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Theories Informing Leadership

Standards/Chapters

Theorists/Researchers Theory/Postulate OrganizationalArea

Implications for Leadership

Standards1- 6

Chapter 2

Barth

Bennis

Characteristics ofEffective Leaders

LeadershipDefined

Leaders should be servants, coaching,influencing, and empowering subordinates toparticipate in building learning communities.

Leaders manage meaning, self, trust, andattention. Activities include planning,organizing, and monitoring.

• Leaders concern themselves with “doing theright thing.” Managers concern themselveswith “doing things right.” Activities includeattention, meaning, trust, and self.

• Leaders manage meaning by being highlycommitted to a vision that is compelling.

• Leaders manage meaning when they use wordsand symbols to make ideas seem real andtangible to others.

• Leaders manage trust by demonstrating thatthey are reliable and congruent so people knowthe beliefs for which they stand.

• Leaders know their skills and use themeffectively.

• Leaders learn from mistakes and focus onsuccess rather than on failure.

Leaders who are both task oriented andrelationship oriented have the best productionrecord.

Bowers

Conger

Coons

Depree

Gardner

Gulick and Urwick

relationship oriented have the best productionrecord.

Leadership involves the ability of an individualto influence others to pursue defined goals andobjectives.

• Leadership involves establishing relationshipswith individuals affiliated with theorganization sufficient to gain theircommitment.

• Leadership involves acquiring knowledge ofindividuals and situations.

Leadership is the behavior an individualdisplays when directing a group toward goalattainment.

Leaders provide clear vision, identifystrategies, and establish policies that willenable followers to share and achieve thevision.

Leadership is a process that consists ofelements that are interactive and influential.

• Today’s leadership involves working withindividuals to establish teams and motivatethem to focus on the vision of the school toshare leadership responsibility. To accomplishthis, the leader must use the power of influencethat can best be displayed through the use ofmotivation.

Gulick and Urwick expanded Fayol’s fivebasic organizational functions to seven:

Senge

Sergiovanni

Smith

Leading inLearningcommunities

o Planningo Budgetingo Reportingo Organizingo Directingo Coordinatingo Staffing


• Leaders are responsible for helping individualsexpand their capacity to shape their future; inessence, leaders are responsible for subordinatelearning.

• In learning communities people continuouslyseek new knowledge that can be used toaddress organizational needs and achievedesired goals. New and expansive patterns ofthinking are nurtured, collective aspiration isset free, and people are continuously learninghow to learn and work together.


• The leader recognizes each person as anindividual who has his or her own set ofexpectations and beliefs and understands thatthese inner forces are the prime motivators forachievement.

Stogdill

Ohio StateStudies

these inner forces are the prime motivators forachievement.

• The prime motivators for achievement are theinner forces that drive an individual’sexpectations and beliefs.

Leadership is the behavior an individualdisplays when directing a group toward goalattainment.• Even though leaders exhibit some general

managerial advantages over non-leadersrelative to some characteristics and traits,there are no characteristics or traitsexhibited by leaders that are clearlysuperior to non-leaders.

• Leaders with one set of traits might besuccessful in one situation but not inothers. Also, leaders with the same traitsmight be successful in different situations.

Blake and Mouton The ManagerialGrid(Production/People)

LeadershipStyle

Five leadership styles emerge from Blake andMouton’s Managerial Grid:

o Country Club: Even if production isless than desired, leaders place majoremphasis on developing good relationsamong colleagues and subordinates.

o Authority Obedience: Power,authority, and control are used tomaximize production.

o Impoverished Management: Theleader completes the minimumrequirements necessary to remainemployed.

Hanson

Hersey andBlanchard

SituationalLeadership Theory

requirements necessary to remainemployed.

o Organization Non-management:Leaders maintain the status quo anddisplay an attitude of go-along-to-get-along.

o Team Management: Leadersemphasize a high concern for both taskcompletion and maintenance of positiveinterpersonal relationships. (This styleis superior to all others.)

The major factor to be considered in achievingsuccess with situational leadership theory isselecting the leadership style that is appropriatefor the specific situation and the individuals ofthe group involved.

Hersey and Blanchard’s leadershipeffectiveness model consists of two dimensionsof leader behavior:

o Task: The extent to which the leaderengages in one-way communication byexplaining what is to be done, how it is tobe done, and when it is to be completed.

o Relationship: The extent to which theleader engages in two-way communicationto provide supportive and facilitativebehaviors.

