308 THE XXth OENTURY

•••The people of Mengchiang although

still under Japanese guardianship, arenow enjoying the very things to whiehRoosevelt is only paying lip service,namely, freedom from want and freedomfrom fear. They have every reason tolook to the future with full confidenceand to continue their preparations forMengchiang's role of becoming a usefulmember in the society of East Asia'sstates, This may be regarded as the

underlying idea of Japan'spolicy in Mengchiang, where theJapanese Army authorities haverecently handed over to the civilgovernment all administrativeaffairs of a not striotly militarycharacter. It is perfectly naturalthat Japan's policy should alsoserve the interests of Japanherself; but the beneficiaries ofthis policy will at the same timebe the people of Mengchiang and,in the last analysis, the com­munity of East Asia's nations.

self-respect of tJ.le Mongol people. InRouho, I had a chance of inspecting thenewly founded officers' school of theMengchillllg army to which the graduatesof the now three-year-old cadet's schoolare being transferred. At the time of myvisit, twenty young, Mongols were beingtrained as company commander. AU ofthem were of excellent phy ique andcomparatively tall. Alter three years oftraining they will join the regular armyunits as lieutenants. Specially qualifiedgraduates will be given an oppor-tunity to continue their militarytraining at one of the militaryacademies in Japan. The headof the officers' sohool is a Mongolmajor general, while the instruo­tion officers n.re Japanese. Thecleanliness and tidiness of theinmates' living quarters couldhardly be surpassed. In thecourtyard of the barracks I WIUl

shown a Gengbis Khan altar infront of which the future officerspay homage twice a. day.

"'n the .plIIl 01'firtue and luaU.,..··

(written for th1s arUcle by LI Shou-hlIln.rommander In chief of the Mongolian anny I

LAMAISM IN MONGOLIA

By HERM.A..1ffi' CONSTEN

No other religion has given rMe in the mind of the average peraon to auchfantClatie idwlJ CIS /1(18 L(l.mm:afll; partly bll«lU80 it ia indeed CI atronge religion, CI"m

tKlrtly becau8 the literature 011 tliia a'ubjecl ia eitlier ineomprM.cnal:ble to t.he la,ym""--being wriU,611 for the 8pecialioft ollly-.or the prod'ud of an ad"emuroua and u,i/dimagination, appwlino to the reader'a duire for excitem6l1l roJher than hia thiratfor lmowUdge. The following pagea give the layman a faa'ual and intueating 00­

count of Lamai811l i" Mongolia, of ita developm6llt and preae,1l ataU. follotDUl bya brief aummary of the ao·called "direcl way" of Lamaiam.

The author /la.y lived _my yeara in 1>longolia, where he haa peraonally knownmany of the high la,maa a1lcl Khubilgans; he has mapped OuUr Mongolia a"d haspubh:ahed a book entit/til .. Weidepliilze cUr M ongolen" (1)1ongol PMturea). 7'hephOt08 he 8tcpplied for Lhia article have "wer bun publiahed b fore. As there iof,I<) 6tamwrd trallacription of MOllgol worcit into EngliaJa, the author h08 uaed the moJItcommon fOnllof.-K.M.

SOME centuries after the death ofthe Buddha. there occurred a splitwithin BudcUlisIn into two branches,

Mahayana and H inayana. The .differencebetween these two. as described in TheXXth Ce:ntury of March 1942 (p.178), is

mainly to be found in the fact that inHinayana the ultimate goal of thei11dividual's efforts is the attainmentof liberation-Nirvana-for himself. InMahayana, on the other hand, the sainti supposed to renOUllce his right to enter

LAMAISM IN MONGOLIA 309

Nirvana-which he ha' gained in manyhardships and sacrifices through cOlUltlessformer existences-in order to help othercreature to reach the ame goal. Hebecomes a Boddhisatta, a being who hasreached the penultimate state before FullAwaken.ing.

Mahayana Buddlli m quickly mergedwith pre-Buddhist religious idea.s andpractices, many of them of a very primi­tive kind, and developed a huge pantheonof gods. As it expanded northward tothe tribes of Central Asia it adopted manyof their crude paraphernalia of \\;tchcraftand sorcery. The merging of an alreadycorrupted Mahayana. Buddhism with thenative Tibetan religions, the Bon religion,and Shamanism (Bon probably meansdoctrine; hamans are the medicine menin Central and Northern Asia) is what iscommonly known as popular Lamaism.

THE PIO S QGEE!\S

About 632 A.D., King Srong-Tsan­Gampo of Tibet (629-650) sent one of hisviziers to India to fetch sacred books andritual pictures and to arrange an alphabetfor the Tibetan language. This the vizierdid, bringing back with him a degenerateform of Mahayana Buddhism ami in­v nting an alphabet for the Tibetanlanguage on t.he model of a North Indianalphabet. To the Mongols this Tibetanwriting is the holy script of their church,which every lama must know.

The Chinese emperor T'ai Tsung (62i­649) gave a princess in marriage to themighty Tibetan monarch, who had erecteda huge kingdom in Central Asia. Theprincess joined a previously acquiredNepalese wife of Srong-Tsan-Gampo inher enthusiasm for Mahayana Buddhism,an enthusiasm which was also shared bytheir king. Owing to the influence ofthese two women the newly importedBuddhism gained ground in Tibet-lowly but steadily in spite of the opposi­

tion of Bon Shamanism and the warriorcaste which clung to the old faith. Bothqueens play an important part in Lamaisticonography up to the present day andare said to be reincarnations of the god­de cs" hite Tara and Green Tara.

BAD TIlliE A.i"D BAD SAINTS

For some time after the death of Kingrong-Tsnn-Gampo, the new creed de­

clined. A revival came under one of hissuccessors, who summoned the famousTantrist Padmn. a.mbhava from India.Only after hi arrival in Lhasa in i47 canwe really speak of Lamaism as a separateBuddhist faith.

Padma ambhava was one of the worstcriminals among the many hady charac­ters which the corruption of Buddhismhas produced. He was an adventur rrather than an apo tle, a bragging quackdoctor and Dlagician. He was also atrue priest of tho demons. He wouldnever pass up an adventure or loveaffair-preferably with a princes. -or re­frain from murder for selfish or politicalreasons. FinaUy, one of the queens, whowas an ardent adherent of Shamanism,succeeded by a Potipharian intrigue inchasing him and his closest collaboratorsout of the country.

But Padma Sambhava had succeededin corrupting Lamaism by mixing thequestionable trait of a degenerate Indianreligion and demonology with black magicof the wor. t kind and a bit of renunciationof the world for decoy. AU this was per­meated by the practice of the nativeshamans. Buddhism is hardly the namefor this queer form of religion, even if itis con tantly on the lips of the lamas.

