Chapter 2

Early Societies in Southwest

Asia and the Indo-European

Migrations

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Civilization Defined

Urban

Political/military system

Social stratification

Economic specialization

Religion

Communications

“Higher culture”

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Mesopotamia

“Between the Rivers”

Tigris and Euphrates

Modern-day Iraq

Cultural continuum of

“fertile crescent”

Sumerians the dominant

people

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The Wealth of the Rivers

Nutrient-rich silt

Key: irrigation

Necessity of coordinated efforts

Promoted development of local governments

City-states

Sumer begins small-scale irrigation 6000 B.C.E.

By 5000 B.C.E., complex irrigation networks

Population reaches 100,000 by 3000 B.C.E.

Attracts Semitic migrants, influences culture

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Sumerian City-States

Cities appear 4000 B.C.E.

Dominate region from 3200 to 2350 B.C.E.

Ziggurat home of the god

Uruk

Irrigation systems

Defense from nomadic marauders

Absolute monarchies

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The Ziggurat of Ur

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Political Decline of Sumer

Semitic peoples from northern Mesopotamia overshadow

Sumer

Sargon of Akkad (2370-2315 B.C.E.)

Destroyed Sumerian city-states one by one, created empire based

in Akkad

Empire unable to maintain chronic rebellions

Hammurabi of Babylon (1792-1750 B.C.E.)

Improved taxation, legislation

Used local governors to maintain control of city-states

Babylonian empire later destroyed by Hittites from

Anatolia, ca. 1595 B.C.E.

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Legal System

Code of Hammurabi

Established high standards of behavior and stern

punishment for violators

Lex talionis – “law of retaliation”

Social status and punishment

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Later Mesopotamian Empires

Weakening of central rule an invitation to foreign invaders

Assyrians use new iron weaponry

Beginning 1300 B.C.E., by eighth to seventh centuries B.C.E. control Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, most of Egypt

Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon (r. 605-562) takes advantage of internal dissent to create Chaldean (New Babylonian) empire

Famously luxurious capital

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Mesopotamian Empires, 1800-600 B.C.E.

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Technological Development in

Mesopotamia

Bronze (copper with tin), ca. 4000 B.C.E.

Military, agricultural applications

Iron, ca. 1000 B.C.E.

Cheaper than bronze

Wheel, boats, ca. 3500 B.C.E.

Shipbuilding increases trade networks

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Social Classes

Ruling classes based often on military prowess

Perceived as offspring of gods

Religious classes

Role: intervention with gods to ensure good fortune for community

Considerable landholdings, other economic activities

Free commoners

Peasant cultivators

Some urban professionals

Slaves

Prisoners of war, convicted criminals, debtors

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Patriarchal Society

Men as landowners, relationship to status

Patriarchy: “rule of the father”

Right to sell wives, children

Double standard of sexual morality

Women drowned for adultery

Relaxed sexual mores for men

Yet some possibilities of social mobility for women

Court advisers, temple priestesses, economic activity

Introduction of the veil at least ca. 1500 B.C.E.

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Development of Writing

Sumerians experiment with pictographs

2900 B.C.E. Sumerians create writing system

Cuneiform: “wedge-shaped”

Preservation of documents on clay

Declines from 400 B.C.E. with spread of Greek

alphabetic script

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Uses for Writing

Trade

Astronomy

Mathematics

Agricultural applications

Calculation of time

12-month year

24-hour day, 60-minute hour

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Mesopotamian Literature

Epic of Gilgamesh, compiled after 2000 B.C.E.

Heroic saga

Search for meaning, especially the afterlife

This-worldly emphasis

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The Early Hebrews

According to Hebrew scripture, Abraham

migrated to northern Mesopotamia ca. 1850 B.C.E.

Parallels between early biblical texts, code of

Hammurabi

Scriptures state Hebrews under Moses go to

Palestine, ca. 1300 B.C.E.

On-going conflict with indigenous populations

King David (1000-970 B.C.E.) and Solomon

(970-930 B.C.E.)

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Moses and Monotheism

Hebrews shared polytheistic beliefs of other

Mesopotamian civilizations

Moses introduced monotheism, belief in single

god

Denied existence of competing parallel deities

Personal god: reward and punishment for conformity

with revealed law

The Torah (“doctrine or teaching”)

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Foreign Conquests of Israel

Assyrian conquest, 722 B.C.E.

Conquered the northern kingdom

Deported many inhabitants to other regions

Many exiles assimilated and lost their identity

Babylonian conquest, 586 B.C.E.

Destroyed Jerusalem

Forced many into exile

Israelites maintained their religious identity and many

returned to Judea

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Israel and Phoenicia, 1500-600 B.C.E.

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The Phoenicians

City-states along Mediterranean coast after 3000

B.C.E.

Extensive maritime trade

Dominated Mediterranean trade, 1200-800 B.C.E.

Development of alphabet symbols

Simpler alternative to cuneiform

Spread of literacy

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Indo-European Migrations

Common roots of many languages of Europe,

southwest Asia, India

Implies influence of a single Indo-European

people

Probable original homeland: modern-day Ukraine and

Russia, 4500-2500 B.C.E.

Domestication of horses, use of Sumerian

weaponry allowed them to spread widely

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Indo-European Migrations 3000-1000 B.C.E.

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Implications of Indo-European

Migration

Hittites migrate to central Anatolia, ca. 1900

B.C.E., later dominate Babylonia

Influence on trade

Horses, chariots with spoked wheels

Iron

Migrations to western China, Greece, Italy also

significant

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