Lewin, Lippit, andWhite

Iowa Studies

Four combinations (results) arepossible:

Q1). High task and low-relationshipleaders choose a “directing” style ofleadership—provides the followerwith specific instructions regardingthe completion of a task and closelysupervises the performance of thesubordinate through the process.

Q2). High-task and high-relationship leaders choose a“coaching” style of leadership—gives specific directions, closelysupervises the task, explainsdirections, solicits suggestions, andsupports the progress toward taskcompletion.

Q3). High relationship and low taskleads to a “supportive” style ofleadership- the leader facilitates andsupports the efforts of subordinatestoward task accomplishment andshares responsibility for decisionmaking with them.

Q4). Low relationship and low task-leads to a “delegating” style ofleadership—the leader turns overleadership responsibility tosubordinates.

The productivity of subordinates can beclassified in three styles:

o Autocratic-style leaders are very direct,and decision making and power arecentralized in the role of the leader. Intoday’s schools this style is leasteffective.

and decision making and power arecentralized in the role of the leader. Intoday’s schools this style is leasteffective.

o Democratic-style leadershipemphasizes shared decision making andviewing the follower as an equal. Intoday’s schools this style is mosteffective.

o Laissez-faire-style leaders givecomplete freedom to the group anddisplay little concern for completing ajob. Subordinates are left to makedecisions on their own. This style ispreferable over the autocratic style.

Standards 5and 6

Chapter 5

Blanchard, Oncken,and Burows

Likert

Vroom and Jago

OrganizationalDecisionMaking

Organizational challenges should be shared.Therefore, leaders should identify problemsthat fall within the realm of followers andempower them to share in the decision-makingprocess.

When followers participate in the decision-making process, they tend to reach higherlevels of satisfaction and performance.

• Follower participation does not ensure highmorale. However, when leaders use the kind ofpractices that result in high productivity, theresult is often high morale.

The leader should establish rules to guide thedetermination of the type of leader behavior touse in decision making.

Yukl

Vroom and Yetton

use in decision making.

If followers have the skills and attributesnecessary to participate in the decision process,then, under certain conditions, they should beinvited to participate.

Decision effectiveness in a given situation candepend on:

o The amount of relevant information theleader and the follower possess.

o The amount of disagreement amongfollowers regarding the desiredalternative.

o The extent to which thedecision/problem is structured orunstructured, and the extent to whichcreativity is needed.

o The likelihood that followers willcooperate, if allowed to participate.

o The likelihood that followers will bereceptive to an autocratic decision.

• The participation of followers will result inhigher-quality decisions when they possessrelevant information and are willing toparticipate in the decision-making process.

Participation increases decision acceptance if itis not already high.

• The more influence followers have in thedecision-making process, the more they will bemotivated to implement a decision.

decision-making process, the more they will bemotivated to implement a decision.

• Several rules can be used to guide a leader indetermining the type of leader behavior to usein decision making:

o Autocratic decisions are not appropriatewhen subordinates have importantrelevant information.

o Group decisions are not appropriate ifdecision quality is important andsubordinates do not share the leader’sconcern for task goals.

o When the quality of a decision isimportant, if the leader lacks theinformation and expertise necessary toaddress the problem and the problem isunstructured, interaction should occuramong people who have the relevantinformation needed to make thedecision.

o When decision acceptance is importantand subordinates are not likely toaccept an autocratic decision, then anautocratic decision should not be madeby the leader.

o Autocratic decision procedures andindividual consultations are notrecommended when decisionacceptance is important and there islikely disagreement amongsubordinates relative to the bestalternative.

o When decision acceptance is criticaland unlikely to result from an autocraticdecision and if decision quality is not inquestion, the only appropriateprocedure for use is a group decisionprocedure.

o When decision acceptance is importantbut is not likely to occur from anautocratic decision and if followersshare the leader’s task objective,followers should be given equalpartnership in the decision process.

Standards2, 3, and 4

Chapter 3

Bolman and Deal School Culture • The interwoven pattern of beliefs, values,practices, and artifacts that specify for facultymembers, students, parents, and stakeholderswho they are and how they are to functiondefines the culture of the school.


Chapter 3

Hersey andBlanchard

Boyatzes and Skelly

OrganizationalBehavior

An organization is a social system composedof many interrelated subsystems(administrative, economic/technological,informational/decision-making, human/social),which interact with the external environment.Schools fall within this realm.