MAGIC AJ.~D EROTIC

Tantra is a term used in India forcertain magic scriptures and magic prac­tices largely connected with sex. Theadherents of TantriBm bolieve these tohave been transmitted to one of the­patriarchs of their sect by Maidari (Pali:Metteyya; Sanskrit.: Maitreya; Chinese:Mileifo), the coming Buddha. To theTibetan.s and Mongols, Tantra. mea.ns aUliterature on magic. Such books teachthe Dharanis-mystic formulas which aresupposed to have the power to conjure agod. A Dharani conta.ins especiaUypowerful magic syUables, called Mantra....After either meditation or self-induced~estasy brought about by Dharanis..

THE XXtb CENTURY

my tic gestures (Mudra) and musi~ aTantrist lama claims to be able to conjurea deity and receive from him the desiredmagic fn ulties.

In its earliest stages, Tantrism waspcrmeat I by ~haktism. a religion of. theIndian ab rigine' whi ·h had entered mtothe Aryan cults. Shakti (or Sakti) ishe female principle. the per onification

of the f rtile m ther of th world. Theerotic clement. were stressed in this cult.Thi appcttled to the adnllltur r who cor­rllpted the Lamai t mode of t,hought.

AH t,he worship of mighty femaledeitie p netrated the cult it became amntter of course that the Boddhisat ta .were paired with their female energies,the "hllkti. Thus the 13oddhisattl1oAvalokitc vara (Chinese: KWlln-yin) was.supposed to have created for himself afemale nergy the godde s Tara. out ofhis tear:'. The repre. entation of a Shaktiin drastic em bra.ce with her Bodclliisnttais an outstanding feature of the . ecretteaching of Tllntri m. I 'uch er Iticgroups. th pla,c;tic representation of whichwe observe with astonishment in all lamatemple are called Yab-Yum by theMongol, Yab meaning "Father" and Yumthe "Chosen Mother."

The word lama." from which thereligion derives its ~ame, is a honorifictitle for fully ordained monks. In theearly tag of Lamaism in Tibet we t ndistingui!o.h \\ lute Lama, Black HatLamas Red Cap Lamas, and-Iater­Yellow 'up Lamas. The fir t three werein reality offsprings of t,he Bon religionand sacrifioed hllmans, a praotice whichwe also find with the early Tantrists.The main represcntatives of the Red Ca.pChurch were the Sak-ya Lamas. In spiteof their \'ows of chastity, the e lamasmarried. in order to have a Bon whocould become their suocessor. The ab­bot bequeathed their power and positionto their 'on . and thus the akya hierar hygained dynastic powers, while the actualroyal power wit.hered and finally crumbledin"the bla t of the Mongol invasion underGenghi Khan.

Genghis Khan tolerated practicallyC\' ry form of religion except Islam.

He himself remained faithful to Shaman­ism, but through his conquests the hitherto

hamaJli t Mongols came in contact withTibetan Lama,i m. In 1244 his grandsonsummoned the head of the Red apLamas. so that he might cure him of as vere illne . During hi stay in Mongo­lia. this learned nmn made an attempt tondapt the Uigur writing to the Mongollanguage. But only a later l~ CapLama succeeded.

"DIRTY RUFFIANS"

In the year 1261 Kublai Khan sum­moned the abbot of a Red Church monas­tery in Tibet to Khanbalik, as Pekingwa.s then called. Maroo Polo gives u adescription of the Lamaist Tantri8ts,who had come from Tibet and Kashmirto li\'e nt Kublai's court. H describe.'ithem ns a lot of ruffians, dirty and withmatted hair. To augment their evilmagic powers, they devoured the roa tedfle, h of executed criminals. But, accord­ing to Marco Polo, the magic power ofthese Red Cap Lamas oem to have madethe greatest impression at court.. Anybeverage de ir d by the Khan, W1I1e orfermented mare's milk, would fill thecup,' without human aid, and these wouldthen float over a distance of ten feet intothe out tretched hand of the reat Khan.

Though Kublai tolerated all creedll­his mother and one of his queens were-c.<; torian hristiaus-he him elf fell for

the Red Church. Lama monasteries wereere ·ted in Peking, the djlapidated Bud­dhi .. t ones on the sacred mountains ofWutaishlLn were repaired for Lamaistusc. The Kandju,T, the collection ofTibetan acred scriptures (10 volumescontaining 689 works), was now translatedinto Mongolian. But thjs translation ishardly ever used today; the Tibetanedition constitutes the basic selection ofsacred books and is fowld in every tern pie.Dnder Kublai"s ucce ors, lama templesprang up like mushrooms, filled with

countless vagabond mendicant monks,who fleeced t.he population like veritableracketeers. Yet it wa a former RedCap Lama who put an end to the Mongolrule over bins by forcing the last Mongolemperor to retreat to Mongolia. This

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LA~{AI8M IN MONGOLIA 313

ex-lama founded the nat,ional dyna ty ofthe ~ting in 136. The Mongols. afterreturning to their steppes, temporarilyreverted to Shamanism.

The orely needcd reformation of Lama­ism in Tibet Wll, brouuht ahout by aRed Cap Lama T~()ngkhapa (1:357-1417).a man of great learnin rr , nuble ideals. andR. pore life.

T~ ngkhapa' church i' called theYellow Church because he reintroducedthe yellow beggar's robe of originalBuddhiHm and the lugh, curved cap, alsoyellow, in order to distinguish his follow­ers from the other lamas. He reinstatedthe mendicant orders with strict Buddhistdiscipline; he demanded celibacy andchastity. He gave the munk's lile theoriginal stern routine and di ·cipline. Hecondemned black magic anci all its riteand abolished the witchcraft of Ta.ntrapractice. He al 0 aboli hed blood sacri­fiCOR of any kind H,S being contrary to theBuddha's foremo t commandment: "Thoushalt not kill."

Legend narrate: During a disputebetween the head of the I 'ab'a Lamasand Tt;ongkhapa, the former, i;l the heatof the discussion, seized and crushed alouse. TsongkJlapa flung at hi adver­sary: "Be silent. I hear between yourfingernailti the agonized cry of a dyingcreature." At this the Sakya Lamaprofessed himself vanquiahed and ac­knowledged the new church.

If Tsongkhapa demanded much fromhis followers in the way of discipline andren lJnciation, he also lifted the YellowLILmaH high above the laymen. Theyranked with the gods, and their churchnow ruled Tibet. UIlfurtull!Ltely thehigh ideals of T ongkhapa did 110t reachthe mas e , although they are still ob­served by all trllA YelIow Lamas. Histhird successor-the first rightfully tobear the title of Dalai Lamn-wa againan accomplished deceiver and conjuringmagician. The hoof print of his horsformed a Mantra, the six sacred magicByllo.bles "Om ma-ni pad-me hum" (0Jewol in the Lotus!).

"THO HALT !\OT KILL"

Alter th n 1t of this successor toMongolia, a prince of Eastern Mongoliadecreed the abolition of the Shamanistpractice of blood sacrifices. No moreliving creature -women, slaves, hoI' es,dogs-were to follow the deceased intohis grave to erve him in another exist­ence. Such sacrifice hould be repla cdby presents to the lamas, whose duty itwas, in return. to pray for the salvationof the de ea d's soul and for his well­being in th other world.

