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    THEORIES AND MODELS OF

    LEARNING

    SHADRACK K KIMUTAI

    MOI UNIVERSITY, ELDORETTUESDAY, APRIL 03, 2012

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    INTRODUCTION

    Learning style can be defined as reflection of

    concern with the application of individual mode

    of problem solving, thinking, perception and

    memory in a learning situation

    (Allport,1937),(Riding and Cheema,1991)

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    THEORIES OF LEARNING

    A number of theories have been formulated by

    various researchers to try and explain how

    humans learn.

    The main ones are

    Adult Learning Theory(ALT),

    Experiential Learning Theory (ELT)

    Multiple Intelligences Theory(MIT),

    Emotional Intelligence Theory(EIT)

    Social Development Theory (SDT).

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    ADULT LEARNING THEORY(ADRAGOGY)

    Andragogy(adult learning) is a theory that

    attempts to deduce how adults learn. This theory

    emphasizes the value of the process of learning

    and was pioneered by Malcolm Knowles and Jane

    Vella in the 1970s and the 1980s. Andragogy asa study however originated from mainland

    Europe in the 1950s.

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    ADULT LEARNING THEORY(ADRAGOGY)

    This theory states that

    adults learn best when they talk to

    others about their experiences and

    relate these experiences to the learningprogress Knowles(1980 ,p;17).

    Hence it can be said to employ a approach which

    emphasizes more equality between the learner

    and the teacher and the learning process is moreof problem based and collaborative

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    ADULT LEARNING PRINCIPLES

    After extensive research in this field, MalcolmKnowles put forward a number of principleswhich have come to be identified as adultlearning principles. These are

    Adult learners need to berespected

    Immediacy

    SafetyEngagement

    Relevance

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    RESPECT

    Adult learners need to be the subject of their own

    learning including decisions of what to learn and

    play a role in planning for what they ought to

    learn.

    For example, It has been proven that to engage

    pregnant mothers on matters of what they ought to

    know in post natal care its much more effective if

    they themselves spearhead the process of selection of

    what , where and how to learn.

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    IMMEDIACY

    Adults are time conscious and would always want

    to know how what they are learning can be

    employed right away or in the very near future.

    Hence learners are always in need to deduce the

    practical application of what they are learning For example, Adult learners will tend to request to be

    taught what they can apply to their work

    environments for instance an adult class on

    midwifery may disregard Human anatomy and

    reproduction and jump in to pre natal care.

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    SAFETY

    Adults are wary of their surrounding and often

    will prefer secluded lecture rooms to open ones.

    Factors contributing to this include fear of being

    seen learning by younger people and the need for

    privacy fueled by their learning style which islearning by experience sharing which may not

    suit younger furthermore Adults despise being

    Judged and need to feel welcome and comfortable

    in the learning experience. If this is kept up,with time adults will learn to trust the tutor and

    the lesson will gain their acceptance

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    ENGAGEMENT

    Adults need to be put at the center of their

    learning and this is achieved by active

    involvement amongst the adult students and

    their tutor. Tutors need to lower their roles in the

    learning environment to the level of a supervisorand let the Adult students play a leading role in

    the learning process. If this is kept up within a

    short time adults will yearn to attend each and

    every lesson.

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    RELEVANCE

    Unlike children and youth who may not inquire

    what the relevance of a subject is all about,

    Adults keep tabs on each course they engage

    themselves in and its not surprising to find them

    asking why they ought to the course or whyhavent they been taught something. In medicine

    for instance, tutors should keep tabs on new

    advances in the field they are teaching to avoid

    situations where students brand the courseirrelevant. For example in a lesson on

    tropical ailments and their management, tutors

    should update their sources to avoid a case of

    prescribing methods

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    HOWALT INFLUENCES LEARNERS

    Students attain a closer relationship between

    themselves and their tutors

    Students gain wider expertise due to the

    periodical reference to the relevance of the skill

    they are acquiring and innovations made to date.

    Students get to control their rate of learning

    hence determine how much they cover in the

    lesson.

