driving.

Fails to slow for potentially dangerous situations.

Shows a conscious preference for speed over safety.

Slows for potentially dangerous situations.

Confidence More likely to rate himself or herself as a better-‐than-‐average driver.

May overestimate the crash risk in low to medium risk situations but underestimate risk of less frequent high risk situations.

Less likely to rate himself or herself as a better-‐than-‐average driver.

Risks Seat belt used less frequently.

Drives closer to the vehicle in front.

Underestimates risks.

Characteristics of deviant behaviour

Lack of thought about potential implications.

Feelings of repression.

Rebelliousness and selfishness.

Low self-‐esteem and regard for civic responsibility

Decisions

Decision-‐making is never ending in driving, as the driver estimates the risks and then determines a suitable course of action. It is important to establish with the novice driver that they form part of the traffic scene and that they must make choices and decisions that maximise the



safety of others and themselves and these choices are made continuously.

It is important as a trainer, that you monitor whether the novice driver, on approach to hazards, covers the brake pedal then slows down and stops if necessary to help their decision method. Early position selection and covering the brake pedal on approach to hazards, is a practical way of assessing if the novice driver has made a decision to avoid potential danger.

How the brain thinks

In the conscious mind, the human brain thinks of approximately 7 to 10 things at once.

In the subconscious mind, the human brain thinks of approximately 100 things at once. Things that we are subconsciously competent at, are breathing, blinking and other thinks we do without thinking consciously.

How speed effects vision

The eyes normally send 40 complete new pictures per second to the brain, yet, we only observe 7 of these pictures. This alters due to the speed we are travelling at. Observation is best when stationary (100%).

At 70 km/h, visual acuity deteriorates to about 50% of stationary awareness.

At 100% km/h, visual acuity deteriorates to about 25% of stationary awareness.

Mental habits Attention of the mind

Training should develop the novice driver to automatically become ‘unconsciously competent’ at physical and mental driving skills.

The advantages of this automation are that it reduces stress and intense or prolonged concentration, as well as allows the driver to perform multiple tasks simultaneously without being out of their comfort zone. This allows the novice driver to focus on and place hazards in order of priority.



When new performances levels have to be achieved, conscious focus is swapped to the new task. An example of this is, if a person competently drives an automatic vehicle and decides to learn how to drive a manual vehicle, the normal subconsciously competent observation skills and decision-‐making skills become impaired. Instead, the driver is driving within the conscious realm within the vehicle learning to use the clutch and change gears. This is why you must provide a physically and emotionally safe environment (comfort zone) that will take the pressure away from the driver until they become unconsciously competent.

Sometimes it is important to segregate physical and mental skills during this learning phase, making sure that the novice driver has developed many vehicle control skills in the subconscious competence before introducing enhanced decision making skills associated with processing from scanning, risk management and calculating crash avoidance space.

It is important that you focus the learner driver's attention on the required performance, assisting the learner driver, when required, with tasks that are not automatic. It is important to intervene if the learner driver is not capable of performing a task landing outside their comfort zone.

As a training strategy, the learner driver should be shown how to rationally and practically select and filter information so as they can switch their conscious attention in plenty of time, to deal with new events or problems that require a complex decision. The key factor here is the need to select a speed at which the novice driver can make new decisions consciously without being under pressure. This relates to hazard density, where the more potential hazards need to be observed and decisions made and therefore the slower the speed the novice driver must drive in order to compensate.

Low-‐risk driving (developing an in-‐built alarm).

Usually low-‐risk drivers can talk with passengers whilst driving competently, having no trouble in being aware when to stop talking and concentrate on the task at hand. People with sound experience have an in-‐built ‘alarm’ which alerts them to a potential hazard whenever they are in a new situation or whenever they consider that their response time could be jeopardising safety.

Low-‐risk drivers aim to commence forecasting events a minimum of 5 seconds before they occur which maximise their observation and decision making time. If their following distance is not sufficient to allow them to forecast potential hazard events, then they adjust speed and position in order to achieve this.



Utilising this training strategy, the instructor trains the learner driver to calculate the "5 second" distance at varying speeds, which shows how distance increases with speed and why it is important to alternate thinking between short, middle and long range observation.

