theories and models of learning
TRANSCRIPT
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THEORIES AND MODELS OF
LEARNING
SHADRACK K KIMUTAI
MOI UNIVERSITY, ELDORETTUESDAY, APRIL 03, 2012
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INTRODUCTION
Learning style can be defined as reflection of
concern with the application of individual mode
of problem solving, thinking, perception and
memory in a learning situation
(Allport,1937),(Riding and Cheema,1991)
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THEORIES OF LEARNING
A number of theories have been formulated by
various researchers to try and explain how
humans learn.
The main ones are
Adult Learning Theory(ALT),
Experiential Learning Theory (ELT)
Multiple Intelligences Theory(MIT),
Emotional Intelligence Theory(EIT)
Social Development Theory (SDT).
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ADULT LEARNING THEORY(ADRAGOGY)
Andragogy(adult learning) is a theory that
attempts to deduce how adults learn. This theory
emphasizes the value of the process of learning
and was pioneered by Malcolm Knowles and Jane
Vella in the 1970s and the 1980s. Andragogy asa study however originated from mainland
Europe in the 1950s.
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ADULT LEARNING THEORY(ADRAGOGY)
This theory states that
adults learn best when they talk to
others about their experiences and
relate these experiences to the learningprogress Knowles(1980 ,p;17).
Hence it can be said to employ a approach which
emphasizes more equality between the learner
and the teacher and the learning process is moreof problem based and collaborative
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ADULT LEARNING PRINCIPLES
After extensive research in this field, MalcolmKnowles put forward a number of principleswhich have come to be identified as adultlearning principles. These are
Adult learners need to berespected
Immediacy
SafetyEngagement
Relevance
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RESPECT
Adult learners need to be the subject of their own
learning including decisions of what to learn and
play a role in planning for what they ought to
learn.
For example, It has been proven that to engage
pregnant mothers on matters of what they ought to
know in post natal care its much more effective if
they themselves spearhead the process of selection of
what , where and how to learn.
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IMMEDIACY
Adults are time conscious and would always want
to know how what they are learning can be
employed right away or in the very near future.
Hence learners are always in need to deduce the
practical application of what they are learning For example, Adult learners will tend to request to be
taught what they can apply to their work
environments for instance an adult class on
midwifery may disregard Human anatomy and
reproduction and jump in to pre natal care.
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SAFETY
Adults are wary of their surrounding and often
will prefer secluded lecture rooms to open ones.
Factors contributing to this include fear of being
seen learning by younger people and the need for
privacy fueled by their learning style which islearning by experience sharing which may not
suit younger furthermore Adults despise being
Judged and need to feel welcome and comfortable
in the learning experience. If this is kept up,with time adults will learn to trust the tutor and
the lesson will gain their acceptance
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ENGAGEMENT
Adults need to be put at the center of their
learning and this is achieved by active
involvement amongst the adult students and
their tutor. Tutors need to lower their roles in the
learning environment to the level of a supervisorand let the Adult students play a leading role in
the learning process. If this is kept up within a
short time adults will yearn to attend each and
every lesson.
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RELEVANCE
Unlike children and youth who may not inquire
what the relevance of a subject is all about,
Adults keep tabs on each course they engage
themselves in and its not surprising to find them
asking why they ought to the course or whyhavent they been taught something. In medicine
for instance, tutors should keep tabs on new
advances in the field they are teaching to avoid
situations where students brand the courseirrelevant. For example in a lesson on
tropical ailments and their management, tutors
should update their sources to avoid a case of
prescribing methods
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HOWALT INFLUENCES LEARNERS
Students attain a closer relationship between
themselves and their tutors
Students gain wider expertise due to the
periodical reference to the relevance of the skill
they are acquiring and innovations made to date.
Students get to control their rate of learning
hence determine how much they cover in the
lesson.
Students respect to each other is maximized and
distinctive barrier of bright students and the not-
so brigth students is diluted.
