the viñaptimātratā philosophy of the chinese buddhist monk k'uei-chi (a.d. 632-682) by alan...

THE VIJNAPTIMATRATA BUDDHISM OF THE CHINESE MONK

K'UEI-CHI (A.D. 632-682)

ALAN SPONBERG

B.A. , American U n i v e r s i t y , 1968

M.A. , U n i v e r s i t y o f Wisconsin, 1972

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

IN

; THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

Department of Asian Studies

We accept t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n as conforming

t o the re q u i r e d standard.

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

August 1979

© Alan Sponberg, 1979

In presenting th is thesis in par t ia l fu l f i lment of the requirements for

an advanced degree at the Univers i ty of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that

the Library shal l make i t f ree ly avai lab le for reference and study.

I further agree that permission for extensive copying of th is thesis

for scholar ly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or

by his representatives. It is understood that copying or publ icat ion

of th is thesis for f inanc ia l gain shal l not be allowed without my

written permission.

Department of

The Univers i ty of B r i t i s h Columbia 2075 Wesbrook Place Vancouver, Canada V6T 1W5

DE-6 B P 75-51 1 E

ABSTRACT

The d i s s e r t a t i o n seeks to determine the main features of

the Buddhist thought of K'uei-chi, F i r s t P a t r i a r c h of the Fa-hsiang

School of East Asian Buddhism, and to further e s t a b l i s h h i s p o s i t i o n

as a key f i g u re i n the transmission of Indian p h i l o s o p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n s

into China.. In addition i t provides a t r a n s l a t i o n of an o r i g i n a l

essay writte n "by K'uei-chi on Vijnaptimatrata. (Mere Conceptualization)

the fundamental philosophic p r i n c i p l e of the School of Yogacara

Buddhism to which he was h e i r .

There are two parts to the d i s s e r t a t i o n : Part One comprising

Chapts. I- I I I and Part Two comprising Chapts. IV and V. In Part One,

the f i r s t chapter summarizes the biographical data a v a i l a b l e on

K'uei-chi's l i f e , d iscussing i n p a r t i c u l a r h i s r o l e as t r a n s l a t o r and

exegete, and also the r e l a t i o n s h i p between these a c t i v i t i e s and his

personal r e l i g i o u s l i f e . Chapt. I I discusses K'uei-chi's writte n

works, pointing out a number of features that indicate h i s s p e c i a l

i n t e r e s t s . I t includes a d e t a i l e d and annotated analysis of a l l h i s

surviving works. Chapt. I l l presents a survey of the main doctrines

of the Vijnaptimatrata Yogacara school of Asafiga and Vasubandhu. As

one branch of Mahayana Buddhism, the. school i s shown to be best

understood as a systematic soteriology characterized by an emphasis

on the epistemic rather than the ontologic analysis of the constituents

of experience (dhamas). This chapter concludes with a discussion of

K'uei-chi's s i g n i f i c a n c e as a major fi g u r e i n the development of

i i i

Buddhist thought i n East Asia. He i s presented as a s y n c r e t i s t who

sought to organize a manifold and complex t r a d i t i o n i n a manner that

would allow i t s transmission into a very d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l context.

Part Two consists of a t r a n s l a t i o n of one essay from

K'uei-chi's voluminous d o c t r i n a l compendium, the Forest of Doctrines

in the Garden of the Dharma of Mahayana Buddhism (Ta-sheng fa-yuan

i-lin ohang). Chapt. IV provides an introduction to the work, out-

l i n i n g the commentaries used, both contemporary and modern, and

discussing the methodological problems confronted i n t r a n s l a t i n g the

tex t . Chapter V i s the t r a n s l a t i o n i t s e l f : K'uei-chi's "Essay on

Vijnaptimatrata" (Wei-shih chang) i n ten sections. It includes

extensive annotation i n d i c a t i n g the sources of the ideas K'uei-chi

discusses and providing supplementary information on the many Buddhist

doctrines to which he r e f e r s .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

i v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Abstract i i

PART ONE:

K'UEI-CHI, THE MAN AND HIS THOUGHT

Chapter

I. BIOGRAPHY 2

Family and Childhood k

A t t r a c t i o n to Buddhism 6

K'uei-chi and Hsuan-tsang 8

K'uei-chi, the Exegete 11

Quality of K'uei-chi's Scholarship 11

Personal Religious L i f e l 6

I I . K'UEI-CHI'S WRITTEN WORKS 21

An Analysis of the Surviving Works 2k

Discussion 32

I I I . K'UEI-CHI AND YOGACARA 37

YOGACARA IN INDIA AND CHINA 38

VIJNAPTIMATRATA 39

Atman and Dharmas 39

Trisvabhavata: the Three Aspects of Own-being hO

Vijnaptimatrata vs. Cittamatrata i n l a t e r Yogacara k2

Vijnana and V i j n a p t i k3

YOGACARA PSYCHOLOGY 50

The Eight Modes of Mental A c t i v i t y 51

Alaya and Atman 57

The Components of Perception 60

THE PATH TO ENLIGHTENMENT 6l

The Five Stages of Sanct i f i c a t i o n 6l

The Yogacara Conception of Nirvana 6k

K'UEI-CHI'S CONTRIBUTION . 6U

D o c t r i n a l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n 65

The F i v e - l e v e l Contemplation of Vijnaptimatrata 67

PART TWO

TRANSLATION OF

"THE ESSAY ON VIJNAPTIMATRAT&"

IV. INTRODUCTION TO THE TRANSLATION TO

The Commentaries 70

Methodological Considerations 72

V. K'UEI-CHI'S "ESSAY ON VIJNAPTIMATRATS" 79

[Preface] ' 79

Section

1. . Exposition of the Substance 80

2. C r i t i c a l Analysis of the Term 103

3. Explanation of the D i s t i n c t i o n s

and the Unity 108

h. Which Mode of Mentation Performs the Contemplation? 118

5. C l a r i f y i n g what Distinguishes

the Classes 120

v i

6 . The Stages of C u l t i v a t i n g R e a l i z a t i o n . . . . 1 2 7

7 . Of What Nature i s the Dharma

'.Contemplation*? 137

•8.' The S t a t i o n s and the Base of A r i s i n g . . . . ikk

9. Severing the Obstacles and Defilements . . . 151

1 0 . Turning t o and Embracing the Two Emptinesses 1 5 8

NOTES

CHAPTER I 1 6 2

CHAPTER I I 1 6 7

CHAPTER I I I 1 7 1

CHAPTER IV 1 7 5

CHAPTER V 1 7 6

ABBREVIATIONS 2 1 5

BIBLIOGRAPHY 2 1 7

1

PART ONE:

K'UEI-CHI, THE MAN AND HIS THOUGHT

Chapter I

BIOGRAPHY

- c h i ^ j j f £ (A.D. 6 3 2 - 6 8 2 ) , The Chinese Buddhist monk K'uei-

while remaining as yet r e l a t i v e l y unknown i n the West, was one of

the most prominent figures among the a r i s t o c r a t i c i n t e l l i g e n t s i a

who were att r a c t e d to Buddhism during the e a r l y part of the T'ang

Dynasty (A.D. 6 1 8 - 9 0 7 ) . The beginning of the 7 t h century had seen

the founding of a new Chinese empire a f t e r 5 0 0 years of i n t e r n a l

s t r i f e and discord; f i n a l l y once again China was united. I t was a

time when the Chinese court was becoming in c r e a s i n g l y more int e r e s t e d

i n the regions beyond i t s western f r o n t i e r , and when Buddhist thought

was rapidly/becoming the fashion of the day.

K'uei-chi's prominence stems from the two major a c t i v i t i e s

of h i s l i f e : h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the t r a n s l a t i o n project,sponsored by-

the T'ang Emperor T'ai-tsung 6 2 6 - 6 H 9 ) , a n < i h i s l a t e r

prodigious l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y as a t e x t u a l commentator and formulator

of what was to become the orthodox version of Yogacara Buddhism i n

East Asia . Both of these a c t i v i t i e s were the consequence of h i s long

ass o c i a t i o n with the famous Chinese Buddhist p i l g r i m Hsuan-tsang ^

(ca. 596-661+) . 2

In A.D. 61+55 when K'uei-chi was t h i r t e e n years o l d , Hsuan-

tsang returned to the T'ang c a p i t a l from sixteen years of t r a v e l and

study i n the major Buddhist monastic centers and u n i v e r s i t i e s of

3

Central A s i a and India. Buddhism had been growing s t e a d i l y i n China

for several centuries by t h i s time, but among Hsuan-tsang's native

Chinese contemporaries there were none who could r i v a l his understanding

of the Indian o r i g i n s of Buddhism. From his long residence at the

famous Buddhist monastery-university at Nalanda he had brought back

a profound mastery of Indian s c h o l a s t i c philosophy and also an .

extensive c o l l e c t i o n of Buddhist r e l i g i o u s and p h i l o s o p h i c a l l i t e r a t u r e .

The remaining nineteen years of h i s l i f e were devoted to d i r e c t i n g a

team of Buddhist scholars who t r a n s l a t e d those Indian works from

Sanskrit into L i t e r a r y Chinese. This t r a n s l a t i o n p r o j e c t , the most

extensive and l a v i s h l y funded i n the h i s t o r y of Chinese Buddhism,

provided the te x t u a l corpus by which the Chinese were f i n a l l y to gain

a mature understanding of Indian Yogacara Buddhism, a p h i l o s o p h i c a l

system even more a l i e n and contrary to the indigenous thought of t h e i r

time than to some of our own modern notions of philosophy and

psychology.

Hsuan-tsang, i f we judge from h i s work, considered h i s main

ro l e to be that of a transmitter and t r a n s l a t o r . It was to K'uei-chi,

his s p e c i a l l y chosen and personally i n s t r u c t e d successor, that he l e f t

the equally important and arduous task of providing the commentaries

that would make t h i s vast body of newly t r a n s l a t e d t e c h n i c a l l i t e r a t u r e

accessible to the Chinese Buddhist p u b l i c . I t was K'uei-chi who was

l a r g e l y responsible f o r standardizing an orthodox synthesis of the

various d o c t r i n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and po s i t i o n s represented i n the

many works brought back to China by Hsuan-tsang. So important, i n f a c t ,

was K'uei-chi's r o l e as formulator and synthesizer, that i t was he who

•was l a t e r given the p o s i t i o n of F i r s t P a t r i a r c h of the Fa-hsiang Tsung

J/ v 0 , the dominant school of Chinese Yogacara Buddhism and one

which subsequently had a strong influence on Japanese i n t e l l e c t u a l

h i s t o r y as w e l l . Thus, i n the eyes of some at l e a s t , K'uei-chi's

place i n the h i s t o r y of Chinese Yogacara Buddhism has been seen as

even more c r u c i a l than that of Hsuan-tsang.

Sources for an account of K'uei-chi's l i f e are l i m i t e d and

beset, moreover, with a l l the usual problems involved i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g

hagiography from.biography, a task made a l l the more d i f f i c u l t by the

3

dearth of autobiographical references i n K'uei-chi's own w r i t i n g s .

In o u t l i n e , the major events i n K'uei-chi's l i f e were his childhood

i n the a r i s t o c r a t i c c i r c l e s of the c a p i t a l , h i s early a t t r a c t i o n to

Buddhism, h i s t r a i n i n g and c o l l a b o r a t i o n with Hsuan-tsang, and h i s

l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y subsequent to Hsuan-tsang1s death. There are, i n

addition, two important themes running throughout hi s l i f e : h i s

commitment to c a r e f u l scholarship,and to Buddhist r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e .

In even a summary account of K'uei-chi's l i f e i t i s necessary to

consider each of these t o p i c s .

Family and Childhood .

The general circumstances of K'uei-chi's e a r l y years can be

surmised with some p r o b a b i l i t y . He was the scion of a family w e l l -

established i n the T'ang imperial court.and h e i r to a long t r a d i t i o n

of d istinguished m i l i t a r y leadership. The family name i s recorded as

Y i i - c h ' i n , that of an o r i g i n a l l y non-Chinese clan h i s t o r i c a l l y

associated with the court of the Northern Wei ^fc^$*Dynasty

(A.D. 386-534); By the beginning of the T'angDynasty the family had

become thoroughly s i n i c i z e d and c o n t r o l l e d important position s i n the

court.

K'uei chi's grandfather was given the t i t l e of Duke of

Ch'ang-ning ^ ^ / / ^ a n d h l s uncle was Yii-ch'ih Ching-te Jjf§^^Jj^y.

Duke of O^jS , a famous general who had played an instrumental

r o l e i n the founding of the T'ang Dynasty and was s t i l l a powerful

figure i n the court, of T'ai-tsung, the second T'ang emperor. K'uei-

chi's father. Yu-^ch^ih"'Tsutig ^Pfjt j* . was also rather prominent,

having secured appointment to a number of posts in c l u d i n g M i l i t a r y

Governor of Sung-chou ^')4) fyfy and General of the Left Palace

Guard j s ^ j S p . , . perhaps the p o s i t i o n he was holding when K'uei-

chi was born i n the T'ang c a p i t a l , Ch'ang-an •> i n A.D. 6 32-.

Our subject's personal name (his ming ^ ) i s not recorded i n

any of the sources and, indeed, even the monastic name he took upon

entering the order has been a to p i c of some controversy among Japanese

scholars. C e r t a i n l y the common- and probably i n v a r i a b l e — r T p r a c t i c e

among Chinese Buddhists at the time that they, at l e a s t t h e o r e t i c a l l y ,

relinquished a l l connections with t h e i r family was to take a two-

character r e l i g i o u s name. In t h i s they were following a custom

established by t h e i r Indian predecessors. The problem with the name

K ' u e i - c h i * ^ ^ i s that the combination of these two characters

together i s not found i n any of his own wr i t i n g s , though he does r e f e r

6

to himself a few times i n the third-person simply.as Chi . This

pe c u l i a r circumstance i s compounded by the fact that i n the e a r l i e s t

e ditions of his surviving works, his name as the author i s usually

given preceded by various t i t l e s , . s o that we f i n d , f or example:

Mahayana Chi ^ ^ , Chi of Ta-tz 'u-en. Monastery i ^ \ c L ^ -^fc >

the Monk Chi^/J,\ > a n c * sometimes again simply Chi.

This has l e d some scholars to question the r e l i a b i l i t y of the

t r a d i t i o n which gives K ' u e i ^ as the f i r s t character of the na^e.5

The evidence against K'uei, however, seems circumstantial and

inconclusive. Moreover, even though some question regarding the

o r i g i n a l name does.indeed remain, we are nonetheless l e f t with the fact

that, i n the l a t e r t r a d i t i o n , Hsuan-tsang's famous d i s c i p l e was

c e r t a i n l y known by the r e l i g i o u s name K'uei-chi and r e f e r r e d to by the

t i t l e Tz'u-en Ta-shih ^^^^'^KJ^^-> t h e G r e a t Master of Tz'u-en

Monastery.

A t t r a c t i o n to Buddhism

Beyond t h i s information about K'uei-chi's family background

only a few d e t a i l s of his e a r l y years have survived. One of the

e a r l i e s t biographical documents, the memorial i n s c r i p t i o n from his

tomb, records that, even as a c h i l d , K'uei-chi was " g i f t e d with words

and capable of minute ;study", and that he began e a r l y h i s t r a i n i n g

i n the Confucian c l a s s i c s , an aspect of his education which i s borne

7

out i n the frequent non-Buddhist a l l u s i o n s found m h i s prefaces.

This combination of family influence, native i n t e l l i g e n c e , and s o l i d

Confucian education would c e r t a i n l y suggest the prospect of a bright

future i n the imperial court.

It i s i n t e r e s t i n g , consequently, to speculate about the

circumstances.that l e d a youth, so well positioned for a career of

power and wealth, to enter instead, a monastic l i f e of study and

meditation. We know . r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e about t h i s c r u c i a l period i n

K'uei-chi's l i f e , but there i s one important record from hi s own hand,

one of the very few instances i n a l l h i s surviving works where he

writes about himself. These terse autobiographical remarks are "found

i n the shorter commentary to the Ch'' eng-wei-shih-lun where K'uei-chi

i s . r e l a t i n g how he came to be q u a l i f i e d to comment on t h i s important

Yogacara work:

At the age of nine. I suffered the misfortune

Cof being orphaned]. From that time on I sought to entrust

myself to other-worldly matters, longing ever more for the

black robes Cof a Buddhist monk]. While s t i l l young I cut

o f f a l l f e e l i n gs for ephemeral s o c i a l customs and besmirched

worldly rewards, u n t i l , at the age of seventeen, I f i n a l l y

gave myself up to the monastic order. By s p e c i a l imperial

decree I became an assistant Cto Hsiian-tsang]. From the

time I became, one of the three thousand Cof h i s followers]

I humbly and joyously modeled myself on the seventy 7$. y L. 8

/ L* "V Cadvanced d i s c i p l e s ] , Cthinking t h a t ! I must

c e r t a i n l y harmonize my pious vow Cwith the master's

• intention] i f I were l a t e r to receive h i s personal i n s t r u c -

t i o n . L i t t l e did I think that with my meager t a l e n t s I

would indeed become, part of the t r a n s l a t i o n team. It was

i n performing those duties that I took up my w r i t i n g 9

t a b l e t and feasted on t h i s t r e a t i s e .

K'uei-chi and Hsuan-tsang

There are no.further d e t a i l s of K'uei-chi's e a r l i e s t contact

with Hsuan-tsang i n h i s own wr i t i n g s . There i s however a more w e l l -

known, though probably apocryphal, account that occurs i n the l a t e r

biographies, most notably i n the o f f i c i a l Sung Biograpies of Eminent

• Monks compiled by Tsan-ning \|| and completed i n 988.

After providing the customary information about K'uei-chi's family

background, Tsan-ning r e l a t e s the following story:

When Hsuan-tsang f i r s t had occasion [to encounter

K'uei-chi] on the street and observe his fin e and

luminous features as well as h i s rash deportment, the

master remarked, "That he i s the descendant of a family

of generals, there i s no mistaking! But suppose that

[our meeting] i s the converging of cause and condition

JJjk^S 63 $1 ^2- C a n d n o t m e r e c h a n c e ] : 1 0 i f he were

to convert and become my d i s c i p l e , my doctrines would

c e r t a i n l y have an agent i n whom they could be entrusted."

Hsuan-tsang then r e c a l l e d an event from h i s time i n

India. At the time when he was planning the i t i n e r a r y

for h i s return to China, he was staying among a group of

Nirgranthikas [ i . e . , J a i n mendicants]. An augury was

done, y i e l d i n g the auspicious prognostication: "Master,

you have only to return to the East, and a b r i l l i a n t

d i s c i p l e w i l l appear.""'""'" Thereupon Hsuan-tsang went to

the General of the Northern Gate- [ i . e . , K'uei-chi's

father] to subtly suggest ^ ^ " j j ^ that h i s son give up

the family l i f e [and become a monk]. The father

hesitated asking,. "How could a coarse and rough youth

of h i s sort be worthy of Your Reverence's teaching?"

To which Hsuan-tsang r e p l i e d , "His true t a l e n t s , but

9

fo r you General, would never have been produced but f o r

my humble s e l f , they would never have been recognized!"

Even though h i s f a t h e r then agreed, K ' u e i - c h i was

s t i l l vehemently opposed. They importuned him and

f i n a l l y , w i t h a gesture of re s p e c t , he complied. S t i l l

a g i t a t e d , he added i n a s t r a i n e d v o i c e , "Allow me three

t h i n g s and then I w i l l take the monastic vows: t h a t I do

not have t o give up my passionate d e s i r e s , the p r o h i b i t e d

foods, and afternoon meals." Hsuan-tsang pretended

assent t o t h i s request, t h i n k i n g t h a t he could i n i t i a l l y

use these hooks of d e s i r e as an enticement, and then l a t e r

b r i n g K ' u e i - c h i t o the Buddha-wisdom.

A f t e r t h a t , whenever K ' u e i - c h i t r a v e l e d , he had

c a r t s loaded down w i t h the aforementioned objects of

d e s i r e . Hence the epithet' current i n the v i c i n i t y of

the c a p i t a l : [ K ' u e i - c h i , ] the Three Cart Monk— -

Tsan-ning goes on t o c i t e the a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l passage t r a n s l a t e d above,

n o t i n g the obvious i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s i n both tone and f a c t between the

two accounts.

While t h i s s t o r y of the three c a r t s f i l l e d w i t h wine, women and f i n e

food does add an a t t r a c t i v e element of human f e e l i n g , and f a i l i n g , t o

K'uei-chi's biography, i t must be noted t h a t , by the time of Tsan-ning,

s e c t a r i a n polemic and even slander were not uncommon among the variou s

monastic groups competing f o r i m p e r i a l f a v o r . The s t o r y reported by

Tsan-ning seems f a r more c o n s i s t e n t w i t h these l a t e r h i s t o r i c a l

developments than w i t h the e a r l i e r r e c o r d of K'uei-chi's l i f e . Even so,

T O

v a r i a n t s of the s t o r y and a l s o the a p p e l l a t i o n , "Three Cart Monk,"

di d come t o be widely c i r c u l a t e d throughout East A s i a , and there have

been many within the t r a d i t i o n who have accepted t h i s rather d i f f e r e n t

ih

p i c t u r e of K'uei-chi as accurate.

Whatever were the circumstances that brought the two together,

there i s no doubt that. Hsiian-tsang recognized K'uei-chi to be a

b r i l l i a n t d i s c i p l e . That he very quickly became one of the master's

p r i n c i p a l assistants i s suggested by K'uei-chi himself i n the auto-

biographical passage c i t e d above. This i s further confirmed by the

record i n the Klafcywzn Catalogue which shows that between 659-663

K'uei-chi served as pi-shou Jp£'-s * ^ the amanuensis or f i r s t

a s s i s t a n t , to Hsiian-tsang during the t r a n s l a t i o n and e d i t i n g of the

Ch''eng-wei-sh-ih-lun ( i . e . , the Thirty Verses of Vasubandhu along with an

edited synopsis of the ten major Indian commentaries),"^ the Twenty Verses IT

with auto-commentary by the same author, the Madhyanta-vibhaga verses l8

along with Vasubandhu's commentary, and also two non-Mahayana works of s i g n i f i c a n c e : a d o c t r i n a l analysis of the various schools of Indian

19 Buddhism, the Sarmyabhedhoparacanaedkra, and a major work i n the

_ 2 0

Sarvastivadin Abhidharma, the Dhatukayapadas'astrai both of which may or

may not be works of the same Vasumitra. It should be noted that a l l but

these l a s t two are among the key works of the Vasubandhu-Dharmapala

branch of Indian Yogacara that was the basis for the Chinese school

founded by Hsuan-tsang and K'uei-chi'. • As we s h a l l see below, i t was

these works along with the Yogdcdrabhumi that received the greatest

portion of K'uei-chi's attention as a commentator.

K'uei-chi, the Exegete

Beyond his association with Hsuan-tsang, K'uei-chi's fame

rests on h i s e f f o r t s to•provide the exegetical material necessary

to make the complex Yogacara r e l i g i o u s system understandable to the

Chinese. So prodigious were these e f f o r t s , i n f a c t , that he came to

be honored as the Exegete of a Hundred Works \ f j ^ $ l L i . 2 1 The

"hundred" may well have been hyperbole, but i t i s c e r t a i n from even

a cursory examination of the various e a r l y catalogues of Buddhist

works that K'uei-chi did write more than the twenty-odd works that

have survived. An analysis of these surviving works undertaken

below i n the following chapter indicates the breadth of K'uei-chi's

i n t e r e s t s as a Buddhist scholar.. In addition to h i s works on

Yogacara and Buddhist l o g i c he wrote commentaries on the most

popular early Mahayana Sutras, i n t e r p r e t i n g them from a Yogacara

point of view.

Quality of K'uei-chi's Scholarship

In addition to the quantity.of K'uei-chi's l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y

i ndicated above, there i s also much that r e f l e c t s i t s q u a l i t y . Above

a l l , h i s scholarship i s characterized by the desire to transmit and

record the Indian Yogacara t r a d i t i o n as accurately as possible while

s t i l l adapting i t s presentation to the s p e c i a l needs of the Chinese

audience.

This attitud e i s well i l l u s t r a t e d by an account given by

K'uei-chi himself of the e d i t i n g and t r a n s l a t i o n of the Ch'eng-wei-

shih-lim3 the single most important.treatise of the. Fa-hsiang Yogacara

22

school i n East Asia. The core of t h i s work i s the Thirty Verses

(Trimsikd) composed by Vasubandhu (4th or 5th cen.) who was, along

with h i s brother Asafiga, one of the two p r i n c i p a l formulators of

C l a s s i c a l Yogacara i n India. The Thirty Verses presents a concise

summary of Yogacara philosophy and soteriology focusing on the doctrine

of Vijnaptimatrata. Intended as a mnemonic a i d , the bare verses them-.

selves require a supplementary commentary. None was provided by

Vasubandhu himself, but by the time Hsiian-tsang studied i n India, the

commentaries of ten of Vasubandhu's successors had come to be

considered a u t h o r i t a t i v e even though each d i f f e r e d somewhat i n t h e i r 23

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Vasubandhu's thought.

Hsiian-tsang studied these commentaries i n India and brought

them a l l back to China. His f i r s t plan was to t r a n s l a t e a l l ten

commentaries separately i n addition to the o r i g i n a l Thirty Verses.

K'uei-chi objected, however, and i t was h i s concern that p r e v a i l e d .

Fearing that t r a n s l a t i o n s of a l l ten commentaries would lead to

great confusion since each d i f f e r e d on a number of d e t a i l s , he

suggested that they take one commentary as the basic text and add

to that c a r e f u l l y edited selections from the other nine, taking care

to i l l u s t r a t e the points of controversy, but also to c r i t i c a l l y

i n d i c a t e the best i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The commentary chosen as the

base text, was that of Dharmapala,the predecessor of Hsiian-tsang's

teacher at Nalanda. i n India. The r e s u l t , what we have now as the

Ch'' eng-wei-shih-lun i n Chinese, -is.a synthetic work showing some

c r e a t i v i t y i n i t s presentation and discussion of the differences with-

i n the school, and c e r t a i n l y a work that succeeds better i n presenting

the t r a d i t i o n to a new audience than ten separate works, each p a r t i a l l y

c o n tradicting the other.

The synthetic format of the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun that K'uei-chi

proposed i s thus a compromise of s o r t s , one that mediates the dual

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y he' f e l t . b o t h to the o r i g i n a l Indian Buddhist t r a d i t i o n

and to the Chinese Buddhist community. This gives us a good idea of

the i n t e n t i o n of K'uei-chi's scholarship, but what of the p a r t i c u l a r

s k i l l s he acquired to achieve t h i s end?,

Tsan-ning's biography r e l a t e s that K'uei-chi studied f i v e

Indian languages under Hsuan-tsang, a point of some i n t e r e s t

as i t was very unusual f o r a native Chinese Buddhist i n China to

acquire any knowledge at a l l of Indian or Central Asian languages. It

i s also a point of much s i g n i f i c a n c e i n the assessment of K'uei-chi's

scholarship, and one which, underlies a set of key questions.

Was K'uei-chi capable of studying independently the voluminous

material brought back by Hsuan-tsang? Was he able to consult the many

works that were never translated? Was he capable of v e r i f y i n g what

t r a n s l a t i o n s there were against the o r i g i n a l texts? A l l of these

questions are important i n gauging the depth of K'uei-chi's scholarship,

and their.answer depends l a r g e l y on whether or not he did, i n p a r t i c u l a r ,

master Sanskrit, the p r i n c i p a l language of the Mahayana l i t e r a t u r e

Hsuan-tsang brought back from India.

One might well hesitate to accept an uncorroborated report

25

i n Tsan-ning's r e l a t i v e l y l a t e work, though his i n c l u s i o n of the

d e t a i l " f i v e " suggests something more than simple hagiography. While

we have no d i r e c t statement from K'uei-chi (or Hsuan-tsang) that he

mastered Sanskrit, there i s s u f f i c i e n t i n d i r e c t evidence to make i t

very probable. K'uei-chi frequently i n his w r i t i n g glosses words and

passages i n a manner that indicates a knowledge of the o r i g i n a l t e x t .

Perhaps the most convincing example of t h i s i s seen i n the

famous passage i n his Lotus Sutra commentary where he points out that

KumarajIva's Chinese text i s ambiguous because i t does not d i s t i n g u i s h

between c a r d i n a l and o r d i n a l numbers. K'uei-chi notes that the Sanskrit

t e x t , at one point i n the parable of the burning house and the three

c a r t s , c l e a r l y says "second" and " t h i r d " rather than "two" and "three",

and that, while Kumarajiva's Chinese can be read either way, i t i s

most l i k e l y to be understood i n the l a t t e r s e n s e . ^ This i s a point

which had l e d astray even the eminent Lotus commentator Chi-tsang

^ 5 who lacked any. knowledge of Sanskrit, and subsequently l e d

to a major controversy i n East Asian Buddhism over the question of

whether the bodhisattva vehicle i t s e l f was the One Vehicle of the

Lotus Sutra, or whether the One Vehicle was beyond i t as well as

the sravaka and the pratyekabuddha vehicle..

In addition to that type of reference to the Sanskrit text

in K'uei-chi's works, there are also many passages-where he glosses

a p a r t i c u l a r Sanskrit word, t r a n s c r i b i n g the sound into Chinese and

then g i v i n g the meaning(s) i n Chinese.. One example which occurs i n

the "Essay-oh •Vijnaptimatrata" t r a n s l a t e d below i s worthy of s p e c i a l

28

note. At the opening of the second section of the essay K'uei-chi

undertakes a c r i t i c a l analysis of the term wei-shih ' ^ J - » "the

standard Chinese equivalent f o r Vijnaptimatrata. He states that 'wei-

renders the Sanskrit '-matrata', which he t r a n s c r i b e s ^ '•Jji (var .«Ji -

(in modern Chinese pronounced: mo-da-la-to, but i n the T'ang

Chinese of K'uei-chi, something closer to ma-tat-1 a t - t a ) ; '•• and that

'shih', which i s usually the equivalent f o r 'vijnana', i n t h i s case

stands for ' v i j n a p t i ' which he transcribes ^ (modern Ch.:

p ' i - j o - t i ; and T'ang Ch. : bj'i-nia(.k)-tej--) • He continues, moreover,

in the gloss of 'wei'/matrata.' to discuss three d i f f e r e n t meanings .

that the word has i n Sanskrit but does not have i n Chinese.

Now i t i s always possible that we have, i n both of the

instances c i t e d above, a case of secondary or i n d i r e c t , rather than

d i r e c t , knowledge of the language. A l l of t h i s p h i l o l o g i c a l informa-

t i o n may have been part of the o r a l exegetical t r a d i t i o n passed on

from Hsuan-tsang to K'uei-chi, i n Chinese, during the course of t h e i r

t r a n s l a t i o n work, a hypothesis that i s by no means implausible when

one considers the amount of t h i s sort of knowledge that the East

Asian ( e s p e c i a l l y the Japanese) exegetes, without any knowledge of

Sanskrit, s t i l l maintained i n the o r a l t r a d i t i o n r i g h t down to the

beginning of the present century. However, though t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y

can never be conclusively excluded on the basis of the surviving

documents, i t does seem u n l i k e l y i n K'uei-chi's case. Too many other

factors argue i n favor of a d i r e c t knowledge of the Indian t e x t s .

Considering the circumstances, K' uei - c h i c e r t a i n l y had the

opportunity to learn the language from Hsuan-tsang. And the l a t t e r ,

judging from the. accounts.of h i s own study of Sanskrit i n h i s travelogue,

c e r t a i n l y placed a high value on "being able to work d i r e c t l y from the

o r i g i n a l t e x t s . Given then the degree of K'uei-chi's i n t e l l e c t u a l

a b i l i t y , the opportunity and the motivation provided by Hsuan-tsang,

and f i n a l l y the i n d i r e c t evidence presented i n many passages l i k e those

c i t e d above, i t does seem quite l i k e l y that K'uei-chi would have .". •

learned- Sanskrit very well indeed.

Personal Religious L i f e

of Yogacara Buddhism i s an evaluation of his personal r e l i g i o u s l i f e .

What was the s i g n i f i c a n c e of r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e i n his l i f e ? Was he

a Yogacara p r a c t i t i o n e r , or was h i s involvement i n Buddhism l i m i t e d

to t e x t u a l study and exegesis? Answers to these questions are

necessary to shed l i g h t on K'uei-chi's view of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between

the p h i l o s o p h i c a l and s o t e r i o l o g i c a l aspects of Yogacara.

chi's a c t i v i t y as a t r a n s l a t o r and commentator; i t i s much more

d i f f i c u l t to glean any information about, his personal r e l i g i o u s

p r a c t i c e . Nonetheless several useful observations can be made. A l l

the sources agree that K'uei-chi spent his adult l i f e i n residence

Of great importance to the study of K'uei-chi' s understanding

From the h i s t o r i c a l record we know a great deal about K' ue i -

as a monk at the Hung-fu Monastery and l a t e r at the newly

b u i l t Ta-tz' u-en Monastery Buddhist

centers i n the c a p i t a l . In spite of the l a t e r rumors, of K'uei-chi's

indulgent t a s t e s , i t i s very l i k e l y , i f not c e r t a i n , that the

monastic r u l e would have "been rather s t r i c t l y observed i n monasteries

of t h i s prominence.

This gives us some idea of the r e l i g i o u s atmosphere i n which

K'uei-chi l i v e d d a i l y . There are, moreover, i n at l e a s t some of the

biographical sources, reports of K'uei-chi p a r t i c i p a t i n g in three

s p e c i f i c v a r i e t i e s of r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e : meditation, pilgrimage to

sacred spots, and Maitreya devotionalism.

A l l three of these a c t i v i t i e s were Well-established forms of

B u d d h i s t p r a c t i c e i n India as well as China, and the f i r s t and the

t h i r d , at l e a s t , held a s p e c i a l place i n the Yogacara school.

K'uei-chi's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the f i r s t two i s attested by the preface

to his commentary on the Heart Sutra, an e a r l y — — p r o b a b l y even

contemporaneous-—biographical source a t t r i b u t e d to Miao Shen-jung

There i t i s reported that K'uei-chi frequently

2 8 p r a c t i c e d meditation, and that, he made pilgrimages t o Mount Wu-t'ai

yy. l\\ w h e r e ^ e communicated with Manjusri, the patron bodhisattva

of that famous r e l i g i o u s s i t e , and to Lou-fan t' where he made

s p i r i t u a l contact with the famous Chinese monk Hui-yuan ^ (A.D.

29 33^-^l6). Among other such references, the memorial i n s c r i p t i o n on

K'uei-chi's tomb notes that he r e c i t e d the bodhisattva vows every day,

30

and that he made statues or images of Maitreya.

This l a s t point, r a i s e s the aspect of K'uei-chi's r e l i g i o u s

p r a c t i c e that most warrants s p e c i a l note. It seems very l i k e l y that

i n addition to his a c t i v i t i e s as a Buddhist philosopher and scholar,

K'uei-chi was also a pious adherent of Maitreya devotionalism.

According to Buddhist t r a d i t i o n the bodhisattva Maitreya i s the next

i n the long succession of Buddhas to be born i n t h i s world. He i s

said to dwell i n the Tusita Heaven, a paradise within t h i s world-

system to which his devotees by vi r t u e of t h e i r f a i t h may secure

r e b i r t h , there to await his advent as the next Buddha, an event that

w i l l mark the beginning of a golden age when i t w i l l be f a r easier to

31

achieve the ultimate goal of nirvana.