An individual’s capability, or competencies,will have significant influence on theeffectiveness of that individual’s jobperformance. The beliefs, values, andbehaviors an individual brings into theschoolhouse also have that potential and areinfluenced by the era that individual represents.


Chapter 2


Chapter 3

Greenleaf

Owens

Schein OrganizationalStructure

influenced by the era that individual represents.• The values held by individuals working in

schools largely determine their willingness towork and the amount of effort they will exertto be effective in completing an assigned task.

Individuals in schools have a common purpose,a shared vision, and seek mutual goals. Peopleare drawn to leaders who first have a vision toserve others and a willingness, when necessary,to experience personal sacrifices in order topromote their ideas.

The organization can be most efficient andeffective by employing a set of fixed“principles,” two of which are establishing abureaucratic structure and implementingvarious systems of organizational control.

• When leaders differ relative to Theory X andTheory Y, the difference is likely to occur intheir attitudes toward people. These attitudinaldifferences are most pronounced related to themanner in which they interact with followersand the extent to which they involve followersin decision making.

An organization is the rational coordination ofthe activities of a number of people for theachievement of some common goal, throughdivision of labor and function, and through ahierarchy of authority and responsibility.

Weber’s concepts of the bureaucratic structureinclude:

Weber TheBureaucraticStructure

include:o Fixed division of laboro Hierarchy of positionso Rules to govern performanceo Terms of employmento Technical qualities for seeking

personnelo Separation of the personal rights and

property of the worker from those ofthe organization.


Chapter 3

Standards1, 2, 3, and4

Chapter 3

Brewer, Ainsworth,and Wyne

Covey

LeaderBehavior

A leader who does not acquire anunderstanding of self and how his or herbehavior affects others is subject to continuouserror.

• Leaders do not function in isolation; theirability to obtain required information andacquire resources sufficient to achieveorganization goals is influenced by the type ofrelationship that exists between the leader,members of the organization, and many otherenvironmental factors.

Effectiveness lies in a balance between thedesired results and the leader’s ability toproduce the desired results.

• Leaders must establish climates in which theybuild relationships that influence a desirewithin subordinates to achieve school goals.Priorities are set and individuals understand themission of the school, buy into that mission,have a personal vision, feel empowered toparticipate in the decision-making process, andcommunicate the benefits that will be derivedfrom mission attainment.


Chapter 4


Chapter 3


Deming

DuBrin

Garvin

House

have a personal vision, feel empowered toparticipate in the decision-making process, andcommunicate the benefits that will be derivedfrom mission attainment.

If the behavior of the leader places fear in theschool, a barrier to effective communicationwill occur. It is extremely difficult to have ahigh level of quality in the organization whenpeople are afraid.

To achieve self-understanding, individualsmust acquire and analyze knowledge aboutthemselves. It is knowledge of self that helpsindividuals understand their own dispositionsand why and how they respond to people andchallenges in the organization.

School leaders who have created learningorganizations are fostering participatorygovernance, using systematic problem-solvingtechniques, and experimenting with new

approaches.

• Leaders are also learning from their ownexperiences and past history, learning from theexperiences and best practices of others, andtransferring knowledge quickly and efficientlythroughout the organization.

Categories of leader behavior:o Supportive Leadership: A supportive leader

is approachable, maintains a pleasant workenvironment, is considerate, and showsconcern for the needs and well being ofsubordinates.

Chapter 2


Chapter 2


Chapter 3

Hoy and Miskel

Manz and Sims

McGregor

Ohio State Studies

Theory X andTheory Y

environment, is considerate, and showsconcern for the needs and well being ofsubordinates.

o Directive Leadership: A directive leadersets performance standards, letssubordinates know what is expected ofthem, schedules the work, and establishesspecific directions.

o Participative Leadership: A participativeleader consults with subordinatesconcerning work-related matters and takestheir opinion into consideration whenmaking decisions.

o Achievement-Oriented Leadership: Anachievement-oriented leader stressesexcellence in performance, sets goals thatare challenging, and shows confidence inthe ability of subordinates to achievechallenging performance standards.

Hoy and Miskel reported on Halpin’s analysisof data that High Structure/High Consideration(from Ohio studies) leads to higher satisfactionand performance among school leaders.

Leaders of today’s schools should spend timeencouraging individuals and groups andhelping them to keep up with the changes anddemands of the organization so they mightunderstand the benefits to be derived fromachieving the school’s vision.