    Students respect to each other is maximized and

    distinctive barrier of bright students and the not-

    so brigth students is diluted.

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    AREAS OFAPPLICATION OFADRAGOGY

    Post Graduate studies

    Training seminars focused on adults i.e. post

    natal care for Mothers

    Adult Education

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    EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY

    Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) is a learning

    theory which uses experience to emphasize the

    central role the experience plays in this learning

    progress

    This theory states that

    knowledge is created through

    transformation of experienceKoeb(1984)

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    EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY

    A number of models of ELT exist the oldest being

    Lewinian model of action research and laboratory

    training and Deweys model of learning which

    were formulated by the founding fathers of this

    theory, John Dewey and Kurt Lewis. Howeverthe best model is as described by Koeb(1984)

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    EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY

    According to Rosenberg(2003) Experiential

    Learning (EL) Theories can be classified into

    Reflection which approaches EL using a

    Constructivist perspective,

    Interference which approaches EL using

    Psychoanalytical perspective,

    Participation which approaches EL using

    Situated Cognition perspective,

    Resistance which approaches EL using Critical

    Cultural perspective and Co-Emergence

    Enactivist perspective

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    REFLECTION : KOEBS MODEL

    However the most commonly accepted class is

    Reflection within which notable authors such as

    Koeb(1984), Mezirow(1990) and Boud and Miller

    (1996) have made headway.

    Focusing on Koeb(1984) theory, from which the

    later two where based, Koeb sees experiential

    knowledge as being made up of two stages with

    two mid deviations which are polar opposites

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    KOEBS MODEL

    Assimilating

    Accommodating

    Converging

    Diversity

    Abstract

    Conceptualization

    Concrete

    Experience

    Reflective

    ObservationA

    ctive

    Experimentation

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    KOEBS MODEL

    According to Koeb, all Experiential Learning

    starts with Concrete Experience stage and

    ends withAbstract Conceptualization stage.

    But Koeb highlights two paths to the ends

    namely active experimentation, andReflective Observation

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    KOEBS MODEL

    Concrete experience stage is when the student is

    facing the experience an example being a Nurse

    trainee witnessing child birth process first hand

    Abstract Conceptualization stage takes place

    after the two refining processes and involves

    drawing new conclusion(knowledge) based on

    refined knowledge gathered during the

    experience(s)

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    KOEBS MODEL IN DETAIL

    After a student as witnessed an experience four

    modes of refinement may take place, these modes

    are

    Accommodation

    Assimilation

    Convergence

    Divergence

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    ACCOMMODATION

    The main focus is accommodating the experience

    to understand a why it works.

    This group prefers undertaking experiment

    rather than thinking.

    the groups keyword is what if' and 'why not' to

    support their action-first approach.

    They do not like routine and will take creative

    medical risks to see what happens.

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    ASSIMILATION

    Their main focus is assimilating experience to get

    an in-depth understanding.

    This groups question tag is 'what is there I

    can know?

    They like organized knowledge sources rather

    than disorganized ones hence Lectures suit them

    perfectly

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    DIVERGENCE

    Their main focus is diverging the experience to

    include others which come up as a result of deep

    understanding of the experience.

    This groups question tag is why?,

    Students following this approach will constantly

    seek for ideas regarding the experience and thus

    they are generally influenced by other people and

    like to receive constructive feedback.

    They learn best via logical instruction

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    HOW ELTAFFECTS LEARNERS

    Nurture Experience- this learning theory allows

    students to have experience in the tasks that they

    will later work on after learning,

    Risk taking- this method encourages learners to learn

    how to handle situations which are prone to risks Kinesthetic imprint- Experiential learning is an

    anchor for cognitive material. Participants have a

    kinesthetic imprint or whole body learning of

    cognitive principles because the learning is graphic as

    it involves physical, mental and behavioral

    dimensions

    Equality - Experiential Learning theory allows an

    equitable learning rate for all kind of students

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    AREAS OF APPLICATION

    Nursing

    Medicine

    Engineering

    Science Art

    Example includes allowing trainees Nurses

    undertake fairly risky tasks such as midwifery

    which allows them to learn and later be moreproficient in tackling complex pregnancies and

    weighting the risks that they can manage before

    a higher specialized practitioner takes charge

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    MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY(MIT)

    According to the founder of this theory Howard

    Gardner, this theory tries to explain,

    differentiates and separates intelligence into

    various specific modalities than taking it as

    dominated by one general ability. There are wideranges of the cognitive abilities which have weak

    relationships between themselves Gardner(1983).