The i n s p i r a t i o n a l figure of Maitreya was already i n India

the focus of one branch of Buddhist devotionalism that combined

both messianic and. m i l l e n a r i a n elements. In China the Maitreya c u l t

was e s p e c i a l l y popular during the Northern Wei period (A.D. 386-534),^

though i t was l a t e r e c l i p s e d by another branch of Buddhist devotionalism

focused on the Pure Land of Amitabha Buddha. The ea r l y T'ang was a

c r u c i a l period i n the development of Buddhist devotionalism in China,

as the t r a n s i t i o n from Maitreya to Amitabha had. already begun to take

place, by the time Hsuan-tsang returned from China i n 6 +5, and was soon

accelerated, i n part at l e a s t , by the u l t i m a t e l y unsuccessful attempt

of the Empress Wu jf" (r. 655-705) to j u s t i f y her usurpation of

the., imperial, throne with the claim that she was the incarnation of

Maitreya.

Debate and controversy between, these two competing branches

of devotionalism was thus a very current issue in the Chinese c a p i t a l

during K'uei-chi's. l i f e t i m e . In addition to the mention of the

Maitreya statue c i t e d above, several other facts give evidence,

both d i r e c t and c i r c u m s t a n t i a l , of K'uei-chi's associatio n with the

Maitreya c u l t . The Yogacara school i n India already held Maitreya

in s p e c i a l regard: several of the key works of the school are

a t t r i b u t e d to.one Maitreya-natha, whom many considered to be the

bodhisattva Maitreya. S i m i l a r l y , there are accounts of --Asadga

re c e i v i n g the i n s p i r a t i o n f or h i s t r e a t i s e s d i r e c t l y from Maitreya,

and K'uei-chi himself reports that Maitreya devotion was p r a c t i c e d

35 by both Asanga and Vasubandhu. That Hsuan-tsang. was c e r t a i n l y a

Maitreya devotee i s attested by several incidents recorded i n h i s

36

travelogue and biographies. F i n a l l y , more d i r e c t evidence of K'uei-

chi's adherence to Maitreya devotionalism i s c l e a r l y seen i n his one

surviving commentary on one of the p r i n c i p a l Maitreya sutras where

he asserts, i n some d e t a i l , the s u p e r i o r i t y of Maitreya devotion over

37 the c u l t of Amitabha's Pure land.

In sum then, we have a p i c t u r e of K'uei-chi as an energetic

and probably strong-willed i n d i v i d u a l , one who maintained a high

degree of prominence and independence throughout his l i f e . As a youth

he was provided with a l l the p r e r e q u i s i t es of a highly successful

career i n government service , advantages which he-chose instead to

develop i n a comparably f r u i t f u l career as a Buddhist monk. He was a

c a r e f u l and d i l i g e n t scholar, yet also a s k i l l e d i n t e r p r e t e r who was

not a f r a i d to advance his own ideas. Most s i g n i f i c a n t l y he was, i n

the best Yogacara t r a d i t i o n , a t h e o r e t i c i a n and a p r a c t i t i o n e r , one

who saw no c o n f l i c t between d o c t r i n a l study and r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e ,

between p h i l o s o p h i c a l speculation and s p i r i t u a l c u l t i v a t i o n . The

Yogacara Buddhism of K'uei-chi., seen i n the context of h i s l i f e ,

c l e a r l y an. i n d i v i s i b l e combination of both, these two elements:

philosophy and soteriology.

Chapter II

K'UEI-CHI'S WRITTEN WORKS

The best way of assessing the range of K'uei-chi's thought

would be a c a r e f u l analysis of his written works. This could t e l l us

a great deal about h i s p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t s , the manner i n which he

approached the d o c t r i n a l t r a d i t i o n i n Buddhism, and also the s p e c i f i c

t e x t u a l sources he considered most important. The problems involved

i n such an analysis are, however, considerable. In spite of the fact

that K'uei-chi was known as the "Exegete of a Hundred Works",

r e l a t i v e l y few of these have survived, and several of those that have

are defective and incomplete.

The l o s s of so many of K'uei-chi's works has t o do, i n part,

with the decline of the Fa-hsiang School i n China within three

generations a f t e r K'uei-chi, a decline due to periodic p o l i t i c a l

suppression of the monasteries, combined with an apparent l o s s of

int e r e s t i n the i n t r i c a c i e s of the sch o l a s t i c Abhidharma asepct of

Yogacara. The problems of t e x t u a l preservation were also compounded

by the fact that the f i r s t major compilation and p r i n t e d e d i t i o n of

the Chinese Buddhist Canon was not undertaken u n t i l 972 at the

beginning of the Sung Dynasty, almost -300 .years a f t e r K'uei-chi's

death.

Circumstances were d i f f e r e n t i n Japan, however, and i t was

there that many, of his works were preserved. Several of the students

of both. Hsiian-tsang and K'uei-chi had come to Ch'ang-an from Japan,

and a f t e r t h e i r return, the Fa-hsiang (J': Hosso) teaching was

maintained u n t i l the present as an i n s t i t u t i o n a l l y separate school

with i t s own monasteries and l i b r a r i e s .

A major impetus for the b r i e f r e v i v a l of in t e r e s t i n Buddhist

ph i l o s o p h i c a l thought and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the Ch'' eng-wei-shih-lun i n

China during the Republican Period i n the early part of t h i s century

came as the result, of a curious incident i n v o l v i n g some of K'uei-

chi's works that had been preserved i n Japan. One of the i n i t i a t o r s

of the Chinese r e v i v a l movement,YANG Wen-hui > n a d occasion

i n I 8 7 8 to meet the Japanese Buddhist scholar NANJO Bun'yu (Bunyiu

Nanjio) ^^/^jjl. i - n London,, where the l a t t e r was studying with

the S a n s k r i t i s t Max Muller. YANG l a t e r requested NANJO to help him

locate copies of Buddhist works no longer a v a i l a b l e i n China but

preserved i n Japan. Among the hundreds that eventually made t h e i r way

from Japan back to China were a number of K'uei-chi's works, inc l u d i n g

his longer commentary on the'Ch 1eng-wei-shih-lun (no. 18) and his

d o c t r i n a l compendium, the Fa-yuan i - l i n ohang (no. 26). The

subsequent p u b l i c a t i o n of these works i n China stimulated the in t e r e s t

of YANG's famous students OU-YANG Ching-wu jlJ&Jl a n d M E I K u a n S "

h s i ^trftx^, •> t n e Buddhist Abbot T'ai-hsu y i v j ^ . ^ ^ ^ J ' a n d a number

of other prominent. Chinese i n t e l l e c t u a l s of the time including K'ANG

Y u - w e i j | ^ ^ , LIANG Ch'i-ch'ao ^ ^ ^ a n d LIANG Sou-ming ||ti$>t>lv

That i n t e r e s t . i n turn r e s u l t ed in.renewed discussion of K'uei-chi.

works and several modern commentaries i n Chinese. 1

To date, no one has attempted to reconstruct a complete l i s t

of a l l of K'uei-chi's writings. There has not even been a complete

and annotated l i s t of the surviving works that are a t t r i b u t e d to him.

The task of compiling a l i s t of K'uei-chi's l o s t works i s a s u b s t a n t i a l

research project i n i t s own r i g h t , one beyond the bounds of the present

study. Many t i t l e s of books a t t r i b u t e d to K'uei-chi can be found i n

the various catalogs of Buddhist works, some of which are very nearly

2

contemporaneous:with K'uei-chi; much care, however, must be taken to

determine how many of these entries indicate the same work l i s t e d

under d i f f e r e n t t i t l e s . The f i r s t steps i n t h i s process have been

taken by YUKI Reimon i n his luishikigaku tensekishi

^iffi^^Z Hi '•'(1962>, though he r e s t r i c t s himself to K'uei-chi's

commentaries on primary Yogacara sutras and t r e a t i s e s . ' Much remains

to be done with respect to K'uei-chi's l o s t works.

More can be said of the surviving material, though even here

there i s some confusion and a great deal of uncertainty. In 1 9 5 ^

FUKAURA Seibun )^ j£. ^published--an unannotated l i s t of surviving

works a t t r i b u t e d to K'uei-chi, some 2 6 i n number. Stanley Weinstein

pointed out i n 1 9 5 9 that a d d i t i o n a l works a t t r i b u t e d to K'uei-chi could be found i n the Collection of Rare Books of the Sung Canon

\ suggesting the FUKAURArs l i s t be amended to include at l e a s t

28 t i t l e s . ^ A c t u a l l y , both these figures are inaccurate because,

as w i l l be seen i n the analysis provided below, two of the t i t l e s i n

FUKAURA's. l i s t are i n fact the same work i n two d i f f e r e n t forms, while

one of the additions proposed by Weinstein i s r e a l l y just an o u t l i n e

of another work already l i s t e d .

The more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s presented here l i s t s 2 6 . t i t l e s a f t e r making

the c o r r e c t i o n s noted, above. But even t h i s number has l i t t l e r e a l meaning, be-

cause these are works attributed t o K ' u e i - c h i . At l e a s t one of these works has

been proved t o post-date K ' u e i - c h i , and the a t t r i b u t i o n of s e v e r a l others has

been s e r i o u s l y questioned. S u b t r a c t i n g those works from the l i s t , we are l e f t

w i t h 20 or 21 t i t l e s which thus f a r have been accepted t o be the work of K'uei-

c h i . ^ This number too should probably be q u a l i f i e d by the observation t h a t some

p o r t i o n s of at l e a s t one of these works, the d o c t r i n a l compendium Fa-yuan i-Zin

ehang (no. 26), may have c i r c u l a t e d separatel y or even been o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n

as independent essays; t h i s w i l l be discussed i n more d e t a i l i n the I n t r o d u c t i o n

t o the T r a n s l a t i o n . Whichever was the case, one does encounter references t o and

commentaries on i n d i v i d u a l chapters of the Fa-yuan i-Hn ehang^ which might thus

appear t o be t i t l e s not i n c l u d e d i n the a n a l y s i s below.

An A n a l y s i s of K'uei-chi' s S u r v i v i n g Works

Since the r e l a t i v e chronology of K'uei-chi's works i s , w i t h one or two

exceptions,^ impossible t o e s t a b l i s h , the f o l l o w i n g c a t a l o g i s arranged t o p i c a l l y .

The numbers i n brackets i n d i c a t e t i t l e s t hat have been questioned as works of

K'uei-chi's i n s p i t e of the a t t r i b u t i o n ; d e t a i l s are noted i n the r e s p e c t i v e

e n t r i e s . A l l of the works l i s t e d here can be found i n at l e a s t one of three

c o l l e c t i o n s a v a i l a b l e i n modern e d i t i o n s : the Taisho shinshu

?K (abbreviated T ) , the Dainihon zoku zokyo ^\$$s

see b i b l i o g r a p h y f o r d e t a i l s of p u b l i c a t i o n .

I . Commentaries on Sutras

Ll.l Chin-kang-pan-jo-ohing tsan-shu

2 s c r o l l s ; (T:1700, XXXIII.124-154); (Z:l/38/4)

Commentary t o the Kumarajiva t r a n s l a t i o n of the

Diamond Sutra (Vajraechedikd-prajndparamita). g

There i s a Hsiian-tsang t r a n s l a t i o n of t h i s s u t r a ,

and i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t K ' u e i - c h i would have chosen

to use the Kumarajiva version as a "base. text.

The a t t r i b u t i o n of t h i s work to K'uei-chi i s 9

questioned by FUKAURA Seibun and others.

Chin-kang-pan-jo-lun hui-shih j 'J JJ ^JP*

3 s c r o l l s ; (T: 1816, XL.719-783); (Z:l / 7 4 / 3 ) .

Sub-commentary to Bodhiruci's t r a n s l a t i o n 1 0 of

a commentary on the Diamond Sutra (Vajracchedika-

prajftaparamita.)attributed i n the Chinese text to

Vasubandhu.

Pan-j' o-po-lo-mi-to-hsin-ching yu-tsan

. 2 s c r o l l s ; (T: 171©s, XXXIII. 523-542); (S:l / 4 l / 3 ) .

Commentary to Hsiian-tsang's' t r a n s l a t i o n 1 1 of the Heart

Sutra (Prajnaparamita-hrdaya).

Ta-pan-jo-po-lo-mi-to-ching pan-Qo-li-ch'u-fen shu-tsan

3 s c r o l l s : (T:l695, XXXIII .25-63); (Z:l/32/2).

12

Commentary to Hsuan-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n of the

Perfection of Wisdom in ISO Lines (Adhyardhasatika

prajHaparamita-sutra).

Miao-fa-lien-hua-ching hsuan-tsan ^ j j j^- j^ jfc^ ^ ^j*

20 s c r o l l s ; (T:1723,XXXIV.651-854); (S:l/52 /4-5)

13 Commentary to Kumarajiva's t r a n s l a t i o n - of the Lotus Sutra (Saddharmapundartka);: includes a po s t s c r i p t

14 containing some autcb/iographical material.

26

Analysis of the Surviving Works (cont. )

6. Miao-fa-lien-hua-ohing shih-wei-wei-ehr chang

1 s c r o l l ; (Z:l / 52/4).

A p h i l o l o g i c a l essay analyzing the 6l8 occurrences

of the.two grammatical p a r t i c l e s wei^^/^ and wei 3

i n Kumarajiva's t r a n s l a t i o n 1 ' ' of the Lotus Sutra; 2

for the 327 occurrences:of wei K'uei-chi distinguishes nine d i f f e r e n t meanings, and for the 327 occurrences

4

of wei , three d i f f e r e n t meanings.

7. Sheng-man-ehing• shu-ohi Jj|^ ^jfc "^(!»

2 s c r o l l s ; (Z: 1/30/4).

Commentary to Gunabhadra's t r a n s l a t i o n 1 ^ , of the

Sutra on the Lion's Roar of the Queen SrZmdla

(SrtmdlddevZ-simhanada).

8. Shuo-wu-kou-oh . , , _ „ , 'eng-ohing shu ^ ffa

6 s c r o l l s ; (T: 1782, XXXVIII.993-1114); (Z:l/29/3-4).

17


•Vima lakTrti-nirdes'a.

Kuan-mi-le-shang-sheng-Tou-shuai-tiien-ohing tsan

2 s c r o l l s ; (T: 1 0 2 , XXXVIII.272-299); (Z: 1/35/4)

Commentary to Chu-ch'u-ching-sheng's 18 _ »

t r a n s l a t i o n of the Sutra r e l a t i n g Maitreya s


ascent to the T u s i t a Heaven, one of the three

p r i n c i p a l Maitreya sutras t r a n s l a t e d into Chinese.

C10.H O-mi-t'o-ching shu p<fj" jj£ j£)|C.

' 1 . s c r o l l ; (T:1T57,XXXVII.310-329); (Z:l /33/2) .

19 Commentary to Kumarajiva's t r a n s l a t i o n of the shorter Sukhavati-vyuha Sutvay of which there i s

I

21

20 also a Hsuan-tsang t r a n s l a t i o n . The a t t r i b u t i o n

to K'uei-chi i s questioned by FUKAURA and others.

d i ' . 1 0-mi-t1e-ching t'ung-tsan-shu jJSj" j3«£ ^ | | 3 s c r o l l s ; . ( T : 1758, XXXVII.329-349); (Z: 1/33/1).

A longer commentary on Kumarajiva's t r a n s l a t i o n

of the shorter SukTiavati-vyuha; see no. C10H above.

The a t t r i b u t i o n here i s likewise questioned.

I I . Commentaries on Treatises (sastras)

12. I-pu-tsung-lun-lun shu-chi j * /tv

1 s c r o l l ; (Z: 1/83/3).

22 Commentary to Hsuan-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n of

Vasumitra's Samayabedoparacanacakra, an analysis

of the d o c t r i n a l differences among the early

Indian Buddhist schools composed probably i n the

2nd century B.C. Etienne Lamotte r e f e r s to and

tr a n s l a t e s portions of t h i s commentary i n 23

Histoire du Bouddhisme Indien.

28

Analysis of the Surviving Works (cont)

13. Yu-ch'ieh-shih-ti-lun lueh-tsuan >jj[j\z

16 s c r o l l s ; (T: 1829,XLIII.1-228); (Z: 1/75/1-3).

Commentary to the f i r s t two-thirds of Hsiian-tsang's

t r a n s l a t i o n of the Yogacdrabhurm.

14. Yu-ch'ieh-lun chieh-chang-sung J^yi ^fcf\

1 s c r o l l ; (S: 1/75/3).

Verses on the duration and succession of events i n

a kalpa or eon of time; based on Hsiian-tsang's

t r a n s l a t i o n of the Yogdcdrabhumi (see no. 13 above),

15. Tsa-chi-lun shu-chi ^ j^. <f£^

10 s c r o l l s ; (Z: 1/74/4-5).

25

Sub-commentary to Hsiian-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n of

Sthiramati's commentary {Vydkhyd) to the Abhidharma-

samuecaya.

16. Tien-chung-pien-lun shu-chi v ^ y *,

3 s c r o l l s ; (T: 1835, XLIV .1-46); (Z: l / 7 5'/l).

Commentary to Hsiian-tsang' s t r a n s l a t i o n ^ of the

Madhydnta-vibhdga.

17. Wei-shih erh-shih-lun shu-chi X2^J.

2 s c r o l l s ; (T: 1834, XLIII.978-1009); (Z: 1/83/2).

Commentary to Hsiian-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n of

Vasubandhu's Twenty Verses ('Vims,atika) with

29


auto-commentary. Clarence Hamilton has done 28

a study of t h i s work and also t r a n s l a t e s portions of i t i n his t r a n s l a t i o n of the

29 Twenty Verses.

18. Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun shu-chi ffy V ^ L ^ jSgj 10 s c r o l l s ; (T: 1830, XLIII.229 -6o6); (Z: 1/77/1-5).

30

K'uei-chi's main commentary to the Ch1' eng-wei-shrh-lun3

a t r a n s l a t i o n of Vasubandhu's Thirty Verses (Trirnsika)

along with a s e l e c t i o n from the commentaries of

ten Indian exegetes edited by Hsiian-tsang and y 31 32 K'uei-chi. L. de La Vallee-Poussin and Wei Tat

both make reference to and t r a n s l a t e portions of

t h i s work i n t h e i r respective French and Engli sh

t r a n s l a t i o n s of the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun.

l8a. Ch'eng-wei-shi-lun shu-chi k'o-wen

i n c . , 2 of ? s c r o l l s ; ,STIC: 5.2 (fas. 47 of r e p r i n t ) .

An incomplete copy of what appears to be a d e t a i l e d

schematic outline of the contents of no. 18..

19. Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun Lchang-chung-1 shu-yao

4 s c r o l l s ; (T: 1831, XLIII. 607-658); (Z: l / 7 8 / l ) .

A shorter commentary on the es s e n t i a l s or fundamentals

of the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun. This work includes

the b r i e f but important autobiographical passage 33

t r a n s l a t e d above.

Analysis of the Surviving Works (cont.)

20. Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun pieh-ch'ao jffy vfy. "2£yjjj ^

i n c . : no. 1, 5, 9, &.10 of org. 10 s c r o l l s ; (Z: 1/77/5)

An incomplete supplementary commentary on the

Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun; only four s c r o l l s survive.

YUKX Reimon r a i s e s some questions regarding the

a t t r i b u t i o n of t h i s work to K'uei-chi, but i s

not ready t o r e j e c t i t without further t e x t u a l

study.

C 2 1 . 3 Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun liao-chien / j j ^ ^ i ^ ^ j ^ ^ j " f j g j

2 s c r o l l s ; (T: 1836, XLIV.46-52); (Z: 1/76/5).

A s e l e c t i v e commentary to the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun.

YUKI Reimon has done a study of t h i s work concluding

that, on the basis of the ideas i t contains, i t must

post-date Chih-chou ^ |^ (b.679) which places i t

in the. mid-T'ang several generations a f t e r K'uei-

c h i . 3 ^ FUKAURA Seibun agrees. 3 ^

22. Ta-sheng-po-fa-ming-men-lun ohieh

2 s c r o l l s ; (T: I836, XLIV.U6-52); (Z: I /76/5) .

37


Mahdydna-§atadharrm-prakd§amukha-sdstra of

Vasubandhu, a Yogacara-Abhidharma work. The

published editions of t h i s work i n the c o l l e c t i o n s

c i t e d above are based on a woodblock text which was edited by the Ming 0 monk P'u-t' a i

and include h i s i n t e r l i n e a r sub-commentary.

31


FUKAURA Seibun l i s t s another t i t l e , the

Po-fa-ming-men-lun ohui-yen § yfc f ^ *^ 3o

i n 1 s c r o l l as a separate work of K'uei-chi's;

t h i s l a t t e r work, however, i s i n fact a sub-commentary

by the Ming monk Ming-yii tf^ which includes

. i n the text the same K'uei-chi commentary found

i n the P'u-t'ai woodblock; The portion of both

these works a t t r i b u t a b l e to K'uei-chi i s thus the

same.

23. Yin-ming-ju-cheng-li-lun shu \ ^ < S. jE- ^I^LJ.

3 s c r o l l s ; (T: 1840, XLIV.91-143); (Z:l / 86 /4 ) .

39 Commentary to Hsiian-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n of the Nydyapravesa, an introductory work on l o g i c which

r the Chinese a t t r i b u t e to Sankarasvamin and the

Tibetans to Dignaga. A study of t h i s work based

on K'uei-chi's commentary has been done by R.S.

Y. Chi.^°

24. Yin-ming-cheng-li-men-lun shih-szu-kuo-lei shu

1 s c r o l l ; STIC: 6.1 (fas. 51 of the r e p r i n t ) .

An exegesis of fourteen categories of l o g i c a l 41

f a l l a c y based on Hsiian-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n of

Dignaga's Nyayamukha.

Analysis of the Surviving Works (cont.)

I I I . Independent Works ( i . e . , those that are not commentaries on some other s p e c i f i c work.)

[25. 1 Hsi-fang-yao-ohueh-shih-i-t 'ung-kuei (2j jf f" ^kji J$f\r jfl

1 s c r o l l ; (T: 1964, XLIV.104-110); (Z :2 / l2 /4 ) .

A Pure Land t r a c t , the a t t r i b u t i o n of which has 42

been questioned by FUKAURAU Seibun and others.

In h i s study of the authorship of t h i s work Stanley

Weinstein comments that i t " i s not a commentary on

a p a r t i c u l a r Pure Land work, but rather an apologetic

for Pure Land Buddhism i n general, defending i t

against r i v a l systems of b e l i e f , r e c o n c i l i n g i t s

seeming disagreements with c e r t a i n Mahayana t e x t s ,

and asserting the s u p e r i o r i t y of the Pure Land n43

concept of salvation over that of other sects.

26. Ta-sheng fa-yuan i - l i n ehang ^ y^^J^, /Jy pL 7 s c r o l l s ; (T: l 8 6 l , XLV.245-374); (Z: 2/2/5).

A d o c t r i n a l compendium comprising 29 essays or

chapters on various Yogacara t o p i c s . For more

on t h i s work see the introduction to the Trans-

l a t i o n below.

Discussion

The preceding analysis suggests a number of observations about

the sources of K'uei-chi's understanding of Buddhism and about h i s own

spe c i a l i n t e r e s t s as a Buddhist exegete. I t i s c e r t a i n l y the case that

any observations based on the above data must remain somewhat ten t a t i ve

because we lack a complete catalog of a l l of K'uei-chi's works, both

surviving and l o s t . Even so, the surviving works provide an adequate

sample to allow quite usefu l generalizations. Some a d d i t i o n a l data

on K'uei-chi's l o s t works w i l l also be incorporated into, the following

discussion.

Looking at the group of works l i s t e d above as a whole, there are

two immediately obvious, and hardly s u r p r i s i n g , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : the

emphasis on Yogacara and the c o r r e l a t i o n with Hsuan-tsarig's t r a n s l a t i o n s ,

Sixteen of the works r e l a t e d i r e c t l y to works t r a n s l a t e d by Hsuan-tsang's

t r a n s l a t i o n team; and nos. 12, 14, 15, 16, IT, 18, 19, 20, [211,.22,

23, 24, and 26 are a l l e x c l u s i v e l y Yogacara works. Considered t o p i c a l l y ,

these e x c l u s i v e l y Yogacara works constitute the l a r g e s t single group

of K'uei-chi's works, both i n number and i n length. In addition to the

surviving works on Yogacara l i s t e d above, there i s record i n several of

the catalogs of K'uei-chi having written a commentary to the Mahdydna-

samgvahaj^the Hsien-yang-sheng-chiao-lun

( ^Prakdrandrya~§dsana/-vdad)^ and some shorter works based on the

Afa/zayanaâtaci/zaraapra/caâmufe/za-âstra (cf. no. 2 2 ) . ^

Thus we can see that K'uei-chi wrote commentaries on v i r t u a l l y

• . 47

a l l of the p r i n c i p a l Yogacara t r e a t i s e s of the Maitreya*-'Asanga school,

though not on the Ratnagotra-vibhaga. While he d i d write a commentary

on most of the Yogdedrabhumi3 i t i s c l e a r that his primary i n t e r e s t s

were i n the l a t e r developments associated with Vasubandhu (cf. nos.

2, 15, IT, 18, 19, 20, and.-[21l)., He i s , moreover, one of the only

Chinese exegetes to show any sustained i n t e r e s t i n the s t i l l l a t e r

developments i n l o g i c found i n the works of Dignaga and the other

48

Yogacarin l o g i c i a n s (nos. 23 and 24).

The quite substantial sub-commentary to Sthiramati's

Abhidharmasamueeaya-vydkhyd (no. 15) warrants s p e c i a l note. In spit e

of the p r e v a i l i n g view which associated Fa-hsiang with Dharmapala i n

contrast to Sthiramati, K'uei-chi c l e a r l y r e l i e d heavily on t h i s

p a r t i c u l a r Sthiramati work, a fact that i s corroborated by the frequency

with which i t i s quoted i n the Fa-yuan i - t i n ehang (no. 26).

F i n a l l y there are, among K'uei-chi's Yogacara works, two very

prominent omissions that cannot go unremarked: there i s no record of

K'uei-chi ever having composed commentaries to the two Yogacara sutras:

49

the Sandhinirmoeana and the Lahkdvatdra. While he might have d i s -

regarded the Lanka-on-doctrinal grounds, i t i s c l e a r from his c i t a t i o n s

that he d i d consider the Sandhinirmoeana to be an important source.

Most l i k e l y he simply f e l t t h a t , unlike the sastras or t r e a t i s e s ,

Yogacara sutras d i d not require s p e c i a l commentary.

He c l e a r l y did not f e e l that way about the pre-Yogacara sutras

on the other hand.- Af t e r the group of e x c l u s i v e l y Yogacara works, the

next larges t d i v i s i o n of K'uei-chi's works i s that comprising his

commentaries on the early Mahayana sutras (nos. Ill through C11D) . In

t h i s group we f i n d commentaries on the most popular Mahayana s c r i p t u r e s :

the Prajfldparamitd (in several versions: nos. C l ] , 2 , 3 , and 4), the

Lotus (nos. 5 & 6), the Srimdladevi (no. 7), and Vimalakirti (no. 8)

and also to the d e v o t i o n a l i s t i c Maitreya Sutra (no. 9) and the sutras

on Amitabha's Pure Land (nos. C10H & till, c f . also no. C26H; i t i s

the a t t r i b u t i o n of these l a t t e r Amltabha works that i s most frequently

questioned.) This i n t e r e s t i n the e a r l y non-Yogacara Mahayana sutras

i s p l a i n l y sectarian: K'uei-chi's i n t e n t i o n was to int e r p r e t them

from the Yogacara point of view. In t h i s sense they were sutras that

required i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , whereas the Lanka and the Sandhinivmocana

did not.

Also among K'uei-chi commentaries i s one based on a HTriayana

work, the Samayabhedoparacanacakra (no. 12). This was an important

early (2nd century B.C.) work on d o c t r i n a l h i s t o r y that was t r a n s l a t e d

three d i f f e r e n t times into Chinese, the l a s t time by Hsuan-tsang

with K'uei-chi's assistance. K'uei-chi's apparent regard for the

importance of t h i s non-Mahayana work i s consistent with the attention

he devotes to d o c t r i n a l h i s t o r y i n the Fa-yuan i - l i n chang (no. 26),

which begins with an essay providing a d e t a i l e d analysis of the

various schools of Indian Buddhism, both Hinayana and Mahayana.^0

E a r l y d o c t r i n a l h i s t o r y seems to be another area, along with l o g i c ,

i n which K'uei-chi had a s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t .

A l l of K'uei-chi's works considered so f a r have been commentaries

and, with the one exception just noted, commentaries either on Yogacara

t r e a t i s e s or on pre-Yogacara sutras. Most of these follow t h e i r

respective base text very c l o s e l y , u s ually l i n e by l i n e ; thus they are

comprehensible only when read i n conjunction with i t . Of the surviving

works a t t r i b u t e d to K'uei-chi only two are l i s t e d ' i n the analysis above

as independent works, i . e . , works not based d i r e c t l y on some p a r t i c u l a r

primary t e x t . The f i r s t of these, the Pure Land t r a c t Hsi-fang-yao-

ahueh-shih-i-t%ung-kuei (no. 25), i s not a work of K'uei-chi's i n the

opinion of FUKAURA, Weinstein and ot h e r s . ^ 1 That leaves the Fa-yuan

i - l i n chang (no. 26) as the single surviving work of t h i s class that

unquestionably i s a work of K'uei-chi.- It i s e a s i l y one of the most

s i g n i f i c a n t of h i s works, surpassed i n fame only by h i s two main

commentaries to the Ch'eng-wei-sh-ih-lun (nos. 18 & 19). For the

purpose of determining K'uei-chi's own understanding of Yogacara, i t

i s the single most important source, as i t i s i n t h i s work, made up of

a number of more or l e s s independent essays, that K'uei-chi i s most free

to organize h i s material i n a way that r e f l e c t s h i s own understanding

and i n t e r e s t s : he i s not bound by the text upon which he i s commenting,

as i s the case i n the other works. The s p e c i a l features of t h i s l a s t

work w i l l be considered further i n the Introduction to the Translation

below.

Chapter I I I :

K'UEI-CHI AND YOGACARA

As one of the branches of Buddhist thought, the elaborate, and

at times exceedingly i n t r i c a t e , t h e o r i z i n g of the Yogacara school was

focused on a single objective: l i b e r a t i o n , the cessation of the

su f f e r i n g both ph y s i c al and psychological that i s the i n e v i t a b l e

consequence of normal, worldly existence characterized by the cycle of

continual death and r e b i r t h (samsara). In pursuit of t h i s goal the

various Buddhist schools sought, i n d i f f e r e n t ways, to chart a p r a c t i c a l

path through the maze of our mundane experience, a course of p r a c t i c e

that would ult i m a t e ly insure the r e a l i z a t i o n of t h i s l i b e r a t i o n .

In the e a r l i e s t period of the t r a d i t i o n , t h i s p r a c t i c a l , even

empirical o r i e n t a t i o n , was combined with a substantia l degree of a n t i -

metaphysical skepticism. There seems to have been a good deal of

i n i t i a l resistance towards any preoccupation with the type of p h i l o -

sophical questions that Gautama and h i s followers 'felt could lead only

to interminable metaphysical speculation, and hence away from enlighten-

ment and l i b e r a t i o n . As the incr e a s i n g l y more systematic soteriology

of the l a t e r schools developed however, more and more philosophic issues

were r a i s e d as legitimate and, indeed, necessary to the proper formu-

l a t i o n of the path to l i b e r a t i o n .

This b a s i c a l l y s o t e r i o l o g i c o r i e n t a t i o n was the common ground

shared by a l l the Buddhist schools. It was the reference of a l l the

subsequent p h i l o s o p h i c a l speculation, the one constant that established

the parameters of Buddhist thought. To t h i s common problematic the

Yogacarins or M e d i t a t i o n - p r a c t i t i o n e r s, i n t h e i r t u r n , added a number

of s i g n i f i c a n t : innovations,both p r a c t i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l . The most

important of these must be o u t l i n e d i n order to assess the thought of

K'uei-chi as presented i n the essay t r a n s l a t e d below.

YOGACARA IN INDIA AND CHINA

The Fa-hsiang school of Hsiian-tsang and K'uei-chi was

founded i n China i n the early 7th century just as Yogacara was reaching

i t s peak i n India. As one stream of the Mahayana transformation of the

older Abhidharma t r a d i t i o n i n India, the e a r l i e s t s t r a t a of Yogacara

thought are found i n works of several disparate c l a s s e s , the h i s t o r i c a l

i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s of which.are yet to be r e s o l v e d . 1 The s c r i p t u r a l

(sutra) t r a d i t i o n i s represented, p r i m a r i l y by the Sandhi-nirmocana Sutra,

by portions of the Avatamsaka Sutra, and f i n a l l y by the Lahkdvatdra

Sutra which appears to include a good deal of r e l a t i v e l y l a t e r Yogacara

thought. The t r e a t i s e (sastra) t r a d i t i o n i s represented i n the f i r s t

place by the voluminous Yogdcdrabhumi (which includes the Bodhisattva-

bhumi)3 an encyclopedic work a t t r i b u t e d to Asanga but very l i k e l y com-

p r i s i n g much e a r l i e r material representing the t r a n s i t i o n from Hinayana

- - 2

to Mahayana Abhidharma. There were also other e a r l y t r e a t i s e s , the

Ratnagotravibhdga. Cox.Uttaratantra)and Hie AbhisamaydlanRara,for example,

that represent the d i f f e r e n t streams feeding into what gradually became

a recognizable school.

The beginning of a second period of Yogacara development i s

marked by the t r e a t i s e s of Asanga and Vasubandhu, two brothers of the

4th century who formulated what we can think of as C l a s s i c a l Yogacara.

This period of Yogacara thought i s characterized "by a more c a r e f u l l y

-4

integrated systematic soteriology epitomized by the Vijnaptimatrata

doctrine introduced in.Asahga's Mahaydnd sutralankdra and.Mahayana-

samgraha3. and l a t e r elaborated i n .the Twenty Verses (Vimsatika) and

Thirty Verses (Trimsika)3 a t t r i b u t e d to Vasubandhu. These were the

main Yogacara works that Hsuan-tsang studied i n India.

The Fa-hsiang school of Hsuan-tsang and K'uei-chi was not the

f i r s t transmission of Yogacara to China, but i t was the most compre-

hensive introduction of t h i s C l a s s i c a l Yogacara. . Hsuan-tsang's o r i g i n a l

purpose for t r a v e l l i n g to India was to secure a better and more complete

version of the Yogdedrabhumi. When he f i n a l l y returned he brought not

only that work, but a l l of the. major works of Asanga and Vasubandhu

along with a thorough understanding of the several exegetical t r a d i t i o n s

that had developed since t h e i r death. The sum of t h i s knowledge was

presented in the synoptic Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun or Substantiation of

VijHaptimdtratdj a work based on the Thirty Verses (Trimsika) and the

ten major commentaries which he edited i n China with K'uei-chi's

assistance. Thus, K'uei-chi's Buddhism was derived from the V i j n a p t i -

matrata Yogacara of the Asanga and Vasubandhu t r e a t i s e s , augmented by

the more fundamental scholasticism of the Yogdedrabhumi and v a r i o u s l y .

interpreted by the ten p r i n c i p a l Yogacara exegetes who included Sthiramat

and Dharmapala.

VIJNAPTIMATRATA

Atman and Dharmas.

