tigers in trouble

Introduction

• 5 subspecies of tigers existing today– Amur or Siberian (Panthera tigris altaica)– Bengal (Panthera tigris tigris)– South China (Panthera tigris amoyensis)– Sumatran (Panthera tigris sumatrae)– Indochinese (Panthera tigris corbetti)

Extinct Tigers

• Javan (Panthera tigris sondaica)• Bali (Panthera tigris balica)• Caspian (Panthera tigris virgata)

Extinct Tigers-Javan

• Last seen in 1972• Prime causes for extinction

– Poisons (poisoned boar)– Encroachment of

plantations• These coincided w/ a loss

of large ungulate prey base• Currently no room for

tigers on Java

Extinct Tigers-Bali• Believed to have gone

extinct in 1937• The Dutch colonization in

1910 brought– Plantations– Hunters

• Similar losses of habitat as the Javan

• Currently no room on Bali for tigers

Extinct Tigers-Caspian• Last one reportedly shot in 1959• Preferred reed beds, but these were reclaimed as ag land• Probably also due to civil unrest

Amur (Siberian) Tiger• Largest subspecies of

all tigers• Males

– nearly 11 feet long – weighing in around

660 pounds• Females

– up to 8 1/2 feet long– weighing about 200 to

370 pounds.

Amur (Siberian) Tiger

Amur (Siberian) Tiger• Distinguished from the other

subspecies by– Wider spaced brown stripes– Paler orange fur– White belly fur– Thicker, longer hair with thick neck

tuft

Amur (Siberian) Tiger• Currently around 400 survive in the wild

Russia, China and possibly N.Korea• Numbers and range have shrunk

dramatically in the past 100 years with a recent increased declines since the 1990’s

• Important that 400 may not be the actual “effective population”

Amur (Siberian) Tiger• Causes of the population declines

– Poaching– Habitat loss

• Habitat loss arrived in eastern Russia with the railroads.


• Habitat requirements of the Siberian tiger– Not really any for the tigers per se– BUT, their food does have habitat requirements– Red Deer (Cervus eluphus xanthropygus)

• Prefer forests with small openings– Wild Boar (Sus scrofa)

• Prefer forests with mast producing trees• Primarily Korean Pine (Pinus koraiensis)• Probably also Mongolian Oak (Quercus mongolica)

Amur (Siberian) Tiger• Habitat loss

– Widespread deforestation– Large scale harvest of Korean Pine

• Primary effects of habitat loss– Creation of a sink for dispersing tigers– Loss of habitat for prey

• Why?– Increased encounters with humans– Increased depredations increased license hunting – Gives false impression of population size due to more visible

tigers


• Why? contd.– Large home ranges

• Female 200-400 km2

• Male 800-1000 km2

• Male home ranges typically overlap 2 or 3 female home ranges

Amur (Siberian) Tiger• Habitat Protection• Protect what is left

(save what you can now, think about improvements later)– Primary concern areas

are those with with pristine forest remaining

– No permanent signs of humans should exist

Amur (Siberian) Tiger• Secondary areas of

emphasis should be those forests that are 90% intact, but some logging is taking place.– Only selective logging

would be allowed– This would leave only

small gaps– Logging roads would be

closed when not in use

• Tertiary areas of concern are those of mixed land uses where 70% forest remains– Mixed land uses would

persist– Human operations

would be closed whenever possible


• Most importantly for all three areas of protection concern– Maintain a large

ungulate prey base• Concentrate on

habitat for tiger prey

Amur (Siberian) Tiger• Tiger corridors

– May provide cover to allow tigers to disperse

– Could help prevent the “sink” effect of open areas

– Would probably allow enough dispersal for a reasonable genetic flow between fragmented populations

– Would increase the “effective” population size

– Do not, however, provide home range habitat (too narrow)

Panthera tigris tigris The Bengal Tiger

Distribution, Life History, Population

• Distributions-The Bengal tiger occurs primarily throughout India, with smaller populations in southern Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and western Myanmar

Population• According to Peter Jacksons’ editorial in May of 1998 the

numbers of Bengal Tigers are as follows:• Bangladesh-362 individuals • Bhutan-91 adults• China-35 individuals • India-3,750 individuals • Myanmar-231individuals • Nepal-97 adults

Life History• Size

Male Bengal tigers average 2.9 meters (9 1/2 feet) from head to tail and weigh about 220 kilograms (480 pounds). Females are smaller, measuring about 2.5 meters (8 feet) in length and weighing approximately 140 kilograms (300 pounds).