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    MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY

    Gardner(1984) further argues that Traditionally

    schools developed a logical and linguistic

    intelligence mainly by reading and writing.

    For instance most Exams are given to scholars to test

    them, in logical and linguistic intelligence once astudent has past chances of joining a prestigious

    work environment or further studies.

    Most scholars function well in this environment,

    but there are others who dont

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    INTELLIGENCES COVERED IN MIT

    Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence

    Visual spatial intelligence

    Bodily Kinesthetics Intelligence

    Mathematical-Logical Intelligence Musical Intelligence

    Interpersonal intelligence

    Intrapersonal intelligence

    Naturalist Intelligence*

    Existential intelligence*

    *These two are yet to be fully accepted

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    VERBAL- LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE

    According to Gardner, H. (1983), Students who

    have strong linguistic-verbal intelligence are able

    to use words well, both when writing and

    speaking.

    These individuals are typically very good atwriting narratives, memorizing/cramming

    information and reading.

    Features of such students include ones who can

    with ease use humor and are extremely creativein explaining what they have learnt

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    VISUALSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE

    According to Gardner, H. (1983), Students who

    have strong visual-spatial intelligence are good a

    visualizing things.

    They are often good with directions as well as

    graphics, charts, videos and pictures, and usuallyfind it easy to fit puzzles

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    MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE

    Gardner, (1983), states that Students who have

    strong musical intelligence are good and thinking

    in patterns, rhythms and sounds.

    They have a strong appreciation for music and

    are often good at musical composition andperformance.

    They also have the capability of isolating music

    into its individual constituents for instance they

    can feel how one guitar player on a rock band isplaying the guitar irrespective of there being

    multiple guitar players on the set.

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    BODILY-KINESTHETICS INTELLIGENCE

    According to Gardner, (1983), Students who have

    strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are good at

    activities which require body movement and

    physical control.

    They tend to have excellent hand-eyecoordination and dexterity and often enjoy

    involving physical interaction with their tasks.

    Gardner also points out that they are extremely

    good in learning from physical activities andoften say they know what they were to do by

    touching

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    INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE

    According to Gardner, H. (1983), Students who

    have a strong interpersonal intelligence are good

    in understanding and interacting with other

    people.

    They are skilled at assessing the emotions,motivations, desires and intentions of those

    around them and often may have friends who

    normally wont stand the presence of the other

    friend(s). Students with Such intelligence may be employed

    in times of quarrels or misunderstanding.

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    INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE

    According to Gardner, (1983), students who have

    a strong intrapersonal intelligence are good at

    being aware of their own emotional states,

    feelings and motivations.

    They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis,including day-dreaming, exploring relationships

    with others and assessing their personal

    strengths

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    MATHEMATICAL LOGICAL INTELLIGENCE

    Gardner,(1983), states that these students who

    have strong logical-mathematical intelligence are

    able to deduce complex patterns, recognizing

    patterns and logically analyzing problems.

    These students tend to think conceptually aboutnumbers, relationships amongst entities and

    patterns.

    They often like experimenting and often ask

    themselves the question what will happen if thisis altered by so doing they are perceived to

    prefer to solve problems in terms of abstract

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    EXISTENTIAL INTELLIGENCE

    This intelligence was added Gardner, in 1999,

    and states that Students who have a strong

    Existential intelligence are often religious or

    fanatic belief of why things are the way they are

    they have a deeper understanding of the meaningof life, death and universe .

    This group of students will often show resistance

    to effort made to tame them

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    NATURALIST INTELLIGENCE

    This is another new dimension to the MIT.