This may be done from the passenger side so as the novice driver is under no pressure or needs to think about other factors in driving as the driver trainer demonstrates and the novice driver verbalises technique.

Optimism bias

Psychologists who study the relationship between thinking styles and behaviour have discovered that people who think optimistically behave differently to those who think pessimistically. People who are optimistic tend to be more positive in the way they think, believing that they are more in control of their lives. In turn, they believe that more positive outcomes will occur than negative outcomes for them in comparison to their peers.

Normally, when optimistic people experience negative events they tend to brush them aside, not as failure, but more as a temporary setback, most likely caused by bad luck or unfortunate circumstances.

Typically, optimistic people do not take things personally if they fail, instead, they tend to view the failure as just one incident and had nothing to do with their overall ability. Optimistic people do not tend to spend a lot of time on reflection after failure because they still feel that in the future they will still be able to avoid any future negative events.

Psychologists argue that, as a result of their thinking habits, optimists are happier than pessimists and tend to make much better progress towards achieving their goals. They have a strong sense of control and disregard for failure. The negative side to this is they tend to take more risks and in turn this factor on the road can cause horrific outcomes.

Optimistic people have an exaggerated sense of control, believing nothing unfortunate will happen to them. The other person going through a stop sign illegally may be in danger but if they did, because they have better reflexes and skills will be able to avoid the crash. For this reason they do not believe that they need to be as cautious as those negative thinking unskilled drivers with conservative views and driving habits.

Unrealistic optimism and driving

There are links between unrealistic optimism and risk taking in driving. Unrealistic optimism is common in most drivers. The research of many



road safety experts, often conclude with findings that many average drivers consider themselves to be of above average and less likely to be involved in a crash than their peers.

Source: Framework of Driver Education, 1997

Following are examples of thought processes that may fuel this perception They provide a guide to the teaching approach needed to align the drivers' thinking more accurately: 'I learnt to drive in only eight lessons and passed my test the first

time.'

'I have good reflexes and so l am more likely to avoid a crash.'

'I'm told driving is dangerous but I haven't crashed.'

'I've driven in some pretty tough conditions and managed to control the car OK.'

'I see information which says crashes are common but I haven't crashed.'

'I've driven thousands of kilometres and made very few serious mistakes.'

'I see other drivers making mistakes all the time.'

'I can guess which people are most likely to crash by the stupid things they do.'

'I must be less likely to crash and if I do crash it's move bad luck than bad management.'

It is important that part of your driver training strategy addresses problems associated with promoting optimism bias views in the learner driver. It is also important that when training licensed drivers who display a optimistic view that you show their limitations both in vehicle control and those relating to perception and risk taking. Your training strategy must include the recognition of failure and the importance of learning to reflect on this failure to minimise risk in the future from other drivers and their own behaviour.

Attribution theory

Source:-‐ Framework of Driver Education, 1997

When people explain what they think caused an event, their description is based on what may be called their worldview. A worldview is constructed over time, in response to answers given to a series of questions: 'Why did that happen?' or 'What caused that?' Such a process starts very early in life and continues whenever something new or unexpected is experienced. This world view may lead people to see themselves as having caused either all or part of an



event, or it may lead them to see the cause as being outside their control.

Causal attribution theory is a psychological theory that argues that people who attribute the cause of an event to factors outside their control will behave differently to those who take all or some responsibility for the cause of those events. Taking responsibility for the cause of an event is called internalising. For situations that have an undesired outcome, internalising could be described as having a 'my mistake view. Attributing cause to other factors, such as other people or just bad luck', is called externalising.

The attribution theory suggests that people with a 'my mistake' worldview will be more cautious in risky situations. To avoid causing problems, they anticipate problematic events. When they make mistakes, they recognise the part they play and look for ways to avoid repeating the mistake.

People who internalise are more likely to give themselves useful feedback on their performance than people who externalise. However, internalising in itself will not guarantee improved performance. Knowledge is necessary, both of the specific cause and of what may lead to the solution, otherwise the ''why?' questions may be answered incorrectly. Hence, with the appropriate knowledge and skill and internal worldview, explanations may be explored and improvements made. With an external view, knowledge is largely used only to provide excuses.