The basic p h i l o s o p h i c a l question for the l a t e r Buddhist schools j

including Yogacara, concerned the r e a l i t y status of the constituents

or events of experience (dharmas) and also of the i n d i v i d u a l or the

s e l f (atman/pudgala) that experiences those events.. Many elements of

the c l a s s i c appearance and r e a l i t y problem of Western philosophy are

evident here, but always relegated to the more basic question of

s o t e r i o l o g i c a l relevance.

For Asahga and Vasubandhu e s p e c i a l l y , the objective was not

so much to exhaustively analyze, or catalog what does e x i s t , i n the

manner of c l a s s i c a l ontology. They sought rather to show that what we.,

conventionally take as e x i s t i n g does not r e a l l y e x i s t , and that i t i s

p r e c i s e l y t h i s mis-perception that perpetuates our bondage and

obscures the l i b e r a t i o n to be experienced i n enlightenment. A l l the

constituents of our experience, both the 'things' experienced and also

what we take to be the 'experiencer,' both the perceiver and the

perceived are, i n t h i s a n a l y s i s , seen to be empty of any ultimate,

unconditioned r e a l i t y . They must be seen as empty of any e s s e n t i a l , .

abiding substance or own-being (svabhava) that would make them,

independent of a l l the other manifold factors of experience, r e a l i n

any ultimate sense.

Trisvabhayata: the Three Aspects of Own-being

The Yogacarins recognized three aspects of the existence or

"own-being of the phenomena, of experience: The Imaginary ( p a r i k a l p i t a )

aspect, the Dependent or Relative (paratantra) aspect, and the Absolute

(parinispanna) aspect.^ The phenomena, when taken together i n t h e i r

mutually conditioned and.interdependent i n t e r a c t i o n , do have a p r o v i s i o n a l ,

p r a c t i c a l sort of r e a l i t y . In t h i s sense we can say that they ' e x i s t . '

This Dependent own-being should however he seen i n i t s ultimate aspect,

the Absolute. I t i s t h i s absolute aspect of the Dependent tha t , f o r

the Yogacarins, i s the only ultimate R e a l i t y . As such i t remains i n -

expressible, though.it i s re f e r r e d to as the Tathata or Thusness of

a l l things. To remain b l i n d to t h i s ultimate aspect of r e a l i t y , to

c l i n g to the constituent elements of the Dependent aspect whether the

apparent objective things or the apparent subjective s e l f that i s to

remain bound to the purely Imaginary aspect of r e a l i t y , the subject-

object world with a l l the contradictions and f r u s t r a t i o n that normally

constitute the unsatisfactor y experience of human existence.

The s o t e r i o l o g i c a l task for the Yogacarins i s thus to cease

t h i s c l i n g i n g to the Dependent i n i t s Imaginary aspect and to r e a l i z e

instead the Absolute. Much of the c r i t i c a l epistemological awareness

underlying t h e i r analysis was shared with, or even derived from, the

Madhyamlka school. Both schools recognized the s o t e r i o l o g i c a l

s i g n i f i c a n c e of. delusion. For both schools the basic human problem was

seen to be epistemic. The Madhyamikas provided a sophisticated p h i l o -

sophical analysis of the p h i l o s o p h i c a l nature of delusion and language.

Accepting that a n a l y s i s , the Yogacarins continued on to inquire into

the psychological nature of delusion, and to combine a l l these i n s i g h t s

into a comprehensive, systematic soteriology on the o l d Abhidharma model

The. unique Yogacara contribution t o the development of Buddhist

thought can be seen i n t h i s emphasis on the psychological aspects of

delusion and l i b e r a t i o n . Combining the older Abhidharma attempt to

present a systematic map of experience with the Madhyamika innovation

of c r i t i c a l epistemology, the Yogacarins sought to analyze the structure

of human awareness or consciousness that account f o r our experience

of delusion or enlightenment. They presented a philosophic psychology

or philosophy of mind that sought to explain the process by which we

unconsciously perpetrate delusion and bondage to s e l f and dharmas, and

also the process by which that delusion can be severed. The epistemic

focus of t h i s psychology came to the forefront i n Vijnaptimatrata

Yogacara.

Vijnaptimatrata vs. Cittamatrata i n l a t e r Yogacara

In contrast to the Cittamatrata (Thought-only-ness) doctrine of

the e a r l i e r Yogacarins, Asanga and Vasubandhu expressed t h e i r basic

p o s i t i o n as Vijnaptimatrata. While the former doctrine focuses on the

nature of the state of l i b e r a t i o n , the l a t t e r attempts to explain the

7 nature of the state of bondage. In K'uei-chi's terms, Cittamatrata

t e l l s us about the Absolute, while Vijnaptimatrata t e l l s us about the

8

conventional realm of experience. Cittamatrata i s thus a more general

proposition; i t can be understood as an o n t o l o g i c a l assertion concerning

the nature of existence. Vijnaptimatrata, however, i s a much more

s p e c i f i c , epistemic.proposition that i s intended to t e l l us about the

perceptual error that prevents us from r e a l i z i n g l i b e r a t i o n . Again,

i t s primary i n t e n t i o n i s patently s o t e r i o l o g i c a l . It involves } to some

extent, o n t o l o g i c a l presuppositions regarding the nature of existence,

but they are not primary and are not, for the most part, e x p l i c i t l y

formulated.

It was Vijnaptimatrata that became the ce n t r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l

p r i n c i p l e of C l a s s i c a l Yogacara as. expressed by Asanga and Vasubandhu,

the Indian school of Yogacara thought from which the formulation of

Hsuan-tsang and K'uei-chi was derived. I t was t h i s doctrine that

provided the cornerstone of the analysis of the delusory process "by

which we remain "bound- to the world of i n e v i t a b l e s u f f e r i n g and woe,

and, as such, i t was taken by K'uei-chi as the theme of h i s t r e a t i s e

t r a n s l a t e d below, "The Essay on Vijnaptimatrata."

Vijnana and V i j n a p t i

The Sanskrit terms v i j n a p t i and vijnana are both primary

derivatives of the verb v i j f l a - j both are verbal nouns expressing an

activity.. The verb vijHd- i s made up of the ^'jnd- (cognate to

gignoskein > gn5sis; (^noscere; to know, etc.) plus the p r e p o s i t i o n a l

a f f i x vi- which adds to the root the q u a l i t y of being (or doing)

asunder, apart, d i s t i n c t or d i f f e r e n t , a q u a l i f i c a t i o n p a r a l l e l e d i n

many cases by that, of the L a t i n p r e f i x de-/dis-. Thus the basic meaning

of vijHd- i s to know d i s t i n c t l y or d i s c u r s i v e l y . In a somewhat broader

sense, i t can mean simply to perceive, and again by extension: to be

\ 9

aware or to be conscious (of something). Examples, of a l l these shades

of meaning, and more, can be found i n the Buddhist t e c h n i c a l l i t e r a t u r e .

The nominal forms of t h i s verb, both vijnana and v i j n a p t i ,

r e t a i n the reference to an a c t i v i t y : they express the action s p e c i f i e d

by the verb, in somewhat the same manner as the -ing forms i n En g l i sh

(e.g., walking, swimming, etc. as i n : "Running i s good for you.""^ )

They do not express a state of being: hence the inappropriateness of

'consciousness,' the most commonly encountered equivalent f o r - v i j n a n a

I f we are to render these forms into E n g l i s h , the equivalents should

properly be verbal nouns ending i n -ings. or -tion. The -tion forms i n

English are more v e r s a t i l e , but s t i l l r e t a i n some degree of ambiguity

as they can be understood i n three d i f f e r e n t ways.: they can r e f e r to the

act of doing some action (e.g., "Correction i s what i s needed."); they

can r e f e r to the t h i n g that i s done (e.g., "There are many manifestations

of t h i s form".); and they can also express a state of "being (e.g., "He

was i n a state of elation".). -The latter-of-these three categories

must be excluded i n the case of any -tion equivalent for vijnana or

v i j n a p t i .

What then i s the range of vijnana as a t e c h n i c a l term? Vijnana

c e r t a i n l y occurs often i n Buddhist l i t e r a t u r e with the more r e s t r i c t e d

meaning of perception. In Yogacara t e x t s , however, and probably i n

e a r l i e r Buddhist w r i t i n g as w e l l , i t i s very often also used as a more

generic designation for a l l forms of mental a c t i v i t y , conscious and

unconscious. This i s evident, f o r example, i n the range of a c t i v i t y

comprised by the eight modes of vijnana, a Yogacara doctrine to be

discussed below. One f i n d s , moreover, passages where vijnana i s s a i d

to stand for c i t t a (thought), manas (mind), vijnana (as s p e c i f i c a l l y

perception, i . e . , the s i x modes of empirical perception), and for

v i j n a p t i as well."'""'" There i s no simple English equivalent that conveys

t h i s range of meaning. The best course i s probably to incorporate the

term vijnana into our t e c h n i c a l vocabulary as has already been done

with a number of other Buddhist concepts: nirvana, karma, dharma, etc.

I f a simple English equivalent f o r vijnana i n i t s broadest, generic sense

12

i s necessary, then 'mentation' seems f a r preferable to 'consciousness.'

The action-noun v i j n a p t i , i n contrast to vijnana, i s derived

from the causative form of the verb vijnd-} i . e . , vijnapaya-. The

basic meaning of vijnd- i n the causative i s to make someone (else)

know or d i s t i n g u i s h (something). In C l a s s i c a l Sanskrit i t came to

mean: to declare (x to be y ) ; to announce, to address (a superior) ; to

inform (someone about something), etc. Thus the nominal d e r i v a t i v e

v i j n a p t i can r e f e r to the act of representation or designation, and i t

i s also used to r e f e r to the object of that act, i . e . , the •information

that i s made known, the address that one makes (to a superior), etc.

As a t e c h n i c a l term i n the C l a s s i c a l . Yogacara of Asanga and

Vasubandhu, the meaning of v i j n a p t i seems to be derived most d i r e c t l y

from the verbal meaning of declaring or designating x to be y, as when

the Dependent (paratantra) i s mis-taken and then clung to i n i t s

Imaginary ( p a r i k a l p i t a ) aspect. V i j n a p t i thus r e f e r s generally to the

act by which t h i s i s done and,.perhaps, i n some cases to a given,

p a r t i c u l a r instance of the act. The term:has been t r a n s l a t e d by using

a number of d i f f e r e n t equivalents: representation (Suzuki and Hamilton),

ideation or i d e i f i c a t i o n ( L e v i ) , notation or n o t i f i c a t i o n (Demieville

and L e v i ) , idee(s) (Lamotte), Erkenntnis (Frauwallner), designation

(Hurvitz), etc. None of these, however, f u l l y conveys the p a r t i c u l a r

epist'.anic a c t i v i t y the Yogacarins seem to have i n mind. 'Denotation'

of 'designation' probably comes the closest to rendering the l i t e r a l

meaning, as both r e f l e c t the causative element i n the grammatical form

of the term. There i s more however that' should be conveyed by any .

equivalent, i f the s p e c i a l Yogacara a p p l i c a t i o n of the term i s to be

understood. Asanga and Vasubandhu seem to be focusing on the a c t i v i t y

of taking one t h i ng as another, or i n a narrower, epistemological

context, on the process by which we come to know the world, the process

of concept formation. A better E n g l i s h equivalent for r e f l e c t i n g t h i s

aspect of v i j n a p t i ' s meaning i s 'conceptualization.' It i s through

t h i s act of conceptualization, according to the Yogacarins, that we

construct or. constitute the world as we take i t to be given i n our

experience; we do t h i s i n a manner that allows understanding and

conventional discrimination, i n a manner necessary to function i n the

mundane world. This a c t i v i t y i s thus not i n i t s e l f negative i t does

however become so. To the extent that we c l i n g to the world so

constructed as ultim a t e l y r e a l , we are deluded. Thus blinded to the true

R e a l i t y Thusness or t a t h a t a we remain i n e x t r i c a b l y bound to the

world of death and r e b i r t h (samsara). It i s i n t h i s sense that the

Yogacarins assert that the world as we know i t i s vijnapti-matra or

conceptualization-only.

There are two questions that remain unresolved i n t h i s i n t e r -

p r etation. The f i r s t concerns the causative form of v i j n a p t i : Why d i d

the Yogacarins choose a causative d e r i v a t i v e of vignd- i f they were

r e f e r r i n g to conceptualization, a process which i s i n t e r n a l and does

not n e c e s s a r i l y involve some other party? The second question a r i s e s

when we look to the Chinese transmission of the doctrine: Why d i d the

Chinese t r a n s l a t o r s generally not d i s t i n g u i s h between v i j n a p t i and

vijnana, rendering them both with the same character? It i s quite

possible that these questions are not unrelated and, while i t i s not yet

possible to provide f u l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y answers to them, the following

discussion may at le a s t suggest some p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r further ex-

pl o r a t i o n .

V i j n a p t i became a key Yogacara.concept for.the f i r s t time i n the

works of Asanga and Vasubandhu, the two figures responsible f o r the

f i r s t c a r e f u l and systematic formulation of what.had been a rather loose

t r a d i t i o n comprising several d i f f e r e n t streams of thought. It i s not

d i f f i c u l t to imagine why they might seek for t h e i r p r i n c i p a l doctrine

a new, more precise term, e s p e c i a l l y given the new more epistemic

o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e i r a n a l y s i s . Vijnana was a key concept to be sure,

47

but one which already had a broad range of d i f f e r e n t meanings, both

general and more t e c h n i c a l . The new idea they sought to emphasize was

c l e a r l y r e l a t e d to t h i s broad notion of vijnana, and i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g

that they would choose a form of the same verb, vijnd-. But why a

causative form? Why a form t h a t , i n the' s t r i c t e s t sense, indicates the

act of causing, not oneself, but.someone else to know something?

This seems inconsistent with the basic i n t e n t i o n of the Yogacara

ana l y s i s . They were not concerned with how we cause others to have

knowledge, but rather with how we ourselves come to have knowledge and,

c o i n c i d e n t a l l y , come to be deluded with respect to R e a l i t y . This i s a

purely i n t e r n a l , r e f l e x i v e process, not one i n v o l v i n g a second party as

one might expect the causative to imply. And there were c e r t a i n l y other,

non-causative forms of vijna- a v a i l a b l e . Why not v i j n a t i , for example,

rather than the v i j n a p t i ?

One p o s s i b i l i t y i s that the causative aspect of v i j n a p t i by

that time had been d i l u t e d i n conventional usage to the point of having

l o s t i t s force i n the s t r i c t e s t sense of "one party causes another party

to do x." This i s c e r t a i n l y p o s s i b l e; but even i f i t allows a looser

use of v i j n a p t i , i t s t i l l does not explain the attractiveness of that

p a r t i c u l a r form.

There i s one p o s s i b i l i t y that may account f o r the attractiveness

of the p a r t i c u l a r term v i j n a p t i , one that.warrants further, more

diachronic study: the possible r e l a t i o n s h i p between v i j n a p t i and

p r a j n a p t i , a term already by Asanga's time i n the t e c h n i c a l vocabulary

13

of the Sautrantika's and the Madhyamikas. It i s perhaps no coincidence

that Asanga choose a. term that was both.formally and semantically p a r a l l e l

to the Madhyamika term for the world-constructing process.

Prajnapti has been defined as r e f e r r i n g to the designations

or the language constructs by which we r e l a t e . t o the world, as "the

superimposition of 'concepts' onto bare experience." 1 ^ Douglas Daye,

who has a s p e c i a l i n t e r e st i n r e l a t i n g Madhyamika to contemporary

developments in. Western philosophy, says about p r a j n a p t i :

CThe Madhyamika! concept of language constructs (prajnapti) i s an accommodation to the Abhidharma Sautrantika answer that a l l dharmas are p r a j n a p t i s , i . e . , f r u i t f u l f i c t i o n s , appropriate but unconfirmable. outside the systemic context of dharma analysis language. As we s h a l l see, there i s also a Madhyamika acknowledgement of t h i s problematic, so, just as prajnaptis are f r u i t f u l f i c t i o n s within the r e l i g i o u s language frameworks, we f i n d i n a s i m i l a r manner that the word emptiness ( s u n y a t a ) i s said also to be merely a p r a j n a p t i ; i t i s a f r u i t f u l f i c t i o n which, i f r e i f i e d , leads to confusions which obviate the desirable r e l i g i o u s ends f o r which both the concepts of emptiness and dharma analysis have been generated. Another way to say the same thing i s that p r a j n a p t i ( s ) , upayas, and the "emptiness of emptiness" are r e f l e x i v e metagrids which r e f e r to r e l a t i o n -ships of epistemic evaluation but not to the o n t o l o g i c a l e n t i t i e s presupposed by the world's way of t a l i n g . - ^

The v i j n a p t i of Asanga and Vasubandhu c e r t a i n l y seems to have played i n

t h e i r system a p a r a l l e l r o l e to prajnapti. in.the Madhyamika system.

With the second question r a i s e d above we turn to the Chinese

transmission of Vijnaptimatrata to ask why the Chinese t r a n s l a t o r s

choose to render t h i s key doctrine with the am iguous equivalent wei-

shih 3 ^ using for v i j n a p t i the character shih If^? , (to recognize,

to know) the same equivalent used standardly for vijnana. This too i s

a problem that y i e l d s to no simple s o l u t i o n . One thing i s clearj however

i t was not a case of simply confusing the two Sanskrit words, c e r t a i n l y

not i n the case of Hsuan-tsang and K'uei-chi,at l e a s t . The fact i s

e a s i l y established that the two terms could and often were distinguished

i n the writings of Hsuan-tsang and K'uei-chi. Their standard equivalent

for v i j n a p t i when i t i s to be distinguished from vijnana i s l i a o

(to understand) or l i a o - f e n ~f ft which K'uei-chi i n turn glosses as

l i a o - t a (to understand, comprehend) and f e n - p i e h ^ ^ (to d i s -

criminate or discern). This i s c l e a r l y not vijnana (mentation) i n the

generic sense as synononymous with c i t t a (thought). K'uei-chi i n -

dicates t h i s i n h i s discussion of why the sutras emphasize c i t t a while

the sastras emphasize vijnapti."'"^

The Chinese gloss of v i j n a p t i i s i n fact very close, i n both

form and meaning, to the Tibetan equivalent vnam par rig, and that

provides some i n t e r e s t i n g information with respect to the f i r s t question

r a i s e d above. Neither the Chinese or the Tibetans rendered v i j n a p t i

with a causative form, i n d i c a t i n g that the causative, second-person-

dire c t e d aspect was not a prominent feature i n the gloss of the term

I T

that they received from t h e i r Indian teachers.

While i t i s thus not d i f f i c u l t to e s t a b l i s h that Hsuan-tsang

and K'uei-chi understood v i j n a p t i as a term d i s t i n c t from the generic

vijnana (mentation), the question s t i l l remains of why they rendered

v i j n a p t i with shih "^jjj^ as well as with l i a o . Two considerations

may have played at le a s t some ro l e i n t h e i r decision. F i r s t , shih was

already well-established i n the Chinese Buddhist. t r a d i t i o n as an

equivalent for both vijnana and v i j n a p t i , e s p e c i a l l y i n the e a r l i e r

Yogacara t r a n s l a t i o n s done by Paramartha (Mahayana-samgraha, Trimsika.)

and Prabhakaramitra.(Mahayana-sutralankara). Hsuan-tsang and K'uei-chi

may have f e l t the expression wei-shih '•^'l^was already so w e l l -

established that i t should be l e f t , r e l y i n g on the context and frequent

glosses t o make the necessary d i s t i n c t i o n s . c l e a r . Also, using shih "3^

for both does r e f l e c t the i n t e g r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between vijnana and

v i j n a p t i , a fact apparent i n Sanskrit.from the common root, but

obscured i n Chinese when two unrelated characters are used.

With t h i s second question we are, i n the end, reduced to

speculation. The above may well have been factors i n the decision ,

but they are d i f f i c u l t to accept as an adequate explanation. There

were many other established equivalents that•Hsuan-tsang did change:

t r a n s c r i p t i o n s l i k e alaya ^ ^ o r the older ^ ^ ^ ^ and t r a n s -

l a t i o n s as w e l l : pien-chi-so-chih hsing *|£for p a r i k a l p i t a -

svabhava i n the place of the older fen-pieh hsing ^ j'} ''j^.et c. Besides,

he r e - t r a n s l a t e d a l l the important Vijnaptimatrata Yogacara works

(except for the Mahayana-sutralankaTa); so consistency was not a

serious 1 problem. F i n a l l y there were c e r t a i n l y other suitable ways of

rendering v i j n a p t i into Chinese: i n the l a t e r t r a n s l a t i o n of the

Lahkdvatdra done by Siksananda and edited by Fa-tsang and others at

the beginning of the 8th century, for example, we f i n d v i j n a p t i

rendered chia-ming ^Ij^J^, ( l i t . : suppositional o r conventional names)

and c h i a - s h i h - s h e i | ^ ^ ^ " ^ ^ (suppositionally or conventionally provided

or e s t a b l i s h e d ) . 1 ^ Why Hsiian-tsang and K'uei-chi retained shih

for v i j n a p t i thus remains a conundrum.

YOGACARA PSYCHOLOGY

The Yogacarins had from the beginning a s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n the

structures of mental a c t i v i t y . They sought to understand not only why

human s u f f e r i n g i s the r e s u l t of delusion, but also how the delusion i s

perpetrated what the psychological mechanics of t h i s process are.

Affirming the fundamental Mahayana equation of samsara and nirvana,

they went on to ask why, even i n the l i g h t of reason, people s t i l l

obstinately c l i n g to the delusions by which they are bound. They

f e l t that an understanding of the nature of mental a c t i v i t y , conscious

and unconscious, was necessary i f we are to free ourselves of the

obstacles to enlightenment. In the course of t h e i r analysis they

developed a sophisticated philosophy of mind and a psychology .' which

19 included an e x p l i c i t theory of unconscious motivation.

The Eight Modes of Mental A c t i v i t y

The centraldoctine i n the Yogacara psychology i s t h e i r analysis

of the eight modes of mental a c t i v i t y or mentation (vijnana), a paradigm

that represents the culmination of a long t r a d i t i o n of psychological

i n t e r e s t and speculation i n Buddhist thought. The Agama l i t e r a t u r e

includes several models f o r understanding the noetic aspect of human

experience. What was perhaps the e a r l i e s t analysis of man, the psycho-

p h y s i c a l organism posited an inseparable, dual nature termed name-and-

form (nama-rupa). Rupa, or form, was glossed as the four primary

elements (mahabhuta.) : earth, water, f i r e and a i r ; while naman was under

stood to comprise a l l the no e t i c , non-formal factors of what we con-

v e n t i o n a l l y know as. the i n d i v i d u a l .

The Five Skandha formula, which has i t s o r i g i n s i n the same

period, r e f l e c t s even more the subjective o r i e n t a t i o n that was character

i s t i c already i n ea r l y Buddhist thought. In t h i s analysis the f i r s t

aggregate (skandha) of the human-personality i s s t i l l rupa (form), but

the noetic component i s divided into four d i f f e r e n t aggregates: f e e l i n g

or sensation (yedana), conception (samjna), pred i s p o s i t i o ns (samskarah)

and discriminatio n or perception (vijnana). The d i s t i n c t i o n s between,

and the r e l a t i o n s h i p s among, these four factors were, however, never

adequately distinguished.

With the Abhidharma l i t e r a t u r e another, more systematic

paradigm came to the fore: the s i x modes of perception (vijnana).

Here there i s c l e a r l y an attempt to understand the process and the

structures of sensory perception and conceptual organization. The f i r s t

f i v e modes correspond to the f i v e sense f a c u l t i e s and are involved i n

rudimentary, empirical perception. The s i x t h mode, mano-vijnana, i s

the a c t i v i t y of u n i f y i n g or organizing the raw sense data into the

conceptual framework by which we r e l a t e to our experience. For the

ear l y Abhidharmikas, the s i x t h was the highest order of noetic a c t i v i t y

corresponding to what has been c a l l e d mind or i n t e l l e c t i n the Western

t r a d i t i o n . In the six-vijnana analysis t h i s coordinative function plus

the f i v e modes of empirical perception were thus thought to cover the

f u l l range of mental a c t i v i t y .

With the flowering of philosphic discussion and argument i n the

scho l a s t i c period, however, a number.of problems were r a i s e d that i n d i -

cated serious deficiencies, i n the s i x - f o l d a n a l y s i s .

The Yogacarins were, with respect to r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e ,

s p e c i a l i s t s in. the c u l t i v a t i o n of meditative trance. I t was they, i n

p a r t i c u l a r , who f e l t . t h a t the s i x modes did not exhaust the f u l l range

of mental a c t i v i t y : i t could not account f o r some of the kinds of

cognition they had experienced d i r e c t l y or i n t u i t i v e l y i n meditation.

They pointed out, moreover, that there must be some a d d i t i o n a l mode of

mental a c t i v i t y to account f o r the continuity of the i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y

through, periods when the f i r s t s i x modes are inoperative i n deep sleep,

i n unconsciousness, i n some kinds of meditative trance, and i n the c

t r a n s i t i o n from one l i f e to the next r e b i r t h . To solve these problems

they proposed the addition of two further modes: manas (mind) and alaya

vijnana (store-mentation).

In the Yogacara scheme - of eight vijnanas, manas' then became the

seventh mode of mental a c t i v i t y . S t r i c t l y speaking manas means mind, a

thing or e n t i t y , and so i t may appear to us. The Yogacarins gloss i t

however as manana ( r e f l e c t i v e c o g i t a t i o n , t h i n k i n g ) , and i t , l i k e the

20

other modes, should be understood as an a c t i v i t y . Manas i s responsible

for our awareness of the subject-object dichotomy; i n the unpu r i f i ed

state, as klista-manas, ( d e f i l e d mind), i t i s the ego-postulating function

and, thus, the source and the locus of the delusion that obscures en-

lightenment. Hence the c r u c i a l r o l e that manas plays i n Yogacara

soteriology.

This delusion p e r s i s t s because manas takes as the object

(alambana) of i t s r e f l e c t i v e a c t i v i t y . t h e eighth mode of mental a c t i v i t y ,

the alaya-vijnana, r e i f y i n g i t into a ' s e l f (atman) or ego. In the

Yogacara analysis t h i s i s the primary act c o n s t i t u t i n g nescience (avidya),

the source of a l l a f f l i c t i o n s . Thus manas i t s e l f - i s not self-conscious-

ness, or the ego; but the i n t e r a c t i o n between manas and the alaya-vijnana

is. The alaya-vijnana. too, as we s h a l l see, i s not a th i n g , but rather a

continuum of discre t e events. When manas i s direc t e d towards the alaya,

however, i t projects onto the continuum a uni f y i n g i d e n t i t y : i t i s then

that self-consciousness i s born and one thinks of "oneself" as an i n d i -

v i d u a l . Short of enlightenment t h i s portion of the manas a c t i v i t y remains

unconsciousness, though, unlike mano-vijnana (the s i x t h vijnana) i t never 21

ceases, throughout the course of normal human existence.

The eighth vijnana according to the Yogacarins i s the l a t e n t

substructure of a l l mental a c t i v i t y . As such, i t i s distinguished from

the other seven vijnanas. which are said to be the manifest or proceeding

modes of mental a c t i v i t y ( p r a v r t t i - v i j n a n a ^jjfc) • I f the a c t i v i t y of

manas i s p a r t i a l l y conscious and p a r t i a l l y unconscious as ind i c a t ed :

above, the a c t i v i t y of the eighth vijnana i s t o t a l l y unconscious. In

t h i s broadest sense i t bears the designation fundamental mentation

(mula-vijnana):, but i t i s encountered more frequently under several other

names r e f e r r i n g to s p e c i f i c aspects of i t s function. Before discussing

the three functions of the eighth vijnana as l a i d out i n the Ch'eng-

wei-shih-lim i t i s necessary to introduce two further terms, vasana

(impression, impregnation, permeation, perfuming) and b i j a (seed, t r a c e ,

p o t e n t i a l i t y ) , the key. concepts i n the Yogacara theory of the unconscious

conditioning of a l l human action.

Vasam.a i s the process by which traces of former a c t i o n , the

b i j a s or s e e d - p o t e n t i a l i t i e s , are l a i d down and retained, i n the continuum

of the substratum mental a c t i v i t y ( i . e . , i n the Unconscious). Vasana

i s generally said to be derived from the denominative verb vasaya-:

to make fragrant, to perfume, to scent (cf. vasa: perfume), as r e f l e c t e d

i n the Chinese equivalent h s u n - h s i ^ ^ (perfuming r e p e t i t i o n or

habituation). I t seems also to have been associated with ( i f not

h i s t o r i c a l l y derived from) the causative of ^vas (to dwell) which, i n

the nominal form vasana, r e f e r s to an impression l e f t dwelling i n the

mind,and by extension to a notion, an idea, a f a l s e notion, etc. This

l a t t e r association with ^vas i s probably r e f l e c t e d i n the Tibetan

equivalent: bag ehags i n c l i n a t i o n s or propensity; c f . , anusaya: bag la

rial). By t h i s process of vasana, unconscious energy patterns or

i n c l i n a t i o n s are impressed upon the stream of mentation by every action

we perform. These s e e d - p o t e n t i a l i t i e s then develop as part of the

55

stream u n t i l , eventually, they come to f r u i t i o n , a f f e c t i n g our behavior

at some l a t e r point i n time. This "ripening of the seeds" p e r s i s t s not

only throughout one's entire l i f e , but into future l i v e s as w e l l , t h i s

being necessary of course to account for the fundamental law of causation

i n the form of karmic r e t r i b u t i o n . For the Yogacarins, the s i x modes

of mental a c t i v i t y could not adequately account for the persistence of

t h i s vasana process, e s p e c i a l l y given i t s unconscious nature. Hence

the necessity of the eighth vijnana.

The discussion of the eighth vijnana i n the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun

focuses on three d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , each having i t s own par-

t i c u l a r designation: the eighth as alaya-vijnana, as sarvabTjaka-

22

vijnana, and as vipaka-vijnana. Thus we f i n d the eighth vijnana

considered i n terms of i t s e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (sva-laksana ),

i n terms of i t s function as a cause (hetu 13 ), and i n terms of i t s

function as an e f f e c t (phala ). With regard to i t s e s s e n t i a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , the eighth vijnana i s c a l l e d the alaya-vijnana; considered

i n i t s r o l e as cause, i t has the s p e c i a l name sarvabTjaka or bearer of

a l l the seeds; and considered i n i t s r o l e as the r e s u l t of previous

acts, i . e . , as e f f e c t , i t i s given the s p e c i a l name vipaka-vijnana or

f r u i t i o n mentation. The most familiar, of these i s , of course alaya-

v i jnana. The second two designations, also occur very frequently however,

and are important because they indicate a cause and e f f e c t aspect of the

eighth vijnana to which K'uei-chi frequently r e f e r s .

Alaya-vijnana has been rendered with a number of d i f f e r e n t

equivalents: store-consciousness,.foundation consciousness, Grund-

erkennen (Frauwallner), connaissance-receptacle (Lamotte), or connaissance-

trefonds ( L e v i ) , etc. The word alaya i s from the Sanskrit verb ~tl~ -

meaning to c l i n g t o , adhere t o , a l i g h t on, or he hidden i n . The nominal

form alaya can mean a fir m or fundamental base, and by extension i s used

to r e f e r to a dwelling or home.

Following an established t r a d i t i o n , Hsiian-tsang and K'uei-chi

rendered alaya-vijnana as t s a n g - s h i h J u s t as often, however,

they, use the t r a n s c r i p t i o n j ^ j w h i c h was introduced by Hsiian-tsang

to replace an older form. The character ^ g y y has two main readings i n 2

Chinese: as a verb (now read ts'ang ) i t means to hide away, to embrace

or bear, to store up and save; as a noun (now read tsang J, i t i s used

to r e f e r to a granary or storehouse, i . e . , the place where something

i s stored up or hidden away.

The eighth vijnana i s . s aid i n the Ch''eng-wei-shih-tun to be

alaya i n three d i f f e r e n t senses: i t i s a c t i v e l y alaya (neng-ts'ang jrt^

i n that i t "stores" the seeds ( b i j a s ) ; i t i s passiv e l y alaya (so-ts'ang

ft\ ^ ^U ^ a t i t i s what i s "perfumed" or permeated by a l l actions per

formed through the process of unconscious conditioning or impression

(vasana); f i n a l l y i t i s alaya i n the sense of being clung to (chih-

ts'a.ng jjj^)) by the seventh vijnana (manas) which mistakes i t for an

enduring s e l f (atman) or ego. K'uei-chi takes the l a s t of these three

senses of alaya to be the most important or basic. The l a t t e r two

correspond to the other two designations for the eighth Vijnana:

sarvabTj:aka and vipaka.

The designation sarvabijaka-vijnana, i . e . , mentation holding

a l l the seeds, r e f e r s to the eighth vijnana i n i t s capacity of being

the cause of a l l events. It retains a l l the seeds, both innate and

acquired, without los s u n t i l they are ready to come to f r u i t i o n i n the

form of some future action. K'uei-chi correlate s the sarvabijaka

aspect of. the eighth vijnana with the active (neng-ts'ang) sense of

alaya.

The t h i r d designation, vipaka-vijnana, i . e . , f r u i t i o n or

r e t r i b u t i o n mentation', r e f e r s to the eighth vijnana i n i t s capacity of

being the e f f e c t of a l l previous actions. As the underlying stream of

mentationj i t i s what has been impregnated or "perfumed" by the seeds of

a l l previous acts....As such, i t i s t h e i r " f r u i t " or e f f e c t . K'uei-chi

correlates the vipaka aspect of the eighth vijfiana with the passive

(so-ts'ang) sense of alaya.

Alaya and Atman

We have seen that the eighth vijnana doctrine of the Yogacarins

was an attempt to deal with the problem of continuity: the persistence

of the i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y and the causal e f f i c a c y of karmic r e t r i -

bution. Both of these aspects of continuit y must be preserved i f there

i s to be any meaning i n r e l i g i o u s c u l t i v a t i o n , i n the quest for

l i b e r a t i o n .

The most ingenious innovation of the Yogacara c o l u t i o n to t h i s

problem has also been the most misunderstood. Beginning with t h e i r

contemporary c r i t i c s within the Buddhist t r a d i t i o n , the charge that has

been r a i s e d against the Yogacarins i s that the alaya-vijnana i s simply

the Upanisadic atman, the immutable S e l f or Soul, i n disguise. While i t

i s f r u i t f u l to consider the influence.of e a r l y Indian c l a s s i c a l

p h i l o s o p h y - — e s p e c i a l l y Sahkhya for example on t h i s Buddhist school,

the suggestion that.theYogacarins abandoned or betrayed the basic Buddhist

doctrine of anatman (no-soul) involves a misunderstanding of the

Yogacara conception of alaya, and of vijnana as w e l l . Moreover, i t

misdirects one's attention away from the r e a l innovation introduced by

the Yogacarins i n t h e i r theory of the eight modes of mental a c t i v i t y .

F i r s t of a l l , with respect to the nature of personal c o n t i n u i t y

throughout one's own l i f e and from one l i f e to the next, the Yogacarins

employed e s s e n t i a l l y ' t h e same argument used by a l l Buddhists to avoid

p o s i t i n g a permanent, immutable substance or soul. The eighth vijnana

i s indeed said to p e r s i s t , but i n a quite p a r t i c u l a r manner: " i t proceeds

on l i k e the current of a r i v e r " (tac ca vartate srotasaughavat) or, i n

the Chinese, equivalent, "perpetually turning l i k e a raging t o r r e n t "

we co n s i d e r - i t the same r i v e r from one moment to the next. Even the

pec u l i a r currents and eddies remain the same or s h i f t only slowly over

a long period of time as the obstructions to the flow are gradually

s h i f t e d about or worn away. So also does p e r s o n a l i t y " p e r s i s t " , but

t h i s i s not to say that there i s some underlying "immutable p e r s i s t e n t " .