White Tigers• A popular attraction in

zoos, white tigers in the wild were recorded in India during the Mughal Period from 1556 to 1605 AD

• At least 17 instances were recorded in India between 1907 and 1933 in Orissa, Bilaspur, Sohagpur and Rewa

• But mostly found in zoos today.

South China Tiger

• An estimated 20-30 individuals South China tigers still exist in the wild. Currently 47 South China tigers live in 18 zoos, all in China.The South China tiger is the most critically endangered of all tiger subspecies.

South China Distribution

South China Tiger• Chinese specialists believe

between 20 and 30 tigers are still left in the wild. The last time a wild tiger was seen in the wild was 10 years ago. These facts suggest that the South China tiger is the rarest of the five living tiger subspecies, the most threatened, and the closest to extinction.

General Information• The South China tiger is one

of the smallest tiger subspecies

• Males are ~150 kilograms (330 pounds)

• Females are ~110 kilograms (240 pounds)

• Because there are so few wild South China tigers, and they have rarely been seen, very little is know about them at this point in time

• The tiger is a favorite subject of Chinese artists, depicted as fierce and powerful

Biology• Age: The life span the South China and Bengal in the wild

is about 10 to 15 years. Tigers in zoos live to be around 16 and 20 years old.

• Fur: Tiger hair length varies geographically. In the southern subspecies the hairs are short (approximately 7 to 20 mm on the back and 15 to 35 mm on the stomach).

• Claws: The forefeet have five toes and the hind feet have four toes. All toes have claws. The claws are 3-4 inches.

• Teeth: Adult tigers have 30 large teeth. The length of the canine teeth can be between 2.5 to 3 inches.

• Chromosomes: Chromosomes are arranged in pairs and there are 19 pairs or 38 total.

Food• Bengal and South China

tigers prey primarily on wild deer and bovids.

Management Implications• According to the study by James Smith et al.

Tigers must have the following in order to have a viable population

• Very high ratio of good to excellent habitat– When the “good” habitat in less that 50% breeding

tigers will not occur in the area. If it drops to less than 30% no tigers will be found

• Little or no metapopulations• Stop poaching• Stop or decrease habitat loss• Increase prey number

– The prey numbers are down because of habitat loss

“Good Habitat”• Tropical evergreen and

deciduous forests • Coniferous, scrub oak, and

birch woodlands• The mangrove swamps, and dry

thorn forests of northwestern India, and the tall grass jungles at the foot of Himalayas

• The tiger's habitat requirements can be summarized as: some form of dense vegetative cover, sufficient large ungulate prey and access to water.

Loss of Habitat• Much of the forest and almost all of the grasslands have

gone as a growing human population converts them to land for settlement and agriculture.

• In Nepal, between 1990 and 1995, 1.1 percent of the country’s forest cover was lost each year.

• Habitat loss has resulted in fragmented tiger distributions in Nepal. (ultimately decreasing the population)

• Many of these populations are currently too small to have long term viability

Poaching• Tiger parts are used in traditional Chinese medicine, in the form of

tiger bone wine and tiger plasters. • Primary consumers of tiger products are Chinese communities

throughout the world. • Drastic rise in tiger poaching was first noticed in 1990. • If the present worldwide rate of poaching continues for three to six

more years, many tiger populations may be extinct• They are protected by the Convention in International Trade in

Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES) • Nepal has had serious problems at the national level with endangered

species trade control and CITES enforcement, serving as an important

conduit in the illegal trade of tiger parts.

Sumatran Tigers» Panthera tigris sumatrae

Distribution• Sumatran tigers are only

found on the island of Sumatra

• About 400 to 500 Sumatran tigers live in the wild, mostly in the island's five national parks. Another 235 Sumatran tigers live in zoos around the world

Life History• What do Sumatran

Tigers look like?– Sumatran tigers are the

smallest subspecies of tiger. It has the darkest coat of all tigers. Its broad, black stripes are closely spaced and often doubled. Unlike the Siberian tiger, it has striped forelegs

Life History

• Weight– Male Sumatran tigers weigh

about 264 pounds– Female Sumatran tigers

weigh about 198 pounds• Length

– Male Sumatran tigers average 8 feet from head to tail

– Female Sumatran tigers are smaller, about 7 feet in length.