Causal attribution and driving

Source: Framework of Driver Education, 1997

The causal attribution theory presents itself as a powerful tool for improving driver skill and, more importantly, driving behaviour. Learning experiences should aim at producing, in students, a world view that:-‐ Recognises failure when it occurs and situations that could have

resulted in failure;

Asks challenging and appropriate Why?' questions;

Seeks explanations that point to internal factors;

Provides achievable solutions.

It is important that the novice or licence driver take ownership of all events and internalises their world view as part of this ownership.

As a trainer how you comment on potential danger can have an effect on whether the driver internalises or externalise the problem.



'Look out for bad drivers' can develop an external view.

Recognise where the other driver can make mistakes and crash with you, can develop an internal view. The novice driver must learn to recognise other drivers mistakes to be able to internalise.

Recognise optional responses

Drivers should learn to describe optional courses of action and how much time they have to take this action in response to potential hazards. They should also be able to evaluate which response is more appropriate, discussing the reasons based on hazard priortisation. It is important for them to discuss the problems with inaction.

Risk acceptance

The driver should be able to justify the factors which shape their own personal level of risk acceptance, discussing what level of risk they judge decision making by.

Retry/abort

If the drivers first choice is not appropriate, then they must be able to quickly reassess potential danger and re-‐alter course appropriate to prevent danger of collision.

Motor skills

The drivers must have competent psychomotor skills in order to properly execute the intended action whilst the vehicle is under total control. They should be able to verbalise their decision based on what could effect vehicle control.

Novice drivers risk acceptance

Jonah (1986) provides a good summary of research on the positive and negative value (or “disutility”) of risk for young drivers. He summarises suggested positive utilities such as: outlet for stress, impressing others, increasing stimulation or arousal, taking control and acting independently, opposing adult authority, frustration, fear of failure at school, and peer acceptance.

Based on Finnish data, Summala suggests that it takes about 50,000 kilometres (30,000 miles) of driving “before a young driver has satisfied his strongest extra motives and learnt to use the car rationally or as rationally as the older experienced driver:



The value of safety

A competent driver who values safety, bases this safety on motivations that encompasses the following: They highly value life, both their own and others as well as property

in our society.

They understand and apply the road rules to minimise confusion by their own behaviour with others on the road.

They understand what a risk is and how to priorities and protect themselves on the approach to them.

Is aware of the potential consequences of accidents.

How to promote safe driving behaviour

The behaviour of drivers is seldom governed by altruistic motives (ie. unselfish regard for others). Training should prepare drivers with an attitude to preserve their own safety.

Human behaviour is generally motivated more powerfully by self-‐preservation. Therefore, you should aim to make reduced risk-‐driving strategies a personal motivation for survival (defensive driving).

The world view attitudes to road sense

Attitude

Attitude determines how knowledge and skills will be used. It determines whether a driver will be cooperative or competitive in traffic, whether he or she will accept a high level of risk or put into practice the concepts taught in defensive driving courses.

As a practice your biggest contribution to your child's safety and effectiveness behind the wheel will be from your example. Patience, courtesy and a willingness to improve will be your greatest assets.

The safety effects of good driving skills appear to be offset by overconfidence and increased exposure to risk. Well trained novice drivers become licensed sooner and drive more, in part because of their own increased confidence, but also because their parents often give them more freedom to drive.



Hazard perception, risk evaluation, and risk acceptance

What drivers are able to do and what they choose to do are two different things. Knowledge of how to control a car is not as critical to safety as individual motivation. Strong motivation makes up for weak skills more so than strong skills make up for weak motivation. Without strong motivation to reduce risk, advanced driving skills can lead to more crashes, not fewer.

Risk acceptance is not the same thing as crash acceptance. Few drivers will take a risk if they know it will result in a crash. Instead, risky choices result from poor risk perception and the inability to detect hazards often coupled with overconfidence. Good risk detection, good risk evaluation and strong motivation may support each other. However, if driver education is to produce safer drivers it must reinforce the individual and community factors that positively influence personal motivation and social responsibility.