The Yogacarins go to some pains to e s t a b l i s h that what " p e r s i s t s " i s

the. stream of momentary events, each a r i s i n g and then p e r i s h i n g to give

way to the next. Thus they po s i t c o n t i n u i t y , but not permanence. I f

the eighth vijnana were permanent i n the sense of immutable there

could be no "perfuming" (vasana), no unconscious, habituation, because

the eighth vijnana could not be a l t e r e d i n any way by the influence of

performed acts. It i t were notcontinuous, on the other hand, causal

connection would be broken, there would be no l i n k between cause and

e f f e c t , between r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e and a t t a i n i n g l i b e r a t i o n .

eighth., vijnana ever e n t i r e l y broken off ? According to the Ch'eng-wei-

shih-Zun} the eighth vijnana, i n some form, continues forever. Certain

The r i v e r flows along., always d i f f e r e n t , and yet

Does.this flow ever cease? Is t h i s substratum a c t i v i t y of the

of i t s functions, however, cease at c e r t a i n stages on the path to en-

lightenment. The alaya function - i . e . , the eighth vijnana as mistaken

by manas to be an enduring s e l f ceases i n those who have become arhats.

The Dharmapala. t r a d i t i o n followed by Hsuan-tsang and K'uei-chi i n t e r p r e t s

t h i s to mean those who have eliminated the obstruction constitute d by the

24

a f f l i c t i o n s (klesavarana). The seeds or traces of the a f f l i c t i o n s are

s t i l l present i n the eighth vijnana of these s a i n t s , i n the vipaka or

f r u i t i o n function, but these seeds no longer come to f r u i t i o n i n any

manifest a c t i v i t y . These saints are thus c a l l e d bodhisattvas who do

not f a l l back (avaivartik a bodhisattvah). Those-, who have thus eliminated

the obstacle of the a f f l i c t i o n s can include the sravaka arhats, the

pratyeka-buddhas and, according to the Dharmapala t r a d i t i o n , bodhisattvas

from the Eighth to Tenth.Lands. Because the a f f l i c t i o n - s e e d s (klesabTja)

p e r s i s t even i n these s a i n t s , the vipaka function of the eighth vijnana

continues.. This i s brought to an end only i n the Tathagata of f u l l y -

r e a l i z e d ' Buddhas, at which point the eighth vijnana i s said to become 25

amala- or vimala-vijnana, pure or immaculate mentation.

The point on which the Yogacarin explanation of i n d i v i d u a l

continuity most s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r s from that of the e a r l i e r Buddhists

i s that with t h e i r conception of the seventh and eighth vijnanas we f i n d

an e x p l i c i t theory of a c t i v e , yet quite unconscious, mentation. This

seems to be the r e a l innovation of Yogacara psychology: a well-developed

theory accounting f o r the persistence i n the unconscious of energy

patterns which have the p o t e n t i a l to a f f e c t future action. This i s the

Yogacara theory of dynamic unconscious motivation.

6 o

The Components of Perception

Another important theory of the Yogacara philosophy of mind that

i s taken up i n K'uei-chi's essay i s the bhaga doctrine, the analysis of

the components (bhaga) of perception. The l a t e r Yogacara s c h o l i a s t s

recognized four variants of t h i s doctrine, each analyzing perception

2 6

into one, two, three, or four components r e s p e c t i v e l y . The Dharmapala

t r a d i t i o n followed by K'uei-chi was the school that posited four components

in a l l : the subjective or noetic component (darsana-bhaga), the objective

or noematic component (nimitta-bhaga), the s e l f - v e r i f y i n g component

(svasamvitti-bhaga) and the v e r i f i e r of the s e l f - v e r i f y i n g component

(samvitti-svasamvitti-bhaga). .

According:to t h i s theory there are, i n the act of perception,

two reciprocal'aspects: the c o n s t i t u t i n g "subject" or noesis and the

constituted "object" or noema. Both of these are components of the

i n t e r n a l act of perception: there i s no question at t h i s l e v e l of

analys i s . o f any "external object." The important point i s the corre-

l a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between the two: each presupposes the i n e v i t a b l e ,

as i t is, a function of the manas a c t i v i t y . I t i s impossible to have

a " s e l f " without having an "other," though the "other" i n t h i s case

i s purely i n t e r n a l or noematic. Im p l i c i t here also i s a notion of the

i n t e n t i o n a l i t y ' o f consciousness: f o r the Yogacarins the object perceived

i s an i n t e n t i o n a l object.

The l a t t e r two components are meant to explain our a b i l i t y to

become i n t u i t i v e l y aware of our mental-activit y at t h i s i n t e n t i o n a l

l e v e l . It i s the more e s s e n t i a l s e l f - v e r i f y i n g or self-witnessing

component that allows us to step back from, the l e v e l of dichotomized

cognition, and i t i s the v e r i f i e r of t h i s s e l f - v e r i f y i n g function that

confirms t h i s .

K'uei-chi discusses the s o t e r i o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s

theory i n h i s section on the f i v e - l e v e l contemplation of V i j n a p t i -

- 27

matrata. It should be noted that the i n f i n i t e regress suggested by

Dharmapala's svasamvittibhaga and samvittirsvasamvitti-bhaga would not

have been acceptable to any Buddhist philosopher. It seems best to

understand h i s samvitti-svasamvitt-bhaga simply as an attempt to i n t r o - .

duce, not a regression, but a r e f l e x i v e loop into the system by which

pre-dichotomized mentation.can become aware of i t s e l f i n t u i t i v e l y .

THE PATH TO ENLIGHTENMENT

Another important d i v i s i o n of Yogacara, doctrine comprised the

various formulations of the stages on the path to enlightenment or

s a n c t i f i c a t i o n . "While more i n the realm of dogmatics than the epistemo-

l o g i c a l and psychological doctrines discussed above, i t was t h i s aspect

of Yogacara that provided the framework f o r a l l r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e .

Given the.basic s o t e r i o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n of Yogacara and having noted

the r o l e of personal^-religious p r a c t i c e i n K'uei-chi's l i f e , i t i s not

su r p r i s i n g to f i n d that a large portion of h i s "Essay on V i j n a p t i -

matrata" i s devoted to the discussion of various s c h o l a s t i c issues

regarding the stages on the path.

The. Five. Stages of S a n c t i f i c a t i o n

The Yogacara formulation of the stages on the path to enlighten-

ment i s a complex system comprising a number of d i f f e r e n t paradigms, many

of which can be found independently of the others i n e a r l i e r Abhidharma

works. Indeed, i t i s here that the Yogacara debt to the older Abhidharma

t r a d i t i o n i s most obvious. K'uei-chi follows a basic system of f i v e

stages (avastha)- on the path, one that i s presented i n some d e t a i l i n

28

the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun. This formula i s based p r i m a r i l y on the

Mahay ana-samgraha of Asanga who systematized a great, deal of e a r l i e r

material found i n the Yogacarabhwni , the Dasabhumika sutra^the Buddha-29

bhumi Sutra, and other works. The f i v e stages presented i n the

Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun. are:

1. The Stage of Provisionin g (sambhar avast ha $ ./f - )

2. The Stage of Preliminary Training (prayogavastha

3. The Stage of Penetration(prativdhehavastha "0 . | ^ /f . )

h. The Stage of C u l t i v a t i o n (bhavanavastha 'j' ^ / / ^ - ^

5. The Ultimate Stage (nisthavastha ^j\X-)

In the Stage of Provisioning the aspirant i s p r i m a r i l y concerned

with developing the q u a l i t i e s favorable to l i b e r a t i o n known as the moksabhagTyas jf jf L^ » a n older Abhidharma category r e f e r r i n g to

30

one's.own l i b e r a t i o n , . but said i n the Yogacara context to r e f e r to

the bodhisattva's e f f o r t s to secure the l i b e r a t i o n ' of other beings. This

stage i s said to l a s t from the f i r s t thought of enlightenment (bodhicitta)

u n t i l one i s equipped with a l l the moskabhagiyas. It i s i n t h i s stage

that the p r a c t i t i o n e r f i r s t confronts the task of c u t t i n g o f f the seed-

p o t e n t i a l i t i e s of the two obstacles, that of the a f f l i c t i o n s and that

barring wisdom.

The Stage of. Preliminary Training i s dominated by the development

of the q u a l i t i e s favorable to.the penetration.of understanding, the

nirvedhabhagiyas )'||| jf^ • These nirvedhabhagTyas comprise

the Four Examinations.(paryesana) and the Four Exact Comprehensions,

two important doctrines that K'uei-chi mentions several times i n his

3 1

"Essay on Vijnaptimatrata." They w i l l "be discussed further below. In

other Yogacara works these f i r s t two stages, since they are both

preparatory, are grouped together as the Land Where One Practices Firm

Resolve (adhimukticaryabhumi).

The next stage, c a l l e d the Stage of Penetration i n the Ch'eng-

we%-sh%h-Vim3 i s also commonly known.as the Path of V i s i o n or Insight

(darsanamarga M y$. ) • Having succeeded i n the Four Examinations and

the Four Exact Comprehensions, the p r a c t i t i o n e r now produces the non-

discriminating cognition • (nirvikalpakajnana t? ^ %'\ ) which i s free

of the subject-object dichotomy.and gives d i r e c t , i n t u i t i v e knowledge

of r e a l i t y . One experiences Thusness at t h i s stage, and a c t u a l l y a l l

that remains to be done i s p r a c t i c e and. further refinement. This stage

i s completed with the thought of the f i r s t of the Ten Bodhisattva Lands.

Next i s the Stage, of P r a c t i c e or C u l t i v a t i o n i n which one * 32

proceeds through, the Ten Bodhisattva Lands (dasabhumi). The newly

acquired nondiscriminating cognition i s employed to destroy the "crude

dross" (dausthulya) of the two obstacles i n preparation for the basic

r e o r i e n t a t i o n (asraya-paravrtti) of p e r s o n a l i t y that constitutes l i b e r a t i o n .

This stage culminates i n the Diamond-like Concentration (vajropamasamadhi)

which marks the ultimate r e a l i z a t i o n .

The. Ultimate Stage i s attained with, the f i n a l elimination of

a l l the seeds of the two obstacles. This i s the pure realm of the

Buddhas in.which, one experiences the various Buddha-bodies.

6k

The Yogacara Conception of Nirvana

Yogacara shares much of the formal structure o u t l i n e d above with

the rest of Mahayana Buddhism. There are. however, several innovations

that were developed e s p e c i a l l y i n the Vijnaptimatrata Yogacara of Asanga

and Vasubandhu. The most important of these i s the notion of dynamic or

unfixed nirvana ( a p r a t i s t h i t a - n i r v a n a ) . The roots of t h i s e x p l i c i t l y

p o s i t i v e formulation of nirvana can be traced back to the Prajflapdram-itd

Sutras, but i t s f i r s t systematic presentation seems to be found i n the

33

Mahdydna-samgraha.

Building on the basic Mahayana doctrine advocating the salvation

of a l l being through the combination of the bodhisattvas wisdom (prajna)

and compassion (karuna), the doctrine of dynamic or unfixed nirvana

presents a cognitive model of enlightenment that attempts to resolve

the dilemma of supra-mundane transcendence versus mundane s a l v i f i c

e f f i c a c y inherent in.the older notion of nirvana. Unlike the Abhidharma

conception of nirupadhLsesa-nirvana ( e x t i n c t i o n without remainder) i n which

the arhat became t o t a l l y removed from the world of discrimination and

s u f f e r i n g , the Yogacara idea of unfixed nirvana allows the f u l l y - r e a l i z e d

bodhisattva to remain a c t i v e . i n the realm of death and r e b i r t h (samsara).

By means of h i s subsequently acquired cognition (prs^tha-labdha jnana)

he i s able to perceive both.the Absolute and the Dependent, allowing him

to work for. the weal of the beings s t i l l trapped i n delusion.

K'UEI-CHI'S CONTRIBUTION .

Before turning to the t r a n s l a t i o n of -K'uei-chi's "Essay on

Vijnaptimatrata" something must be s a i d of K'uei-chi's s p e c i a l c o n t r i -

bution to Yogacara thought. What ro l e d i d he play i n the o v e r a l l h i s t o r y

of Yogacara Buddhism? What ro l e d i d he play i n Chinese Buddhism?

In what way, i f any, did he continue developing the school of thought

he. sought to preserve i n i t s new home? A f i n a l answer to these questions

can hardly be made on the basis of a study of one short work; there are,

however,'several i n d i c a t i o n s of K'uei-chi's contribution evident i n t h i s

essay.

We have seen already the r o l e K'uei-chi played i n introducing

a more comprehensive.transmission of the Vijnaptimatrata Yogacara of

Asanga and Vasubandhu into China, as both t r a n s l a t o r and exegete. Looking

now i n p a r t i c u l a r at h i s work as an e s s a y i s t , i t becomes obvious that he

saw h i s r o l e as that of a s y n c r e t i s t . There are, moreover, two d i s t i n c t

facets to K'uei-chi's. syncretism, one that can be seen as systematic

or taxonomic, and one that i s c l e a r l y more synthetic or c r e a t i v e .

D o c t r i n a l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

The taxonomic facet of K'uei-chi's e f f o r t s i s the most apparent

of the two i n the' "Essay on Vijnaptimatrata." . D o c t r i n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . ,

what the Chinese c a l l e d p'an-chiao jjhj ^f{, i s a s p e c i a l form of exegesis

that had i t s o r i g i n s i n India, but became an even more s a l i e n t feature

of Chinese Buddhism. I t was an attempt to r a t i o n a l i z e i n some systematic

manner a l l the various, and at time seemingly contradictory, teachings

that were put forward as "the word of the Buddha.".

It i s possible to d i s t i n g u i s h two types of d o c t r i n a l a n a l y s i s ,

one more c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the Indian Abhidharma t r a d i t i o n , and one more

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y , though, not e x c l u s i v e l y , Chinese. The former was

the necessary r e s u l t of the d o c t r i n a l i n f l a t i o n or p r o l i f e r a t i o n that

marked the' development of Abhidharma Buddhism i n India. As the

problematic addressed by the l a t e r schools became in c r e a s i n g l y complex,

new solutions were formulated and new models generated. The o l d formulas

and paradigms, venerable even i f outmoded, were never discarded, however:

they were simply accumulated. A great deal of the l a t e r Buddhist

s c h o l i a s t s ' energies was devoted to providing a r a t i o n a l e f or the i n t e r -

r e l a t i o n s h i p of an ever-expanding number of doctrines, even though these

doctrines, for the most p a r t , never o r i g i n a l l y had any p a r t i c u l a r

i n t e g r a l or genetic relationship., having simply been d i f f e r e n t but

p a r a l l e l responses to the same questions.

Another form of d o c t r i n a l a n a l y s i s , one which i n fact i s simply

an extension of the f i r s t , sought to construct a hierarchy of the various

Buddhist schools, usuall y based on some p e r i o d i z a t i o n of the Buddha's

teaching career. Again the attempt i s to r e c o n c i le apparently d i v e r -

gent p o s i t i o n s , but now on a broader scale, usually with the i n t e n t i o n

of proving the s u p e r i o r i t y of one p a r t i c u l a r school over the others

while s t i l l incorporating a l l . the schools into a developmental schema:

i . e . , "Our school represents the ultimate doctrine.of the Buddha ex-

pressed i n terms of the absolute t r u t h , while the other schools are

p r o v i s i o n a l teaching leading eventually up to ours." This i s the form

of d o c t r i n a l analysis that i s usuall y meant by p'an-chiao i n China.

The m u l t i - l e v e l systems of the T ' i e n - t ' a i ^ a n d Hua-yen

34

schools are the most prominent examples.

Of these two types of d o c t r i n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n K'uei-chi was

c l e a r l y more occupied with the former. This very l i k e l y r e f l e c t s the

fact that h i s t r a i n i n g i n Buddhism and h i s s t y l e of scholarship were

influenced more by t r a d i t i o n a l Indian models than by those of the

current Chinese schools. His d o c t r i n a l analysis c e r t a i n l y shows a

sharp contrast to that of his s l i g h t l y e a r l i e r counterparts Chih-i

^ ]jj (538-597) of the T ' i e n - t * a i school, and Fa-shun j/fcj/fy (557-640) and C h i h - y e n ^ (602-668) of the Hua-yen school.

There are a number of examples of t h i s f i r s t type of d o c t r i n a l

analysis i n K'uei-chi's "Essay on Vijnaptimatrata," v i r t u a l l y a l l of

them r a t i o n a l i z i n g , various Yogacara doctrines. Intjl.3.2 f o r example,

he lays out a f i v e - f o l d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the d i f f e r e n t ways i n which

Vijnaptimatrata i s taught i n the scriptures (sutra) and t r e a t i s e s

(sastra). £ln 2.2 he explains why the sutras teach Cittamatrata whereas

the sastras teach Vijnaptimatrata. In ^6.1 he discusses the d i f f e r e n ce

between the four-stage path of the Mahdydna-samgraha and the f i v e -

stage path.that i s found i n both the Mahdydna-samgraha and the Ch'eng-

wei-shih-Xiai. These, are a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c examples of K'uei-chi's

st y l e of d o c t r i n a l a n a l y s i s , the f i r s t or taxonomic, facet of h i s

syncretism.

The F i v e - l e v e l Contemplation of Vijnaptimatrata

The second, or more c r e a t i v e , facet of K'uei-chi's syncretism

i s seen most c l e a r l y i n his formulation of the F i v e - l e v e l Contemplation

of Vijnaptimatrata presented i n t j l . 1.1-5 of the'essay t r a n s l a t e d here.

This type of syncretism d i f f e r s from the d o c t r i n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

discussed above i n that here we f i n d an o r i g i n a l attempt to summarize

the s o t e r i o l o g i c a l process that l i e s at the core of Vijnaptimatrata

Yogacara. K'uei-chi. i s doing something more that simply r e c o n c i l i n g

doctrines that were already current: with the new doctrine of the

F i v e - l e v e l Contemplation he i s attempting t o syntheeize the whole system

into one.comprehensive and e a s i l y understandable paradigm.

This doctrine represents K'uei-chi's most o r i g i n a l contribution

both to Yogacara Buddhism" i n general and'to Chinese Buddhism as w e l l .

It provides a model for'the progressive r e a l i z a t i o n of the fundamental

p r i n c i p l e of Mere Conceptualization (Vijnaptimatrata), a model o u t l i n i n g

the successive l e v e l s by which one gains an understanding of delusion

and experiences the enlightenment that constitutes nirvana. I t

incorporates the c r i t i c a l epistemology and psychology of a number of

basic Yogacara doctrines, the eight modes of mental a c t i v i t y , the three

aspects of existence.'or own-being, the emptiness, of the s e l f and the

dharmas, the analysis of the perceptual components., combining a l l of

these i n a manner that c l a r i f i e s how thei r , a p p l i c a t i o n leads, step by

step, to the ultimate experience of Thusness and l i b e r a t i o n . It i s i n

t h i s o r i g i n a l doctrine that we see most c l e a r l y K'uei-chi's own personal

combination of Buddhist philosophy and soteriology.

PART TWO:

TRANSLATION OF

"THE ESSAY ON VIJNAPTIMATRATA"

Chapter IV

INTRODUCTION TO THE TRANSLATION

K'uei-chi's "Essay on Vijnaptimatrata" i s the t h i r d of 29

chapters i n h i s rather long d o c t r i n a l compendium, the Ta-sheng fa-

yuan i-Zin chang (no. 26).. The rest of t h i s work includes, among

others, essays on the d o c t r i n a l h i s t o r y of the early Indian schools, •

on the various c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of vehicles (yana), on the sixty-two

f a l s e views ( d r s t i ) , the eight deliverances, the three jewels (Buddha-

Dharma-Sahgha), and on the Buddha lands. No precise date i s given, for

the compilation of the work, though i t i s l i k e l y to be r e l a t i v e l y l a t e

as K'uei-chi c i t e s several of h i s e a r l i e r works i n the t e x t . It i s

possible that at l e a s t some, of the chapters were written as independent

essays, or at l e a s t c i r c u l a t e d as such. This i s suggested by the fact

that i n addition to the commentaries to the work as a whole, one also

finds commentaries written on several of the i n d i v i d u a l essays or

chapters. The "Essay on Vijnaptimatrata" seems to have been one of the

most popular of the essays judging from the commentaries.

The Commentaries

The catalog section of the Taisho l i s t s a t o t a l of 59 commen-

t a r i e s that t r e a t a l l or parts. of K'uei-chi's compendium."'" Of these,

11 are a v a i l a b l e i n p r i n t e d e d i t i o n s , 34 survive i n manuscript, and

the remaining 14 have been l o s t . . Of the surviving commentaries

that treat the compendium as a whole, the most important are:

1 . Ta-eheng fa-yuan i-lin ehang pu-eh'ueh

3 surviving scrolls, Z:2/3/1. Composed by Hui-chao j||Jj (?-714), second patriarch of the Fa-hsiang school

after K'uei-chi.

2 . Ta-sheng fa-yuan i-lin ehang ehueh-tse-chi

4 scrolls, Z: 2 / 3 / 1 . Composed by Chih-chou \%

( 6 7 8 - 7 3 3 ) , third patriarch of the Fa-hsiang school

after K'uei-chi.

3 . Da-igohoongivinjd shishikusho

22 scrolls, T: 2323, LXXI.473-887. Composed by the

Tokugawa Japanese monk Kiben ( 1 7 1 8 - 1 7 9 1 ) in 1 7 8 7 .

Among these three, nos. 2 and 3 have sections commenting on the "Essay

on Vijnaptimatrata," while the corresponding section of no. 2 has been

lost. Kiben's commentary is important because he cites, c r i t i c a l l y , a

number of. other commentaries that are available only in manuscript

or that have been lost.

1 There.are also several commentaries on the "Essay on Vijnapti-

matrata" alone:

4. -Yuishikisho sh-Lki

12 scrolls, T: 2319, LXXI.298-4l8. Composed by the

Fujiwara monk Shin go j j j f js]|jf (931 -1004) . .

72

5. Ta-sheng fa-yuan i-lin wei-shih-chang chiang-lu

Written by the Chinese Buddhist Abbot T'ai-hsu. y£\ w h _

(1890-1947); pp. 938-1089 of his c o l l e c t e d works,

the T'ai-hsu Ta-shih chuan-shu (see bibliography).

6. Fa-yuan i-lin chang wei-shih-chang chu

Written by Mei Kuang-hsi / j s J ^ ^ L i ^ ' » o r i g i n a l l y

published i n 1923 and reprinte d by the Hsin-wen-feng

c h ' u - p a n | ( j ^ ^ J ^!| J j j j , Taiwan, 1973.

Shingo's , commentary i s e x c e l l e n t , providing much information on the

sources of the doctrines K'uei-chi mentions i n his t e x t . The l a t t e r

two works are i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h e i r own rig h t as examples of the thought

i n s p i r e d by the r e v i v a l of Buddhist philosophy i n the - e a r l y part of the

20th century. T'ai-hsu's commentary shows a good deal of o r i g i n a l i t y

whereas that of Mei follows the Japanese works very c l o s e l y .

In preparing the present t r a n s l a t i o n , I made use of these s i x

commentaries r e l y i n g e s p e c i a l l y on nos. 3 and k. No. 2 i s the most

authori t a t i v e but, unfortunately, i t i s very short and often more obscure

than K'uei-chi's o r i g i n a l t e x t . I also consulted the Japanese t r a n s -

l a t i o n s of the text i n the Kokuyaku issaiky o — * JQ\

(KI: XLV.Ul-53) and the Kokuyaku daizokyo ^ ^^^\ j^fcfy&S™' X L I 1 ' 56 -80 ) ,

Methodological Considerations

There are several d i f f e r e n t problems that must be overcome i n

the t r a n s l a t i o n of any of K'uei-chi's works, problems that can be

e s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t i n the case of h i s essays where, in,contrast to

the commentaries, one does not.have a base text providing the theme and

structure. A l l of K'uei-chi's works were, moreover, written f o r an

audience having a more thorough knowledge of the Indian Buddhist t r a d i t i o n

and the Yogacara l i t e r a t u r e i n p a r t i c u l a r than, i s current today. Many

doctrines of which he assumes a knowledge can, however, be tracked down

i n one of several basic works: i n the Abhidharmakosa, a HTnayana

Abhidharma work, the Mahdydna-samgraha, the most systematic introduction

to Asanga's thought, or the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun, the synthetic e d i t i o n

of the Indian commentaries to Vasubandhu's Thirty Verses (Trimsika)

discussed above.

The Kos"a survives i n Sanskrit as well as Chinese and Tibetan,

the Mahdydna-samgraha, i n Chinese and Tibetan only, and the Ch'eng-

wei-shih-tun -is only i n .Chinese.Fortunately we have from Louis de

La Vallee-Poussin and Etienne Lamotte excellent annotated t r a n s l a t i o n s

2

i n French of a l l three of these works. For the present study reference

has also been made, to the Mahdydna-samgraha commentaries of Asvabhava.

and Vasubandhu, which survive i n Chinese and Tibetan and are excerpted'

i n Lamotte's: Samgraha t r a n s l a t i o n .

The t r a n s l a t i o n of Buddhist p h i l o s o p h i c a l t r e a t i s e s from

L i t e r a r y Chinese poses, a number of p h i l o l o g i c a l problems as w e l l . The

Chinese Buddhist exegetes had, by K'uei-chi's time, developed a number

of s t y l i s t i c conventions p e c u l i a r to "Buddhist Chinese." Many of

these r e f l e c t the s p e c i a l demands of t r a n s l a t i n g from Sanskrit, a highly

i n f l e c t e d language given to hypotactic construction., to Chinese which i s

uninfl e c t e d and, r e l a t i v e l y , . f r e e of hypotaxis. An example can be

seen in. the construction very frequently encountered i n the Chinese of

Hsuan-tsang and K'uei-chi where a declarative proposition i s followed

by one or more clauses providing the reason or j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r the

assertion. Each.of these "because. . ." clauses i s marked by the

function word ku i^H^ (therefore, thus) coming at the end of the clause.

In an unpunctuated t e x t , and even more i n a poorly punctuated t e x t , t h i s

can very e a s i l y lead to confusion, since one normally expects j j j^ to

stand at the beginning of a "therefore. . ." clause. There are many

examples of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r construction i n the text t r a n s l a t e d here,

and several instances where the punctuation i n d i c a t e d i n the Taisho

e d i t i o n of-the .text i s very questionable.

Another set of problems, often far more perplexing, arise s when

one encounters the Chinese equivalents of Buddhist t e c h n i c a l terms.

This i s of s p e c i a l concern when working with the writings of Hsuan-

tsang and K'uei-chi. Their t r a n s l a t i o n s are generally considered t o

be the most t e c h n i c a l l y accurate of a l l of those done i n China. Hsuan-

tsang d i d not h e s i t a t e , i n most cases, to revise older equivalents.

Constantly s t r i v i n g f or consistency and p h i l o l o g i c a l p r e c i s i o n , the

often chose p a i n f u l l y l i t e r a l equivalents for t e c h n i c a l terms, a feature

of h i s s t y l e that makes i t seem p e c u l i a r to the Chinese reader who i s

well-educated, but. unfamiliar with Buddhist doctrine and terminology.

Consider, for example, his rendering of the Sanskrit vipaka ( f r u i t i o n )

as i n the f r u i t i o n or r e t r i b u t i o n aspect (vipaka-vijnana) of the eighth

mode of mental a c t i v i t y . d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter I I I above: i-shu

(lit..:- ' d i f f e r e n t - r i p e n i n g ' ; contrast Paramartha's kuo-pao ) ^ '•

' f r u i t - r e t r i b u t i o n ' ) . Hsuan-tsang's-equivalent, i n t h i s case, i s

etymologically precise to the point of being quite misleading. From

the Chinese alone, one has no way of knowing that the i . ( ' d i f f e r e n t ' )

of i-shu simply renders the vi- of vipaka, the same p r e f i x mentioned

above i n the discussion of vijnana. In This case, the Chinese i

i s probably not meant to s i g n i f i c a n t l y q u a l i f y or r e s t r i c t the meaning

of shu though, when.working only from a Chinese t e x t , one might

well expect that i t did. A c e r t a i n amount of t h i s p e c u l i a r i t y i s a

feature of a l l Buddhist w r i t i n g i n Chinese.- One does, however, f i n d i t

much more often i n the Chinese of Hsuan-tsang and K'uei-chi than i n that

of KumarajTva whose t r a n s l a t i o n s are f r e e r and consequently seem more

"Chinese."

This, excessive l i t e r a l n e s s , i n both syntax and d i c t i o n , can

work i n two d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s . When one i s unfamiliar with a given

expression, i t may seem quite opaque i n the Chinese or, what i s worse,

i t may seem to mean something quite d i f f e r e n t from the Sanskrit t e c h n i c a l

term i t renders. On the other hand., once one acquires the necessary

f a m i l i a r i t y with.the terminology, t h i s p e c u l i a r i t y begins to work as

an advantage, e s p e c i a l l y given the meticulous conistence i n the writing.:

of these two monks. To acquire that familiarity,.-,especially when dealing

with r e l a t i v e l y obscure. Abhidharma doctrines, can however s t i l l be a

formidable task.

This i s just.as true when working with K'uei-chi's essays, as

when reading a work that has been t r a n s l a t e d from Sanskrit into Chinese.

Even: though.the. essays were o r i g i n a l l y composed i n Chinese, they s t i l l ,

because of t h e i r t e c h n i c a l nature, employ a l l the s t y l i s t i c conventions

and terminology of the t r a n s l a t i o n s . While i t i s u n l i k e l y that K'uei-

chi: went so f a r as to.compose his essays i n Sanskrit and then t r a n s l a t e

them into Chinese, i t i s nevertheless often h e l p f u l to reconstruct the

hypothetical Sanskrit patterns and terms that l i e behind h i s thought.

76

Fortunately, t h i s task has been made somewhat easier by several

research aids that have become available only r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t l y , aids

that were indispensable to the present study and t r a n s l a t i o n . While

the t r a n s l a t i o n s of La-Vallee-Poussin and Lamotte done i n the f i r s t h a l f

of t h i s century provide a great deal of assistance i n recognizing the

Chinese equivalents of Sanskrit t e c h n i c a l terms, many of the equivalents

they give are hypothetical reconstructions from texts that survive only

i n Chinese and Tibetan. The p o s s i b i l i t y of being mislead i s always

present: a prime example i s La Vallee-Poussin's i n i t i a l reconstruction

of *bhuta-tathata for the key term chen-ju ^ ^ g i n the Ch'eng-wei-shih-

Vun, a reconstruction that he himself subsequently r e a l i z e d was not borne

out by. the surviving Sanskrit of the Madhydnta-vibhdga where chen-ju

i s shown to be Hsiian-tsang's standard equivalent for the more basic

Yogacara term tathata (Thusness).

The p u b l i c a t i o n of modern c r i t i c a l editions of the works l i k e

the• Madhydnta-vibhdga that do survive i n Sanskrit as well as Chinese and

Tibetan has made our task easier than that faced by La Vallee-Poussin.

We now have Sanskrit editions of most of the basic Yogacara works:

the Mahdyana-sutrdlahkara, the Vimsatikd3and Tvimsika with commentaries,

the Lahkdvatava3 the Abhidharma-samucoaya3 and also portions of

the e a r l i e r Yogdcdrabhurni.. We also now have the Sanskrit version of the

Abhidharmakosa from a manuscript that was not a v a i l a b l e to La V a l l e e -

Poussin when he undertook his t r a n s l a t i o n of that work from the Chinese.

Even more helpful, than these, c r i t i c a l editions are a number

of recent b i - and t r i - l i n g u a l g lossaries and indices to the most important

Yogacara works surviving i n Sanskrit. Most h e l p f u l for the present

t r a n s l a t i o n were NAGAO Gadjin's indices to. the .Mad.hy~mta-V-ibha.ga and the

Mahayana-sutralahkara, HIRAKAWA . A k i r a 1 s index to the Abhidharma-kosa,

k

and SUZUKI Daisetsu's index to the Lofika.vata.Ta. These books provide

a separate, index f o r each of the languages, Sanskrit, Chinese and

Tibetan, with cross-references to the other languages and page references

to various editions of the text. This makes i t much easier to determine

i f a given Chinese expression was used as an equivalent for some Sanskrit

term, and i n many cases allows comparison of the equivalent used by

d i f f e r e n t Chinese t r a n s l a t o r s and by.the Tibetans as w e l l . The f i r s t and

t h i r d of the above l i s t are e s p e c i a l l y usefu l i n working on K'uei-chi's

writings because they are both works t r a n s l a t e d by Hsuan-tsang, one a

Yogacara t r e a t i s e and the other an Abhidharma compendium.

By using these indices along with the e a r l i e r reconstructions

of La • Vallee-Poussin andLamotte, I have been able to provide a s i g n i -

f i c a n t number of Sanskrit equivalents for the t e c h n i c a l terms i n

•K'uei-chi's. essay. This might seem l e s s necessary i n the case of a

text that was not o r i g i n a l l y t r a n s l a t e d from Sanskrit; however, i t i s

warranted i n l i g h t of the s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of K'uei-chi's essay

st y l e that were ou t l i n ed above. There were also other considerations.

English, equivalents'for Yogacara terms e s p e c i a l l y , have only just begun

to be worked out and there i s some controversy over the best rendering

for many important...concepts. I have provided the Sanskrit were possible

to avoid ambiguity, e s p e c i a l l y for those who may be f a m i l i a r with

Yogacara from Sanskrit and Tibetan sources rather, than from Chinese.

The Sanskrit equivalents.also serve t o . a l e r t the reader of the Chinese

text .that there may be special, considerations when rendering a given

http://Mad.hy~mta-V-ibha.ga

http://Lofika.vata.Ta

Chinese expression into English. As a general methodological p r i n c i p l e ,

my English t r a n s l a t i o n i s based' on the meaning of the o r i g i n a l Sanskrit

t e c h n i c a l term (where i t i s known) rather than on the Chinese equivalent

In most instances there i s no noticeable discrepancy, but i n some the

case, of i-shu discussed above, f or example the English does not always

come d i r e c t l y or l i t e r a l l y from the Chinese. In these cases the Sanskrit

i s always provided on the f i r s t occurrence and again l a t e r i f the term

i s taken up i n a d i f f e r e n t context.

Chapter V

K'UEI-CHI'S "ESSAY ON VIJNAPTI-MATRATA"1

[Preface!

In o u t l i n e , t h i s essay on the Vijnapti-matrata doctrine

i s a c r i t i c a l explanation i n ten sections: 1. Exposition of the

Substance; 2. C r i t i c a l Analysis of the Term; 3. Explanation of the

D i s t i n c t i o n s and the Unity; k. Which Mode of Mentation Performs the

Contemplation?; 5. C l a r i f y i n g what Distinguishes the Classes;

6. The Stages of C u l t i v a t i n g R e a l i z a t i o n ; 7- Of What Nature i s the

Dharma 'Contemplation'?; 8. The Stations and the Base of A r i s i n g ;

9. Severing the Obstacles and Defilements; 10. Turning to and

Embracing the Two Emptinesses. (258bl8)

Section One:

Exposition of the Substance

There are two v a r i e t i e s of t h i s substance: the substance of

that which i s contemplated^^ [ i . e . , the objective aspect of

Vijnaptimatrata] and the substance of the contemplator

[ i . e . , the subjective aspect of Vijnaptimatrata].