Wbon the Dalai Lama return d toTibet. h left as a compensation theincarnation of the Boddhisatta of Wisdomin Mongolia who i.. reuorn in the DongkorKhutuktu, the hight'st Lamaist func­tionary of Inner Mongolia. Thus. withtho help of the idea of the migration ofsouls, the HeW Mongol Church could beeffectively linked \yith the mother churchin Tibet.

OODS LN H "MAN FORM

The Aryan peoples of pre-BuddhistIndia already believed in the transcendentpower of the Karma. i.e. the re ult ofour deed; . which leads to rebirth. Lama­ism evoln~d the doctrine of the Khubil­gans. These are alleged reincarnationsof a Budllha or of one of the many Bod­dhisatta, ,god or godde 'es in Lamai m'swell-stocked pantheon. Venerable digni­taries of the church, even famous princesor heroes, may reappear as Khubilgans.Some of these were given the title ofGegen by the Chinese emperor.

Some female deities are reborn in afemale and a male Khubilgan simulta­neously, the best known being the WhiteTara. She was reborn in the reigningempress of Russia.; at the same time hermale reincarnation appeared among theMongol'!. If a T:-ur ruled Ru ·ill. thefemale incarnation was found among atribe in Tsungaria. Thi mystic connec­tion of Lamaism with their imperial housewas no HlIlull political aid to the 1~US8ians

in t.heir penetration of Central A ia and, Outer Mongolia.

Wilen a Khubilgan dies, his soul issupposed to enter a child born forty-ninedays later. After about a year has

314 THE XXtb CENTURY

elapsed, the lamu.s set out in search of hireincarnation in a district designated bythe dying Khubilgan u.s the plaee wherehe will reappear. They test every childof suitable age by showing it a numberof article, one of which belonged to theholy man. If the child grasps and holdsthis one article, it is thought to haverecognized its former po ession. Severalsuch applicants are then brought beforethe high lamas for final decision. Thechosen Khubilgan receives a careful,solely ecclesiastical education. Every dayhe hears tales of his deeds in formerexistence', until he becomes thoroughlyfamiliar with the personality he is sup­posed to be. If he turns out badly, heis often quietly poisoned and anotherbaby chosen. This may not always hesimple. Some of the inferior Gegens,called Werewolf Khubilgans, know howto prot ct themselves. I have knownsuch reil.lcarnations to play an importantpart in Outer Mongolia. by reason of theirruthle n s. The number of acknowledgedGegen varies, even in official lists. Abouttwo hundred, who enjoyed a greater orlesser degree of veneration, could becounted in Outer and Inner Mongoliaaround 1920.

In order to connect the Mongoliangr sland even closer with the TibetanY llow hurch, one Dalai Lama wasreborn in a Mongol prince. He waseducated in Mongolia up to his fourteenthyear by the Dongkor Khutuktu and thenbrought to Lhasa. For him, too, theMongols desired a substitute, which theyobtained in the rein arnation of thefamous Tibetan historian Taranatha. Heis the highest dignitary in the Lamai thi rarchy after the Dalai and the PanchenLamas. This reincarnation resided fromthat time on in Urga (Outer Mongolia)and is called Maidari Khutuktu. Thela t Maidari Khutuktu of rga wasblind, but a great libertine and drunkard,aside from being married. In the courseof the adventures of the Russian BaronUngern- ternberg, who planned a Mongol-.Tibetan ecclesiastical state, he fell intothe hands of the Soviets, when theyoccupied Urgt~, and died soon after.

The Soviets, of course, did not allow theinstallation of a uccessor. The rein­carnation-a Tibetan like his prede essor-has been living in Lhasa for manyyears, but his identity and whereaboutsare kept a ecret.

ATHEIST, MONOTJIEIST, POLYTHEIST

Fundamentally, the higher lamas~

especially the mystics, are athei ts, forthe Buddha denied the existence of aworld creator or eternal ruler of theuniverse. Aside from the Buddha-who­is not and never claimed to be a god inthe ordinary sense of the word-theyacknowledge no divine principle, no su­perior, grace-dispensing god. Yet as afollower of the Buddha the lama ismonotheist; as a worshiper of the count­less forms of divine apparition he ispolytheist.

The my tics believe in the unrealityand transitoriness of all exi ting forms.They believe and teach Voidness. Theybelieve that the individual does not con­tain an ego but is merely a bundle ofprocesses activated by the thirst forsentient existence. ince it is composedentirely of matter, the inclividual perishesin death. But all those pr ce sos whichwe can group under the three headingsof peech, thought, and action givo eachindividual a certain character. Tho frui­tion of these three manifestations is thedeed, its moral outcome is called Karma.They believe in the transcendent powersof the deed, Le., the Karma 8010110 sur­vives death.

The thirst for new life leads to robirthin a new form, determined by Karma.The new individual, bearing within him­seli the characteristics of his own makingin past live, now harve ts the re ults ofhis former <.1e cis: he is burdened with hisKarma as with "original sin."

To escape from this circle of r birthsinto Nirvana, to reaeh the "not returningto life" by the extinction of all d ires,the Buddha taught the oble Ei htfoldPath. Meditation and instructive devo­tion are employed to attain this end.

From the adoration of the Buddha,there developed-starting with the cre-

~IAlSMmMONGOLU 316

mation of the Buddha's corps<7-the cultof relics, the stupa, and later on thepictorial representation of the Buddha,of his mythical precursors and of Maidari,the Buddha-to-come of the next worldperiod. Those who wished to devotetheir entire life to their liberation joineda monastic order or entered a convent.

The Bolshcvization of Outer Mongoliahas destroyed its monastic life; the lamasscattered or became soldiers. The follow­ing statements about monasteries andtheir lamas as far as Outer Mongolia isconcerned, therefore refer to things ofthe past.

TEMPLES ON WHEELS

Outer Mongolia was divided into fourAimaks (dukedoms), these in 86 Koshuns,and these in several Sumuns according totheir size. Each Koshun had at leastone monastery of the Kbfui:i. type, andeach Sumtm one called a Sumii. A thirdcategory comprised independent monas­teries called Kb.ita.

Before the Mongols erected permanenttemples they had transportable templeyurts; even their main temples were onwheels. Oxen or camels pulled themacross the steppes. If camp was pitchedon a grazing grolmd, lamas and laymenerected their tents in a circle around thetemple. A camp of this kind was calleda Kbiira.. One of the most famous Kbiirawas that of the Maidari Khutuktu.When, in the beginning of the eighteenthcentury, he settled down beside theTola River, where Urga, the Ulan Bator(Red Hero) of the Soviets stands today,his group of temples retained the nameKhiira. Tltis example was soon followedby other migrant temple yurts. TheirllUllas lived in the vicinity of the nowpermanent "camp," called Do. Kbiira(great camp). They founded oities andcultnral centers; but the name Khiiriistuck to this type of monlUltery.