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AREAS OFAPPLICATION OFADRAGOGY
Post Graduate studies
Training seminars focused on adults i.e. post
natal care for Mothers
Adult Education
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EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY
Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) is a learning
theory which uses experience to emphasize the
central role the experience plays in this learning
progress
This theory states that
knowledge is created through
transformation of experienceKoeb(1984)
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EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY
A number of models of ELT exist the oldest being
Lewinian model of action research and laboratory
training and Deweys model of learning which
were formulated by the founding fathers of this
theory, John Dewey and Kurt Lewis. Howeverthe best model is as described by Koeb(1984)
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EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY
According to Rosenberg(2003) Experiential
Learning (EL) Theories can be classified into
Reflection which approaches EL using a
Constructivist perspective,
Interference which approaches EL using
Psychoanalytical perspective,
Participation which approaches EL using
Situated Cognition perspective,
Resistance which approaches EL using Critical
Cultural perspective and Co-Emergence
Enactivist perspective
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REFLECTION : KOEBS MODEL
However the most commonly accepted class is
Reflection within which notable authors such as
Koeb(1984), Mezirow(1990) and Boud and Miller
(1996) have made headway.
Focusing on Koeb(1984) theory, from which the
later two where based, Koeb sees experiential
knowledge as being made up of two stages with
two mid deviations which are polar opposites
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KOEBS MODEL
Assimilating
Accommodating
Converging
Diversity
Abstract
Conceptualization
Concrete
Experience
Reflective
ObservationA
ctive
Experimentation
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KOEBS MODEL
According to Koeb, all Experiential Learning
starts with Concrete Experience stage and
ends withAbstract Conceptualization stage.
But Koeb highlights two paths to the ends
namely active experimentation, andReflective Observation
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KOEBS MODEL
Concrete experience stage is when the student is
facing the experience an example being a Nurse
trainee witnessing child birth process first hand
Abstract Conceptualization stage takes place
after the two refining processes and involves
drawing new conclusion(knowledge) based on
refined knowledge gathered during the
experience(s)
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KOEBS MODEL IN DETAIL
After a student as witnessed an experience four
modes of refinement may take place, these modes
are
Accommodation
Assimilation
Convergence
Divergence
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ACCOMMODATION
The main focus is accommodating the experience
to understand a why it works.
This group prefers undertaking experiment
rather than thinking.
the groups keyword is what if' and 'why not' to
support their action-first approach.
They do not like routine and will take creative
medical risks to see what happens.
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ASSIMILATION
Their main focus is assimilating experience to get
an in-depth understanding.
This groups question tag is 'what is there I
can know?
They like organized knowledge sources rather
than disorganized ones hence Lectures suit them
perfectly
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DIVERGENCE
Their main focus is diverging the experience to
include others which come up as a result of deep
understanding of the experience.
This groups question tag is why?,
Students following this approach will constantly
seek for ideas regarding the experience and thus
they are generally influenced by other people and
like to receive constructive feedback.
They learn best via logical instruction
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HOW ELTAFFECTS LEARNERS
Nurture Experience- this learning theory allows
students to have experience in the tasks that they
will later work on after learning,
Risk taking- this method encourages learners to learn
how to handle situations which are prone to risks Kinesthetic imprint- Experiential learning is an
anchor for cognitive material. Participants have a
kinesthetic imprint or whole body learning of
cognitive principles because the learning is graphic as
it involves physical, mental and behavioral
dimensions
Equality - Experiential Learning theory allows an
equitable learning rate for all kind of students
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AREAS OF APPLICATION
Nursing
Medicine
Engineering
Science Art
Example includes allowing trainees Nurses
undertake fairly risky tasks such as midwifery
which allows them to learn and later be moreproficient in tackling complex pregnancies and
weighting the risks that they can manage before
a higher specialized practitioner takes charge
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MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY(MIT)
According to the founder of this theory Howard
Gardner, this theory tries to explain,
differentiates and separates intelligence into
various specific modalities than taking it as
dominated by one general ability. There are wideranges of the cognitive abilities which have weak
relationships between themselves Gardner(1983).
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MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY
Gardner(1984) further argues that Traditionally
schools developed a logical and linguistic
intelligence mainly by reading and writing.
For instance most Exams are given to scholars to test
them, in logical and linguistic intelligence once astudent has past chances of joining a prestigious
work environment or further studies.
Most scholars function well in this environment,
but there are others who dont
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INTELLIGENCES COVERED IN MIT
Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence
Visual spatial intelligence
Bodily Kinesthetics Intelligence
Mathematical-Logical Intelligence Musical Intelligence
Interpersonal intelligence
Intrapersonal intelligence
Naturalist Intelligence*
Existential intelligence*
*These two are yet to be fully accepted
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VERBAL- LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE
According to Gardner, H. (1983), Students who
have strong linguistic-verbal intelligence are able
to use words well, both when writing and
speaking.
These individuals are typically very good atwriting narratives, memorizing/cramming
information and reading.