1.1 The Objective Aspect of Vijnaptimatrata

The objective aspect of Vijnaptimatrata takes a l l dharmas as

i t . e s s e n t i a ! s t a n c e % .3 _ s e notn e x i s t s ana non-

k

e x i s t i n g dharmas are contemplated as being nothing but conceptualiza-

t i o n (vijnapti-matra). There are i n o u t l i n e f i v e l e v e l s [of contem-

p l a t i n g a l l dharmas as vijnapti-matraD. (258b20) 1.1.1 F i r s t Level: Banishing the False Preserving

the Real

The f i r s t l e v e l i s the [contemplation of 1 Vijnapti[-matratal]^

i n which one banishes the f a l s e ^ and preserves the r e a l ^ s t 4 * f -One contemplates the fact that the Imaginary ( p a r i k a l p i t a ) a r i s e s from

what i s e x c l u s i v e l y unreal (abhuta-matra) and i s completely without

substance function |zl . One should properly banish what

i s thus empty (sunya), because i t e x i s t s only i n one's [deluded!

f e e l i n g s $ and not as a matter of absolute r e a l i t y j £ . 8 One then

contemplates the fact that the Dependent (paratantra) and the Absolute

(parinispanna) are the substance and the r e a l i t y of a l l dharmas and

are the realm of the Two Wisdoms. One should properly preserve what

thus e x i s t s , because they do exist as absolute r e a l i t y , even though

they CseemU not to e x i s t from the perspective of one's [deluded!!

f e e l i n g s .

A p a i r of v e r s e s 1 ^ by Asanga says:

The [ r e l a t i o n s h i p ] between name and t h i n g

i s adventitious

Their nature should be CthusH examined.

With regard to t h e i r dual a s p e c t j 1 1 one

must also deduce that

There i s nothing but conceptualization, nothing

but conventional designation.

With the Exact Comprehensions one sees

there i s no 'object' (artha),

That there i s nothing but discriminatio n

into three.

The object does not e x i s t , and so the

three do not exi s t e i t h e r ;

To r e a l i z e t h i s i s to enter into the 13

Three Natures.

[Glossing the term 'Vijnaptimatrata'Ii, the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun says:

The word vijrlccpti expresses c o l l e c t i v e l y [the various

categories of mental a c t i v i t y common, to a l l sentie,nt beings:

namely, the eight modes of mentation (vijnana), the s i x

classes of mental c o e f f i c i e n t s ( c a i t t a ) , the development1^

of mentation into an objective component (nimitta-bhaga)

and a subjective component (darsana-bhaga), the

modality d i s t i n c t i o n s 1 ^ , and the Thusness ( t a t h a t a ) 1 ^

that i s made evident by the p r i n c i p l e of t h e i r

emptiness. Cit expresses the eight vijnanas,! because

they are the e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (svalaksana)

of a l l mentation (vijnana); [the mental c o e f f i c i e n t s , !

because they are associated with mentation; [the

objective and subjective components,! because they are

the developments of the above two; [the d i s t i n c t i o n s , !

because they are modalities of the above three; [and

Thusness,! because i t i s the R e a l i t y ^ | (bhutata?)

of the above four. Thus a l l dharmas: are inseparable

from mentation and are c o l l e c t i v e l y defined by the

term ' v i j n a p t i ' .

The word mdtvatd i s meant simply to deny the

notion clung to by fools that there are some t r u l y e x i s t i n g

external forms or matter, etc., separate from our

mentation. 1^

There are many passages l i k e these that v e r i f y [the doctrine of ' •

"banishing the f a l s e and preserving the r e a l " ! . (258c4)

People have always, without any beginning, clung to the notion

of s e l f (atman) and dharmas as e x i s t i n g , while dismissing r e l a t i v e f a c t s

jfe- and the abstract universal as empty. Therefore, i n t h i s

[ f i r s t l e v e l ! of contemplation, the "banishing" i s the contemplation

of the emptiness Cof the Imaginary], as i t counteracts and destroys

our c l i n g i n g to what [seems to] e x i s t ; whereas, the "preserving" i s

the contemplation of the existence [of the Dependent and the Absolute],

as i t counteracts and expels our c l i n g i n g to what [seems to] be empty.

83

Thus we now contemplate the emptiness Cof what seemed to e x i s t ]

and the existence Cof what seemed empty] '^"^j » while

banishing the alleged existence Cof what only seems to e x i s t ] and the

alleged emptiness Cof what only seems to be empty] ^ * '

However, i f there i s no existence Cof what we formerly thought to

e x i s t ] and no emptiness Cof what we formerly thought to be empty]

• "j f ^ ^ St, then, so a l s o , i s there no emptiness Cof what we

formerly thought to e x i s t ] and no existence Cof what we formerly

thought to be empty] By taking a l l these assertions

of 'emptiness' and 'existence' as mutually dependent, the contemplation

i s brought to completion. Of what emptiness, a f t e r a l l , can there be

any 'pure existence'; and,.of what existence, any 'pure emptiness'?

Therefore, a l l .those who wish to enter the true dharma-hood

(dharmata) that i s cut o f f from words, must enter by r e l y i n g on t h i s

20

device Cof contemplating what seems to exist as empty and what seems

to be empty as e x i s t i n g ] . This does, not mean, however, that i n every

case 'existence' and 'emptiness' are f i x e d as such Ci.e., r e i f i e d ] .

_ 21

At the stage where one r e a l i z e s (saksatkaroti) the contemplation

of R e a l i t y , there i s neither 'existence' nor 'emptiness'. There i s no

discrimination of dharmas because t h e i r ultimate nature i s cut o f f from

words.

When i t i s stated Cas for example i n the PrajhTiparamita Su.tra.sl

that i t is. necessary to contemplate everything as empty, for only then can

one experience (saksatkaroti) R e a l i t y , t h i s means that i t i s necessary

to.take as one's i n i t i a l entrance the view that the Imaginary i s empty.

http://Su.tra.sl

84

One. i s thereby able to enter into R e a l i t y . [Thus, while one does

indeed take the view of emptiness], the substance of R e a l i t y i t s e l f

22 • i s not emptiness. .We have seen that the expression • 'Vijnaptimatrata'

denies what i s f a l s e l y clung to. That being the case, i f one c l i n g s

to the notion that there t r u l y e x i s t s some 'only-ness' of a l l v i j n a p t i ,

then since t h i s too i s something clung to i t must be rejected as

w e l l .

This i s the l e v e l of [the contemplation] of the objective

aspect of Vijnaptimatrata that constitutes the i n i t i a l entrance [to

the d o c t r i n e ] . At every stage along the path, one should deliberate

on i t and c u l t i v a t e i t s r e a l i z a t i o n . (258cl4)

1.1.2 Second Level: Relinquishing the Superfluous

Retaining the Pure

23

The second l e v e l i s [the contemplation of] V i jnaptil-matrata]

i n which one relinquishes the superfluous and retains the pure

$0-^1 n*$L' Although we have taken the view that r e l a t i v e p a r t i c u l a r s

[ i . e . , the paratantra] and the absolute u n i v e r s a l [ i . e . , the

parinispanna] do not exist apart from mentation (vijnana), i t i s

nevertheless the case that t h i s i n t e r n a l vijnana has both an objective

f i e l d [ i . e . , the nimitta-bhaga] and subjective thought ( c i t t a ) [ i . e . ,

the darsana-bhaga]. This i s so, because as soon as thought a r i s e s , i t 24 25

i s deposited i n the i n t e r n a l objective f i e l d [as a seed] and i s

then born..[Even so,] i t i s only representation ( v i j n a p t i ) that i s

said to be '-only' (-matra); we do not say ' o b j e c t i v e - f i e l d - o n l y '

(visaya-matra * ^ ^ ) , [ i . e . , that a l l dharmas are only of the objective _, 26

f i e l d ] .

The Oieng-wei-shih-lun says:

Vijnana exists only i n t e r n a l l y , whereas the

objective f i e l d also pervades the external.

Fearing t h i s • o v e r f l o w i n t o the external, we

only say 'vi j n a p t i - o n l y ' [and never say

'visaya-only *]

The f o o l i s h deludedly c l i n g to the objective

field.-Performing d e f i l e d deeds (klistakarniani)

they-are submerged i n the cycle of death.and

r e b i r t h (samsara). They do not know to contemplate

the mind and d i l i g e n t l y t o seek escape [from t h i s

c y c l e ] . Out of compassion for them,[the Buddha]

declared t h i s expression, ' v i j n a p t i - o n l y ' ,

thereby causing them to contemplate their.thought

and f i n d l i b e r a t i o n from the cycle of death and

r e b i r t h . This does not mean that the i n t e r n a l

objective f i e l d [ i . e . , the nimitta-bhaga] i s , 2 7

l i k e the external, t o t a l l y m e x i s t e n t .

Because the objective f i e l d [ i . e . , the nimitta-bhaga] has t h i s super-

fluous overflow 3^^_Cinto seeming e x t e r n a l i t y ] , i t i s relinquished and

not designated '-only' (-matra). Because the substance of thought

[ i . e . , the darsaha-bhaga] i s pure, i t i s retained and declared to be

'vijnap t i - o n l y ' .

The Ghanavyuha Sutra says:

The objects of c i t t a ,

[ i . e . , of a l l men1

Are not separate from

manas and vijKana

,al a c t i v i t y ] "

t h e i r own-being (svabhava);

Therefore I declare that, i n every way

29 There i s only vijnana and nothing e l s e .

The Avatamsaka, Sutra and other works say, "The three realms

are nothing "but thought (citta-matra). The I-ohiao Ching j j j^

says, "Therefore a l l of you must c a r e f u l l y regulate and focus your

thought; i f i t i s regulated and focused on one point, there w i l l "be no

31

matter which i s not distinguished." These passages are a l l included

i n t h i s entrance (pravesa), [the second l e v e l of the contemplation of

the Vijnaptimatrata of a l l dharmasH. (258c26)

1.1.3 Third Level: Gathering i n the Branches

Returning to the Root

- • - 32

The t h i r d l e v e l i s [the contemplation of3 Vijnapti[-matrataH

i n which one gathers i n the b ranches 3 3 and returns to the root ..

Jp jj . The objective f i e l d , which i s what i s apprehensor (grahya)

within thought, i s manifestly evident; and, so a l s o , are the operations

(kriya JJ )of thought, which i s the i n t e r n a l apprehender (grahaka).

This subjective portion (darsana-bhaga) and objective portion (nimitta-

bhaga) both exist i n dependence on mentation (vijnana). This i s so,

because, i f separated from the substantia l r o o t 3 ^ ^ ^ o f mentation,

the branch-dharmas » ^ absolutely cannot e x i s t .

The Trimsikd says:

The notions of a s e l f (atman) and t r u l y e x i s t i n g

dharmas, which a r i s e i n p r o v i s i o n a l discourse

87

Have a v a r i e t y of d i f f e r e n t permutations;

A l l of which, depend on developments of mentation;

What develops into them are only three:

35

The Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun states, "'Development' ( p a r i n a m a ^ ^ ) means that

the substance of mentation turns into what appears to be the

two components. This i s so, because, both the objective component

(nimitta-bhaga) and the subjective component (darsana-bhaga) a r i s e i n

36 dependence on the s e l f - v e r i f y i n g component (svasamvitti-bhaga)."

The Sandhi-nirmoeana Sutra states, " A l l the objects (alambana jff jjHJO 37

of mentation (vijnana) are merely manifestations of mentation.'

One gathers i n the objective and subjective components, which

have branched out, and returns to t h e i r root, v i z . , mentation. Therefore,

t h i s entrance (pravesa) [ i . e . , the t h i r d l e v e l of the contemplation of

the Vijnaptimatrata of a l l dharmasH encompasses- the contemplation of

what i s declared to be the absolute universal and r e l a t i v e p a r t i c u l a r s ,

or the absolute (paramartha ^ ) and the conventional ( s a m v r t i ^ ^ ) ,

etc. (259a4)

1.1.4 Fourth Level: Suppressing the I n f e r i o r

Manifesting the Superior

38

The fourth l e v e l i s [the contemplation of1 Vijnapti[-matrataH

i n which one suppresses the i n f e r i o r -and manifests the superior

'-•fli? • Both thought (citta)- and the mental c o e f f i c i e n t s

(caitta). are capable of developing and becoming manifest. Even so, we

only say 'thought-only' ( c i t t a - m a t r a A ^ * ) and not 'mental-

c o e f f i c i e n t s - o n l y ' (caitta-matra^fe ' V C , ' jf{[ ). The substantial

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of thought, the king, i s i t s supremacy (pradhanya

j | p ; whereas, the mental c o e f f i c i e n t s are subordinate and depend

on t h e i r superior to be born. At t h i s l e v e l we suppress what i s

subordinate and do not display i t , thus manifesting only the superior

dharma, [thought !.

Therefore, the Commpassionate and Honored One [ i . e . , Maitreya!

declared:

It i s granted that thought manifests i t s e l f

i n what appears as a d u a l i t y ;

/ - \ 39 Just so, i t may appear as greed (.ragaj, etc.;

Or, a l t e r n a t i v e l y , i t may appear as f a i t h

(sraddha) , etc.;^°

Nevertheless, there are no d i s t i n c t l y d e f i l e d or whole-

some dharmas [separate from thought ( c i t t a ) ! . ^ "

While the e s s e n t i a l substance $ ' ' f j ^ o f "thought ( c i t t a ) ^ 2 i s able

to develop, manifesting i t s e l f i n what appears as the d u a l i t y of the

subjective and objective components, i t i s s t i l l the case that the

substance of the mental c o e f f i c i e n t s greed, f a i t h , etc. also are

each able to develop, manifesting themselves i n what appears as t h e i r

own subjective and objective components. Because thought i s superior

however, the verse says [only! that thought appears as the two.

Because the mental c o e f f i c i e n t s are subordinate, they are suppressed,

and the verse says nothing about them. This does not mean, however,

that they are incapable of appearing as the two.

The Vimaldk'rti says, "Through the defilement of thought,

beings are d e f i l e d . Through p u r i t y of thought, beings are p u r i f i e d . " ^ 3

This and other such passages are included i n t h i s entrance (pravesa),

[the fourth l e v e l of contemplating the Vijnaptimatrata of a l l

dharmasD.(259al2)

1.1.5 F i f t h Level: Banishing the Marks and

Rea l i z i n g the True Nature

_ hh

The f i f t h l e v e l i s Cthe contemplation ofH VijnaptiC-matrataD

i n which one banishes the char a c t e r i z i n g marks (laksana) and

r e a l i z e s the true nature (dharmata' ?)4^ " f f ^ S i *|^. • ^ n w n a t i s

expressed by the word ' v i j n a p t i ' , there are both an abstract u n i v e r s a l

and r e l a t i v e p a r t i c u l a r s . The r e l a t i v e p a r t i c u l a r s are the

marks jjfQ or functions |£j which one should banish and not grasp. The

abstract un i v e r s a l i s the true nature *J^-or substance which one

should seek to r e a l i z e .

The SrZmala Sutra declares, "the thought ( c i t t a ) that i s cl e a r

and pure by nature Q >^'V^' . " ^ A verse from the Mahayana-

samgvaha says:

From a rope a r i s e s the notion of a snake,

But on seeing the rope, one discerns that i n the 1+6

l i g h t of reason there i s no snake,

And, when one v e r i f i e s the constituent parts of

the rope i t s e l f ,

90

One knows that i t , l i k e the perception of the hi

snake, i s a delusion.

What i s stated here i s that when we give r i s e to the notion

of the rope (rajjubuddhi), we have banished the notion of a snake

(sarpabuddhi): This i s a metaphorical representation of how one

banishes Imaginary ( p a r i k a l p i t a ) notions by contemplating the

Dependent (paratantra). When we see the constituent parts making up

the rope, we banish the notion of the rope i t s e l f : t h i s i s a meta-

p h o r i c a l representation of how one banishes the notion of the

Dependent (paratantra) by seeing the Absolute (parinispanna).

The meaning here i s c l e a r : both of these banished notions

ar i s e dependent on something else $>C i2» ytfi • When one has severed

48

the d e f i l e d [portion of the Dependent], the notions of an eternal

s e l f (atman) and t r u l y e x i s t i n g dharmas, which, l i k e the snake and the

rope, were clung to as r e a l , no longer correspond to any f a c t u a l i t y .

With regard to the Dependent (paratantra): t h i s does not

mean that., because, i t should be banished, therefore both [the d e f i l e d

portion and the pure portion] are eliminated together. The snake appears

as a r e s u l t of delusion, and so i s completely without either substance

or function. The rope, however, comes into being by v i r t u e of i t s

constituent hemp f i b e r s , and so i s not without some p r o v i s i o n a l

function. The: hemp f i b e r s i l l u s t r a t e the r e a l u n i v e r s a l , while the

rope i l l u s t r a t e s the dependent aspect of things. Once one knows the

respective substance and function of the rope and the hemp f i b e r s ,

the f a c t u a l i t y of the snake i s spontaneously destroyed. Because the

f a c t u a l i t y of the snake i s destroyed, the 'snake' corresponds to

no f a c t u a l i t y [ i . e . , i t lacks even p r o v i s i o n a l existence].

This i s what i s termed "banishing what i s clung t o . " It i s

not as i f [ c l i n g i n g t o ] the Dependent (paratantra) can be severed

only a f t e r "one i s on'the Holy Path (aryamarga). This i s so, because

one gradually enters R e a l i t y , penetrating the emptiness of the

'snake' and understanding the constituent nature of the rope. At the

stage, where one r e a l i z e s the contemplation of R e a l i t y , the r e a l

universal i s illuminated and the conventional p a r t i c u l a r s are evident.

Once the un i v e r s a l and the p a r t i c u l a r s have become evident, the

notions of s e l f (atman) and. t r u l y e x i s t i n g dharmas cease. I t i s

p r e c i s e l y t h i s that i s the essence of what was viewed i n the f i r s t

contemplation. (259a27)

1.2 The Subjective Aspect of Vijnaptimatrata

1.2.1 The subjective aspect of Vijnaptimatrata takes as

. _ . kQ

i t s e s s e n t i a l substance wisdom (prajna), the mental c o e f f i c i e n t of

the s p e c i a l or determinate (viniyata) class of dharmas. The s i x t h

s c r o l l of the Mahayana-samgraha says: "For what reasons does the

bodhisattva enter into Vijnaptimatrata? By means of a knowledge of

calming (samatha) and i n s i g h t (vipasyana) t h a t . i s supermundane and

that takes the synthetic dharmas as i t s -object'. . . " ^ Asvabhava

explains the passage saying, " I t i s by a. concentrated knowledge^1 not

subject to confusion (samahitaviparitajnana). . .."

Some inte r p r e t t h i s saying that Vijnaptimatrata as applied

to the contemplating subject has both the calming (samatha) and

insight (vipasyana) [components of meditation!] as i t s nature

(svabhava). This•- i s ' simply not. so... I f we include ' i t s '

associates , then the four mental aggregates (skandhas) are

the substance. But i f we add i t s subsidiariesjjj^ , then a l l f i v e

aggregates would be involved. The current opinion holds that, based

on the name, the substance of the subjective aspect of Vijnaptimatrata

i s wisdom only [ i . e . , insight (vipasyana)^ and not calming (samatha)3.

Asvabhava says both that Vijnaptimatrata [ i s realized!! by

means of the knowledge that i s i n t u i t i v e comprehension (abhisamaya),

and also, that i t i s by means of the concentrated knowledge not subject

54

to confusion. He c i t e s only the knowledge that a r i s e s i n concen-

t r a t i o n (samadhi) as the substance of the subjective aspect of

Vijnaptimatrata because, when one produces the s p e c i a l view of

Vijnaptimatrata accompanying the Four Examinations (paryesana), one

ne c e s s a r i l y i s i n concentration (samadhi). He does not say that the

subjective aspect of Vijnaptimatrata has calming (samatha) as i t s

substance. The Mahayana-samgraha, moreover, says:

. . . by means of the Four Examinations (pariyesana). . .,

and the Four Exact Comprehensions (yathabhuta-parijnana),

. . . and because everything i s thus nonexistent, one takes

t h i s Thusness and t h i s Suchness [known tol a l l bodhisattvas

as the c u l t i v a t i o n and t r a i n i n g by which one enters V i j n a p t i -

matrata. With respect to the mental expressions (manojalpa),

which appear as words (aksara) and •meanings (artha),,

/when.one deductively examines these..word-names ,

Cone sees; that] they are only mental • expressions . . .

In the Yogdadra-bhwni}the Abhidharma-samuccay<a, and other works, the

Four Examinations and the Four Exact Comprehensions a l l have wisdom

56

(prajna) as t h e i r substance.

The Four Examinations are e x c l u s i v e l y d e f i l e d (sasrava), while

the Four Exact Comprehensions are both d e f i l e d and pure (sasravanasrava).

When the. Mahayana-samgraha says that entering into the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

of what i s to be known (jfieyalaksana) i s based on the b e n e f i c i a l

perfuming influence of frequently hearing [the scriptures 1 (bahusruta-

bhavita) and that this, i s not included (asamgrhita) i n the alaya-

- 5 7

vijnana, the text r e f e r s only to the pure seeds which develop i n that

stage of the Holy Path. They are what i s c a l l e d 'perfuming influence'

(bhavana) [ i n the t e x t ] , and they are designated as distinct; from the

alaya-vijnana. It i s not the case that a l l subjects performing the

contemplations are e x c l u s i v e l y pure Canasrava). • Were that not so, the

Four Examinations would not [ f a l l under the category ofII preliminary

cognition (prayogika-jnana). (259bl6)

1.2.2 While the above pertains i n a general discussion [of the

subjective aspect of Vijnaptimatrata, i t can be further analyzed]. In

a more s p e c i f i c presentation, i t i s summarized under two d i v i s i o n s :

f i r s t , the contemplating subject as cause \^ ; and second, the v*) 5 9

contemplating subject as e f f e c t 3£ .

94

As cause, i t applies to a l l . t h r e e v a r i e t i e s of •wisdom, and

i s e x c l u s i v e l y d e f i l e d : therefore,. we take the wisdom produced through

er u d i t i o n (srutamaya), the wisdom produced through r e f l e c t i o n (cintamaya),

and the wisdom produced through s p i r i t u a l c u l t i v a t i o n (bhavanamaya

as the substance of the contemplating subject. But, t h i s has only the

nature of [what i s acquired through! acute discernment; i t i s not

something that i s wholesome (kusala) by v i r t u e of one's b i r t h

\%. 61 va .

Therefore, the Mahayana-samgraha says, "By means of these mental

expressions (manojalpa.) which appear as the texts and theses (dharmartha)

and are produced of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the Dharma of the Great

Vehicle, [the bodhisattva enters! the land where one produces resolute

b e l i e f (adhimukticaryabhumi), or the Path of V i s i o n (darsanamarga) or

_ 62 1

the Path of Cultivation- (bhavanamarga). . ." And the Cheng-wei-shih-lun

says of Vijnaptimatrata i n t h i s context: at the Stage of Provisioning

63

(sambharavastha) one gains profound resolute b e l i e f (adhimukti)

through e r u d i t i o n and r e f l e c t i o n ; while, at the Stage of Training

(prayogavastha.), one produces the Four Examinations, etc. and projects

the v i s i o n of r e a l i t y * ^ [of the Path of V i s i o n (darsanamarga)!.^

[The contemplating subject, taken! as e f f e c t , i s e x c l u s i v e l y

pure. In t h i s sense, we take the wisdom produced through s p i r i t u a l

c u l t i v a t i o n , as the substance of the contemplator because i t takes

both. the. correct cognition (samyag-jnana) and the subsequently acquired

cognition (prsta-labdha-jnana) as i t s e s s e n t i a l substance. The

Mahayana-samgraha and other works say that i t i s by thoroughly

95

comprehending the p r i n c i p l e of Thusness,, and then, by c o n t r o l l i n g a l l

the obstructions, and f i n a l l y ! "by separating oneself completely from

a l l the obstructions that one enters, r e s p e c t i v e l y , the Path of V i s i o n ,

the. Path:.,of C u l t i v a t i o n , and the'Path: of the Saints (asaiksa-marga);

th u s . i s the sequence. R e a l i z i n g the VijnaptiC-matrataJ of the

absolute, u n i v e r s al i s . done only by the correct cognition (samyag-

jnana],.and r e a l i z i n g the VijnaptiC-matrataH of the conventional

p a r t i c u l a r s i s done only by the subsequently acquired cognition

(prstha-lahdha-jnana).^

Such passages i n the scripture are numerous and t h e i r meaning

i s c l e a r . It i s not necessary to c i t e any more as proof for these

doctrines. (259b27)

1.3 Further Analysis

1.3.1 Contemplation, Concentration and R e a l i z a t i o n

While the preceding [i.e.., §1.1 and §1.21 analyzed CV i j n a p t i-

matratal, again into.a subjective and an objective aspect, that was

s t i l l a discussion of its.most, general meaning. I f we speak of

Vijnaptimatrata. i n the broadest sense, i t applies to both the subjective

and objective aspects.

I f , Chowever,! we speak of the 'contemplation of V i j n a p t i -

matrata', t h i s involves only the subjective and not the objective

aspect... It. applies to both-impure and pure (sasravanasrava) mental

dharmas. .It.applies to both: dispersed (asamahita) and concentrated

Csamahita) mental dharmas.^8 It takes as i t s e s s e n t i a l substance a l l

of the three v a r i e t i e s , of wisdom that produced through e r u d i t i o n ,

through r e f l e c t i o n , and through, s p i r i t u a l c u l t i v a t i o n and also the

three types of cognition the preliminary (prayogika), the

fundamental (mula), and the subsequently acquired '(prstha-labdha).^

I f we speak of 'concentration (samadhi) on Vijnaptimatrata',

i t applies to both the impure and pure mental dharmas, but only the

concentrated and not the dispersed. It involves only the wisdom

produced through s p i r i t u a l c u l t i v a t i o n 1 and not that of er u d i t i o n and

r e f l e c t i o n . I t applies t o a l l three types of cognition.

I f we. speak of ' t r u l y r e a l i z i n g Vijnaptimatrata', i t involves

only pure dharmas and not the impure, only the concentrated and not

the dispersed. I t involves only the correct cognition (samyag-jnana)

and the subsequently acquired cognition, but not the preliminary

cognition.

In these l a s t two cases, what i s said, about the three v a r i e t i e s

of wisdom i s E s t i l l at the l e v e l Seventh Land and below where they

are each considered to have a d i s t i n c t substance %'\l^f^_ , andU

not at the l e v e l of the. [ultimate] doctrine. Were i t not so, then the

concentration of Vijnaptimatrata and the true r e a l i z a t i o n of V i j n a p t i -

matrata spoken of above would also be.said to involve the wisdom

produced through e r u d i t i o n and.through r e f l e c t i o n as i s stated i n the

TO

Dasabhimi-vydkhyana.^ . This, should be understood as explained below

[ i n the "Essay on the Three V a r i e t i e s of Wisdom" X-lkt% H.7 1 (259c6)

1.3.2 The Five Categories of Vijnaptimatrata

Now., i n general, i f we c a r e f u l l y examine a l l the various

notions of Vijnaptimatrata expounded i n the various teachings, we see

72 that there are r e a l l y no more than f i v e categories.

F i r s t , there i s Vijnaptimatrata i n terms of the objective

s e n s e - f i e l d ^LJ^^efi, . The Abhidharma Sutra says:

Hungry ghosts (preta), beasts ( t i r y a k ) , men and gods

Each, according to t h e i r respective c a p a c i t i e s ,

Have, d i f f e r e n t notions of the same thing';';' therefore

73 We accept that objects (artha) have no true existence.

Texts such as t h i s , which teach only the objective realm contemplated

by Vijnaptimatrata, a l l f a l l under the category of Vijnaptimatrata

i n terms of the objective s e n s e - f i e l d .

The second -category i s Vijnaptimatrata i n terms of doctrine

TJt *ll J exemplified by such verses as,

Because thought c l i n g s to i t s e l f . 75

The Vijnaptimatrata doctrines declared i n the Avatamsaka Sutra, the

Sandhinirmocana Sutra, and other works a l l f a l l under the category of

Vijnaptimatrata i n terms of doctrine.

Third, i s Vijnaptimatrata i n terms of abstract universals

s a s exemplified by the Trimsikd verse that says:.

. A l l the developments.of vijnana are either

That which, discriminates or that which, i s

discriminated;

By v i r t u e of t h i s , they do not e x i s t , and

Therefore everything i s nothing but con-75

ceptualization;,(vi jnapti-matra).

The p r i n c i p l e s that thus e s t a b l i s h Vijnaptimatrata a l l f a l l

under the category of Vijnaptimatrata i n terms of abstract universals.

Fourth, i s : Vijnaptimatrata i n terms of practice^^fjE fijr; i t i s

exemplified by verses such as:

The bodhisattva, i n the state of concentration -

16

It i s also exemplified by the Four Types of Examination (paryesana)

and by the Four Exact Comprehensions (yathabhuta-parijnana), etc.

These a l l f a l l under the category of Vijnaptimatrata i n terms of

p r a c t i c e .

F i f t h , i s Vijnaptimatrata i n terms of i t s r e s u l t i n g f r u i t / :

/f^ HHK . The Buddhabhumi Sutra says, " I t i s i n the Great Mirror

Cognition (mahadarsajnana) that a l l spheres (dhatu), sense-realms

77

(visaya) and perceptions (vijnana) appear." The Tathagatagundlamkara

Sutra says

The untainted mentation (vijnana) of the

Tathagatas

Is l i m p i d (visuddha); i t i s the pure

(anasrava) realm,

Liberated from a l l obstacles (avarana),and

Associated with the Great Mirror Cognition. 78

The' Ch'eng-wei-shih-lim says Cof the f r u i t 3 :

It i s the pure realm (dhatu),

Inconceivable, good, immutable, and

Blessed; i t i s that Body of L i b e r a t i o n ,

Named the Dharmatbody] of the Great Sage. 79

The acquired f r u i t s of Vijnaptimatrata, which are thus taught, a l l

f a l l under the category of Vijnaptimatrata i n terms of i t s f r u i t . (259c2l)

here, includes, without exception., a l l v a r i e t i e s of Vijnaptimatrata.

Among the doctrines [found i n the s c r i p t u r e s ] , however, various and

d i f f e r e n t things are taught, with regard to the l e v e l of meaning and

according to what i s most opportune, under the f i r s t category of

Vijnaptimatrata i n terms of the objective s e n s e - f i e l d .

1. Some scriptures discuss [the f i r s t category of] V i j n a p t i -

matrata on the basis of what i s . c l u n g t o . The Lahkdvatdra states:

1.3.3 The Six D i v i s i o n s 80

The doctrine of Vijnaptimatrata. i n f i v e categories expounded

Because thought c l i n g s to i t s e l f ,

Thought appears" as • the manifestation ' of

external objects.

Because these sense-objects (drsya) do

not exist

8l They are nothing but thought.

[This passage i l l u s t r a t e s the f i r s t alternative!] because i t shows that

the objective s e n s e - f i e l d i s an unreal manifestation based only on

[thought ] c l i n g i n g to thought.

2. Some scriptures elucidate [the f i r s t category] of V i j n a p t i -

matrata on the basis of the impurity [of the s e n s e - f i e l d ] . The

Avatamsaka Sutra states: "The three world-realms are nothing but

82

thought (cittamatra)." [This passage i l l u s t r a t e s the second a l t e r -

native] because i t teaches Vijnaptimatrata with reference to the

worldliness [of the s e n s e - f i e l d ] .

3. Some scriptures discuss [the f i r s t category o f]

Vijnaptimatrata on the basis of what i s clung to and according to what

exis t s c o n d i t i o n a l l y . A verse from the Trimsikd says:

The notions of s e l f (atman) and t r u l y e x i s t i n g

dharmas, which a r i s e i n p r o v i s i o n a l

discourse

Have a v a r i e t y of d i f f e r e n t permutations;

A l l of which depend on developments of mentation / • . — x 83

(vijnanaJ.

[This passage i l l u s t r a t e s the t h i r d a l t e r n a t i v e , ] because i t [teaches

the Vijnaptimatrata of the sense-field] on the basis.of the production

of c l i n g i n g both to the two, [ i . e . , s e l f and dharmas] and to the

subjective and objective components (darsananimittabhaga), which ar i s e

101

84 from. the v e r i f y i n g component (sam.vittihha.ga) of mentation (vijnana),

and also on the basis of the notions of s e l f and dharmas declared by

mundane teachers and by the Holy S c r i p t u r e . ^

4. Some scriptures discuss [the f i r s t category] of V i j n a p t i -

matrata on the basis of sentient beings. The Vimdlaktrti-nirdesa

says, "Through p u r i t y of thought, sentient beings are pure: through

o Y

the defilement (samklesa) of thought, sentient beings are d e f i l e d . "

5. Some scriptures discuss Cthe f i r s t category] of V i j n a p t i -

matrata on the basis of a l l dharmas, both conditioned and unconditioned

(samskrtasamskrta). TheSandhinirmocana declares that, " A l l objects

(alambana) of mentation (vijnana) are nothing but manifestations of + .. ,,88

mentation.

6. Some scriptures discuss [the f i r s t category] of V i j n a p t i -

matrata. according to how a thing [ i . e . , the supposed object] i s r e f e r r e d

to. An Abhidharma Sutra verse says:

Hungry ghosts (preta), beasts ( t i r y a k ) ,

man, and gods

Each, according to t h e i r respective c a p a c i t i e s ,

89 [Have d i f f e r e n t notions of the same t h i n g ] . . .

[This verse i l l u s t r a t e s the s i x t h a l t e r n a t i v e ] because i t discusses

Vijnaptimatrata i n terms of the fact that one thing i s r e f e r r e d to

[ d i f f e r e n t l y by d i f f e r e n t beings].

Thus there are innumerable d o c t r i n a l categories and d i v i s i o n s .

The s i x [ a l t e r n a t i v e ] d i v i s i o n s c i t e d above categorize and encompass

http://sam.vittihha.ga

a l l doctrines... It i s only the f i f t h of the above C l . 3 - 3 - 5 3 however,

that completely exhausts the f u l l meaning of the p r i n c i p l e . This i s

so, because i t states i n a general way that everything i s vijnapti-mat

In some cases we r e s t r i c t the categories of Vijnaptimatrata

90

to three: s e n s e - f i e l d , p r a c t i c e , and f r u i t . These are analyzed

more thoroughly i n [my) Commentary on the Heart Sutra. ^ 1 (260a9)

103

Section Two:

C r i t i c a l Analysis of the Term

2.1 The Meaning of Vijnaptimatrata

2.1.1 Vigyiapti

The Sanskrit vijnapti fft i s t r a n s l a t e d "by shih ;

i n t h i s context shih means 'knowing d i s c u r s i v e l y ' or 'discriminating'

11192

That which has mentation (vijnana) as i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

[the eight vijnanasH, that which i s associated with mentation [the

si x classes of mental c o e f f i c i e n t s ] , the developments of mentation

[the subjective and objective p o r t i o n s ] , the modalities of mentation

[the twenty-four citta-viprayukta-dharmas], and the real, nature•of

mentation [ThusnessD, a l l these f i v e dharmas the absolute u n i v e r s a l 9k

and the r e l a t i v e p a r t i c u l a r s are inseparable from vijnana and, ., . 95

therefore, are s a i d to be nothing but conceptualizatLcn(.vijnapti-matra). Were i t not so, Thusness would not be Vijnaptimatrata (Conceptualization

only-ness). This i s not to say, on the other hand, that there i s only

one single Thought and. nothing else whatsoever. Since i t encompasses

everything else and goes back to Vijnana, everything i s c o l l e c t i v e l y

defined by t h i s term ' v i j n a p t i ' . I f i t did not encompass and go back

to R e a l i t y ,then i t would not be c a l l e d Thus^^j..^^ (260alU)

104

2.1.2 -matrata

The Sanskrit -mdtratd j3p; «.Jl3. (var.00. ) ^ i s t r a n s l a t e d

"by V>ei\zJ^. Maira has three meanings.