Sumii, a designation found in greatnumbers on maps of Mongolia, meansnothing but temple. They are templesof fixed location in the steppes, but intheir immediate neighborhood no monklive in yurts or cells. Their lama.s live

on their own. They lead a nomadic lifewith their families on the surroundinggrazing grounds. The Sumun, an or­ganized administration unit of a hundredto a hundred and fifty families, is re­sponsible for the upkeep of its temple.

Only on great festivals are the desola­tion and solitude of the temple dispelledby yellow-capped lamas riding up innoisy groups. The rata scatter when theheavy red doors squel\k and swing open.Small lamps light up the swept anddusted altars. They throw flickeringlights on forgotten Buddhas and grimac­ing demons. The popular festival onhorseback is on. Only for the prostra­tions do the visitors climb out of thesaddle. When the festive noise haaceased, when the lights have gone out,when the recitative prayer with tho shrillvoices of the novices and the deep heavybass of the lamas is no longer heard orthe dull sound of tho drums and theshrill trumpet of the World Eleph&nt,when the victorious wrestler and thewinning race horse have returned tocamp and herd-then the Suma lies oncemore forsaken and solitary. Only hares,marmots, and antelopes hear the tink.lingof the temple bells in the everting wind.Hats and mice return to the temple; theyskip over the altars and the blessinghands of the Buddha and play aroundthe skull crowns of the Terrible Ones.In the night the howling of the wolves isanswered by the War bark of distant dogs.

Nunneries are also found in Mongolia,though they are not numerous. Lamaismdespises women as being the source oflife and all the sufferings of a renewedexistence. But it allows women to retirefrom the world and become nun (Flo. 10),or remain in the world and be faithfullay members. A woman's saintly lifewould be rewarded by rebirth as a man­the next step t{)ward salvation.

TRADE PROFITS AND NO TA.."XES

Monasteries wese founded with the helpof princes and nobility. This prestigeestablished Lamaism firmly in the socialystem of the Mongols. Shamanism waa

a,lmost completely crowded out. Prom-

316 THE XXth CENTURY

BENEYOLENT AND TERRrnLE GODS

I 'habinars and the herds given to them,they carried on a well-organized transportbusiness in gold, silver, tea hide, camelh iI', antlers f the maral stag, tc., andguaranteed against the 10 of ware.The • habinar com"oyed such caravan.They would often be granted a certainpercentage of share in the profit in returnfur the sumpteI' animals suppl.ied bythem; or they might even undertake thewhole transport a u transaction of theirown. if they paid the mona tery a care­fully calculated urn for this pri,-ilege.

Most monasterie are built of unbakedbricks und wood. surrounded by a stonewall or board fonce. The style is amixture of Tibetan and Chinese, 01' puroly'hulose fur imperial foundation'.

On entering the temple one faces thema j nimage set up against the back wall,for u1Stance a statue of Tsongkhapa, or,more often, a trinity, varying accordingto the deity to whom the temple is ded­icated. It is often a trinity of Tsongkllapaand his twu favorite pupils, similar to thegroup of the Buddha with two disciple; orthree forms of the goddess Tara (FIo. 3).

The figures of deitie are of two kind':the benevolent and the "TathIul. Theformer sit with legs folded on the lotuthrone or riding animals. Figures offamous inearnat,ions sit in the medita­tion posture of the Buddlla. The handshold emblems or form one of the mysticfingor positions called Mudra. The eolU­

ing savior Maidari is oftenof huge size; he standsere t, with folded hands.Ariabolo (Sanskrit: A va.lo­kitesvara; Chinese: Kwan­yin), with an aureole of athousand hands holdingem blema and <:lli;pensingble /lings, is often found inMongol temples, but not ascOlUlllonly as in China.

To the wTathful groupbelong the Dokshit, t11Terrible Ones. They cle­fend the teachings of theBu ldha against his en-

orne attribut of LIl.Jnaistdeilies, i'....luding crown andhangin~ bell of human skulls;drum made of ohildren'sskulls; V..jrt> of two thunder-

bolts; and skull bowl

inent among all monasteries were theimperia.l ones, founded and kept up inceKang-bsi's time by the emperors ofChina. Their influence was ever on theincrease through such temple depend inon them. Nor WlUl there ever a . hortageof monks, becaus -following apracticintroduced by Knng-h i very first-burnson uf a Mongul l,e 'ume l1 lama. In thi~

wny Chinese diplomacy silll ply and eO'ec­tively checked th danger of a strongMongol \\'o.1'ri l' cu to.

The lama was put on the same sociallevel with the nobility. He, too. W8_

exempt frOIll taxation. Hi influence onthe leaders and-using their pre. tige­on the blindly believing people waRstrengthened by tho doctrine of reincar­nation. The SOlll of princes and nohle­men became pupils in the mona.steries;Borne of the pupils became abbots· thedead abbots were l' born in a child ofthe nobility. If a mona ·tery i!" luckyenough to harbor a falUous and popularincarnation, its pr stige grows. Hisfamily will shower it with present inherds and Shabinars. These are slavesof humble origin, who are presented to 1\

mona tery ",it.h their family and belong­ings as serfs. They formed a speciallass of Mongol people, were immune

from ordinary taxe. , and owed allegiance.s rvice. and obedience to their monasteryonly; they felt it an honor to be part ofits big community. The Khutuktu ofUrga reigned over more than 20,000Shabinar familie. Strictly regulatedtribute from til e 'edsguaranteed a minimum ufexistence to a monastery.The ru.le over them, IlS

w Ll IUS the adwuLitltratiollof the monastery itself, layin the hands of its secularrevenue office.

Prince, nobleman, andlama fo tered trade, andthe Shabinars were indis­pensable to trade. Themonastery was not onJy acenter of Lamaist cultbut also of secular trade.With the help of their

LAMAISM IN MONGOLIA 317

emies. 'l'h e many-headed gods arealmo t always portrayed in a tateof sexual excitement, alone, or with theYum on their folded legs, or d&llcing withtheir Yum. A typical example of thefury of sucl~ figures is Yamantaka, whomay be found in pra.ctically every Mongoltempie and countless small bronze , forthis nine-headed god with thirty-fourhands and pendants of skulls ha tamedthe god of death. His sixteen feettrample on a man, bull elephant, donkey,camel, dog, sheep, fox. and sc,.era I birds.He, too, em braces his Yum.

'l'he Heroic Dokshit and the TerribleDok hit resem ble each other 10 ely aif the sickening imagination of Lamaismhad at last spent itself in thesehorrors of distorted human mu cularity.The former trample on demons oranimals, the latter ride on their respectivemowlts: horse, mule, elephant. or tiger.Among the Eight Terrible Ones thereis one female deity Lhamo. he i theguardian of Lhasa and sits sideways ona mule led by an elephant-headed witchb~ rein made of living snake. Anotherwitch drives it over a field of blood andbone.