McGregor theorized that leaders might haveone of two perceptions of follower behavior.He classified them as Theory X and Theory Y.

Theory Y one of two perceptions of follower behavior.He classified them as Theory X and Theory Y.

Theory X:o The average human being has an

inherent dislike for work and willavoid it when possible.

o Because of this humancharacteristic of dislike of work,most people must be coerced,controlled, directed, and threatenedwith punishment to get them to putforth adequate effort towardachievement of organizationalgoals.

o The average human being prefers tobe directed, wishes to avoidresponsibility, has relatively littleambition, and wants security aboveall.

Theory Y:o External control and the threat of

punishment are not the only meansfor bringing about effort towardorganizational objectives. Peoplewill exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectivesto which they are committed.

o The average human being learns,under proper conditions, not only toaccept but also to seekresponsibility. Avoidance ofresponsibility, lack of ambition, andemphasis on security are generallyconsequences of experience, notinherent human characteristics.


Chapter 2

LikertMichigan Studies

responsibility. Avoidance ofresponsibility, lack of ambition, andemphasis on security are generallyconsequences of experience, notinherent human characteristics.

o The capacity to exercise a relativelyhigh degree of imagination,ingenuity, and creativity in thesolution of organizational problemsis widely, not narrowly, distributedin the population.

There are three types of leader behavior thatcan be used to differentiate effective andineffective managers

o Task-oriented: The focus was on workstandards set for followers. Workstandards were set high, but wereobtainable; tasks were carefullyorganized, and methods to be used intasks completion were identified, andthe work was closely supervised.

o Relationship-oriented: Emphasis wasplaced on developing interpersonalrelations with a focus on personal needsof followers and the development ofrelationships that motivate followers toset and achieve high goals.

o Participative: This style involved theextensive use of group supervision.Group meetings were used by leaders toenhance follower participation indecision making, communication,cooperation, and resolving conflicts.During meetings, the leader takes therole of being directive, constructive,and supportive, allowing some degreeof autonomy regarding group work.

Stogdill and Coons Ohio State Studies

decision making, communication,cooperation, and resolving conflicts.During meetings, the leader takes therole of being directive, constructive,and supportive, allowing some degreeof autonomy regarding group work.

• Effective leaders are generally task-oriented,set high performance goals, and focus onplanning, coordinating, and facilitating work.They also give consideration to goodinterpersonal relationships, allowingsubordinates some degree of autonomy indeciding how to conduct their work and atwhat pace.

• Relationship-oriented leaders tend to have themost productive work groups.

• High moral does not necessarily mean highproductivity. However, leaders who useapproaches that lead to high productivity alsosee high morale. One such approach is Site-based management.

Leader behavior can be categorized asInitiating Structure and Consideration.

• Initiating structure: Task-oriented leaderbehavior

• Consideration: People-oriented leader behavior• Use of the LBDQ (Leader Behavior

Description Questionnaire) resulted in theestablishment of four quadrants:

Ryan and Oestreich

Snyder

o High Consideration/Low Structureo High Structure/High Considerationo Low Structure/Low Considerationo High Structure/Low Consideration

It was determined that High Structure/HighConsideration leads to higher satisfaction andperformance among leaders.

To be effective, the leader must be democratic,driving fear out of the workplace and fosteringa community of learners who collaborate on allmajor issues.

• The leader must provide members of theorganization with opportunities to learn fromfailure, and it is critical that when failureoccurs, individuals be approached withoutrepercussions. When there are repercussions,barriers to quality work are formed andindividuals withdraw, leaving the organizationvoid of their creativity.

Often a distinction is made between the self ofthe leader that individuals affiliated with theorganization observe (the public self) and theinner self (private self) of the leader. Thepublic self is what an individual displays to theoutside world about himself or herself and theperception others have of that individual. Theprivate self is what the person is in actuality.

Standard 1 Depree Diversity Diversity is seen as an asset, and equityincludes equity of treatment, opportunity,communication, recognition, and reward.

Chapter 2

Standard 4

Chapter 3

Etheridge and Green

includes equity of treatment, opportunity,communication, recognition, and reward.

Everyone receives equal treatment, and theoutcome of the school is to advance the welfareof the community.