Features of such students include ones who can
with ease use humor and are extremely creativein explaining what they have learnt
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VISUALSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE
According to Gardner, H. (1983), Students who
have strong visual-spatial intelligence are good a
visualizing things.
They are often good with directions as well as
graphics, charts, videos and pictures, and usuallyfind it easy to fit puzzles
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MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE
Gardner, (1983), states that Students who have
strong musical intelligence are good and thinking
in patterns, rhythms and sounds.
They have a strong appreciation for music and
are often good at musical composition andperformance.
They also have the capability of isolating music
into its individual constituents for instance they
can feel how one guitar player on a rock band isplaying the guitar irrespective of there being
multiple guitar players on the set.
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BODILY-KINESTHETICS INTELLIGENCE
According to Gardner, (1983), Students who have
strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are good at
activities which require body movement and
physical control.
They tend to have excellent hand-eyecoordination and dexterity and often enjoy
involving physical interaction with their tasks.
Gardner also points out that they are extremely
good in learning from physical activities andoften say they know what they were to do by
touching
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INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE
According to Gardner, H. (1983), Students who
have a strong interpersonal intelligence are good
in understanding and interacting with other
people.
They are skilled at assessing the emotions,motivations, desires and intentions of those
around them and often may have friends who
normally wont stand the presence of the other
friend(s). Students with Such intelligence may be employed
in times of quarrels or misunderstanding.
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INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE
According to Gardner, (1983), students who have
a strong intrapersonal intelligence are good at
being aware of their own emotional states,
feelings and motivations.
They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis,including day-dreaming, exploring relationships
with others and assessing their personal
strengths
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MATHEMATICAL LOGICAL INTELLIGENCE
Gardner,(1983), states that these students who
have strong logical-mathematical intelligence are
able to deduce complex patterns, recognizing
patterns and logically analyzing problems.
These students tend to think conceptually aboutnumbers, relationships amongst entities and
patterns.
They often like experimenting and often ask
themselves the question what will happen if thisis altered by so doing they are perceived to
prefer to solve problems in terms of abstract
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EXISTENTIAL INTELLIGENCE
This intelligence was added Gardner, in 1999,
and states that Students who have a strong
Existential intelligence are often religious or
fanatic belief of why things are the way they are
they have a deeper understanding of the meaningof life, death and universe .
This group of students will often show resistance
to effort made to tame them
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NATURALIST INTELLIGENCE
This is another new dimension to the MIT.
According to Gardner, (1999), Students having
strong naturalist intelligence feel much at peace
while in nature and are often interested in
nurturing, exploring the environment andlearning about other species.
They are said to be highly aware of even subtle
changes to their environments.
They like camping and undertaking excursion tothe wild parts of the country
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INFLUENCE OF MIT TO LEARNERS
MIT shows that humans are diverse in nature
hence examinations can be made fair if it were to
be through the various intelligences
MIT incorporates entities which normally would
be disregarded by tutors for instance why somestudents performance so good in class while in
the lab they perform poorly and vice versa.
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USE OF MITAND EXAMPLE
MIT can be applied in refining skills of children
and youth and to some extend adults to find the
most appropriate placement.
In medicine, MIT can be used in segregation of
mentally ill patients.
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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE THEORY(EIT)
This theory focuses on two aspects emotion and
intelligence.
Emotion can be defined as a state of feeling that
conveys information about social interaction.
Intelligence on the other hand can be simplydefined as capability internal reasoning to get an in-
depth understanding of information.
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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE THEORY
Emotional intelligence can be defined as an
ability to validly reason with emotions
and to use emotions to enhance thought.