1. The f i r s t i s matra i n the sense of 'selecting out and

holding t o ' , ^ a s when we re j e c t jSj^j^the Imaginary ( p a r i k a l p i t a )

self-hood of both beings and dharmas, while s e i z i n g on ^f^jj^the Dependent

(paratantra) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and the Absolute (parinispanna) aspect

of vijnana. The Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun says that the expression '-matrata'

i s meant to deny the notion of a s e l f or dharmas e x i s t i n g apart from

vijnana, but not to deny thought and mental coefficient's Ccaitta),

that do exist inseparable from vijnana."'"0 0 (260al8)

2. The second meaning i s matra i n the sense of ' d e f i n i t e l y '

% L 101 102 or ' c e r t a i n l y ' Therefore [part of a verse i n ! an ol d

t r a n s l a t i o n of the Madhyanta-vibhdga says:

Within t h i s there d e f i n i t e l y i s emptiness,

103 In that there i s also t h i s .

This-means that within conventional p a r t i c u l a r s there definitely

i s the absolute universal ^^J^^ a n d within that absolute u n i v e r s a l ,

there definitely are conventional p a r t i c u l a r s . These two p a r t i c u l a r s

and u n i v e r s a l are defined^^"^Cby'matra(ta) ' 1 as f a l l i n g within what

i s expressed by ' v i j n a p t i ' ; and t h i s demonstrates that the [ d u a l i t y !

of apprehenso'r and apprehended does not e x i s t . 1 0 ^ (260a2l)

105

3. The t h i r d meaning i s matra i n the sense of 'making c l e a r

what i s superior' - ^ i s m e a n i n g i s i l l u s t r a t e d by the Sastra-

master Gopa i n h i s Vimsatika commentary where he says, "When the

text says Vijnaptimatrata, i t mentions only the sovereign i-J^^'

According to reason (yukti)• however, t h i s includes [not just thought

( c i t t a ) , but! the mental constituents ( c a i t t a ) as w e l l , just as when

we say, 'The king i s coming!.' we know that i t i s never without his

retinue of ministers and attendants." 1 0 ''

These are the three d i f f e r e n t meanings. Currently, i n the

context of Vijnaptimatrata,'matra' i s usually glossed with the f i r s t

meaning, 'selecting out and holding t o ' . (260a24)

2.2 Discussion

2.2.1 Vijnapti-matra vs. Citta-matra

[Why do the sastras say conceptuali-zation-only (vijnapti-matra),

while the sutras say thought-only (citta-matra)?!''Conceptualization

( v i j n a p t i ) i s the same as thought ( c i t t a ) . Because thought

'accumulates' 1 0^ and gives r i s e to variegated pictures [ i . e . , the

v i j n a p t i ! , the sutras take i t as the p r i n c i p a l facto r JL. and, on that

107 basis,state 'thought-only' (citta-matra). The sastras, however,

take the discriminatin g '/J JJ'J a n d understanding ~^ j j^ [ a c t i v i t y of

108

the mind! as t h e i r b a s i s , and say that everything i s conceptualization

only (vijnapti-matra).

Some say that the doctrine of the sutras applies to both

cause and resultant f r u i t ; and so the sutras, speaking comprehensively,

106

say citta-matra. Whereas, what i s taught by the sastras l i e s only

i n the realm of cause, and so the sastras say only vijnapti-matra.

V i j n a p t i ' s meaning of 'discerning and analyzing' pertains at the causal

l e v e l , and the p r a c t i c a l u t i l i t y of ' v i j n a p t i ' i s powerful; therefore

[the sastrasD teach that i t i s ' v i j n a p t i ' that i s 'matra'..

These two doctrines citta-matra and vijnapti-matra do not

d i f f e r i n meaning. The Vimsatikd says, "Thought ( c i t t a ) , mind (manas),

mentation (vijnana), and conceptualization ( v i j n a p t i ) are but

differences of name."10^

Vijnaptimatrata, understood as "the only-ness that i s of

v i j n a p t i " , i s ' a karmadharaya compound"!"10 Others, in c l u d i n g the

Lokayatas and Bhavaviveka, have established doctrines of 'objective-

field-only-ness' (visaya-matrata). In order to d i s t i n g u i s h our doctrine

from;theirs, we say 'the only-ness of v i j n a p t i ' . [The o b j e c t - f i e l d i s

a development of vijnana, so] r e l y i n g thus on the p r i n c i p a l [ i . e . ,

what i s primary and not d e r i v a t i v e ] , we cannot go astray (260b2)

2.2.2 Vijnaptimatrata vs. Prajna

In order to cause beings to r e l i n q u i s h conceptualization ( v i j n a p t i )

and t o . r e l y on wi,sdom. (prajna), the sastras teach the expression

'Vijnaptimatrata.' I f we speak of the subjective aspect, then wisdom

i s dominant and conceptualization i s secondary. I f we take as our focus

the o b j e c t i v e - f i e l d (visaya), then i t i s i n ever case inseparable from

th o u g h t . ( c i t t a ) . Now.the sastras take the objective aspect [as t h e i r

focus] and therefore c a l l t h e i r doctrine conceptualization-only-ness

107

(Vijnaptimatrata). Again: because [ v i j n a p t i ] i s not separate from, and

r e l i e s on, the p r i n c i p a l [ i . e . , vijnana or c i t t a ] , the sastras c a l l

t h e i r doctrine Vijnaptimatrata.

aspect [rather than the o b j e c t i v e ] ; therefore one should r e l y on

wisdom (prajna). Again, taking [what brings] b l i s s as t h e i r t o p i c ,

the sutras i n every case only c a l l t h e i r doctrine the [Perfection of]

Wisdom; whereas, the sastras take [what i s to be] ..abhorred as

dharmas ultimatel y go back to the., unconditioned [Absolute (parinispanna)],

we say a l l dharmas are Thusness. When [from a d i f f e r e n t viewpoint] we

take as our p r i n c i p a l doct;rine the fact that a l l dharmas go back to the

conditioned [Dependent (paratantra)]., then we say a l l dharmas are con-

ceptuaiization-only (vijnapti-matra). F i n a l l y , when we take as our

p r i n c i p a l doctrine the f a c t that a l l dharmas go back to i n t u i t i v e

discernment (pravicaya)^"^the n we say that everything i s wisdom (prajna).

This [concludes] what i s t i t l e d "Section Two: A C r i t i c a l Study

of the term." (260bl0)

Certainty (nis'citatva), [however] comes from the subjective

s i g n i f i c a n t and expound both

When we take as our p r i n c i p a l doctrine the fact that a l l

Section Three:

Explanation of the D i s t i n c t i o n and the Unity

In the above t i t l e ' d i s t i n c t ' ^ m e a n s ''separate'^ , and

'united w i t h ' ^ * means 'the same as' . The t i t l e means that,

since a l l the sutras and sastras have each stated various doctrines

under d i f f e r e n t names, we s h a l l now explain them i n terms of t h e i r

basic unity. These various doctrines are only d i s t i n c t i o n s i n the

basic meaning of Vijnaptimatrata; there i s no s u b s t a n t i a l difference

•"'among' .-. them. ( 2 6 0 b l 3 )

[The various doctrines discussed here are divided into f i v e

main groups: those that have one term, those that have two terms, and

112

so on up to those that have f i v e terms.!

3.1 Doctrines Having One Term

Of those doctrines having one term, there are thirty-one.

3.1.1 In the Avatamsaka 'Sutra and other works, that which

denies that there are sense-fields (visaya) separate from vijnana 113 - —• i s c a l l e d Thought-only-ness (citta-matrata). In the Eadhayanta

Vibti'agay, that which denies the ways of c l i n g i n g to the extremes

Cof n i h i l i s m and eternalism! i s c a l l e d the Middle Way (madhyama

pratipad). In the Prdgnqpdramita Sutras , that which elucidates the

discerning (pravicaya) nature Cof wisdom! i s c a l l e d the Perfection

109

of Wisdom (prajna-paramita). In the Lotus Sutra that which elucidates

ultimate conveyance 1 1 ^ i s c a l l e d the One Vehicle (ekayana). 1 1 ^

These four d o c t r i n a l terms Thought-only-ness, the Middle

Way, the Perfection of Wisdom, and the One Vehicle apply to both

the subjective and the objective aspect; they also apply to the con-

templation of both the absolute (paramartha) and the conventional

(samvrti) f i e l d s Cof knowledge]. However, Cof the three kinds of

cognition within the subjective aspect,] the correct cognition

(samyag-jnana) involves only the absolute, whereas the preliminary

cognition (prayogika-jnana) and the subsequently acquired cognition

(prstha-labdha-jnana) involve both the absolute and the c o n v e n t i o n a l . 1 1 ^

117 But i f we speak of r e a l i z a t i o n , then the subsequently acquired

cognition involves only the conventional realm. (260bl9)

l l 8

There are, however, some that say of the COne Vehicle doctrine]

in the Lotus Sutra that i t has as i t s basis (asraya) only the f r u i t i o n

wisdom Cand i s thus beyond the causal l e v e l ] . The sutra, Cthey claim],

says merely that three carts wait outside the door, Cnot that they are

means of escaping the burning house]. Therefore, what are c a l l e d the

means-, of e x i t from the house Ci.e., the e f f e c t i v e causes of l i b e r a t i o n ]

are being c a r r i e d out i n the folds of Cthe father's] robe,climbing on

the table Cto get out the window], or leaving through the door; the

One Vehicle i s not named among these Cas a cause].

This view i s , indeed, contrary to reason ( y u k t i ) . The

sravakas, the pratyeka-buddhas and the non-relapsing (avaivartika)

bodhisattvas mount t h i s jewelled cart Ci.e., the One Vehicle] and

119 go d i r e c t l y to the Platform of the Path Ci.e., enlightenments.

Therefore, the One Vehicle CfunctionsH at the l e v e l of cause

Cand resultant f r u i t 1. Moreover,since the Six Dharmas taught i n the

Srimdla-sutra'^" ' already have the Great Vehicle as t h e i r purport,

i t must apply to the preliminary CcausalU stage as well Cas the

f r u i t i o n . stageH. A f u l l exposition of t h i s i s provided below i n

the "Essay on the Vehicles". (260b24),•

3.2.2 CContinuing the l i s t of the thirty-one doctrines

having one term,] i n the Srimald-Sutra, that which denies a l l forms

of -vain delusion (abhuta-parikalpa) i s c a l l e d the One Truth. Also,

that which c l a r i f i e s the root or foundation of a l l dharmas, i s c a l l e d

the One Base. Both the emptiness Cof the parikalpitaH by which one

r e a l i z e s the Absolute and also the emptiness of that r e a l i z a t i o n

i t s e l f are c a l l e d Emptiness. That which displays the d i f f e r e n t

entanglements, which manifests a l l the Buddha v i r t u e s , and whence a l l

Buddhas issue f o r t h i s c a l l e d the Tathagata-garbha. That which

elucidates the e s s e n t i a l l y undefiled true dharma-nature i s c a l l e d the

Mind that i s Pure by Nature; and that which i s the substance of the

Buddha-virtues i s c a l l e d the Dharma-kaya.

In the Vimaldkirti-nirdesa, that which denies that there are

d i s t i n c t i o n s within the ultimate universal i s c a l l e d the Dharma-theme

122 of Ion-duality (advayadharma-mukhapravesa). In the Ta-hui-ching

. that which demonstrates that dharmas neither a r i s e nor i\V •MA'

cease i s also c a l l e d the doctrine of Non-production and Non-

123 destruction. In the Mahdparinirvdna-sutra, that which shows the

I l l

cause of the Dharma-kaya i s frequently c a l l e d the Buddha-nature. In

the Lahkdvatdra-sutra3 that which manifests what i s beyond verbal

124 - -

expression i s c a l l e d the Inconceivable (acintya). In the Yogdedra-

bhumi- and other t r e a t i s e s , that which cannot be established or f i x e d

conceptually, 1 2 '' i s c a l l e d the Indeterminate (avyavasthita) . 1 2 ^

In the Mahdydna-samgraha and other works, that which "manifests i t s 127

u n i v e r s a l i t y , c o n tinuity. . .," i s c a l l e d the Absolute (parinispanna).

In Sthiramati's Commentary to the Abhidharma-samuccaya and other

t r e a t i s e s , that which elucidates what i s not delusional and not - 128

inverted- - • i s c a l l e d Thusness '(tat-hata.). -

These t h i r t e e n d o c t r i n a l terms [ i . e . , those of §3.1.23 are

only universale• applying to the objective aspect and only to the f i e l d

of absolute knowledge. (260c6)

3.1.3 For fear that the text w i l l become too p r o l i x , only a few

of the one-term doctrines have been summarily c i t e d here. Indeed, there

are many more. There i s the Dharma-realm (dharma-dhatu); Dharma-ness (dharmata), the q u a l i t y of not. being f a l s e and delusional (abhuta-

129 130 parikalpatva), the q u a l i t y of being unaffected (avikaratva), the

q u a l i t y of u n i v e r s a l same-ness (samata), the q u a l i t y of being free of

r e - b i r t h , the fixed-ness of a l l dharmas, the dwelling Cof tathata3

i n a l l dharmas (dharmasthitita) the Dharma-station, the Pinnacle of

^ 131

R e a l i t y (bhutakoti), Space (akasa) , the Inexistence (nairatmya)

Cof s e l f and dharmas3, the Absolute (paramartha), and the Realm of the

Inconceivable (acintyadhatu); these fourteen doctrines are explained 132

more f u l l y i n the Greater C100:,000; Vermel Pra jrld-paramitd Sutra.

112

A l l the thirty-one l i s t e d above are single-term doctrines . (260c]Q )

3.2 Doctrines Have Two Terms

There are four doctrines with two terms.

3.2.1 In the Yogdedrabhunri, we f i n d that what i s conceptually

133

f i x e d and what i s not conceptually f i x e d d i f f e r i n that the former

i s shallow and obvious- whereas the l a t t e r i s deep •' and abstruse;

therefore they are c a l l e d the Determinate and the Indeterminate Truths

(vyavasthitavyavasthitasatya) which are the same as the doctrines

of the Four Holy Truths that are Fashioned (krta) and the Four Holy

Truths that are Unfashioned (akrta) found i n the Srimdla . Sutra.

And i n the Mahaparinirvdna Sutra there i s what i s c a l l e d the Two 136

Truths, absolute (paramartha) and conventional (samvrti). In the Hsien-yang-lun that which s p e c i f i e s and that which i s

137

s p e c i f i e d are c a l l e d the Two Dharmas, Name and Thing.

These three binary doctrines [Determinate and Indeterminate,

Two Truths, Name and ThingH apply to both the subjective and the

objective aspect; they involve both the absolute and the conventional,

and also a l l three kinds of cognition: the i n i t i a l Ci.e., prayogika-

jnanaH, the middle Ci.e., mula- or samyag-jnanaH, and the subsequent 138

Ci.e., prstha-labdha-jnanall. (260cl5)

3.2.2 In the Mahdydna-samgraha and.other works, that which

makes cl e a r the inexistence of what i s clung to i s c a l l e d the 139

Nonsubstantiality of Person and Dharmas (pudgaladharmanairatmya).

This doctrine also applies to both the subjective and the objective

113

aspect. I t involves only the absolute, however, and not the conventional.

It s t i l l applies to a l l three kinds of cognition: the i n i t i a l , the middle

and the subsequent.(260cl7)

3.3 Doctrines Having Three Terms

There are four doctrines that have three terms.

3.3.1 In the Sandhinirmocana Sutra and other works, the

doctrine that makes cl e a r the categories and d i s t i n c t i o n s that apply

to a l l the dharmas, determining what exists [paratantra and

parinispanna] and what does not exist [ p a r i k a l p i t a ] , what are r e l a t i v e

p a r t i c u l a r s [paratantra] and what i s the absolute u n i v e r s a l [ p a r i -

nispanna], i s c a l l e d the doctrine of the Three Aspects of Own-being

(trisvabhava). Also, the doctrine that makes clear how these three

aspects are [to be understood as] free from any imaginary ( p a r i k a l p i t a )

r e a l i t y i s c a l l e d the Three-fold Absences Of Own-being ( t r i v i d h a •

nihsvabhavata. )^°

These two doctrines involve only the objective aspect, though

they s t i l l apply to a l l three kinds of cognition and to both the

absolute and the conventional f i e l d s . I f , however, one speaks of the

contemplation of these two doctrines [trisvabhava and trividha. :

nihsvabhavata "],then i t i s only the subjective aspect that i s i n -

volved and not the objective aspect. It s t i l l applies to a l l three

kinds of cognition and to both the absolute and the conventional.(260c21)

3-3.2 In the Yogacara-bhumi and other works the doctrine that

elucidates the s k i l l f u l means for parting one's bonds i s c a l l e d the

114

doctrine of the Three Entrances to L i b e r a t i o n (vimoksamukha).1^1

Also, the doctrine that expounds the v e r i f i c a t i o n of the abstruse

universal i s c a l l e d the doctrine of the Three Kinds of Non-arising

142

Dharma Patience (anutpattikadharmaksanti). These two doctrines

involve only the subjective aspect and not the objective aspect.

They involve only the fundamental cognition [ i . e . , the correct

cognition or samyag-jnanaH and the subsequently acquired cognition.

They apply to both the absolute and the conventional.(260c23)

3.k Doctrines Having Four Terms

Of doctrines with four terms, there are four.

3.4.1 In the Bodhisattva-bhumi3that which c l a r i f i e s the

summation of doctrine i s c a l l e d the FourUdanas, v i z . , 1.) A l l con-

structions (samskara) are non-enduring; 2.) A l l impurity i s s u f f e r i n g

(duhkha)^ 3.) A l l dharmas are without self-hood [ i . e . , u l t i m a t e ly

nonexistent]; k.) Nirvana i s quiescent ( s a n t a ) . 1 ^ 3 In the Treatise on

the Perfection of Wisdom (Ta-chih-tu-lun)3 / v . jjt §V8) .> that which

makes clear the d i s t i n c t i o n [between d i f f e r e n t points of view] i s

c a l l e d the doctrine of the Four Siddhantas*, v i z . , 1.) the mundane

point of view (laukika siddhanta); 2.) the absolute point of view

(paramarthika siddhanta); 3.) the therapeutic point of view ( p r a t i -

paksika siddhanta); and 4.) the i n d i v i d u a l point of view ( p r a t i -

paurusika siddhanta)

The preceding two doctrines apply to both the subjective

aspect and the objective aspect, to both the absolute and the

conventional, and to a l l three kinds of cognition.(260c29)

3.k.2 In a l l the sastras, the means by which one i n i t i a l l y

contemplates what i s coarse are c a l l e d the Four Examinations

(paryesana) . 1 ^ T h e y involve only the subjective aspect and not .'the

objective aspect, only the preliminary cognition and not the middle

or subsequent cognitions. They apply to both the absolute and the"

conventional. ( 2 6 l a 2 )

3.4.3 Also i n a l l the sastras, the means by which one sub-

sequently contemplates what i s subtle are c a l l e d the Four Exact

Comprehensions ( y a t h a b h u t h a - p a r i j n a n a ) T h e y also involve only the

subjective aspect and not the objective aspect. They apply to a l l

three kinds of cognition Chowever 1, Tand/fall.,within' -both the absolute

and the conventional. ( 2 6 l a 4 )

3.5 Doctrines Having Five Terms

Of doctrines with f i v e terms, there i s one. In the Sutra of

the Benevolent Ring, the doctrine by which the stages Cof the

bodhisattva pathH can be distinguished and c e r t i f i e d i s c a l l e d the

doctrine of the Five Degrees of Patience. F i r s t i s the Subduing

Patience, because i t i s the c e r t i f i c a t i o n that the passions have been

i n i t i a l l y subdued Cin the preliminary practice!) before the Ten Lands

(bhumi). Second i s the Patience of F a i t h , which i s established i n the

F i r s t , Second and Third Lands as one a t t a i ns an unshakeable f a i t h

because a l l mundane categories are taken together as the same. Th i r d

i s the Patience.of Following, which i s attained i n the Fourth, F i f t h

116

and Sixth Lands,because one follows the supr.amundane p r a c t i c e s . Fourth

i s the Non-arising Dharma Patience, which i s attained i n the Seventh,

Eighth and Ninth Lands, because one constantly and spontaneously views

the p r i n c i p l e that a l l dharmas are sign-less (animitta). F i f t h i s the

Patience of Quiescence, which i s attained i n the Tenth Land,, the

Buddha-land, and the Cause and F r u i t i o n Stage, because one becomes

147

completely and f u l l y quiescent.

These f i v e involve only the subjective aspect and not the

objective aspect. The F i r s t Degree of Patience involves only the

preliminary cognition, while the l a t t e r four degrees should apply

148

to the remaining two kinds of cognition. A l l Five Degrees of

Patience apply to both.the absolute and the conventional. (26lall) 3.6 Doctrines Having Six and More Terms

There are other doctrines c a l l e d the Six Clear Comprehensions

(abhisamayantika)j 1^^ the Seven Components of Enlightment (bodhyanga) 1^ 0

the E i g h t - f o l d Holy Path (astangamarga^^the Nine V a r i e t i e s of

152 Calming (samatha), the Ten Dharmas of Those who have Nothing More

153 to Learn (asaiksadharma). the Four States of Mindfulness

(smrtyupasthana),^^^the Four Right E f f o r t s (samyak-prahana)

156

the Four Elements of Supernatural Power (rddhipada), the Five

F a c u l t i e s (indriya) the Five Powers (bala) j ^ ^ e t c . These doctrines

Care common to a l l the three vehicles andU are not within the proper

Ci.e., exclusive!! contemplation of the bodhisattvas. Therefore, they

are not discussed separately h e r e . 1 ^ (26lal4)

3.1 Conclusion

Thus, although a l l of these doctrines are taught under

d i f f e r e n t names, they are a l l [merely! s p e c i f i c names for the

knowledge of the realm of "Vijnaptimatrata [expounded! here. (26lal5

Section Four:

Which Mode of Mentation Performs the Contemplation?

4.1 According to Other Buddhist Schools

The Mahasamgikas and o t h e r s ^ ^ d e c l a r e that the s i x sensory-

perceptions ( v i j n a n a ^ ^ a r e d e f i l e d (rakta) and that a l l of them can

become p u r i f i e d ( v i r a k t a ) . The V a t s i p u t r i a s and o t h e r s ^ ^ d e c l a r e

that the f i r s t f i v e sensory vijnanas are neither d e f i l e d nor p u r i f i e d ,

163

whereas the s i x t h can be both. The Sarvastivadins and others say

that a l l s i x vijnanas are d e f i l e d , but only the s i x t h can be p u r i f i e d ,

Within the Mahayana, some of the former teachers said that i t i s the

seventh vijnana Ci.e., manasH that i s p u r i f i e d on the Path of

C u l t i v a t i o n (bhavana-marga), while others s a i d that i t i s the eighth

164 Ci.e., alayaH that i s p u r i f i e d on the Path of C u l t i v a t i o n . A l l

of these are incorrect doctrines and cannot be r e l i e d upon. (26la20)

4.2 The Correct View

4.2.1 The Subjective Aspect.

I f we speak of mentation '.(vijnana) i n i t s subjective aspect, , 45-

then, at the causal l e v e l , i t can only be the s i x t h vijnana._ This

i s so because the f i r s t s c r o l l of the logdcdrdbhwni says that the

only t h i ng capable of e f f e c t i n g separation from greed ( r a g a ) 1 ^ i s

164

the unique action of the s i x t h vijnana, mano-vijnana. It applies

to both the absolute and the conventional, as well as to a l l three

kinds of cognition. CAgain, t h i s can be true only of the s i x t h

vijiianall because the other seven vijffanas are incapable of '

activating;..generalized objects (.samastalambana), of contemplating

uni v e r s a l truth.;."and, thus-, of entering - into a R e a l i t y . The

Yogdadrabhumi, moreover, says that t h i s i s so because only the s i x t h

vijnana discerns and r e f l e c t s on objects ( a l a m b a n a ) T o the extent

169

that the seventh vijnana i s drawn out by the s i x t h vijnana, i t too

may be taken to function i n the subjective aspect, applying, Cin

that case] to the middle and the subsequent of the three kinds of

cognition Ci.e., samyag-jnana and prsta-labdha-jnana3.

The f r u i t i o n l e v e l , i . e . , Buddhahood, applies to a l l vijnanas

and i s capable of the contemplation of Vijnaptimatrata. Three bf the

Four Cognitions Cviz>. , the Great Mirror Cognition (mahadarsa-jnana) -

the cognition of Universal Sameness (samata-jnana), and the Cognition

of Profound Contemplation (pratyaveksana-jnana)1 apply to both parts

of the two d i v i s i o n s : absolute and conventional, u n i v e r s a l and

p a r t i c u l a r s . The Cognition of Action Ci.e., the Cognition that

Performs What i s to be Done (krtyanusthana-jnana)1 does not involve

the absolute; i t contemplates only the conventional vijnana. This

explanation i s based on the sastras. On the bases of reason ( y u k t i ) ,

however, some CsayD the Cognition of Action also involves the

absolute. That which i s only the perception (vijnana) of Thusness

i s d e f i n i t e l y not the subjective aspect. (26la27)

4.2.2 The Objective Aspect

I f we speak of the objective aspect, then a l l eight vijnanas

apply at both the causal and the f r u i t i o n l e v e l . The perception of

Thusness i s also thus, Ci.e., under the objective aspect]. (_26la28)

120 '

Section Five:

C l a r i f y i n g what Distinguishes the Classes

mm 5.1 The Absolute Aspect of Mentation

The f i r s t of these classes i s mentation (vijnana) i n i t s

absolute (paramartha) aspect.

5.1.1 As Contemplated by the F i r s t and Third

Cognition

I f i t i s a contemplation of the preliminary cognition (prayogika-

jnana) or the subsequently acquired cognition (prstha-jnana), then i t i s

the common or complex c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (samanya-laksana) of things [that

are contemplated], rather than the d i s t i n c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (prabheda-

170 laksana). This i s so, because a l l the dharmas are taken together as

171 a general object (samastalambana). (26lbl)

5.1.2 As Contemplated by the Second

Gognition

I f i t i s contemplated with the fundamental cognition (mula-

jnana-samyag-jnana.), then i t i s the d i s t i n c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c [that i s

contemplated], rather than the common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . This i s so,

because, i n t h i s case, a l l the dharmas are known d i s t i n c t l y .

1. However, even though the substance [ i . e . , the own-being

(sva-bhava)] of a thing i s not a common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , a l l myriad

dharmas are,.nonetheless, inseparable from these [ i . e . , from the

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s they have in.common with other dharmas]. According

to reason, then, the above are the same, and not two [ d i f f e r e n t

121

cases!. Therefore one should s t i l l , [even with reference to funda-

mental cognition!, say i t i s the common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s [that are

contemplated].

The sutras and sastras say that the act of mind focused on

the common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (samanyalaksana-mamasikara?) i s able to

172

sever doubts: we can explain t h i s assertion on the basis of the

above d o c t r i n a l p r i n c i p l e [that a l l dharmas are inseparable form

t h e i r common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ] and also on the basis of preliminary

cognition

2. However, i n the case of a l l dharmas, each has i n d i v i d u a l l y

i t s own universa l and t h i s i s r e a l i z e d separately within each. One

should not say that t h i s i s a common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . (26lb6)

5.2 The Dependent Aspect of Mentation

[The next of these classes i s ] mentation (vijnana) i n i t s

173

Dependent (paratantra) aspect [when seen] as i l l u s o r y .

5.2.1 The Eight Modes of Mentation.

1. Some say that the substance [of a l l experience], whether

at the causal or the f r u i t i o n l e v e l , i s the same single vijnana,

one substance whose functions are numerous. This i s the doctrine of 17 k

the bodhisattvas of one category.

2. Others state that the substance, whether at the causal

or the f r u i t i o n l e v e l , i s dual. The section on the "Land Endowed

with Thought" ( s a c i t t i k a bhumi) i n the "Viniscaya-samgrahani" of the

Yogdad^abhumi states that t h i s r e f e r s to the fundamental mode of — 175

mentation (mula-vijnana) and the developed modes ( p r a v r t t i - v i j n a n a ) .

3. In some cases, the causal l e v e l alone i s declared to have

three parts. The Madhyanta-vighdga says, "Vijnana transforms i t s e l f

into what appear as external objects (artha) and beings (sattva),

176 as a s e l f (atman) and as representations ( v i j n a p t i ~f ). . . ."

The Trirns'ikd says, "[The three] vijnanas are f r u i t i o n , c o g i t a t i o n ,

177 and the discrimination of. the sense, f i e l d s . " The most frequently

experienced aspect of the eighth vijnana. i s the f r u i t i o n nature [ i . e .

178

karmic r e t r i b u t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y continual r e b i r t h ] ; that i s why the

t r e a t i s e s (sastra) emphasize i t rather than the other aspects. When

the eighth vijnana i s considered under the name adana-vijfiana (that

which retains the seed p o t e n t i a l i t i e s and the manifestations), then

according to reason ( y u k t i ) , i t applies at the f r u i t i o n l e v e l as well

h. In some cases, the causal stage and the f r u i t i o n stage

together are declared to have three parts, v i s . , thought [ c i t t a as

the eighth vijnana], mind [manas as the seventh vijf i a n a ], and

179

perception [vijnana as s p e c i f i c a l l y the s i x sensory vijnanas].

5. In some cases, the f r u i t alone i s declared to be four,

as i n the Buddhabhumi Sutra and other works, which teach the t o p i c

l80

of the Four Cognitions.

6. In some cases, cause :and f r u i t together are declared to

be s i x , as i n the Srimald Sutra where s i x vijnanas are taught.

7- In some cases, cause and f r u i t together are declared to

be seven, as i n the doctrines that teach the Seven Thought Realms x 182

(dhatuj. 8. In some cases, cause and f r u i t are declared to be eight,

183 v i s . , the Eight Modes of Mentation (vijnana).'

9. In some cases, cause and f r u i t taken together are

declared to he nine. The ninth Ci.e., "Sagatham"] chapter of the

Lahkdvatara Sutra says:

A l l the modes of mentation,

eight or nine,

Are l i k e the waves formed

+ 184 m water.

I f , according to the Wu-hsiang-lun ^B'ft^"'"^ and the

T'ung-hsing-ahing }g| *|^)l.^vjjj t > ^ ^ o n e takes Thusness (tathata) as the

ninth Cvijnanal,-. i t i s because the absolute and the conventional

l87

Caspect of the eighth] are being discussed side by side. Now we,

Con the other hand], take the p u r i f i e d state of the eighth or base

vijnana to be Cwhat others c a l l ] the ninth, because the d e f i l e d and

the pure states of the base vijnana, Cthe eighth,] are discussed

separately Cwithout being considered two d i f f e r e n t modes, an eighth

and a n i n t h ] .

The Tathdgata-gimdlamkara Sutra says:

The unstained, vijnana of .the Tathagata

Is the pure, undefiled (anasrava) realm;

Resolving a l l obstruction,

l88 It i s connected with the Great Mirror Cognition.

In t h i s t e x t , i t says that the unstained (vimala or amala) vijnana

goes together with the Great Mirror Cognition, and because the ninth

vijnana i s further c a l l e d the amala-vijnana; therefore, one should

know that the d e f i l e d and pure aspect of the eighth vijnana are being

124

discussed separately, and that i t i s t h i s l a t t e r that i s taken to

he a ninth vijnana.

10. In some cases, the cause i s [considered] eight and the

f r u i t , three Cof the eight] vijnanas, as i n the Buddhxbhumi and

other works, which say i t i s so because the f i r s t f i f t e e n realms

189

(dhatu) are e x c l u s i v e l y impure (sasrava).

11. In some cases, the cause i s [considered] eight and the

f r u i t , seven [of the eight] vijnanas. The sastra-master Sthiramati

says t h i s i s so because mind ( i . e . , manas, the seventh vijnana] i s 1Q0

e x c l u s i v e l y d e f i l e d .

12. [ F i n a l l y , ] i t i s said i n some cases that a l l eight

vijnanas are present i n both the cause and the f r u i t . Such was

taught to be the correct doctrine by. Dharmapala and others ?~^{26lb6)

5.2.2 The Components of Perception

[Next are the d i s t i n c t i o n s regarding the number of components

(bhaga)] within mentation i n i t s Dependent (paratantra) aspect. Some

declare that there i s only one, the s e l f - v e r i f y i n g component (sam v i t t i-

bhaga). This i s . the view of the master Sthiramati. Some declare that

there are only two, the subjective component (darsana-bhaga) and the

objective component (nimitta-bhaga). This i s the view of the master

192

Nanda. Some say there are only three, the s e l f - v e r i f y i n g component,

the subjective component, and the objective component. This i s the

view of the master Dignaga. [ F i n a l l y , ] some say that there are four

components., adding to the above three, the. v e r i f i e r of the s e l f -

v e r i f y i n g component (samvitti-svasamvitti-bhaga). This i s the view

of the master Dharmapala. (26lb29)

5.2.3 The Eight Modes are Neither the Same nor D i f f e r e n t .

A l l such d i s t i n c t i o n s among the vijnanas pertain only when

they are discussed from one p a r t i c u l a r viewpoint. CA more comprehensive

understanding i s ] based on the passage i n the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun

where i t states that the eight vijnanas, with respect to t h e i r own-

being, cannot be said to be d e f i n i t e l y d i f f e r e n t from each other.

This i s so,.because they have the nature of being both cause and f r u i t ,

because t h e i r nature i s not. f i x e d , and because they are l i k e the

waves i n water. Nor, on the other hand, are they d e f i n i t e l y the same.

This i s so, because t h e i r aspects (akara), t h e i r bases (asraya), t h e i r

objects (alambana) and t h e i r associated Cmental c o e f f i c i e n t s ]

193

(viprayukta) are d i f f e r e n t , because t h e i r a r i s i n g and ex t i n c t i o n

are d i f f e r e n t , and because t h e i r r o l e s i n the perfuming process

(vasana)^"^are d i f f e r e n t 1 ^

The Lankavatara Sutra says:

There are eight modes: c i t t a , manas, and

Cthe s i x ] vijnanas.

Conventionally, t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (laksana)

are distinguished ,

But absolutely, t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are

not distinguished,

For, Cat that l e v e l ] there i s neither that

which characterizes nor that which

i s characterized. , (26lc5)

5 .3 Conclusion

A l l such d i s t i n c t i o n s among classes of vijnana are c a l l e d con-

ceptualization-only (vijnapti-matra).