Standard 3

Chapter 3

Fayol ManagerialFunctions

All managers perform five basic functions:o Planningo Organizingo Commandingo Coordinatingo Controlling

• Management is a continuous process involvinga chain of command, equity, efficiency, stability,and the allocation of authority through the designof 14 principles of management. Of the 14, thefollowing are noteworthy for school leaders:

o Division of Laboro Authorityo Disciplineo Unity of Commando Ordero Equity


Chapter 2

French Power andAuthority

French identified four sources from which aleader acquires power:

o Position or legitimate power, legalpower

Standards1, 2, 4, and5

Chapter 7

Fullan

Lewin Force FieldAnalysis

Change Theory

o Personality, charismatic powero Reward powero Expert power

You cannot mandate what matters.• The power of leaders is likely to be most

effective when they use a combination oflegitimate and referent power to facilitateinquiry, mastery, and collaboration.

Lewin theorized that the environment in which changeoccurs contains a force field. The field consists of twoforces, which he categorized as driving andrestraining. Driving forces move one toward thedesired change, and restraining forces resist thedesired change, inhibiting its attainment. Changeoccurs most effectively when restraining forces areconverted to driving forces.


Chapter 2

Fullan

Strike, Haller, andSoltis

Goodlad

Moral andEthicalBehavior

A leader must be prepared to address moraldilemmas that will occur in schools.


• The principle of benefit maximizations holdsthat whenever we are faced with a choice, thebest and most just decision is the one thatresults in the most good or the greatest benefitfor the most people.


Sergiovanni Leaders have a moral responsibility to makepeople feel welcome, wanted, and part of theschool with which they are affiliated.


Chapter 3


Chapter 3

Getzels and Guba

Frederick Taylor

Getzel and GubaModel

Classical Theory

Schools asOrganizations

Getzel and Guba divided the social system intotwo dimensions:

• Institutional dimension: Depicts the roles andexpectations of the formal organization and theway in which individuals in the organization areexpected to behave as they pursue its goals.• Personal Dimension: Refers to the nature ofthe individual and the personality of that individualas well as his or her need disposition.• The personality of an individual predisposes

that he or she will behave in a certain way in agiven situation.

• The difference in the need dispositions cannegatively influence the teacher’s performance.It is ideal when the needs of the individual andthe goals of the organization are compatible;however, this is not always the case and whenit is not, conflict between the individual andthe organization is heightened.

• Individuals are likely to be most effectivewhen their needs and the task to be performedare at the highest level of compatibility.

The classical theorist believes thatorganizations can become efficient andeffective by identifying “one best way” ofperforming a task, selecting and trainingpersonnel to specifically perform the task, andthen have management coordinate the work toprovide assurance that the work is done asprescribed.

Gorton and Schneider

A Classical SchoolLeader

personnel to specifically perform the task, andthen have management coordinate the work toprovide assurance that the work is done asprescribed.

They also believe that work assignmentsshould be divided among managers andworkers, with managers having theresponsibility of planning, organizing, anddecision-making, while workers performassigned tasks efficiently and effectively.

The Classical Model includes:o Structure, strict rules, and regulations.o The focus is on task completion.o Little attention is given to the

individual or group in the workplace.o The leader is considered to have

ultimate authority and responsibilityover everything.

o Experts are employed to function in thespecialized areas and are groupedaccording to task specialization.

Most school districts currently use some formof classical model in the operation of theirschools.

A leader who administers a school from aclassical perspective would talk about going“by the book” or “running a tight ship.”

• The leader would be very specific in actions,very direct, and display autocratic behavior.

Social SystemsTheory

very direct, and display autocratic behavior.• Problems are not likely to be solved through

people as the leader views himself or herself asthe problem solver.

• Stakeholders may be involved in decisions thataffect the school, but such involvement wouldnot be a focus of the leadership, nor wouldtrusting people and respecting their judgmentbe a primary concern.

• The focus is on viewing the organization as awhole, taking into consideration theinterrelationships among its parts and itsinteraction with its internal and externalenvironments.

• A leader gives consideration to the people whowork in the organization.

• The focus is necessarily on the whole (thefaculty), parts of the whole (members of thefaculty), and the relationship among the parts(relationships among faculty members).

• If the leader is considerate, uses democraticprocedures whenever possible, and maintainsopen lines of communication, management andworkers can talk over their respective problemsand resolve them in a friendly, congenial way.

• Within the framework of social systems theory,each individual and/or group in the workplacehas the capability of formulating a power base.Using this power base, they can influence theproduction process to a considerable degree,independent of the demands of management.