    According to Gardner, (1999), Students having

    strong naturalist intelligence feel much at peace

    while in nature and are often interested in

    nurturing, exploring the environment andlearning about other species.

    They are said to be highly aware of even subtle

    changes to their environments.

    They like camping and undertaking excursion tothe wild parts of the country

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    INFLUENCE OF MIT TO LEARNERS

    MIT shows that humans are diverse in nature

    hence examinations can be made fair if it were to

    be through the various intelligences

    MIT incorporates entities which normally would

    be disregarded by tutors for instance why somestudents performance so good in class while in

    the lab they perform poorly and vice versa.

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    USE OF MITAND EXAMPLE

    MIT can be applied in refining skills of children

    and youth and to some extend adults to find the

    most appropriate placement.

    In medicine, MIT can be used in segregation of

    mentally ill patients.

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    EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE THEORY(EIT)

    This theory focuses on two aspects emotion and

    intelligence.

    Emotion can be defined as a state of feeling that

    conveys information about social interaction.

    Intelligence on the other hand can be simplydefined as capability internal reasoning to get an in-

    depth understanding of information.

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    EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE THEORY

    Emotional intelligence can be defined as an

    ability to validly reason with emotions

    and to use emotions to enhance thought.

    A more refined definition of this theory refers to

    Emotional intelligence as being the

    ability to recognize the meanings of

    emotion and their relationships, and to

    reason and problem-solve on the basis of

    them, (Mayer and Salovey,1999, p;267)

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    FOUR BRANCH MODEL OF EI

    Emotional

    Intelligence

    Manage

    Emotions

    Perceive

    Emotions

    Understand

    Emotions

    Use emotions to

    Facilitate

    Thinking

    Source: Mayer and Salovey(1997)

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    PERCEIVE EMOTIONS

    This demands that the learner should be able to

    perceive emotions in self and others. i.e

    Besides this the learner should be able to undertake

    self-awareness. i.e. be aware of own feelings as they

    are occurring. learner s ability to learn on identify and label specific

    feelings in yourself and others and the ability to

    clearly and directly communicate and discuss these

    emotions

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    USE EMOTIONS TO FACILITATE THINKING

    This demands that the learner should be able to

    use his/her feelings constructively by

    Letting his/her feelings be guidance to what is

    important to think about

    using his/her feelings to help one in decisions whichare appropriate for both the learner and others

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    UNDERSTAND EMOTIONS

    This demands that the learner should be able to

    understand his/her emotions and its dynamics

    i.e. how they change over time. Furthermore the

    learner should understand:-

    The role of emotions play in his/her life

    The relationships between emotions including how

    and why they can change from one state to another

    The emotions which lead to the behavioral change in

    one and on others

    The relationship between thoughts and feelings

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    EMOTIONS MANAGEMENT

    This demands that the learner should be able to

    manage his/her emotions for personal and social

    growth. This can be achieved through:-

    taking responsibility for one's own feelings

    the ability to turn negative emotions into positivelearning opportunities

    the ability to help others identify and benefit from

    their emotions

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    ELTAND ITS INFLUENCE TO LEARNERS

    It incorporates emotion which is an aspect rarely

    accommodated in learning models. This allows

    the learner and teacher capable of adapting to

    events which are socially sensitive.

    It enables the learner looked up to by others gethold of His/her emotions even in situations which

    normally that will be hard to.

    This theory requires the learner to be immense in

    a emotio-challenging area

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    EXAMPLES OF AREAS OF APPLICATION

    Nursing

    Teaching

    Social Work

    Example:

    ELT is Critical in medicine since nurses anddoctors are looked up by the patients and theirfamilies as being in charge and an emotional

    breakdown of any of nurses or doctors sends awrong picture to them.

    Another example of how ELT plays out is innursing and involves empathizing with thepatient and patients family if the patient dies.

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    SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY(SDT)

    This theory was brought forward by Leo

    Vygotsky(1978) and it tries to explains how

    socialization affects learning process of an

    individual.