A d tailed description of all the terriblea peeta given to Buddhas and Bod­dhisattas would fill volumes. Vi ion andsexual inhibitions have cont.orted thearti tic imagination and given these godsa.U tb ugline s of exaggera.ted mon-tro itie in order to ma.ke them able

protectors of the Buddha's fa.it.h again tima.ginary enemies.

OFFlmlNGS AND TilE MAGIC CIRCLE

The long table which serve as nn alta.rAtands befor t.hc main gods on the northwall. The gods face the sout,hern en­tra.nce doors. Before them are placedthe Eight Offerings:

1. Wheel: it I dJ! to boundIe perfoction.ymbol of 13UUdlULS teaching. .

2. \Vhite conch shell: symbol of conversion andhappinesa tberein. .

3. White umbrella: it d stroy wicked d Irctl.

4. Pennant of I$l1lvation, in the shapo of a roundtent: red, :l'eUow, and blue.

5. Two goldfish: they swim in the rivor ofwealth and bli .

6. Knot of happine : symbol of tho soul that11118 attained perfection. .

i. Wllite lotus: it is free from pollutIOn andimpurity, a symbol of Nirvana. .

. \'1l8C of holy water: it contain aU W1shca.

Another roup of s.ymb Is lined up ont.he altar are the 'even Precious Things.They are al 0 regarded a offerings, thoughthey really are the attributes of theSeven World Rulers ea.ch of whomreigned in one world period as the secularcounterplLrt to t.be Buddha. Betweenthese object· nre "even more offerings,bowl \\;t.h saffron water. flow Ta. incen esticks, food, etc. ln their midst Awndsthe lamp with its eternal light anda receptacle for incen· a.nd it ashes,For different prayer services other of­fering are added, e.g., l\ Mandala, 3

mirror, and sour milk-the latter inmemory of a maiden who refreshed theBuddha with t.his beverage during his!"ttuggle for enJightenment und r theBoddhi tree.

The TaJ1tm Mandala was originally a,

magi circle outlined on t.he graveyardin order to conjure and hold some terriblegod in it. This circle was then con­sidered the abode of the deity and hillor her retinue. As ·uch it i ubdividedinto circle and squares filled \\;th the~ymbols of the inhabiting deit.ies. Forspecial fe,,,tivltl such Mandalas a.re "built"wit.b infinite labor and skill out f coloredrice powder, in the temple of the godthus honored (FlO. 6). But there are a.lsomore durable Mandala, tempi fixturespainted, printed, or fashioned out ofwoud or metal. Following ritua.l rules,grains of ri e nre tAttered on it, and by

The Eight Oefl-ring

318 THE XXtb OENTURY

lifting it the lama offers up to thedeity the whole world thus represented.

One of the moat important instrumentsin Tantra rites is the magic dagger,Phurbu, with which the Mandala isoutlined. It is often simply called the"Nail," aa it nails down the conjureddeity in the circle. It is three-edged;the handle is often a thunderbolt and­for conj uring purposes-the head of athree-eyed demon with a crown of skulls.

NOBODY TO PRAY TO

Early Buddhism had no prayer in oursell8e of the word. It did not acknowl­edge any gods, so there waa nobody topray to. The Buddha had entered Nirva­na and terminated his existence. Onecould not pray to him either. Theknowing may not molest the "completelyextinguished" with profane requests. Inprayer they should and would only achievethe purification of their hearts. ThusMongol or Kalmuck Lamaism haa noword for supplicating prayer becausetheir prayers are not requests addressedto a certain god but rather avowals offaith, hymns of praise and glorificationof the supreme Perfect One, recited inorder to attain spiritual realization of aBuddha or Boddhiaatta.

The temple's daily community prayer(Khural) is usually only attended by thelama pupils of from six to eighteen yearsof age. The higher lamaa stay awayfrom this regular service. The pupils, ifthey desire to become fully ordainedmonks, havo to learn by heart all theoommonly used Khurals. Like moat re­ligious books in Mongolia, these are inTibetan, either handwritten or block­printed. Mongolian texts are rare andused only in a fow monasteries. Some

lamaa know by heart the whole prayerservice of thirty-nine Khurals, eachlaating about an hour or even longer.

Three older lamll8 should always bepresent at the daily prayer service. Oneof them watches over the behavior ofthe pupils; if they fool around and play,he brings them to order with scolding orwhipping. During prayer the lama pupils,or-in a groat Khural-the fully ordainedlamaa, sit in a straight row in front oftheir prayer benches, their legs crossedunder them. The position of hands,foot, and lama cloak must not deviatefrom strict rules, and they must be clean.It is forbidden to indulge in any nonsell8e,to laugh, chatter, quarrel, cough, spit, orblow the nose loudly. During recess, teaand food are passed round; the lamamust not smack his lips or make anyother sound while eating or drinking; hemay not lick his cup, smoke, or keep hiscap on his head. He must look straightahead. He cannot leave without per­mission. Punishment is meted out tohim who does not clap his hands at thecorrect moment during the prayer, oris late in beating the drum, blowing theconch shell, etc. The prayers should beintoned in a soft voice.

The ordained lamaa join in the prayeron special days of faating and prayer, orat festivals. One of the greatest holidays,not only for the lamaa, but for the entireMongol population, is the New Yearfestival, Tsagan Sara or "White Month."It is celebrated at the beginning of spring,from the first to the sL~teenth day of thefirst month. The sixteen-days' servicecousists of a special New Year's prayerand fifteen daily prayers in commemora­tion of tho Buddha's fifteen wondrousspiritual victories over the Brahman

Tho Sovon PrecioUll Things: Tho wheel as eymbol of perfection in prayor; tho magie gom whichfulfills every wish; tho queen jewel who rules by her beauty; tho dignitary or tho world ruler; thojewel l'lephant, symbol or the boundl088 extent or Buddhist teaching; the procioUll hOrBe, eymbol ofeuccar in all noods; tho general or tho world ruler whoso .werd annihilates all scheming against the faith

LAKAI8M IN MONGOLIA JUt

adversaries of his new faith. There arealso prayers in honor of the guardiandeity of the temple.

Another great festive day is that ofthe procession in honor of Maidari, theComing Buddha, when huge carts withlarge figures are pulled around the templeby pious laymen and lamas (FlO. 12).Still another festival with impressiveprayer service is the Tsam, a ritual ofexorcism (FlOs. 134; 14), known as the"Devil's Dance" in Peking.

PRA¥ING IN RELAYS

Then there are the so-called "eternalprayers" (GUrlim). Relays of lamas prayfrom sunrise to sunset, from sunset tomidnight, from midnight to sunrise, and~ on, without the slightest interruptionduring replacement. Other eternal prayersare said if a prinbe or Gegen, a richMongol or his herds, is stricken withillness. Such special services can bequite expensive. There are Giirlim toward off evil from a newly contractedmarriage and to correct a woman's8terility. Others can grant more sonsthan daughters; others break the powerof a wife over a henpecked husband.