Attention

Attention is meant to include alertness, arousal, and vigilance that are essentially 'internal' predispositions in respond to the environment. Attention drives the searching, scanning, and noticing that the driver does. It is assumed that attention is both automatic and controllable by deliberate action of the driver, and that the quality of this control can improve through experience. Critical factors in control of attention are dividing it over the many driving tasks and switching the allocation of attention. Attention must be distributed among different areas (eg., ahead v's. behind) and different categories of objects or information (eg., objects in the road v's. instruments)

It is possible to be 'paying attention' and still miss important information in the environment because of scanning or other detection or perception failures. Our model assumes that attention is necessary but not sufficient for the detection of visual targets and other information input.

Alertness

Recognise effects of impaired states on alertness

Alertness is fundamental to attention and novices should understand the range of possible levels of alertness and be able to identify the internal states and external factors that can effect it. They should be



able to assess and recognise symptoms of fatigue, preoccupation, and substance effects.



Section 5

Evasive Action



Another car coming head on

It is important not to assume that the other driver is on the wrong side of the road because it could be you.

Remember your greatest braking potential is on a sealed road, so reduce speed as much as possible in case you have to leave the road.

Flash headlights to high beam a short bursts as an awareness tool, not a blinding tool and blow the horn as well.

Look for an escape to the left, even if it means leaving the road, selecting a place where you will not collide with a tree or pole.

Do not attempt to swerve to the right because the other driver is likely to instinctively swerve to the left and even if you miss that car you may hit following vehicles.

Skidding

Remember there are three types of skids, front wheel, rear wheel and four wheel. Unless you have been trained to recognise the various types of skids as well as trained to apply the specific remedy for each type of skid:-‐ the best general advice you can give to a novice driver is whatever you were doing with the brake, accelerator or steering wheel when the skid started, ease off gently and steadily and undertake the following:

Κ Release any braking or acceleration that has been applied.

Κ Reduce any acceleration that may be the skid.

Κ If the vehicle starts to oversteer then turn the steering wheel into the skid being careful not to oversteer.

If the vehicle starts to understeer then it is important to straighten the wheel to regain traction and steering control. If you still need to brake in order to reduce speed, it is important to reduce the speed enough so that if you need to turn you are able to while still maintaining traction. Be prepared in case the vehicle starts to oversteer.

If you are unable to regain control and there is danger of collision then it is important to brake heavily to stop the vehicle in case the vehicle is in a four wheel skid.



Note: If the vehicle you are driving does not have ABS and you have to brake and steer around a hazard it is import to steer the vehicle in the intended direction before applying an emergency braking technique.

Foot brake failure

Foot brake failure has been very rare since the mid 1970's due to a dual circuit braking system which means two separate independent hydraulic systems. Basically if there is a failure then whichever system fails normally does not work on all four wheels the other system should apply enough pressure to slow the vehicle down.

If the brakes fail the following is the recommended procedure:

Pump the brake pedal in order to try and increase hydraulic pressure.

Apply the hand brake holding the button in order to gauge maximum brake potential before wheel lockup.

Change back to a lower gear both in a manual or automatic vehicle.

Be prepare in case vehicle starts to weave.

Brake fade

Brake fade occurs when the brakes have been used excessively, such as when going down a mountain road or when regularly stopping starting at high speeds. As the brakes heat up, it decreases brake efficiency which in turn increases stopping distance.

Accelerator sticking

It is important to remember that novice drivers when learning can press the brake and accelerator at the same time, especially if they are wear large heavy shoes.

If your vehicle has a kill switch to shut down the motor use it if there is danger of collision.

If the vehicle does not have a kill switch and there is danger of collision you must disengages the motor.

In a manual car you can depress the clutch pedal or knock the vehicle into neutral. (The motor will start to over rev, so it will be



important to turn off the ignition taking care not to turn the key back to the steering lock position.

Remember, brake and steering efficiency may be effected, so be prepared to come to the assistance of the driver.

If you are driving and the accelerator sticks then you can turn off the ignition taking care not to turn the key back to the steering lock position.