    It deals with consciousness as a result ofsocialization normally after an interaction with

    other people we tend to internalize what we

    uttered

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    SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY(SDT)

    This theory argues that

    social interaction always precedes

    development. With that respect,

    consciousness and cognition products of

    socialization and social behavior (Vygotsky,1978).

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    CONCEPTS OF SDT

    There are three main concepts which play a

    central role in this theory as identified by

    Vygotsky(1978) these concepts are:

    Role of social interaction in cognitive development

    More learned/knowledgeable other(MKO)

    Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

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    ROLE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION IN COGNITIVE

    DEVELOPMENT

    Vygotsky(1978), posits that social learning precedesdevelopment and the conflicts of cognitive concentrationsfound in the society are the more powerful factor of

    cognitive development than those found in an individuallevel.

    The coordination of actions between individuals promotesthe acquisition of cognitive development.

    In this respect, Wegerifet,al.(1999) consider thatInteraction between the student and the teacherdetermines the efficiency of learning process; as opposed toold days modern learning involve sharing of ideas betweenthe teacher and the student. ideas (Wegerif, Mercer andDawes, 1999).

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    MORE LEARNED/ KNOWLEDGEABLE

    OTHER (MKO)

    This notion involves a case where one participant

    is more knowledgeable(MKO) in the subject area

    than his/her Learners and thus acting as a tutor

    to his/ her peers.

    In most cases the MKO are tutors or olderindividuals in a learning environment but

    occasionally an MKO can be younger than the

    individuals in this environment.

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    ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT

    This concept is the difference in what a learner

    can do and what he cant do without external help

    usually from the tutors or MKOs.

    Hence appropriately defined by Leo

    Vygotsky(1978) as being the distance betweenthe actual developmental level as determined by

    independent problem solving and the level of

    potential development as determined through

    problem solving under adult guidance, or incollaboration with more capable peers

    (Vygotsky,1978 ; p,86 )

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    IMPACTS OF ZDT ON A LEARNER

    Allows tutors know the best channel to use in the

    learning environment hence the learner is put at

    the center of the learning process

    The level of interaction between the learner and

    the tutor is increased hence livening the lessonand adding clarity to the concepts being learnt

    Encourage flow of skill from MKOs in the

    learners environment by laying foundations for

    social awareness of the areas of expertiseamongst the individuals in a learning

    environment.

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    EXAMPLES OF SDT IN LEARNING

    Most commonly employed in Subject Oriented

    learning in both formal (school based) and

    informal (apprentice based) centers of learning

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    THE END

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    REFERENCE

    Boud, D. and Miller, N. (eds.) (1996), Working withExperience: Animating Learning. London: Routledge

    Gardner, Howard. (1999) "Intelligence Reframed: Multiple

    Intelligences for the 21st Century." New York: Basic Books.

    Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple

    Intelligences. New York: Basic Books.

    Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult

    education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy. Englewood Cliffs:

    Prentice Hall/Cambridge

    Mayer, J. D. & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotionalintelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds). Emotional

    Development and Emotional Intelligence: Implications for

    Educators (pp. 3-31). New York: Basic Books

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    REFERENCE

    Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotionalintelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence.

    Intelligence,Vol 27, 267-298.

    Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M.

    (2007). Learning in adulthood: a comprehensive guide. San

    Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, Inc

    Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative Dimensions of Adult

    Learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass

    Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society: The development

    of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard

    University Press.

    Vella, J. (1995). Training Through Dialogue. Promoting

    Effective Learning and Change with Adults. San Francisco:

    Jossey-Bass

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    REFERENCE

    Wegerif, R, Mercer, N, Littleton, R and Dawes, L. (2004)Widening Access to Educational Opportunities through

    Teaching Children how to Reason Together. Final report to

    the Esme Fairbairn Foundation.

    Allport, G. W. (1937) Personality: A psychological

    interpretation. The American Journal of Psychology, 50, pp.141-156.

    Riding, R. and I. Cheema (1991). "Cognitive styles - an

    overview and integration." Educational Psychology 11(3-4):

    193-215.