THE IMPORTANCE OF CORRECT

PROSTRATION

The lay Mongol ordinarily saves upthe performance of his religious dutiesfor a great festival Khural. But he maynot take direct part in the prayer serviceor even enter the temple during it. Hemay only go around the temple fromleft to right and prostrate himself beforethe entrance. Every phase of this pros­tration has its special significance for theliberation of living beings from the circleof rebirth. He folds his hands in frontof his chest as in prayer, lifts them overhis head, opens them and folds thembefore his forehead, opens them again&nd lightly strokes mouth and chin.With hands folded before his chest theMongol then kneels and throws himselfflat, arms outstretched, face down, sothat all limbs touch the ground. Herises making the same gestures in reverseorder. Lamas and pilgrims often perform

hundreds of these prostrations. Invol­untarily they do them rhythmically-ex­cellent gymnastics for the average Mongol,whose sole exercise otherwise is ridingor wrestling, the only popular sport.

Pious Mongols make pilgrimages totheir temples, sometimes miles from theiryurts. Every three steps they prostratethemselves, and it may thus take themweeks to complete the trip. H the pros­trations are not correctly executed, thepilgrim will be reborn as a camel; or, ifthe forehead is not properly pressed tothe earth, the culprit is reborn in one ofthe hells where he hangs head downwardsover scorching fires. With each pros­tration the Mongol prays for the dis­appearance of all sin, and that he as wellas every living creature-not excludinglice and flees which might be botheringhim at the moment-may attain Buddha­hood. A drU;J1ken Mongol, dirty andclumsy but with the seriousness of theintoxicated, who--scared by the conse­quences of any incorrectness-tries prop­erly to execute the prostrations in orderto free hiDlBelf and all creatures fromrebirth and become a Buddha: that isindeed a grotesque spectacle.

But if such attempts at religious prac­tices by uneducated and mentallyincapable Mongols seem ridiculous, anightly prayer service is truly imposing,especially when one enters the templefrom the terrible cold of a dark winternight in the steppes. In front of everyhigh lama, a fire of horse- or oamel-drop­pings glows in a pierced iron receptacle.Its smoke weaves veils around the statu­ary, throws shadows over the gilded facesof the quiet Buddhas and Boddhisattas,and makes the grimaces of the many­headed 'l'errible Ones in their Yab andYum dance seem even more horrible.

WEDDING, BmTH, DEATH

Aside from these festive meetings thereare, of course. other prayer forms andformulas, like the YOrol (wishful prayers).One of these is the above-mentionedprayer for the liberation of all creatures.There are also YOrOis as blessings.

120 THE XXth CENTURY

Then there are wedding YOrols. Whilebrid Md groom it on the thr hold ofthe yurt, the YOr I of those deitie areread in who e year the bride and roomwere born. Thi ceremony also reveala remnant of Mongol mahiarchy whichstill lingers in practice if not officially:the highest of the lamas pr 'ent under­take1 tlle ".eneration of th bride'" herecite, the wedding 1'Or I, which i· .alledthe "lineage of the brid ."

Another Yoroi manife t primitivesuperstition. It is fI, protective prayerfor th friends and relatives of a de easedagainst the harm bis pirit might dot.hem. A Yorol i recited during the firstbath of t,be newborn, whicb is oft,en theone and only bath a Mongol ever gets.Of course, a peopl of rider like theMongol nl 0 ha\'e Y rol for their horse~,

for protection and bles ing in the raceand for tbe wiJUung horse.

DeatJl, too, has it Khural with Yoroh.i.A lamn InU t come at on e if he is calledto a u ath bed; not to come would bewor e than murder. The lama entersthe yurt without addres ing or evenlooking n,t anybody. He sit down bythe sid of the patient and doe notmove until the dying person has be omeaecustomed to tbe ight of him. Thenhe places his prayer book on the head ofthe sick person. Every fully ordainedlama always carrie tbis book with himunder his left arm; with it be usuallvdispen es benedict ions to laymen b}'placing it on the head of the applicant.The sick person now knows that he isabout to die and listons eagerly to thedeath prayer by Padma 'ambhava, whichevery lama mu t know by heart infongolian and Tibetan. It' is a guide

to the other world, mixed with Yt\rols,whioh gives much-needed advice tu theoul: 1I0w it i to beha.e before the

different-colored luminous emanations ofBuddha. gods, pirit, and nongod,and how to pa throu h all temptations.One of the Y()rols which the so1l1 mu trecite in the other world run: flS follow":

o you lludLihas of th 6,,(' varieti 11m! 011otber mighties who opP"'"r,·" beior In, you who

th five kinds of "'1""lurn-when J nrn reborn

in t.he material world, deign to elevate me, Andsave me from t.he steep row of intermediatebirths.

The lama also read three prayers ofpenitence on behalf of t.he dying, in orderto calm hi . ul. for they contain theoath of ~1lLidari Buddha to protect thoow from rebirth.

"I BEWEVE L-; THE U!lIAS ... "

The mo t important prayer for ev ry­body is t.ho profe"sion of faith, withwhioh every sacred act begins. It begin:

1 believe in Ih most holy and holy lomas. whoT\'e o.s the b of 011 virtuelI, which come frorn

I h body, 8.lI wol1 1I.s those coming from tho ton U{'8

/lnt! the til ulthts of my relutive , my forebl"aJ'll,nil living beings which livo in heaven, and nUlluddhfls of tho ton corners of the earth nlld thotllr periods. ] believe in tho lomas ... whoacL 0 prototyp, root, and bllllis of tho KJlutuktu.... ] tako my r fuge in Buddha, I take royrefuge in I he holy I ('aching, I IlLke my refug int h order rof )lUnlUIJ . • , .

There is allOther pray r which plfL)'1lan important pnrt in t,he life of every~longol and which he mu t know byheart, a the Christian knows the Lord'sPrayer. It i' the )likt bin prayer a~hort piou' wil:'h which IllII t be utter db fore entering a temple: "May I juin ina worthy ffiaJUler the gathering of lamas,the preciou things, th teachers ofreligion, and the lea.clers ou the road toNirvana.' This prayer is \\Titten orpa ·ted on a revolving tand in front ofthe temple door (FIG. 9), 80 that thosewho cannot recite it by h art--eit.herbecau e they are too tupid or too young-may recite it mechanically by ro\'olvingth contra.pt,jon. Thi i probably thoorigin of the prayer wheel and otherdevices of mechanical praying.