Food• The Sumatran tiger

eats wild pig, rusa deer, muntjak or barking deer which is a smaller deer

Habitat• The Sumatran tiger is

found in habitat that ranges from lowland forest to sub mountain and mountain forest with some peat-moss forest

• Population density in these areas are about 4-5 tigers per 100km²

Deforestation and Poaching• Deforestation is

depriving tigers of needed habitat leading to subpopulations

• Poaching is accelerating leading from deforestation; Tigers are easier to find in these areas of less habitat

Conservation• Sumatran Tiger Project

– This is a long-term field study designed to develop a cost-effective field census system for wild tigers using ground-based census counts, remote camera census, and radio-telemetry that can be modified and used as a model for long-term population monitoring in Way Kambas and other protected areas. Researchers will establish a set of life history characteristics that will be critical in developing effective interactive management strategies for wild populations

Conservation• Sumatran Tiger Project

cont.– The project is also looking

to educate the people and allocate forest resources in tiger habitat

– This project has been ongoing for multiple years and is keeping track of the number of tigers in each area through several methods of observation

Conservation• Mark-recapture efforts

– This is a similar grid system that is used in estimating the tiger populations in Sumatra

– Study by Karanth and Nichols (1998) in India estimated the density for tiger populations (by capture-recapture) and their prey base (by line transects)

Location Tiger density

Ungulate density

Habitat typeKanha 15.60 4.5 Tropical moist evergreen forestKaziranga 22.40 16.9 Alluvial grasslandNagarahole 15.33 8.7 Tropical moist evergreen forestPench 9.9 11.0 Tropical moist evergreen forest

Tiger Mark-Recapture

Indochinese Tigers» Panthera tigris corbetti

Distribution• The majority of

Indochinese tigers are centered in Thailand. They are also found in Myanmar, southern China, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, and peninsular Malaysia

• About 1,050-1,750 tigers are left in the wild. About 60 live in zoos, mostly in Asia, with a few in the U.S.A.

Life History• What do Indochinese

tigers look like?– Look a lot like Bengal

tigers, but are a bit smaller and darker, with shorter, narrower stripes

Life History• Weight

– Male Indochinese tigers weigh about 400 pounds– Female Indochinese tigers weigh about 250 pounds

• Length– Male Indochinese tigers average 9 feet from head to tail– Female Indochinese tigers are smaller, about 8 feet in

length

Food• The Indochinese tiger

eats wild pig, wild deer and wild cattle

Habitat• Live in remote forests in

hilly to mountainous terrain, much of which lies along the borders between countries

• Population densities in these areas are similar to the Sumatran tiger which is 4 to 5 adult tigers/100 km2

Conservation• Access to tiger habitat is often restricted,

and biologists have only recently been granted limited permits for field surveys.

• As a result, relatively little is know about the status of these tigers in the wild.

Conservation• At this point, very little has been done in

Indochinese tiger management. Since the inability to access tiger habitat, only talk has started in the last years.

• There have been a couple of workshops held to plan for conserving the tigers– Masterplan workshop held at Khao Kheow Open Zoo,

Thailand, 17-20 July 1995 – Tiger GIS Workshop Royal Forest Department,

Bangkok, Thailand, 21-31 Jan. 1996

Conservation• After the workshops the main concerns

right now are to maintain a healthy stock of tigers in zoos, mostly in Thailand

• Deforestation, educating the people, and controlling the poaching is the main management implications so far

Protection in Vietnam• Laws protecting tigers and tiger concerns

– Decree 39/CP, 1963 on regulation of hunting for wildlife. Tiger was one of 4 limited hunting species.

– Regulation (1972) on forest protection. – Decision 276/QD (1989) promulgating ban on hunting, trading of tiger and

37 other species. – Law for forest protection and development (1991). – Decree 18/HDBT (1992) stipulates management and protection of rare and

precious species of flora and fauna. Tiger is one of 49 species and subspecies of complete ban on hunting and using.