A more refined definition of this theory refers to
Emotional intelligence as being the
ability to recognize the meanings of
emotion and their relationships, and to
reason and problem-solve on the basis of
them, (Mayer and Salovey,1999, p;267)
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FOUR BRANCH MODEL OF EI
Emotional
Intelligence
Manage
Emotions
Perceive
Emotions
Understand
Emotions
Use emotions to
Facilitate
Thinking
Source: Mayer and Salovey(1997)
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PERCEIVE EMOTIONS
This demands that the learner should be able to
perceive emotions in self and others. i.e
Besides this the learner should be able to undertake
self-awareness. i.e. be aware of own feelings as they
are occurring. learner s ability to learn on identify and label specific
feelings in yourself and others and the ability to
clearly and directly communicate and discuss these
emotions
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USE EMOTIONS TO FACILITATE THINKING
This demands that the learner should be able to
use his/her feelings constructively by
Letting his/her feelings be guidance to what is
important to think about
using his/her feelings to help one in decisions whichare appropriate for both the learner and others
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UNDERSTAND EMOTIONS
This demands that the learner should be able to
understand his/her emotions and its dynamics
i.e. how they change over time. Furthermore the
learner should understand:-
The role of emotions play in his/her life
The relationships between emotions including how
and why they can change from one state to another
The emotions which lead to the behavioral change in
one and on others
The relationship between thoughts and feelings
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EMOTIONS MANAGEMENT
This demands that the learner should be able to
manage his/her emotions for personal and social
growth. This can be achieved through:-
taking responsibility for one's own feelings
the ability to turn negative emotions into positivelearning opportunities
the ability to help others identify and benefit from
their emotions
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ELTAND ITS INFLUENCE TO LEARNERS
It incorporates emotion which is an aspect rarely
accommodated in learning models. This allows
the learner and teacher capable of adapting to
events which are socially sensitive.
It enables the learner looked up to by others gethold of His/her emotions even in situations which
normally that will be hard to.
This theory requires the learner to be immense in
a emotio-challenging area
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EXAMPLES OF AREAS OF APPLICATION
Nursing
Teaching
Social Work
Example:
ELT is Critical in medicine since nurses anddoctors are looked up by the patients and theirfamilies as being in charge and an emotional
breakdown of any of nurses or doctors sends awrong picture to them.
Another example of how ELT plays out is innursing and involves empathizing with thepatient and patients family if the patient dies.
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SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY(SDT)
This theory was brought forward by Leo
Vygotsky(1978) and it tries to explains how
socialization affects learning process of an
individual.
It deals with consciousness as a result ofsocialization normally after an interaction with
other people we tend to internalize what we
uttered
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SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY(SDT)
This theory argues that
social interaction always precedes
development. With that respect,
consciousness and cognition products of
socialization and social behavior (Vygotsky,1978).
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CONCEPTS OF SDT
There are three main concepts which play a
central role in this theory as identified by
Vygotsky(1978) these concepts are:
Role of social interaction in cognitive development
More learned/knowledgeable other(MKO)
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
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ROLE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION IN COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Vygotsky(1978), posits that social learning precedesdevelopment and the conflicts of cognitive concentrationsfound in the society are the more powerful factor of
cognitive development than those found in an individuallevel.
The coordination of actions between individuals promotesthe acquisition of cognitive development.
In this respect, Wegerifet,al.(1999) consider thatInteraction between the student and the teacherdetermines the efficiency of learning process; as opposed toold days modern learning involve sharing of ideas betweenthe teacher and the student. ideas (Wegerif, Mercer andDawes, 1999).
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MORE LEARNED/ KNOWLEDGEABLE
OTHER (MKO)
This notion involves a case where one participant
is more knowledgeable(MKO) in the subject area
than his/her Learners and thus acting as a tutor
to his/ her peers.
In most cases the MKO are tutors or olderindividuals in a learning environment but
occasionally an MKO can be younger than the
individuals in this environment.
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ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
This concept is the difference in what a learner
can do and what he cant do without external help
usually from the tutors or MKOs.
Hence appropriately defined by Leo
Vygotsky(1978) as being the distance betweenthe actual developmental level as determined by
independent problem solving and the level of
potential development as determined through
problem solving under adult guidance, or incollaboration with more capable peers
(Vygotsky,1978 ; p,86 )
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IMPACTS OF ZDT ON A LEARNER
Allows tutors know the best channel to use in the
learning environment hence the learner is put at
the center of the learning process
The level of interaction between the learner and
the tutor is increased hence livening the lessonand adding clarity to the concepts being learnt
Encourage flow of skill from MKOs in the
learners environment by laying foundations for
social awareness of the areas of expertiseamongst the individuals in a learning
environment.
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EXAMPLES OF SDT IN LEARNING
Most commonly employed in Subject Oriented
learning in both formal (school based) and
informal (apprentice based) centers of learning
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THE END
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REFERENCE
Boud, D. and Miller, N. (eds.) (1996), Working withExperience: Animating Learning. London: Routledge
Gardner, Howard. (1999) "Intelligence Reframed: Multiple
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Educators (pp. 3-31). New York: Basic Books
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REFERENCE
Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotionalintelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence.
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REFERENCE
Wegerif, R, Mercer, N, Littleton, R and Dawes, L. (2004)Widening Access to Educational Opportunities through
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