PRAYERS WHOLESALE

The prayer wheel supplies Mongolllnd Tibeta,ns with prayers wholesalo.It i a. hollow cylinder closed top lLndbottom, with a central axi around whichit r voh'o wh n et in moti n by pushinga handle at th bottom (FlO. 4). It isfilled to capa ity with printed or \\Tittenpray I' formulas, as, for exalUple, thowell-known Om ma-ni pad-me hum; or itmay contain sacred sutra a.nd book , ureven entir r ligious ency lopedias.The e prayer wll· cL c me in all iz ,

FII;. J II .\ 111111 I.I ()1I11'1' 'IIIIIL." 11111 111 11I'I'

.\ 111'1. Hut :--Iw I ... Ittd il 11I'1'1,·.·t ..... nlll! .. III'

:-1111.1,,·:-,' H IHI",I

~1I"1t· lit' tilt· plll!f,'!.!nqdl .... J'1'I,rlldll"I',J Iwl'" t'toldol 'Ill" I.,·ld'luillt'llwitllcrl'ulllillic'ldt\" !",q' 111,1.111",., ,II" "11111'" "IHIIII'11

lit" IHII1H~ Ilud In 1I1f·I·t 11I'1:'f,· IIII' 1111111"" \\,t...; Ill'I'llIlllI',j I ••

f.t1l1111~rHllh tilt· l'II!I!'lfnl,'ti"1\ 1'1' 1111' 111l111l11l1.1 (1,'1" ';l. 1111111.

1I111tl!' ,·u...·.......·. tllf' ulItllltr !tlld to PH~ 11t-'II\,\ 111'11 •• ,- 1/1 I .. , ;dl .. ,,·'.j

III ,t1lc1IOL:ruJdl ~(H'll' iflll·nur:,. "'III,'t' L.:IH"'''' .'I'\t·J'!IIL'" .... Ill,,1 1,· I,t 'n'lllll\"'ll "ltil'h Il(·"t_·"... itah,"{ Ih,· prt'III""I"IIl~ •• t' IIIHL.:lt· "'1,,·11 ...

lu prt'\ent tilt" rt·:--p(·I·ti\'I· :--piril:"i (nllli 1·"I'ul'ill!.!. ,\1 1II" 1;\ .. 1IJIHlIlt'IIL till' lu,nu clIl dlJt,\' a:.,hl·d ftlr 111111'1' 111Hfll.,·~. III :--1'111'4d rt""'I\'!II1!; ,hi:-l. ht' :-:lill n'f\l~'11 IWrllli ........ il,1l t'I 1.l1't1II~n,!"1.

.\ ... t.1 rt·.:"ult Pi' lilt· author',.; ('ttlfllduilll til 11\1' Iwad lalllil ,.(fIll' tt·llIldl'. thi:-\ ('Hrri"lIIHr Il\Tllll \\it:-- :-,u"',"'lldt',J il'IIl11 1111fl'llIpl,· Il,'II\'11 il':') lur IIi ... 1I11 ... t!t·'Ill'llllilr.

FII;, ~ LllllIlI:"l HI' 11ll' 'IUllIHl'i '1"'111\.\" III l'r::ll III 11,,11,1:1.\ !...•• Ili.

\\ I I II ("'I"I'IIIIIIII,d 1111 I ...

AI I lit' 1"llIpl,·I lefort..' 1'111 L'rllie

PILGRIMS,

MONKS.

AND NUNS

Tilt' l!:dt :-lllqlll IIi lilt' U:"'1111 1'I,iII'H. l·r!.!II,.'II'r1~I.J1 l"'i n:adllll.: ttll' ,\111,1'..:11111 Jll'lIy('1'

10'11;, ~l

~Hl' II

FII., ~ .\ 1111111\ pdl!r1111 ""'III1I~ III 1Ij1,11l0i1 tilt· I'll\\"

of prn.'I·r \dl'TI ... HI tIll" .\1.1 Idol I I '1"'111101" III l'n.!'l

I,. II J III' 1\ll1dlll~.1I1 \LtlIJII .. hll 1.;'11101. \\1,,, I",

.-Id.·" 111 II ... .'1.11 IJlI .. 1II 1 1\111 11"ilr "'L"dFit .. I~ TIlt" ",lnl.I!.!" (1It'Ht) til \1.llllan II. tilt' \III,L'11

1·I'IIfT.... i.,fl. "'l-'n

I I' I" '1""" dill' 111-' ... k.·I. "II'" III lilt.: 'r.-<1111 lidl"" II

III I', J...III-'; .1- 1111' J .,"\ II':, 1;.111' " ) II t ~I ..lllj 11 ... 111 I 1'1111

1"0, I f I )"W'" III ":lln.t11 .d,.t .. ,\Ill' 1111 - .lfl "11·1 lu

t 1,',1111. - III tll'- '1'''~1111 ..it .'I,IIIJII .. IIII h.illt

LAMAISM IN MONGOLIA

from the tiny hand implement et inmotion by a flick of the wrist and keptgoing by the centrifugal force of mallballs suspended from chains, to the giantdrum turned by water. It requires acertain bodily exertion to set even one ofthe medium- ized prayer wheel in mo­tion (F'lO. 7). But, having done so, theentire contents of the cylinder are putdown to one s credit, a~ if one had readand recited them personall.y one by on .Even wind and water may b pres clinto ervic~water to turn the hugeprayer wheels, wind to flutter th 'quareof oloth printed with prayers, many ofwhich are joined and hung uncleI' theeaves of temples.

POWERFUL SYLLADLES

Related to prayers are the Mantra '.mystic formulas without evident meani.ng.A Mantra i poken at the beginning orin the middle of a Dharani. 'I he lamabelievo that the recitation of a Mantrasuch as Om ma-ni pad-me hum is ext.remelyeffective, Whoe\'er under tands thesesacred, ecret syllables and applies themcorrectly can bring about supernaturaleffects and conjure gods, pirits, anddemon for ervice and su cor the Mantrabeing the "absolute, the eternal word. '

Short Mantras of this kind are oftenrepresented in symbolical diagrams, a.ndonly the initia.ted can understand theirmeaning and effect. One of the oldestand most m 'stic is the Namchuwang­dan. A wealth of writings has beendevoted to tltis mysterious sign of theTen Powerful Forms; a,ll kinds ofreligious, llSt rological eyen medical ideahave been superimposed in a vain effortto explain it.

The Namchuwangdan is u ed as anamulet and tali man; it protects bouse,heartb. and aU belonging. W find it inalmo t every monastery of the Red andYeUow Chur h on doors and entrances inits ritull.l color of blue, green, yell.ow,white red. and black. It is printed orpainted on prayer flag~ carved in woodor chased in metal on bo k cov rs oramulet box . The frontal niche in thebulgi.ng part of the bottle pagoda often

contains the anlohuwangdan in its ritualcolors on a. lotu against the backgroundof a. blue fig leaf with golden veins.Tantra call it the "Vi cera of the Earth\Voman."

tASTERS OF THE DffiECT WAY

o far we have described the popularform and cults of Mongol Lamaism.But the description would not be completewit,hout adding something about otherlamas in Mongolia. Although they arenot numerou , they exi t. In fact, ifLamaism were only aU that we have­said thus far, the natural quostion wouldari e a to how it is po sible that suchlLbjeot superstitions have acquired such.dominion even over the educated few ofTibet and Mongolia.