Chapter 3

Katz and Kahn

Hanson

Yukl

Open SystemTheory

InformalGroups

Using this power base, they can influence theproduction process to a considerable degree,independent of the demands of management.

• Individuals in schools function as members ofthe faculty (the formal group) as well asmembers of subgroups (informal groups)

These subgroups often form powerbases to assist them in achievingindividual and group goals.

Subgroups are often very powerful. The school leader must be very astute

in understanding the patterns ofbehavior of individuals within informalgroups.

The leader is concerned with compromise andthe effective use of human and financialresources.

• The leader is a comprehensive planner, whoconcentrates upon forming network inside andoutside of the school, attempting to anticipateas much as possible, and striving to beproactive rather than negative.

• High visibility and the active involvement ofall stakeholders are priorities.

• Communication is open and continuous;decision-making is collaborative; communityresources are utilized, and change takes intoconsideration feedback from the external aswell as the internal environment of the school.

well as the internal environment of the school.• An organization is an open social system that

receives resources from its externalenvironment, transforms that input through aninternal system, and returns it to the externalenvironment.


Chapter 3

Green School Climate Thirteen Characteristics of Nurturing Schools:o Theme A—Student-Teacher

relationships: There is mutual trust and

positive interaction betweenteachers and students.

Teachers have an in-depthknowledge of students’ in-school and out-of-school lives.

Teachers model caring attitudesfor students.

o Theme B—Professionalism amongadministration, faculty, and staff:

There is a sense of caringamong individuals and acollective sense ofresponsibility for studentsuccess.

The need for self-actualizationis respected and encouraged.

Teachers demonstrate a love fortheir subject matter andcontinuously search forcompetence.

Halpin and Croft

continuously search forcompetence.

o Theme C—Environment of the schooland classroom:

A sense of community and asense of family exist in theschool, and there iscollaboration among

professionals. Everyone values individual

differences, and the self onebrings into the environment isrespected and nurtured.

There is recognition of a widerange of talent and the need forthe empowerment of allindividuals.

The school draws in the valuesof the community and involvesthe community in the educationof children.

o Theme D—Students’ feelings aboutthemselves:

Students feel a sense of self-worth and acceptance.

Students feel safe and involvedin their education.

Students value themselves andothers.

Indications of the type of climate that exists ina school are such things as the appearance ofthe building, the mannerisms of the people, andthe feelings the individuals have about visitingthe school and transacting business there.

the feelings the individuals have about visitingthe school and transacting business there.


Chapter 2


Chapter 3

Herzberg

House

Maslow

MotivationalTheory

Path-Goal Theory

Hierarchy of NeedsTheory

• The work environment can be categorized asfollows:

o Motivators: Aspects of work thatproduce job satisfaction (work andwhat Maslow identified as self-esteemand self-actualization needs).

o Hygiene: Aspects of work that do notproduce job satisfaction (workenvironment and references to thosefactors that Maslow refers to as safetyand belonging needs).

The behavior of the leader is a factor in themotivation of followers. In this regard, theleader can motivate followers to achievedesired goals by giving clear directions,providing adequate support, and increasingvalued rewards in route to goal attainment.

Hierarchy of needs:o Physiological needs are viewed as a

need for food, shelter, and health.o Safety needs are viewed as a desire for

protection from dangers, attacks, andthreat.

o Social needs are expressed through adesire for belonging and theestablishment of relationships.

o Esteem needs are viewed as beingexpressed through a desire to feelvalued and to value oneself.


Chapter 3


Chapter 6

Vroom

Gross

Owens

OwensThomasRakimGorton

Expectancy Theory

Types of Conflict

Causes of Conflict

Types of ConflictManagement

valued and to value oneself.o Self-actualization needs are expressed

through individuals’ desire to reachtheir full potential.

Vroom offers that individuals will put forthmore effort, offering the possibility of highperformance and the achievement of thedesired outcome if the reward is valued and theindividuals believe they can achieve the goal.Then, effort comes from the ability offollowers, their perceived possibility ofsuccessful achievement and the value theyplace on the reward if success is achieved.

Interpersonal Intergroup Intraorganizational Role

Divergent Views Incompatibility of Views Avoidance Smoothing Bargaining Power Struggle Problem Solving

The primary concern of the school leader is linking theproblem and the solution in a manner that is rational toenhance a positive climate.

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