Be prepared for the steering to become heavy if fitted with power steering and the brake effectiveness to be reduced.

You can leave the vehicle in gear especially in a manual where the motor will help with braking.

Steering failure

If the steering fails and the vehicle is pointing in the direction you are intending to go and there is no danger of collision, it may be best to allow the vehicle to slow down naturally unless the hand brake operates on the front wheels. If the hand brake is used, it is important that you do not lock up the wheels potentially causing the vehicle to alter course. If the vehicle is not a front wheel drive then you may then change back gears at points where there will be minimum motor compression in slowing.

If there is potential danger of collision with vehicles, pedestrians or objects you will have no choice but to brake in an emergency and provided that there is no road camber the vehicle should slide to a stop in a straight line wherever the vehicle was headed.

Punctures and blowouts

You have different types of tyre blowouts creating unique handling reaction in the vehicle depending on whether it is front, rear or multiple tyres have been effected.

Rear wheel tyre blowouts

The rear of the vehicle may start to weave and if practical you should let the vehicle slow down naturally.

If you require a quick stop, leaving in mind that the weight moves forward under braking, the vehicle should stop in a fairly straight line.

Front wheel tyre blowouts



Steering will become a problem and if the hand brake operates on the rear wheels then if can used by holding and adjusting the button in case the rear wheels start to lock.

If in a front wheel drive vehicle, do not change down gears because of engine compression.

If you must brake to avoid danger collision, do it as gently as possible, expecting the vehicle to alter course relevant to the wheels with most grip.

The bonnet flies up!

Look for a gap under the bonnet to see ahead or look out of the driver's side window.

Brake smoothly and pull over where it is safe and practical.

Tie the bonnet down with wire or rope for additional security, even if it appears to be OK after inspection.

Broken windscreens

Most modern vehicles have laminated windscreens so they do not shatter from flying stones.

If the windscreen of an older vehicle was to shatter, then you must:

Stop the vehicle in a safe position as soon as practicable, looking out of the side window to improve visibility.

Once you have stopped it is important to remove all glass and if you have some adhesive tape, it could be used to hold the glass in a position to make it easier to remove without collapsing into the vehicle in hundreds of pieces.

You will need to make a decision, as to which direction you will push the windscreen and this will be relevant to whether you have a sheet or rug to catch the glass.

It is important to remember that even if you think most of the glass has been removed when you drive along you still might get glass particles in your eyes. For this reason, it is important to wear some form of eye protection.



It is important to drive slowly with the side windows up to minimise the amount of wind flow, in effect, pressurising the cabin but you must be careful to not pop out the rear window.

Overheating vehicle

The most important thing if the vehicle is overheating, is to stop the vehicle in a safe place and turn the engine off.

You should wait until the motor cools down before attempting to evaluate the cause of overheating. At no stage, while the motor is hot should you remove the radiator cap or open the header tank cap.

If you use a rag to slowly release the radiator cap while the motor is still hot it important to release cap in stages to reduce the pressure. Remember adding cold water can cause hot metal to crack so it is advisable to continue running the motor while you add water extremely slowly.

Fire

If a vehicle catches fire it is important that the safety of passengers and the community is put first. If the vehicle runs on LPG then it is best to leave the fire to be extinguished by professional fire fighters.

If the you have no choice to put the fire out then the following factors must be taken into account.

Remember you must lift the bonnet very slowly trying to minimise exposure of extra oxygen to the fire.

Turn the ignition off and if it is an electrical fire and there is no danger from the flames, disconnect one of the battery terminal leads.

Use an appropriate fire extinguisher.

Do not use water on petrol fires.

If you are unable to gain access to a fire extinguisher then use a rug, sand or dirt as an alternative.

Bush fires

The golden rule, if possible, is never get caught in a bush fire.



If you are caught in a bush fire and the fire is about to pass over you, then it is safer to stay inside the vehicle.

You should close all windows and doors and make the car as airtight as possible by closing or blocking the air vents.

Move the front seats as far as possible forward, lying on the back floor with the front seat angled slightly over you to help protect you from the heat. If available cover yourself with a rug.

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