With respect to t h i s i l l u s o r y mentation ,when

contemplated with the preliminary cognition, only the common

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (samanya-laksana) Cof things] are cognized, not the i n

d i v i d u a l : c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (sva-laksana); when contemplated with the

subsequently acquired cognition however, the contemplation of t h e i r i n

.dividual ; c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s included as w e l l . This i s so, because,

[by means of the subsequently acquired cognition] each r e l a t i v e

e n t i t y of the Dependent (paratantra) aspect i s i n d i v i d u a l l y

v e r i f i e d . 1 ^ ( 2 6 l c 8 )

Section Six:

The Stages i n C u l t i v a t i n g R e a l i z a t i o n

198 C l a r i f i c a t i o n of the Stages

6.1.1 D i f f e r e n t Accounts in'the'Scriptures

1. The Mahayana-Samgraha declares:

At what points i s the bodtiisattva able to enter

Cinto the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of what i s to be known

(Jfieyalaksana)]? It i s said t h a t , with regard to

these mental expressions (manojalpa) endowed with

v i s i o n the expressions that take the appearance

of the Dharma and i t s meanings and that are born

of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the Mahayana Dharma

the bo.dhisattva i s eit h e r i n the Land where One

Practices Firm Resolve (adhimukticaryabhumi), or

on the Path of V i s i o n (darsana-marga), or on the

Path of C u l t i v a t i o n (bhavana-marga), or on the

Ultimate Path (nistha-marga).Clf he i s i n the

Land where One Practices Firm Resolve,] i t i s

because, with regard to the fact that a l l

dharmas are merely conceptualization (Vijnaptima-

t r a t a ) , he becomes f i r m l y resolved based on what

he has heard. C l f he i s on the Path of Vi s i o n , ]

i t i s because he succeeds i n exactly (yathabhutam)

penetrating Cthe Doctrine]. C l f he i s on the Path

of C u l t i v a t i o n , ] i t i s because he brings a l l the

obstacles under c o n t r o l . CAnd, i f he i s on the

Ultimate Path,] i t i s because he becomes completely 194

separated from a l l the obstacles.

Asavabhava says i n his commentary Con t h i s

passage]:

Some reside i n the Land where One Practices

Firm Resolve because, i n the midst of the fact

that a l l dharmas are conceptualization only', they

produce a fi r m resolve basing themselves only

on Ethe teachings] they have heard. Others are •

on the Path of V i s i o n because they succeed i n

exactly penetrating these mental expressions

. . . .Others are on the Path of C u l t i v a t i o n

because t h i s c u l t i v a t i o n counteracts and controls

the obstacle to what i s to be known (Jneya-

varana). And some are on the Ultimate Path,

because they are extremely pure and completely

separated from the o b s t a c l e s . 2 0 0 ( 2 6 l c l 7 ) .

The Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun says:

How does one gradually enter (praskandati)

Vijnaptimatrata? A l l bodhisattvas, with regard

to the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and nature of V i j n a p t i -_ 201

C-matrataH become capable of a profound - 20

(gambhira) b e l i e f and understanding (adhimukti)

at the Stage of Provisioning (sambharavastha)1.

At the Stage of Preliminary Training (prayoga-

vastha), they are able gradually to subdue and

eliminate both what i s apprehended (grahaka) and

what apprehends (grahya), and to produce

(abhinirharanti) the View of R e a l i t y (tattvadar-

sana). At the Stage of Penetration (prativedha-

vastha) they exactly penetrate or comprehend. At

the Stage of C u l t i v a t i o n (bhavanavastha), they

repeatedly c u l t i v a t e [ t h e i r r e a l i z a t i o n ] i n

accord with the v i s i o n [of the previous stage],

subduing and severing ...the remaining obstacles.

A r r i v i n g at the Ultimate Stage (nisthavastha),

they escape a l l obstacles, becoming complete and

l u c i d , able f o r the rest of the time to convert

the various classes of beings, causing them also

to enter the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and nature of 203

Vijnaptimatrata. (26lc23)

3. The f i f t y - n i n t h s c r o l l Cof the logdodvabhumil says:

How i s one able to sever the a f f l i c t i o n s

(klesa)? What i s necessary (kiyata) for i t to

be suitable to say that the a f f l i c t i o n s have been

severed? . . . Because the bodhisattva has

accumulated the p r o v i s i o n of wholesome dharmas

Cat the Stage of Provisioning!], because he has

attained a r e a l i z a t i o n of the Land of S k i l l f u l

Means Cat the Stage of Preliminary T r a i n i n g ] j

because he has a f u l l r e a l i z a t i o n of the Land of

V i s i o n Cat the Stage of Penetration], and because

he has assembled the Land of C u l t i v a t i o n Cat the

Stage of C u l t i v a t i o n ] , he i s able to sever the

a f f l i c t i o n s and a t t a i n the Ultimate Land. I t i s

then that one should say that the bodhisattva has 204

severed a l l of the a f f l i c t i o n s .

This i s just the same as i n the Ch' eng-wei-shih-tun. (26lc27)

6.1.2 ' "Explanation of the Differences.

'The doctrine of four stages i n the Mahayana-samgraha

holds that the Provisioning Stage (sambharavasta) of hearing (sruta)

and thinkin g (cinta) Cabout the Dharma] i s quite long: only a f t e r

completing a great eon(mahakalpa) of c u l t i v a t i o n does one undertake

Cthe a c t i v i t i e s ] of the Stage of I n i t i a l Training (prayogavastha) and 205

then, i n the stage of, concentration, produce the contemplation of

Vijnaptimatrata. Emphasizing i n i t s discussion what predominates

Lin t h i s period leading up to the Stage of V i s i o n , viz : . , the hearing

and thinking about the Dharma], the Mahccydna-samgraha teaches only-

four stages. Because [262a] the actual time spent i n contemplation

Cat the Stage of Training] i s r e l a t i v e l y short, that stage i s sub-

sumed [under the f i r s t ] and. i s not taught separately.

The doctrine of f i v e stages taught i n the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun

and other works i s a discussion based on R e a l i t y ( t a t t v a ) ; i t f u l l y

distinguishes a l l the aspects (akara) of s p i r i t u a l c u l t i v a t i o n

(bhavana). In the stage preceding the Path of V i s i o n (darsana-marga)

there i s , indeed,some .subduing and elimination of the a f f l i c t i o n s . 2 0 ^ *

The Mahayana-samgraha,the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun and other works each say

that, because of the contemplation involved i n the examinations

performed i n [the Four Steps Conducive to I n t e l l e c t u a l Penetration

— 207

(nirvedha-bhagiyas), v i s . , ] heat (usmagata), etc., there i s some

subd.uing and elimination of the a f f l i c t i o n s .

Those who hasten d i r e c t l y [to Buddhahood following the

bodhisattva path] and those who go the long way round [converting

only l a t e r to the bodhisattva path a f t e r progressing on the sravaka

or pratyeka buddha path] are the same i n the stages p r i o r to the Ten 208

Lands. Those who go the long way round, even though they are

becoming pure (anasrava) and are i n the kind of discursive con-

209

templation, are,nonetheless, unable to subdue and eliminate the

a f f l i c t i o n s . This i s so, because, not ever having r e a l i z e d r e a l

mentation, they are never able to discern the mentation that i s

l i k e an i l l u s i o n . (262a6)

131

6.2 Types of C u l t i v a t i o n

The preceding paragraphs c l a r i f i e d the stages; the following

w i l l d i s t i n g u i s h the types of s p i r i t u a l c u l t i v a t i o n (bhavana). Three

types of c u l t i v a t i o n are distinguished: the c u l t i v a t i o n of

r e a l i z a t i o n , the c u l t i v a t i o n of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (laksana?), and

the c u l t i v a t i o n of the stations of existence (bhumi).

6.2.1 C u l t i v a t i o n of R e a l i z a t i o n .

At the stages p r i o r to the Path .'of V i s i o n (darsana-marga),

although one produces the contemplation of the Vijnaptimatrata of

both the absolute and the conventional, i t i s only apparent and not

r e a l . On entering the Path of Vision, [the bodhisattvasH of both

the Path of V i s i o n into R e a l i t y and the Path of V i s i o n into the

210 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s [of Vijnaptimatratan discern r e a l mentation; and

i t i s just then that the subsequently acquired cognition of the

conventional discerns conventional mentation. The the Fourth Land

211

and before, the absolute and the conventional are only just united.

However, as i t i s done only with much e f f o r t (abhoga), the u n i f i c a t i o n

can be e f f e c t e d only s l i g h t l y i n the beginning. A r r i v i n g at the Sixth

212

Stage, the state of being free of notions (nirnimitta) about things

occurs frequently, but one i s not yet able to sustain i t for a long

time. Only then i n the Seventh. Land does one succeed i n sustaining

i t f o r a long time.' It i s , however,still s i m i l a r to preliminary

t r a i n i n g [ i n that i t s t i l l requires e f f o r t ] , and so i t too i s not

yet spontaneous. In the Eighth Land and above, one's c u l t i v a t i o n

becomes e f f o r t l e s s , while spontaneously, and i n the midst of emptiness,

one gives r i s e to the supreme p r a c t i c e . Both the absolute and the

132

conventional'mentation permanently take a u n i f i e d object (alambana).

213

Having a r r i v e d at the Land of the Buddhas, three of the Four

Cognitions Cviz., the Great Mirror Cognition (mahadarsa-.jna.na),

the Cognition of Universal Sameness (samatajnana), and the Cognition

of Profound Contemplation (pratyaveksana-jnana)1 are able to take 214

absolute and conventional mentation as t h e i r object. The s i x t h

i s unspecified, because i t follows the mind's i n c l i n a t i o n

(adhyasaya). The Cognition that Completes Things Ci.e., the

Cognition that Completes what i s to be Done (krtyanusthaha-jnana)D

takes only the conventional as i t s object, because i t s aspects 215

(akara) and objects (alambana) are shallow, though there are others

who say that i t also includes the absolute, because i t s sovereignty

(vasitva) i s complete. (262al6)

6.2.2 C u l t i v a t i o n of the C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

What i s termed ' c u l t i v a t i o n of the contemplation of V i j n a p t i -

matrata'? This r e f e r s to the process by which the seeds (bija) and

the Manifestations (samudacara) of the impure (sasrava) and the pure

(anasrava) contemplating mind are brought to develop, f l o u r i s h , grow

and mature. In the f i r s t stage of c u l t i v a t i o n , following the Dharma

that has been heard, the c o g i t a t i o n that engenders the sense-fields

causes t h i s contemplating mind to ripen i n i t s refinement and become

s o v e r e i g n . 2 1 ^ Later, when one subdues t h e . c l i n g i n g to what i s

apprehended (grahya) and what apprehends (grahaka), the contemplating

mind develops to become cl e a r and superior, while the images making 217

up the sense-fields gradually become more subtle. When the mind 2l8

and the sense-fields suddenly become profound, the contemplation

http://mahadarsa-.jna.na

develops to become pure ( a n a s r a v a ) C o n t i n u i n g to development i n

2: the same way, i t proceeds from the lower degree to the middle degree.

Developing further from the middle degree to the highest degree, i t

221 reaches the ultimate completion and f u l f i l l m e n t . This i s what i s

222 termed c u l t i v a t i o n .

223

The f i r s t two stages involve the three v a r i e t i e s of wisdom

i n t h e i r impure (sasrava) form and the c u l t i v a t i o n of both the

manifestations (sumudacara) and the seeds ( b i j a ) ; t h i s i s so, because

the e f f i c a c y of the p u r i t y acquired from c u l t i v a t i n g the seeds accrues

only gradually. At the Stage of Penetration (prativedhavastha) Ci.e.,

the Path of V i s i o n ] , there i s only the wisdom produced through •. .

c u l t i v a t i o n . It becomes r e f i n e d and pure. There i s c u l t i v a t i o n of~

both the manifestations and the seeds, but the c u l t i v a t i o n of seeds

remains impure.

At the Stage of C u l t i v a t i o n : i f i n the Seventh Land or before,

one i s equipped with a l l three v a r i e t i e s of wisdom, both impure and

pure, and one undertakes the c u l t i v a t i o n of both the manifestations

and the seeds. From the Eighth Land onwards, one has the three

v a r i e t i e s of wisdom i n t h e i r pure form and undertakes the c u l t i v a t i o n

of both the manifestations and the seeds, with the l a t t e r again

remaining impure.

At the Ultimate Stage, the impure dharmas are completely

abandoned. Since the pure dharmas have come to completion, there i s

no further c u l t i v a t i o n . One i s , however, s t i l l equipped with

manifestations and seeds and with the pure contemplation of the dual

theme of the absolute and the conventional. (262a29)

6.2.3 C u l t i v a t i o n of the Stations of Existence

There i s the c u l t i v a t i o n of a c q u i s i t i o n (pratilambha-

bhavana) and the c u l t i v a t i o n of p r a c t i c e (nisevana-bhavana.) .The

ninth, s c r o l l of Sthiramati's Commentary on the Abhidharma-samuecaya

says:

225

Moreover, when born to one of these paths,

one i s able to determine one's habit energy

Ci.e., the perfuming e f f e c t one's current

actions have on the production of wholesome

dharmas i n the fu t u r e ] . This i s c a l l e d

' c u l t i v a t i o n of the a c q u i s i t i o n Cof future

wholesome dharmas]', because, on the basis of

t h i s , a l l the classes of se.ed-potentialities

develop,increase and l i n k together, eventually

to be produced. Moreover, the c u l t i v a t i o n or

practi c e that actualizes these paths i s what

i s c a l l e d "the c u l t i v a t i o n of p r a c t i c e " ,

because i t i s by v i r t u e of t h i s that the 226

a c t u a l i z a t i o n of these paths i s effected .

" P r a c t i c e " r e f e r s to the manifest state (samudacara) and a c q u i s i t i o n "

to the seed-potential state.

There are those who are based i n one of the lower stations of

existence and put f o r t h the thought of one of the same lower s t a t i o n s .

Their ' c u l t i v a t i o n of. p r a c t i c e ' Ci.e., what i s manifest (samudacara)]

i s only of the lower stations,' while t h e i r ' c u l t i v a t i o n of a c q u i s i t i o n '

Ci.e., what becomes seed-potentiality] i s of the upper stations as

we l l , since, what i t 'acquires' i s the taking of higher realms as i t s

object which causes i t s power to f l o u r i s h and grow. This i s so,

because Cin t h i s case] both the substance and the function of the

lower stations are enhanced; whereas, only the function of the higher

227

stations i s enhanced. [This i s attested by] a passage i n the

Ch''eng-wei-shih Lun that says:

That the f i r s t three of the formless (arupya)

stations are said to have t h i s f a c u l t y [ v i s . ,

anajnatam] i s because i t i s the p a r t i a l ,

c u l t i v a t i o n - a c q u i s i t i o n of the superior Path of

V i s i o n , Ci.e., i t i s present as a seed-. , . , .. • 228

p o t e n t i a l i t y ] .

There are those who are based i n a lower s t a t i o n of existence .

and who put f o r t h the thought of a higher s t a t i o n . Their ' c u l t i v a t i o n

of p r a c t i c e ' i s of the higher s t a t i o n only, while t h e i r ' c u l t i v a t i o n

229

of a c q u i s i t i o n ' i s of the lower s t a t i o n as w e l l .

There are those who are based i n a higher s t a t i o n of

existence and who put f o r t h the thought of a higher s t a t i o n . Their

' c u l t i v a t i o n of p r a c t i c e ' i s of the higher s t a t i o n only, while t h e i r

' c u l t i v a t i o n of a c q u i s i t i o n ' i s also of the lower stations as well 230

Has the higher s t a t i o n s ] .

There are those who are based i n a higher s t a t i o n of existence

and who put.forth the thought of a lower s t a t i o n . Their ' c u l t i v a t i o n

of p r a c t i c e ' i s of the lower s t a t i o n only, while t h e i r ' c u l t i v a t i o n

of a c q u i s i t i o n ' i s of the higher stations as w e l l .

In every case one can, when based'in a higher s t a t i o n of

existence, c u l t i v a t e e i t h e r the same st a t i o n or any of the lower

stat i o n s . I f , however, we speak of c u l t i v a t i n g a higher s t a t i o n when

based i n a lower s t a t i o n of existence, t h i s must r e f e r to the

c u l t i v a t i o n of one who has already attained that higher s t a t i o n [ i n a

136

previous existence]'or one who has sovereignty over that s t a t i o n

[acquired through concentration (samadhi)]. I t does not r e f e r to

the other, classes, of beings. The passage i n [ S t h i r a m a t i 1 s ]

Commentary to the- Abhidharma-samueeaya saying that those of lower

231 s t a t i o n of existence are incapable of c u l t i v a t i n g higher stations

i s a statement per t a i n i n g only to the c u l t i v a t i o n of e i t h e r the

2 32

neophyte (adikarmika) or the one who i s gradually approaching

[the concentration of a higher s t a t i o n ] . They have not yet acquired

sovereignty (vasitva) and, i f they have not attained the higher l e v e l s

of concentration (samadhi), they are incapable of the higher c u l t i v a t i o n s

because they have either only just produced the f r u i t [ i n the case of 233

the l a t t e r ] or not yet produced f r u i t [ i n the case of the former]. It i s not the case that those who are superior are thus l i m i t e d . (262bl5)

137

Section Seven:

23U Of What Nature i s The Dharma

1 Contemplation1?

There are two varieties' o f t h i s constituent of experience

(dharma): the 'contemplator' J f J ^ ^ ^ C i . e . , the subjective f a c t o r ] ;

and the 'contemplated' iSlel C i . e. , the objective f a c t o r ] .

7-1 The Subjective Factor

The subjective factor i s d e f i n i t e l y not Imaginary ( p a r i k a l p i t a ) ,

because the Imaginary i s without substance. This i s according to the

correct doctrine Ci.e., that of Dharmapala]. The impure (sasrava)

subjective factor d e f i n i t e l y belongs to the Dependent (paratantra),

while the pure (anasrava) subjective factor i s included under two

Cof the three] natures. With respect to whether i t i s continuous or

non-continuous, i t belongs to the Dependent (paratantra); whereas,

with respect to whether i t i s impure or pure, i t belongs to the

Absolute (parinispanna). It i s c e r t a i n l y not the case that pure

subjective f a c t o r belongs e x c l u s i v e l y to the Absolute Caspect of

existence], because i t i s not the absolute u n i v e r s a l ^ .

This makes i t clear that: In the period before entering the

ten lands, there i s only an impure and.Dependent subjective f a c t o r .

In the Seventh Land and before, the ''subjective factor is".

C p a r t i a l l y ] impure and C p a r t i a l l y ] pure, and i s both Dependent and

Absolute. In the Eight Land and above, the subjective factor i s only

pure, but i s s t i l l both Dependent and Absolute. (262b22)

138

7.2 The Objective Factor

7.2.1 Three D i f f e r e n t S c r i p t u r a l Sources

l a . On the nature of objective f a c t o r , the Mahayana-samgraha

says:

235

Thus, by awakening."to and entering the

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the apparent objects • which

are mental expressions, the.Bodhisattva awakens

to and enters the Imaginary Nature. By awakening

to and entering Vijnaptimatrata, he awakens to

and'=enters-• the • Dependent. Nature . . . . I f he has 236

destroyed the notion of the Vijnaptimatrata of

the classes of s e e d - p o t e n t i a l i t i e s that were

perfumed by the preached Dharma which consists of

mental expressions... . then, at that time, the

i n t u i t i v e nondiscriminating cognition (nirvikalpaka-

^jnana). . . that.[takes.subject and object! as the

same (sama-sama) w i l l have a r i s e n , and he w i l l awaken 237

to and enter the Absolute Nature.

l b . Arid, i t says further:

The [ r e l a t i o n s h i p between! name and thin g

i s adventitious;

Their", nature should\ be. [thus! examined.

With.regard to t h e i r dual.aspect one must

also deduce that

There i s nothing but.conceptualization,

nothing but representation

With, the Exact Comprehensions one sees that

there, i s no object (artha),

139

That there is.nothing hut discrimination

into three.

The object does not e x i s t , and so the

three do not exist e i t h e r ;

To r e a l i z e t h i s i s to enter into the 2 38

Three Natures.

The f i r s t h a l f of the f i r s t verse r e f e r s to awakening to and entering

the Imaginary ( p a r i k a l p i t a ) , and the second h a l f of the f i r s t verse

r e f e r s awakening to• and entering the Dependent (paratantra) Nature.

The second verse r e f e r s to awakening to and- entering- the Absolute'

(parinispanna) Nature.

l c . The Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun-. says:

Without having seen Thusness (tathata),

One i s not able to discern that 239

a l l constructions

Are l i k e magical i l l u s i o n s , etc.:

Even though they may be there.,

they are not r e a l . 2 ^ 1 0

2. Thus, the three passages above are not the same. According

to the f i r s t passage from the Mahayana-samgraha3 i t i s with the

Warmth degree (usmagata) and the Head Degree (murdhan) Cof the Stage

of Preliminary Training. (prayogavastha)ll that one enters the Imaginary

( p a r i k a l p i t a ) ; then, with.the Acquiescence Degree (k s a n t i ) , the

Pinnacle of Worldly Truth Degree (laukikagryadharma) also of the

Stage of Preliminary T r a i n i n g ] , one enters the Dependent (paratantra);

• 241

and then, with.the f i r s t thought of the F i r s t Land, one enters

the Absolute (parinispanna).

According to the second passage from the Mahayana-samgraha,

one enters two of the Natures [ v i s . , Imaginary and Dependent] with

the Four Examinations, which are part of the Warmth and the Head

Degree Cof the Stage of Preliminary T r a i n i n g ] , and then, with the

Four Exact Comprehensions. [also of the Stage of Preliminary T r a i n i n g ] ,

one enters the Absolute.

According to the Ch'eng-wei-sh-ih-tun passage, one must enter

the F i r s t Land, and only then does one awaken to the Three Natures.

(262c8)

7.2.2 Two Di f f e r e n t D o c t r i n a l Views

Although there are three passages, there are r e a l l y only two

[ d i f f e r e n t ] doctrines: the f i r s t i s genuine r e a l i z a t i o n and

1. The verse i n the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun i s based on what

242

i s genuine personal r e a l i z a t i o n . This i s because i t i s only with

the two Pure Cognitions---vis.,the fundamental cognitions (mula-

jnana) which \-"first'.- r e a l i z e s the absolute, and the subsequently-

acquired wisdom (prstha-labdha-jnana) which l a t e r r e a l i z e s the

conventional that the l a t t e r two Natures [Dependent and Absolute]

can be r e a l i z e d . When one has r e a l i z e d these two Natures, one does

not perceive the d u a l i t y of that which.apprehends (grahaka) and that

which i s apprehended (grahya), and i t i s t h i s that i s c a l l e d

r e a l i z i n g the non-existence of the Imaginary ( p a r i k a l p i t a ) .

[Such] non-existent dharmas e n t a i l the absence of substance; . 243

what then i s there [of the Imaginary Nature] f o r wisdom to r e a l i z e ?

The non-existence [of the Imaginary] that i s ind i c a t ed by the fact

141

that things are permutations of vijnana i s included i n Cthe

r e a l i z a t i o n o f] the Dependent Nature, -while the non-existence Cof

the Imaginary] indicate d by the universal of Thusness i s included i n

Cthe r e a l i z a t i o n o f] the Absolute. Therefore,Cin the Ch'eng-wei-shih-

lun passage],the Imaginary, i s not discussed separately as having a

separate r e a l i z a t i o n . Having only entered into the two Natures Cvis.,

Dependent and Absolute], one no longer perceives: the d u a l i t y of that

which apprehends and that which i s apprehended, and t h i s C i n . i t s e l f ]

i s c a l l e d becoming aware of and entering the Imaginary. However, since

i t i s the cognition of true substance Ci.e., the fundamental cognition

(mula-jnana)] that r e a l i z e s the', u n i v e r s al by f u l l y penetrating the

non-existence Cof that which apprehends and that which i s apprehended],

i t i s most-often said to be t h i s cognition that r e a l i z e s the Imaginary.

Even though t h i s d u a l i t y Cof apprehender and apprehended] i s already

no longer seen even before the Path of V i s i o n (darsana-marga), one

s t i l l has not personally acquired the two cognitions Cvis., fundamental

and subsequently acquired] and i t i s not called.the r e a l i z a t i o n of

the non-existence Cof apprehender and apprehended]. Therefore, i t i s

only then at the F i r s t Land that one i s sa i d to have r e a l i z e d

Cthe Three Natures] (262cl7)

l b . In the f i r s t passage from the Mahayana-samgraha,what i s

said about awakening, to the Absolute i s based on Cthe f i r s t of the

above categories,] genuine r e a l i z a t i o n ; and accords with the Ch'eng-

wei-shih-lun passage. CWhat i s said.about] awakening to the f i r s t two

Natures i s based on Cthe second of the above caregories,] 'apparent

awakening'. This i s so, because, f o r most of the time, during the

greatest.portion Cof one's p r a c t i c e ] , one thinks, with some i n t e l l e c t u a l

142

understanding, about the f i r s t two Natures. Even.though, f o r a very-

short time, during a small portion Cof one's p r a c t i c e ] , one does

indeed appear to awaken and enter the Absolute, nevertheless, t h i s i s

not f o r most of the time during the greatest portion Cof' one's p r a c t i c e ]

and i s s t i l l not.personal r e a l i z a t i o n . Therefore, t h i s passage i s based

on the f i r s t category of'genuine r e a l i z a t i o n ' . (262c2l)

l c . In the second passage from the Mahaydna-samgvaha, what i s

said about awakening to and entering the Three Natures i s a discussion

based e n t i r e l y on Cthe second category o f ] 'apparent' i n t e l l e c t u a l

understanding. One f i r s t contemplates the fact that name and thin g are

245 not [ i n t r i n s i c a l l y ] i n t e r - r e l a t e d ; therefore that i s c a l l e d awakening

to and entering into the Imaginary. Next one contemplates the fact that

there i s nothing but dharmas conceptualized by mentation and named by

246

convention, etc.; and, even though one has not yet r e a l i z e d what i s

the Ultimate R e a l i t y , t h i s i s c a l l e d awakening to the Dependent. At the

stage of the Four.Exact Comprehensions, even though what i s . r e a l s t i l l has

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and one has not yet r e a l i z e d Thusness, the two that

247

which apprehends and. that which i s apprehended both cease. One

enters i n a manner bearing an apparent resemblance to the contemplation

of r e a l wisdom Con the Path of V i s i o n ] and, with that i n t e l l e c t u a l

understanding, goes so f a r as to say, "Why, this i s Thusness (thathata)!"

Thus, while the stage of the Exact Comprehensions may indeed be c a l l e d

entry into the Absolute (parinispanna), s t i l l i t i s not an i n t u i t i v e

entry (262c28)

2. CSummary:3 The Mahay'ana-samgraha bases i t s e l f on the

apparent: in. l i g h t of the i n t e l l e c t u a l understanding of the Three

24 Natures, i t explains, separately how one awakens to and enters each.

The Ch'eng-wei-shih^-Lun bases i t s e l f on the r e a l : i t says that

one separately r e a l i z e s the l a t t e r two Natures and, i n doing t h a t ,

succeeds i n r e a l i z i n g the Imaginary. Even though the texts d i f f e r ,

they do not contradict each other. Other text can a l l be explained

by analogy to these. (263al)

Section Eight:

The Stations and the Base of A r i s i n g

This section has two parts: the f i r s t discusses the base

( a s r a y a ) 2 ^ [from which one gives r i s e to the contemplation of

Vijnaptimatrata],and the second c l a r i f i e s the stations Cof existence

250

or meditation] i n which i t a r i s e s . (263a3)

8.1 The Base 2 ^ 1

252 8.1.1 F i r s t A r i s i n g

253

I f i t i s a case of sudden and- di r e c t awakening, then the

f i r s t a r i s i n g Cof the contemplation] i s attained by one based i n the

Realm of Sense-desire (kama-dhatu). This i s so, because one can

f i r s t produce the superior mind only i n the Realm of Sense-desire. 254

The Hs%en-yang-sheng-ch%ao-luri•- "and other .works say:

Because of the extreme d i s t r e s s , i t does not a r i s e i n 255

the wretched des t i n i e s (durgati);

Because of the extreme pleasure, i t does not a r i s e i n

the two higher realms. 2"^

.It'is-only among-the men and. the gods of the Realm of

Sense-desire

That Buddhas appear and that one i s able to give r i s e 257

to comprehension (abhisamaya).

During the period up to and includin g the F i r s t Land Ci.e.,

at the Stage of Provisioning and the Stage of Preliminary T r a i n i n g ] ,

everything can be accomplished.while based i n any of the three

realms. We allow that the bodhisattva of insight (vipasyana-

bodhisattva) can be born i n the Realm of Formlessness (arupya-

dhatu), because he can, with a formless mind, discern everything.

Were i t not so, what person would succeed i n t h i s matter.

During the period up to and i n c l u d i n g the Seventh Land, the

bodhisattva gives r i s e to the contemplation while based either i n the

Realm of Sense-desire or the Realm of Form (rupa-dhatu). This i s so,

because the bodhisattva Cof t h i s degree1 i s not born i n the Realm of

Formlessness.

From the Eighth Land on, the bodhisattva gives r i s e to the

contemplation based only, i t i s c e r t a i n , i n a body of the Realm of

Sense-desire.. This i s so, because i t i s by entrusting himself to t h i s

superior base that he attains enlightenment (bodhi). (263alo)

258

2. I f i t i s a case of gradual awakening: Cthere are three

d i s t i n c t classes: (2a) those who have already attained the f i r s t

two f r u i t s ; (2b) those who attained the t h i r d f r u i t and are of

successive b i r t h ; (2c) those who.. have. ei t h e r attained the t h i r d f r u i t

and are not of successive b i r t h , or who have attained the fourth

f r u i t . :

2a. I f they are. saints who had already attained the f i r s t

two. f r u i t s , (i.e.., those who were stream-winners "or once-returners

before taking the bodhisattva pathH, the base upon which they

succeeded i n f i r s t giving r i s e to the contemplation must be of the

Realm of Sense-desire. COf these, there are again two classes: those

of successive b i r t h and those not of successive birth.1

I f he i s not of successive b i r t h (aparivrttajanman)

the base upon which he gave r i s e to the contemplation at the Seventh

Land and before can also be of the Realm of Form [as well as the

Realm of Sense-desire!. Although he has not yet entered the Lands,

he i s s t i l l , not born.in the Realm of Formlessness. This i s so,

because he received b i r t h according to the sovereignty of h i s vow

of compassion towards a l l beings, and that prevents him from being

born i n the Realm of Formlessness[where compassion cannot be

practiced!]. It i s also the case, because such an a l t e r a t i o n of the

realm i n which the. bodhisattva i s born, i s not allowed on the basis of

[any new karmie action due toll h i s p r a c t i c e of c u l t i v a t i o n . Such a

bodhisattva. d i f f e r s from the bodhisattva of sudden awakening: the

l a t t e r has already become pure (anasrava) before • entering the Path

of V i s i o n because the strengths he has acquired through his karmic

action are more numerous. There are some who allow that t h i s type of

bodhisattva [ i . e . , one of gradual awakening who i s of successive

birthD i s also born into the Realm of Formlessness. This [they say 3

i s so, because, the connections of karmic action they have within

the three •realms' " s t i l l exist'; ;• and also because i t i s not

the case that being born i n the higher realm, they loathe the

defilements, of the lower realms.

I f i t i s the case of a bodhisattva of gradual awakening who

i s of successive b i r t h (parivrttajanman), then he d e f i n i t e l y cannot

be born i n the upper, realm. This i s so, because, on producing the

thought and afterwards, he can be only i n the Realm of Sense-desire.

(2"63al7)

2b. I f i t i s a case of a bodhisattva Cof gradual awakening]

who had attained the t h i r d f r u i t Ci.e.., who was a non-returner

(anagamin)] and i s not of successive b i r t h , then i t was i n the

Realm of Sense-desire that he f i r s t put f o r t h the thought, and he

subsequently takes both t h i s realm and also the Realm of Form as

the base for giving r i s e to the contemplation of Vijnaptimatrata.

He i s not born into the Realm of Formlessness because i t i s without

advantage. (263al9)

2c. I f i t i s a case of a bodhisattva Cof gradual awakening]

who had attained the t h i r d f r u i t and i s of successive b i r t h , or who

had attained the fourth f r u i t , Cthere are two p o s s i b i l i t i e s ] . I f

i t was i n the Realm of Sense-desire that he f i r s t produced the

thought Cof enlightenment], then, in.the beginning and l a t e r , he

gives r i s e to the contemplation based only i n the Realm of Sense-

desire. I f , on the other hand, i t was i n the Realm of Form, that

he f i r s t produced, the thought Cof enlightenment], then It i s based

only i n the Realm of Form that he gives r i s e to the contemplation

of Vijnaptimatrata. (263a2l).

8.1.2 The F i r s t R e a l i z a t i o n

1. Bodhisattvas of sudden awakening, at the time of t h e i r

f i r s t r e a l i z a t i o n Cof Vijnaptimatrata], must be based i n the Realm

of Sense-desire. This i s . so, because by v i r t u e of having severed the

tendency t o c l i n g to the notion, of S e l f (pudgalabhinivesa?), t h e i r

wisdom and their, l o a t h i n g Cof the cycle of death and r e - b i r t h ] are

deep.

2. Bodhisattvas of gradual awakening, at the time of t h e i r

f i r s t r e a l i z a t i o n Cof VijnaptimatrataH can be based i n the Realm of

Form as well as the Realm of Sense-desire.

When the Esien-yang-sheng-c'kiao-'lun and other works declare

that i t i s only within the Realm of Sense-desire that one can enter

comprehension (abhisamaya), i t i s with reference to the i n i t i a l

entry of each of the three types of saints on'' h i s respective path

Cviz., sravaka, pratyeka-buddha, or bodhisattvail. This i s so, because

the statement does not p e r t a i n to those who have gradually awakened

to the: bodhisattva path Cafter severing the c l i n g i n g to the notion

of S e l f on e i t h e r the sravaka or patyeka-buddha path!, since Cthe

remaining task of1 severing the c l i n g i n g to a notion of t r u l y

e x i s t i n g dharmas (dharmabhinivesa.) does not require the deep loat h i ng

of the cycle of death and r e - b i r t h Cpossible only i n the Realm of

Sense-desire:. (263a24)

8.2 The Stations

8.2.1 The Correct Doctrine

The preceding c l a r i f i e d the base Cupon which one gives r i s e

to the contemplation of V i j n a p t i m a t r a t a l , what follows c l a r i f i e s the

stations, of existence or meditation i n which i t a r i s e s . In one's

own s t a t i o n of e x i s t e n c e ^ ^ w i t h i n the Realm of Sense-desire, the

contemplation.involves both the wisdom, produced through e r u d i t i o n

(srutamayi prajna) and the wisdom produced through r e f l e c t i o n

(cintamayi-prajna). Being only dispersed (asamahita), i t i s not

concentration (samadhi); i t i s also not free of the impurities

(anasrava). This i s based on the correct doctrine and does not take

up any l a t e r a l assertions.

During, contemplation based, i n the Realm of Form, two of

the wisdoms are involved, that due to eru d i t i o n and that due to

c u l t i v a t i o n (bhavanamayi-prajna). In contemplation based i n the

Realm of Formlessness there i s only the wisdom produced through

c u l t i v a t i o n , and not the others. We say the Realm of Form lacks

the wisdom produced through r e f l e c t i o n , and that the Realm of Form-

lessness lacks the wisdom due to eruditio n as well as that due to

r e f l e c t i o n , because t h i s i s i n accord, with a l l of the teachings.

These three v a r i e t i e s of wisdom are acquired through t r a i n i n g

262

(prayogika) only; they are not included within the cla s s of what

i s acquired through b i r t h (upapatti-pratilambhika).