– Decree 14/CP stipulates system of penalties for violation on forest protection. – In 1994 Vietnam has joint to CITES for more effective control of wildlife

trade including tiger. – March 1995, subregional tiger workshop held in Hanoi to establish Action

plan for tiger conservation in Vietnam, Laos, Kampuchea

Status of Captive Tigers• 20% of the entire tiger

population is studbook-registered:– 475 Siberian– 235 Sumatran– 300 Bengal– 50 South China– 35 Indochinese

• These do not include tigers in circuses, private facilities, or non-participating zoos throughout the world.

•Do not contribute to breeding programs

Tigers in Zoos

Captive Management• Species Survival Plans

(SSP)– Objective: Preservation of

wildlife both as species and as components of ecosystems

– Cooperative management programs for the AZA (American Zoo and Aquarium Association)

• Reinforce, not replace, wild populations

Gene pools…

are becoming puddles

AZA Tiger SSP• Manage 3 of the 5

remaining subspecies– 102 member institutions

with 277 tigers:• 154 Siberian; goal=175 • 54 Sumatran; goal=175• 10 Indochinese; goal=75• Bengal; goal=75• 59 generic tigers

• Goal: 90% genetic diversity for the next 100-200 years

• Use breeding programs in zoos to produce genetically diverse individuals

SSP Masterplan• Strength of the plan lies

within the biological database for each animal =Studbook– Computerized database

containing genetic, demographic and relevant biological information about zoo animals worldwide

– Avoid inbreeding– Preserve genetic diversity– International

Breeding Programs• Artificial insemination

– Placing sperm into the females vagina

– Not very successful (only 1 cub)

– Tiger ovulation is induced by mating

• In vitro fertilization– Eggs from female and

sperm from male– Fertilized in lab– Injected into female– Has produced a litter of

3 cubs

More Breeding• “Frozen zoos”

– Sperm and eggs preserved in nitrogen

– Not yet successful, but promising

• Reproductive research– Monitor ovarian cycles– Improve assisted

reproduction technology

– Genetic resource bank

• Naturally– The recommended

method– SSP recommends when,

who will be moved to zoos for breeding

The Ethics of Captive Animals

“Circus” tigers and “zoo” tigers have diverging interests

The Ethics of Captive Animals• Dallas zoo: remodeled

– $4.5 million– 1 acre of habitat which

resembles a rainforest that has recently been logged

– Now have enough room to implement captive breeding (SSP)

• Private Facilities

Poaching

• Trade in tiger bone– Major factor that

threatens survival– Used for thousands of

years in Asian medicine for treatment of rheumatism

• Some statistics from the early 90’s– South Korea imported

9000kg of bone over 24 years (1970-1994)

• About 750 skeletons

– Taiwan imported 12,000kg over 10 years (1980-1990)

– China is a supplier, processor and consumer

Tiger bone wine

“Killed for a Cure”Judy A. Mills and Peter Jackson

• 1994 TRAFFIC report– Documented the importance of the tiger trade– Increased national and international awareness

• November 1994– CITES passed a resolution to prohibit domestic trade of

tiger bone– Also called for a ban on using tiger parts in traditional

medicine•All subspecies, except Siberian, of tigers and their derivatives were banned from international trade under CITES in 1975. •Siberian in 1987

Progress in Tiger Trade• Supply

– More seizures of goods– Prices are lower– Major supplying markets

disappeared• Processing

– Manufacture has stopped in many countries

– China now substitutes sailong (mole rat)

– Medicines that are found are old stock

• Demand– Availability has

declined– Consumers now support

wildlife conservation• International Trade

– More countries join CITES

Trade Continues• Illegal supply market still operate (Cambodia, Indonesia, Vietnam)• Processing markets label medicines incorrectly• Domestic retail trade in Japan, China, Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia • International trade through “an army of ants”= large number of

people smuggling small volumes of goods

What to do• Improved enforcement

on trade bans, especially international

• Increase penalties for poaching

• Raise conservation awareness

• More research to help distinguish between real and fake tiger parts and products

• Adopt a tiger– $2000

• Eviction of humans from tiger habitat

• Conservation Education

Decline Over Last 100 Years

tigers in trouble

Environment