Lamaism being derived from th teach­ing of the Buddha, there have from itsvery introduction into Mongolia beenlama who, disdaining popular renown orinfluence, devoted their live exclusivelyto the attainment of the Noble EightfoldPath. These are roolu.e , li,-ing in com­I lete retirement in the Khits (monasteriesof recluses) far out in the steppe. on a8acred 'ite or mountain. They are bemlitlama -Dajanchis.

An earthen waU u uaUy enclos a.,'mall temple and a few yurts inhabitedby the Da.janchis, a small number ofuperior Lamai t officials, lowor, servile

lamas, and monastery serfs ( habinar)~

They live in a brotherhood witbout per­sonal property. Their ta k is to upplythe Dnjanchis wi h the little food theyrequire. A K1l.it has almo t no in orne.There is no tem pIe or prayer ervic.What is required for the modest upkeepif: supplied by the habinarR.

The Dajanchi lives in voluntary eclu­sion. He devotes 1l.im.elf 'olely to amad­hi. This is mol' than ju t meditation,wllich aU lamas practice fr m tinle totime. Not every lama may enter a Khit,and few are eager to become "Ma ter ofthe Direct \\ ay," though simplo medita­tions are at times executed by verysuperior Inma. In Mongolia there were-.hardly a hundred Dajanchis who strov&to gra~p the my ti meaning of the void

32' THE XXth CENTURY

through the practice of Absorption.This leads them to the limits of existence­nonexistence; and many a Dajanchihas thus passed away. A lama may notenter a Khit before completing his thirtiethyear and not after his fortieth year.He must have studied at one of the great,famous universities of Lamaism, Le., atLhasa, Kunbum, or Urga. He musthave mastered the highest knowledge ofLamaism, the scien e which teaches the-essentials of wisdom in order to attainutmost cognition. This is achieved by a.systematic study of the Kandjur. Thelama entering a KJlit must prove the-extent of his knowledge in a short exam­ination before the head of the monus­tery, who is not himseli a DajanchLThe choice of a teacher for the newcomeris left to chance. The fir t Dajanchi toawake from his Samadhi takes him on ashis pupil. He guides him through anumber of progressivo absorptions. Thoserecluses give up every sort of work ora tivity, every friendship and conver a­tion with other lamas, except with theirteacher. Even with the head of themonastery they only exchange a fewwords when absolutely necessary.

MASTERING DESlRE

During Samadhi, "the mood of non­thought-formation," the lama sits erecton a cushion in hi simple yurt, anemaciated ascetic in the deathlike im­mobility of deepest absorption. His at­titude is that of a Buddha. In hiswaxen hands he holds nothing but a1'0 ary, but he does not move it. Hissharp features are quiet and expression­less. His eyes are fixed on space. Noteven the intake of the breath stir thewithered body.

Four degrees of common Lamaist medi­tat,ion within the world of forms lead tofour others in the formless worlds. Fromhere, only the Masters of the Direct Waygo on to a ninth degree. PracticingSamadhi, the lama is beyond conscious­n s and without perception; he risesinto the Sphere of the Void. In a "medi­tative abstraction" that goes beyondmere meditation, in fill "ec, tatic cquilib-

rium" in which not a single thought maybe formed, powerful visions are created."Nonmeditation plus nondistra.etion isthe state of Samadhi. The lama is onthe verge of form-destruction, or eternalrest, called Nirvana. But as his span ofIiie has not yet been exhausted, the adeptreturns from this ninth stage into lifelmtil, at his death, he is forever freedfrom all forms of existence.

There are 116 progressive methods ofpracticing Samadhi, of which some helpmaster the desires of the world. Some ofthese methods, when described exoterical­ly, may horrify the reader. One of themshows the lama his own body fallingapart in festering pieces; the skeletonbursts and split , until all is finally con­sumed by a great flame. This Samadhiis a success if the Dajanchi sees risingout of his own skeleton a star withtwenty-five to forty golden balls, andwhen a pearl appears on his forehead.In other terrifying Samadhis, the medi­tator finds himsell amidst the devastatingconflagration of the universe; horriblewild animals surround him; enormous,grimacing demons threaten him; snakesaJld dragons twist around his body-allprojections of his own mind.

Another method serves as a protectionagainst mental derangement. It is theSamadhi of the concentration on theBuddha. For seven days and sevennights the Dajanchi concentrates on theaugust image of the Buddha in the purelight of its beauty. He concentrates onthis image and retains it in his mind tothe exclusion of all else. First he con­centrates on his forehead, from whichflow an endless number of Buddhas, whothen float back from all distances into hisforehead. Then he concentrates on hisheart. Again Buddhas appear, withthunderbolts of sapphire in their hands.'aints in the colored lights of their

aureoles hover around these Buddhas,the last of whom stops before the Dajan­chi and rests his staff on the meclitator'sheart; all the Buddhas and saints returninto the heart. Concentration will causeBuddhas to emerge from all posos andreturn into them. Then the Dajanchi

LAMAISM IN MONGOLIA 326

concentrates thoughts and images on hisnavel. The navel extends, bursts, andout of it grows a wondrous lotus flowerwith golden leaves on a sapphire stem.A Buddha in all his glory is seated in thecenter of the blossom. Out of this Bud­dha's navel another lotus flower growswith another Buddha and so on untilthere are lotus flowers and Buddhas allaround. Gradually they a.ll return inreverse order into the lama's navel. Inthe Buddha Sama.dhi, the Dajanchi seesthe earth as a transparent golden mirror,and feels himself getting as clear andtransparent as the earth. When a Da­janchi dies, he is able to disregard theternpting or terrifying visions coming tomeet him. Those with which he isalready familiar through his Samadhiswill have no power to detract him fromthe straight path to salvation.

MEN ABOVE GODS

The attraction of Lamaism for thosewho enter its order is not difficult tounderstand. No other highly developedreligion grants its initiated servants quitethat degree of power over men and gods,~pecially the gods. Theoretically, thereis no limit to what the lama can do,becau e he forces the gods to perform

miracles for and through him, accordingto the beliefs of the superstitious.

In Mongolia. I have actually seen featsof magic and the control of forces un­known to us which science would havea hard time explaining. The superiorlamas of the old school have alwaysstudied tirelessly and with the strictestspiritual discipline. Their knowledge, notonly of texts and doctrine, but often alsoof men, medicine, and the affairs of theworld, is remarkable. Western sciencewill do away with many superstitionsbut will also destroy those realms ofwisdom which no outsider haB yet beenable to contact, much less to enter.

To the average lay Mongol the existenceof such powerful learning is known butnot comprehended. He is content withthe colorful outward manifestations,which to us seem extremely crude, evengross. Regarded critically from his pointof vantage, it would seem a poor religionthat cannot defend itself without ter­rorist gods who threaten its enemieswith a cruelty condemned by the mostfundamental morals. Only the altruisticefforts of the DoddhisattaB to save allliving beings, in which man joina in hisprayers, commends the faith and gives itan ethical baBe of universal appeal :

BLII38INO TO ALL