8.2.2 Explanation'', of some L a t e r a l Assertions

According to what i s asserted i n the s i x t y - f i f t h s c r o l l of

263

the •Yogdedrabhumi.,. however, they may be C263bH Cthe r e s u l t ofH

concentration (samadhi), and they may be acquired through b i r t h , as

with ihs;i:ght,-bodhisattvas who have not.-yet-> attained sovereignty

and sravakas who have attained broad:wisdom. Whether they be

sravakas who s t i l l have something to learn (saiksa)- or arhats, they

discern dharmas of the three realms and pure dharmas by means of

thought Cwhile basedH i n the Realm of Formlessness. Therefore, we

know that t h i s contemplation i s also present i n the Realm of Form-

lessness. The bodhisattva [ i n that easeH i s at the stage of the

Forty Stations of Thought p r a c t i c e d on the Path of V i s i o n and

before;.this, i s so, because i t i s declared i n many places that at

the stage of the Lands and above [ i . e . , from the end of the Path

150

of V i s i o n ] , the bodhisattva i s not horn Cin the Realm of Formlessness].

The sravaka of broad wisdom i s properly (yathayogyam) declared to be

of t h i s c l a s s , because he i s not deluded about the dharmas. Aside

from these two exceptions i t i s not stated that other humans also

succeed i n taking everything as an object with "formless, thought.

From the stage of the bodhisattva's Path of V i s i o n up to the

Diamond-like Concentration (vajropan.a-samadhi), one's st a t i o n i s the

fourth l e v e l of meditation Cin the Realm of Form], Later a l l the

stations are included: one can properly be based, i n any of t h e ten

stations the s i x i n the Realm of "Form,and the four i n the Realm of

Formlessness and give r i s e to t h i s contemplation. Cof Vijnaptimatrata!].

What, severs doubts are the f i r s t nine of these s t a t i o n s , while

264

discursive contemplation i s involved i n a l l ten. They should

properly be taught separately. The pure (anasrava) modes of wisdom

due to eruditio n and r e f l e c t i o n accord with t h e i r base Cviz.,

wisdom due to c u l t i v a t i o n : and are without error.

Of the Ceight3 not-yet-arrived (anagamya) l e v e l s 2 ^ , the

highest seven have only pleasure Cin the higher realmsH and loathin g _ \ '266

Cm the lowest realm]; t h e i r aspects (akara) appear as i f checked,

and so they are unable to produce.it Ci.e., the base of c u l t i v a t i o n ] ,

(263bll)

http://produce.it

151

Section Nine:

. Severing the Obstacles and Defilements

There are two types of obstacles: those'that are. innate

(sahaja), and those Cthat a r i s e as the r e s u l t ] of discrimination

( v i k a l p i t a ) . Each of these i s again divided into two types: the

obstacle [constituted by] the various a f f l i c t i o n s (klesavarana or

a f f l i c t i o n - o b s t a c l e ) , and the obstacle Charring] what i s to be known

(Jneyavarana or wisdom-obstacle).^'''

9.1 The Stage of Severance

The Tenth S c r o l l of Ch'eng-wei-shih-lvn says Cthat the two

268

types of the two obstacles are severed as fo l l o w s ] .

9.1.1 The manifestations (samudacara) of the d i s c r i m i n a t i o n -

produced portion of the a f f l i c t i o n - o b s t a c l e (vikalpaklesavarana) are

subdued, b i t by b i t , on the Path of Provisioning (sambhara-marga), and

then, on the Path of Trainin g (prayoga-marga), one can, at once, subdue

them completely. The seeds and impregnations Cof t h i s portion of the

a f f l i c t i o n - o b s t a c l e 1. are severed i n the F i r s t Cor Joyous] Land.

9-1.2 The manifestations of the innate portion of the

a f f l i c t i o n - o b s t a c l e (sahajaklesavaranasamudacara) are subdued, b i t

by b i t , before the CBodhisattva] Lands, and then, from the F i r s t Land

onward, one can, at once, subdue them completely. They w i l l , however,

on occasion seem to a r i s e by the strength of Cthe bodhisattva's3

w i l l Ce.g., as s k i l l f u l means (upaya) f o r the conversion of other

beings], but there i s nothing wrong with that. From the Eighth

Cor Immovable] Land onward there are no further manifestations. The

impregnations Cof t h i s portion of the a f f l i c t i o n - o b s t a c l e ] are

1 5 2

removed Stage by Stage, while i t s seeds are severed i n the Diamond-

l i k e Concentration.

The erroneous view of i n d i v i d u a l i t y • ( s a t k a y a d r s ^ i ) , e t c . , of

Cthe a f f l i c t i o n - o b s t a c l e ] , along with i t s innate portion, are both perma-

nently subdued i n the Fourth Cor B r i l l i a n t ] Stage because there i s no

longer any c l i n g i n g to dharmas Cas r e a l ] (dharmagraha). The C a f f l i c t i o n s ]

Produced by Cthis erroneous view of i n d i v i d u a l i t y ] are not operative

i n the F i f t h CVery D i f f i c u l t to Conquer] Land because they, as i t s

companions,, are also destroyed.

9 . 1 . 3 The manifestations, of the. discrimination-produced

portion of the wisdom-obstacle (vikalpajneyavaranasamudacara) are

also subdued, b i t by b i t , on the Path of Provisioning ; and then, on

the Path of Training one can, at once, subdue them, completely. The

seeds and impregnations Cof t h i s portion of the wisdom-obstacle] are

severed i n the F i r s t Cor Joyous] Land.

9 . 1 . 4 The manifestations of the innate portion Cof the

wisdom-obstacle](sahajajneyavaranasamudacara) are Cgenerally speaking],

subdued b i t by b i t p r i o r to the CBodhisattva] Lands, and t h i s

continues u n t i l , f i n a l l y , i n the Tenth Cor Dharma-cloud] Land they

are subdued completely. I f , however, we speak Cof each type of

manifestation] s p e c i f i c a l l y , then Cthose manifestations associated

with] the f i r s t s i x vijnanas are subdued completely i n the Eighth

Cor Immovable] Land, while the seeds and impregnations Cassociated

with the s i x vijnanas] are severed Stage by Stage. CThose manifest-

ations associated with] the seventh vijnana are subdued on the Path

of Training stage of the Diamond-like Concentration; and, when t h i s

Diamond-like Concentration a r i s e s , the seeds and impregnations

[associated with the seventh vijnana! are a l l severed. (263b25)

9.2 Various Other C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

9.2.1 The Three Stages of Severance.

The Bodhi-sattvabhumi-'teaches that the a f f l i c t i o n - o b s t a c l e

269

and the wisdom-obstacle are both severed i n three stages.

1. F i r s t , i s the Stage of Supreme Joy where the a f f l i c t i o n s

[associated with! the unfavorable destinies and also the most super-270 . •

f i c i a l crude dross (dausthulya) of the wisdom-obstacle are a l l

severed forever. [At t h i s Stage! one i s able to prevent any further

manifestation of the upper-middle grade of a f f l i c t i o n s , and has the

very f i r s t r e a l i z a t i o n of the cognition of the r e a l i t y of the two

emptinesses.

2. Second i s the In e f f i c a c i o u s and Formless Stage. [In t h i s

Stage! the a f f l i c t i o n s which can obstruct the non-arising dharma

patience and also the l e s s - s u p e r f i c i a l crude dross of the wisdom-

obstacle are a l l severed forever. -Before the various a f f l i c t i o n s

cease to be manifested, one has, spontaneously, the very f i r s t

r e a l i z a t i o n of the non-arising dharma patience.

3. Third i s the Stage of the Supremely F u l f i l l e d Bodhisattva.

[In t h i s stage! the impregnations and the p r o c l i v i t i e s (anusaya) of

the a f f l i c t i o n s and also the most deep-rooted crude dross of the

wisdom-obstacle are severed forever. [Thereupon! one enters the

Tathagata Stage. (263c5)

9.2.2 The Three P r o c l i v i t i e s

The Sandhinirmocana Sutra states that there are three

271

Ctypes o f] p r o c l i v i t i e s (anusaya).

1. F i r s t are the p r o c l i v i t i e s known as 'companions that have

been destroyed.' "These are the non-innate a f f l i c t i o n s of the f i r s t

f i v e Lands that are the attendants or companions of the manifestations

of innate a f f l i c t i o n s . The former are permanently non-recurrent at 272

that time Ci.e., the F i f t h Land]." The meaning of t h i s teaching

i s that Cthe group of a f f l i c t i o n s ] associated with the s i x t h vijnana

and comprising the erroneous view of i n d i v i d u a l i t y (satkayadrsti),

etc., are termed 'innate', while a l l the other a f f l i c t i o n s are

termed•'non-innate.' The.substance of these non-innate a f f l i c t i o n s

i s r e l a t i v e l y coarse however: they a r i s e with the innate a f f l i c t i o n s

as t h e i r cause, and, when these innate a f f l i c t i o n s are severed, they

too, i n t u r n , cease to e x i s t . Therefore they are c a l l e d 'destroyed ,273 companions.'

2. Second, are the feeble p r o c l i v i t i e s . "These are the subtle

manifestations occurring i n the Sixth and Seventh Lands. This i s so

because, i f subdued by s p i r i t u a l . c u l t i v a t i o n (bhavana), they are no 274

longer manifested." I t i s not the case Cas with the f i r s t type

of. p r o c l i v i t y ] . that, as the innate erroneous view of i n d i v i d u a l i t y

i s severed, so also i n turn are they. This ..is because they are

r e l a t i v e l y d i f f i c u l t to sever. What i s sa i d here does not contradict

the Lahkavatara Sutra which says that , because the innate erroneous

view of i n d i v i d u a l i t y i s severed, greed Ci.e., raga, f i r s t of the

275 -

a f f l i c t i o n s ] i s no longer produced. The sutra focuses on the

doctrine of the a f f l i c t i o n severed by the f i r s t two vehicles Ci.e.,

155

the sravakas and the pratyeka-buddhas1. I t i s not based on the

doctrine that, when the bodhisattva's wisdom-obstacle has ceased to

e x i s t , his a f f l i c t i o n s [greed, etc.] are therefore not produced. I f ,

a l t e r n a t i v e l y , we base, ourselves'on the stage where both types of

p r o c l i v i t i e s are d e f i n i t i v e l y severed, then the sutra and t h i s

t r e a t i s e are not i n mutual con t r a d i c t i o n.

3. Third are the subtle p r o c l i v i t i e s . "This means that

from the Eighth Cor Immovable] Land and above, a l l the a f f l i c t i o n s

that, have been removed from t h i s Land are never again manifested.

This i s so because what remains are only those p r o c l i v i t i e s that have

276 the wisdom-obstacle as t h e i r base."

277

However, i t i s also s a i d that, by v i r t u e of having severed

the most s u p e r f i c i a l crude dross in. the i n i t i a l Lands, one can then

and only then manifest and a t t a i n the f i r s t two Cof the above]

degrees of p r o c l i v i t y Csuppression]. And again, that by v i r t u e of

having severed the l e s s s u p e r f i c i a l crude dross i n the Eighth Cor

Immovable] Land, one manifests the Cthird] degree i n which the subtle

p r o c l i v i t i e s ' Care suppressed].. F i n a l l y , i f Cthe aspirant] has severed

the deep-rooted crude dross, then we say he i s permanently separated

from a l l p r o c l i v i t i e s and resides i n the Land of the Buddhas. (263c2l)

9 .2.3 The Four Obstacles

In the Ratnagotra-vibhdga there are passages saying that

there are. four obstacles (avarana): f i r s t , the obstacle of the

icchantikas' lack of f a i t h Cin the Buddha's teachings]; second,

the obstacle.of the non-Buddhists' ( t i r t h i k a ) c l i n g i n g to an eternal 279

self: (atman); t h i r d , the obstacle:of the sravakas' fear of s u f f e r i n g ;

1

156

and fourth, the obstacle of the pratyeka-buddhas.' abandonment of

280 the thought Cof great compassion].

281 With the state of mind gained i n the Sixth of the Ten F a i t h s ,

Cthe bodhisattva! subdues the f i r s t of the above obstacles because h i s

282

f a i t h does not relapse. In the Fourth Abode of the Ten Abodes,

Cthe bodhisattva] subdues the second of the above obstacles because

the coarse aspect of the f a l s e view of an eternal s e l f (atmadrsti)

due to f a l s e discriminatio n i s not produced. The seeds of these two

obstacles are severed on. entering the F i r s t Cor Joyous] Land.

The t h i r d of the above obstacles, which i s an obstacle b a r r i n g

what i s to be known Ci.e., jneyavarana, or wisdom-obstacle], i s

severed i n the F i f t h Cor Very D i f f i c u l t to Conquer] Land. This i s

so because the obstacle constituted by the desire f or the l e s s e r

283

nirvana of the lower vehicles Ci.e., that of the sravakas and

Pratyeka-buddhas] i s severed i n the F i f t h Land. CThe fourth of the

above obstacles] , that obstacle constituted by the pratyeka-buddhas

giving up the thought Cof Great Compasison f or other beings], i s

severed by the bodhisattva only i n the Seventh Cor Far-reaching] Land.

This i s so, because up u n t i l the Sixth Land the bodhisattva -.• i s

" s t i l l contemplating the twelve-fold chain of causation Cas i f he

were a pratyeka-buddha]

In some cases i t i s said that the seeds of the passions

(klesabija) of the former two of these obstacles are severed on the

Path of V i s i o n (darsana-marga), while the seeds of the passions of

the l a t t e r two obstacles are severed i n the Diamond-like Concen-

t r a t i o n (vajropamasamadhi). 263c28)

9.2.4 The" Five" Persistent A f f l i c t i o n s

The Srimala Sutra declares•that there are f i v e v a r i e t i e s

285

of p e r s i s t e n t a f f l i c t i o n : The persistent a f f l i c t i o n based on some

p a r t i c u l a r f a l s e view, the persistent a f f l i c t i o n of craving f o r the

objects of desire, the pe r s i s t e n t a f f l i c t i o n of craving f o r form,

the persistent a f f l i c t i o n of craving for worldly existence (bhava),

286

and the per s i s t e nt a f f l i c t i o n of nescience. The f i r s t of these,

the persistent a f f l i c t i o n based on some p a r t i c u l a r f a l s e viewpoint,

i s severed [by the bodhisattva! i n the F i r s t Cor Joyous] Land. The

next three are severed i n the Diamond-like Concentration. The

f i f t h v a r i e t y , the pe r s i s t e n t a f f l i c t i o n of nescience, i s severed

according to i t s degree ei t h e r b i t by b i t or a l l at once on the

Path of V i s i o n and on the Path of S p i r i t u a l C u l t i v a t i o n .

I f the impregnations and the p r o c l i v i t i e s of the f i r s t four

Cof these v a r i e t i e s of a f f l i c t i o n ] are the same as the wisdom-

obstacle Ci.e., as the f i f t h ] , then they are severed e i t h e r b i t by

b i t or a l l at once on the Path of V i s i o n and on the Path of S p i r i t u a l

C u l t i v a t i o n . (264a4)

288 • 9-2.5 In other cases the doctrine of the Six A f f l i c t i o n s ,

289 and also the.doctrines of the Seven P r o c l i v i t i e s , the Eight

290 291 292 Envelopments, the Nine F e t t e r s , the Ten A f f l i c t i o n s , the Ten

293 294 Di s t r a c t i o n s , the Ten Discriminations, and others are taught.

These are discussed more thoroughly i n the "Essay on the Severing of

295

the Obstacles." The a f f l i c t i o n s and obstacles, etc. discussed i n

t h i s . s e c t i o n are only those which are severed i n the contemplation of

Vijnaptimatrata; the others that are to be destroyed are not discussed.

(264a7)

Section Ten:

Turning to and Embracing

the Two Emptinesses

10.1 General Statement

The t r e a t i s e s (sastras) declare the two emptinesses: emptiness

of the i n d i v i d u a l (pudgala-sunyata) and emptiness of the dharmas

dharma-sunyata).^^6 r p ^ i s contemplation of Vijnaptimatrata involves the

contemplation of both the. two emptinesses. The Four Examinations

and the Four Exact Comprehensions involve the emptiness of both the

297' i n d i v i d u a l and dharmas. As CdharmasH constitute the base (asraya)

upon--Which, the i n d i v i d u a l i s posited, the t r e a t i s e s teach only the

298

contemplation of dharmas. They do.this, because the mind, seeking

knowledge of a l l modes (sarvakarajnata), contemplates the emptiness

of dharmas; and because i t i s done i n order to produce the proper

understanding of the two emptinesses. Moreover, the contemplation of

Cthe emptiness] of dharmas. ne c e s s a r i l y e n t a i l s the emptiness of the

i n d i v i d u a l ; t h i s i s so, because i t i s attested i n the t r e a t i s e s . (264al2)

10.2 Discussion

10.2.1 Objection

Clf you say the emptiness of dharmas n e c e s s a r i l y e n t a i l s the

emptiness of the individual,3 why i s i t that when you discuss

delusion in.contrast to awakening, you say that c l i n g i n g to the notion

of the i n d i v i d u a l i s necessarily,combined with c l i n g i n g to the notion

of dharmas; yet when you speak of awakening i n contrast to delusion

you say that [ r e a l i z a t i o n of] the emptiness of the i n d i v i d u a l does

not involve the emptiness of dharmas? I f you'say that, depending on

the degree of one's understanding, one can he awakened t o Cthe

emptiness] of the i n d i v i d u a l , hut not ne c e s s a r i l y to Cthe emptiness]

of dharmas, then i t must also he the case that, according to the

degree of one's delusion, one could he deluded about the function

Ci.e., about the i n d i v i d u a l ] , and not be deluded about the substance

, Ci.e., about the dharmas]. 2 ^ ( 2 6 U a l 5 )

10.2.2 Reply

There has never been a case of someone understanding the

substance while being deluded about the function; therefore, c l i n g i n g

to the Cnotion. of an] i n d i v i d u a l n e c e s s a r i l y e n t a i l s c l i n g i n g to the

Cnotion of] dharmas. But, just as the degree of one's awakening may

be shallow and not penetrate the depths, so Cunderstanding] the

emptiness of the i n d i v i d u a l does not n e c e s s a r i l y e n t a i l that of

dharmas.

The. Vimsatikd-vijnaptimdtratd says:

The n o n s u b s t a n t i a l i t y ^ ^ o f the dharmas

to which beings c l i n g ,

Moreover, i s entered by means of .the , . . ' 301 remaining doctrine.

It i s t h i s doctrine, of Vijnaptimatrata that Cis the "remaining

doctrine" by which one] enters the emptiness of dharmas. This says

that the emptiness of dharmas n e c e s s a r i l y depends on- Vijnaptimatrata,

not that the contemplation of Vijnaptimatrata i s nothing hut the

emptiness of dharmas; t h i s i s so because e s t a b l i s h i n g only the

emptiness of the i n d i v i d u a l i s s t i l l Cone part of] Vijnaptimatrata.

I f i t i s only the contemplation of the emptiness of dharmas,

then i t i s d e f i n i t e l y Vijnaptrimatrata. With the emptiness of the

302

i n d i v i d u a l , i t - i s not c e r t a i n , because the emptiness of the

i n d i v i d u a l Ccultivated by those] of the l e s s e r two vehicle s i s not

the contemplation of Vijnaptimatrata. (26Ua2l)

10.2.3 Analysis

1. The contemplation of Vijnaptimatrata i s broad i n

extension i n that i t involves the contemplation of both the i n d i v i d u a l

303

and dharmas. The contemplation of dharmas i s more l i m i t e d i n

extension i n that i t occurs only in,Cthe contemplation o f ] V i j n a p t i -

matrata. The contemplation of the i n d i v i d u a l i s broad i n that i t

occurs i n what i s the contemplation of.Vijnaptimatrata. The

contemplation.of Vijnaptimatrata. i s more l i m i t e d i n extension i n that

there are cases when the contemplation of the i n d i v i d u a l i s not _ 304

Cthe contemplation of .Vijnaptimatrata]. 305

2. Therefore, when we d i r e c t our attention to the contem-

p l a t i o n of. the emptiness of the i n d i v i d u a l i n the contemplation of

Vijnaptimatrata, i t must be analyzed according to the above statements.

There i s no case where the contemplation of Vijnaptimatrata i s not

the emptiness.of the i n d i v i d u a l , because the contemplation of only

the emptiness of dharmas necessarily.involve s that of the i n d i v i d u a l .

There are Chowever] cases where the contemplation of the emptiness

of the i n d i v i d u a l i s not that of Vijnaptimatrata; namely, the

contemplation of the emptiness of the i n d i v i d u a l Ccultivated by those]

of the l e s s e r two veh i c l e s .

161

3. In the case.of the emptiness of dharmas v i s - a - v i s

V ijnaptimatrata,.it i s again a s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n .. There are cases

vhere Cthe contemplation of] Vijnaptimatrata i s not Cthe contemplation]

of the emptiness of dharmas, namely the contemplation of V i j n a p t i -

matrata i n which Cone views] the emptiness of the i n d i v i d u a l . There

are [however] no cases where the contemplation of Cthe emptiness o f]

the dharmas i s not that of Vijnaptimatrata. The meaning of the

statements established by these two are [thus] understandable.(264a28)

10.3 Conclusion

Vijnaptimatrata involves the contemplation of both the two emptinesses.

When the t r e a t i s e s state only that the contemplation of dharmas i s

the contemplation of Vijnaptimatrata, i t i s because t h e i r statement i s

based on what i s the necessary condition [ i . e . , on the sine qua non,

the emptiness of dharmas]. Furthermore, when i t i s said that a l l

[ v a r i e t i e s of].emptiness are together embraced Cby the contemplation

of Vijnaptimatrata], i t i s then as i s taught i n the "Essay on

I f we speak i n terms of a^general r u l e (utsarga

Emptiness. 308

(26Ubl)

Notes t o Chapter I

Pages 2 x- 20

Noel Peri,•who considered K ' u e i - c h i t o be' "probablement l e p l u s grand des e c r i v a i n s c h i n o i s bouddhistes," (A propos de l a Date de Vasubandhu," p. 34), was perhaps the f i r s t Western w r i t e r to draw a t t e n t i o n t o h i s importance. A f t e r t h a t , though s e v e r a l scholars i n c l u d i n g most notably La V a l l e e - P o u s s i n made use of K'uei-chi's commentaries, nothing was w r i t t e n t h a t d e a l t s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h K ' u e i - c h i u n t i l Stanley Weinstein's two a r t i c l e s i n 1959 (see B i b l i o g r a p h y below f o r complete r e f e r e n c e s ) . Even i n the modern Japanese secondary l i t e r a t u r e one f i n d s very l i t t l e on K ' u e i - c h i . Besides b r i e f treatment i n the standard Yogacara/Fa-hsiang h i s t o r i e s (e.g., FUKAURA and YUKl) and the o c c a s i o n a l a r t i c l e (e.g.,WATANABE), there i s , t o my knowledge, only one monograph devoted t o K ' u e i - c h i : SAEKI's b i o g r a p h i c a l study, Jion daishi den. A more comprehensive assessment of K'uei-chi' s place i n the development of East Asian Buddhism and Yogacara i n p a r t i c u l a r i s yet t o be done.

2 For informatio n on Hsuan-tsang see e s p e c i a l l y : Arthur Waley,

The Real Tripitaka, 1952; H u i - l i , The Life of Hsuan-tsang,and Kenneth Ch'en, Buddhism in China X1964), pp. 235-38, 368-9, and p. 523 f o r f u r t h e r b i b l i o g r a p h y .

3 In h i s " B i o g r a p h i c a l Study of Tz'u-en" (1959), Stanley Weinstein has provided a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s of the e a r l y sources f o r K'uei-chi's biography, p o i n t i n g out the inadequacies of the " o f f i c i a l Sung biography" (see below) which i s the b a s i s f o r many of the modern b i o g r a p h i c a l references. The r e l e v a n t e a r l y documents have been published under the t i t l e " J i o n D a i s h i denki.monj i i , " i n Shoso, 9 (June 1940), 40-48. Cf. a l s o SAEKI Ryoken, Jion daishi den.

Ii The various records of K ' u e i - c h i ' s b i r t h and death have been

analyzed by. S. Weinstein, and he concludes that the most commonly c i t e d dates, A.D. 632-682 are p r e f e r a b l e t o any of the v a r i a n t s ("Bio. Study," pp. 148-149).

^ See, f o r example FUKAURA S., Yuishikigaku kenkyu, V o l . I , p. 256, n. 2. Stanley Weinstein ("Bio. Study," pp. 129-133) goes f u r t h e r t o suggest that K'uei-and Chi were two d i f f e r e n t monks, one famous and one obscure, each having o n e - s y l l a b l e names which were l a t e r a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o one. While i t may w e l l be thought p e c u l i a r that the f u l l name i s not recorded i n the works of K ' u e i - c h i t h a t have s u r v i v e d , i t i s not necessary t o assume t h a t the name was i n f a c t , simply C h i , a s i t u a t i o n t h a t would be even more p e c u l i a r . A b b r e v i a t i o n of two-character monastic names t o only the second character was common, e s p e c i a l l y when some a d d i t i o n a l t i t l e was a f f i x e d or when reference was made t o oneself i n w r i t i n g .

Notes to Chapt. I (pp. 2 -20)

The f u l l name, K'uei-chi, is attested quite e a r l y , the most r e l i a b l e source being the famous K'ai-yuan Buddhist Catalogue (cf. Chapt. I I , note 2) compiled i n A.D. 730-by Chih-sheng, a time l e s s than 50 years a f t e r K'uei-chi's death when the prominence of the Fa-hsiang School.was at i t s apogee. It i s d i f f i c u l t to believe that Chih-sheng, a bibliographer noted for h i s c r i t i c a l scholarship, would have accepted an u n v e r i f i e d version of the name of so prominent a Fa-hsiang master.

7

8

Cited i n S. Weinstein, "Bio. Study," p. 137.

Gyonen.'s $\ (1240-1321) h i s t o r y , the Sangoku buppo denzu engi %. \% % >f| j j | ^ $ t > (BZ: CI.10TM.2-13) records the t r a d i t i o n that Hsiian-tsang had 3000 d i s c i p l e s f*}/^, 70 of whom were advanced j j ^ j , M replete JL./^ , and one f u l l y i n i t i a t e d ^ S T ^ . . The p a r a l l e l here with the 70 d i s c i p l e s of Confucius i s probably no coincidence; i n f a c t , i t i s possible that those seventy represented, the i d e a l of the d i s c i p l e that K'uei-chi a c t u a l l y had i n mind at the time that he wrote t h i s passage.

o T: XLIII.698b24-29. For a somewhat d i f f e r e n t rendering of

most of t h i s passage compare S. Weinstein, "Bio. Study," p. 137.

1 0 This seems preferable to the punctuation indicated at T: L.725b24. For the Buddhists the converging of cause and condition (hetupratyaya) was of course determined by previous actions (karma).

1 1 H u i - l i ' s biography (The Life of Hsuan-tsang3 pp. l6l - l 6 2 ) reports Hsiian-tsang's encounter with the Nirgrantha Vajra who was r e --nowned' for h i s s k i l l s i n d i v i n a t i o n . A d i v i n a t i o n was performed to '.. learn about the return journey and several d i f f e r e n t things were revealed. H u i - l i ' s account mentions nothing, however, about the prophesy of a b r i l l i a n t d i s c i p l e .

12 T: L725b23-c7. In some cases I follow S. Weinstein's renderin

of t h i s passage; i n others we d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y : c f . h i s "Bio. Study," p. 140.

13 One variant i s found i n another Sung work the Ts'ung-Un

sheng-shih J^qfc compiled by the Zen master Ku-yiieh Tao-jung & Q j|k , who says (Z:2b/2l/l .47.1.b) that K'uei-chi was followed

by three carts f i l l e d with sutras and sastras with wine and food *fySp_ , and with women • Ku-yiieh Tao-jung also includes the i n t r i g u i n g report that on one occasion when K'uei-chi had an audience with the emperor he d i d not carry out the prescribed etiquett This source i s not included among those considered i n Weinstein's "Bio. Study."

Notes to Chapt. I (pp. 2 - 20)

A s t r i k i n g example may be seen i n the case of Ikkyu Sojun — •f^'^?^, , the famous Zen eccentric of 15th cen. Japan, who sought to i d e n t i f y h i s own unconventional behavior with that of the Abbot K'uei-chi whom he took to be a kindred s p i r i t :- Sonja Arntzen i n "The Crazy Cloud Anthology (Kyounshu) of Ikkyu Sojun," (poem no. 166) t r a n s l a t e s the following poem of Ikkyu's:

" P r a i s i n g the Dharma Master Tz'u-en K'uei-chi"

K'uei-chi's samadhi was by i t s very nature r e a l .

Wine, meat, the sutras and beauties,

The eye of the Abbot was just l i k e t h i s .

In our school, there i s only t h i s ClkkyuH Sojun.

15 L i t e r a l l y "the t r a n s c i b e r , " i . e . , the one whose duty was

to transform the o r a l t r a n s l a t i o n of the senior t r a n s l a t o r from the c o l i o q u i a l into l i t e r a r y Chinese, the written form of the language that d i f f e r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y from the spoken language i n both vocabulary and grammar. It should be noted th a t, i n l i g h t of the value placed on elegant expression, t h i s was a p o s i t i o n of more r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and prestige than that of a mere scri b e .

1 6 T: 1585, XXXI.1-60

1 T T: 1590, XXXI.74-77

1 8 T: 1600, XXXI.464-477

1 9 T: 2031, XLIX.15-17

^ U T: 1540, XXVI.614-627

21 See for example Tsan-ning's biography, T: L.726bl4.

22 K'uei-chi's account i s found at the opening of his shorter

commentary to the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun, T: XLIII.6o8b29cl4.

,.The ten were BandhusrT, Citrabhanu, Gunamati, Sthiramati, Nanda, Suddhacandra, Dharmapala, Visesamitra, Jinaputra and Jfiana-candra; for more on these prominent Indian sastra masters see P. Demieville, "Historique du Systeme Vijnaptimatrata," pp. 18-22 and also E. Frauwallner, "Landmarks i n the History of Indian Logic."

T: L.725cl2

Notes to Chapt. I . (pp. 2 - 2 0 )

25 There i s another reference to K'uei-chi's knowledge of

Sanskrit i n a biographical passage i n Hsi-fu's -rSJ jL sub-commentary to K'uei-chi's Lotus Sutra Commentary (Z:l /53/3.179r); Hsi-fu's work was not written u n t i l 877 however, so we s t i l l l ack corroboration from any of the contemporary accounts. A c a r e f u l study of K'uei-chi's Miao-fa-lien-kua-ching shih-wei-wei-erh-chang (no. 6) i n conjunction with the Sanskrit text of the Lotus Sutra may y i e l d more conclusive evidence of his knowledge of Sanskrit.

2 ^ S. Weinstein ("Bio. Study," pp. 143-144) discusses t h i s passage (T: XXXIV.715b) i n more d e t a i l .

2 7 MARUYAMA Takao ("Kichizo no Hokkegiso no kenkyu," pp. 312-315) discusses t h e v a r i o u s passages where t h i s ambiguity i s present i n the Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n showing, through comparison with the o r i g i n a l Sanskrit, that Chi-tsang sometimes understood the text c o r r e c t l y , sometimes not.

28 This passage occurs at T: XLV.260al0-24 which corresponds

to section 2.1 of the t r a n s l a t i o n below.

on S. Weinstein ("Bio. Study," p. 128) suggests that Miao Shen-

jung i s probably an ol d error for Miao Shen-k'o ^ !^ , a h i s t o r i a n i n the service of Empress Wu jj^ (r. 6 5 5 — ) •

30 This i s not ne c e s s a r i l y to be assumed of a Buddhist monk,

e s p e c i a l l y one whose primary vocation was d o c t r i n a l exegesis. KumarajTva, for example, i s reported to have had l i t t l e patience with two HTnayana meditation s p e c i a l i s t s and.to have agreed to t r a n s l a t e Mahayana meditation works only.after repeated requests from h i s Chinese followers,.events which suggest t h a t , for some Dharma Masters at l e a s t , there may have been more of a d i v i s i o n between theory and p r a c t i c e than for K'uei-chi.

3 1 Cited i n S. Weinstein, "Bio. Study," pp. 147 and 148.

32

33

Cited i n i b i d . , p. 148

Paul Demieville has provided an excellent study of Maitreya devotionalism i n his two a r t i c l e s "Maitreya l ' i n s p i r a t e u r " and "Le paradis de Maitreya." See also E. Lamotte, Eistoire, pp.' 775-788 and esp. the notes on pp. 778, 783-785 for a d d i t i o n a l bibliography on Maitreya i n Western sources.

Notes to Chapt. I (pp. 2 - 20)

3k The fact that K'uei-chi's family f i r s t rose to prominence i n

t h i s same non-Chinese dynasty suggests the p o s s i b i l i t y of exposure to Maitreya devotionalism even p r i o r to h i s Yogacara a f f i l i a t i o n .

35 In h i s commentary on one of the Maitreya sutras at

T: XXXVIII.277c25.

36 Cf. f o r example the famous incident of Hsuan-tsang's

encounter with the bandits which i s summarized from h i s biography in P. Demieville's "Le paradis de Maitreya" p. 388. When Hsuan-tsang thought he was about to be s a c r i f i c e d to Durga by the bandits, he requested that they f i r s t allow him a moment to enter by means of concentration the Tus i t a Heaven; on doing t h i s , his countenance became so transformed that the bandits were dissuaded from the s a c r i f i c e .

S. Weinstein's a r t i c l e "On the Authorship of the Esi-fang Yao-chueh" discusses the prominence of Maitreya devotionalism i n K'uei-chi's thought while showing why i t i s u n l i k e l y that K'uei-chi wrote the Pure Land t r a c t that i s a t t r i b u t e d to him. The a t t r i b u -t i o n of a l l of the Pure Land works K'uei-chi i s said to have written was previously questioned by FUKAURA and others; c f . the discussion of these works i n Chapt. 2 below.

167

Notes to Chapter II

Pages 21 - 36

This reintroduction of K'uei-chi's works into China might be seen as a purely East Asian instance of what some s o c i o l o g i s t s r e f e r to as the "pizza e f f e c t . " For a more extensive account of the 20th century .. r e v i v a l of Yogacara thought i n China see Wing-tsit CHAN, Religious Trends in Modern China (1953), chapters II & I I I ; and Holmes Welch, The Buddhist Revival in China, (1968), esp. chapters I, I I I , & VI.

2 K'uei-chi's works are l i s t e d i n a number of catalogs; the most

important are:

Kai-yuan shih-ohiao lu fj ^C->

20 s c r o l l s ; by Chih-sheng 5 compilation completed

i n A.D. 730; T: 2154, LV.372-722.

Hosso-shu. shosho Jj^ * ^ 4^. J^^JL*

1 s c r o l l ; compiled by the Japanese monk KelsoJ~-j^^?

i n A.D. 914; T: 2180, LV.1138-1140.

Sinp 'yon ohogong kyonggang oh 'ongnok jffi jfcjjjff jgfa ^ J j f e ^ H ^ L

3 s c r o l l s ; compiled by the Korean monk Uichon

i n 1090; T: 2184, LV.1165-H78.

Chushin Hosso-shu. shosho j f i j^ ^ J^Q "f^ ^

1 s c r o l l ; compiled by the Japanese monk Zoshun J^j j •^jf*

i n 1176; T: 2 l 8 l , LV.1140-1144.

Yuishikigaku kenkyu, Vol. 1, pp. 249-250.

S. Weinstein, "Bio. Study," p. 122, n. 10.

In addition to those works questioned by more than one ;.• researcher, YDKI Reimon(Yuishikigakutensekishi, pp. 310-311) suspects one of the l e s s e r Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun commentaries, no. 20 (q.v.), but suggests further study before any judgment i s made.

Notes to Chapt. II (pp. 21 - 36)

The longer commentary on the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun (no. 18) was written before the shorter (no. 19); the Heart Sutra commentary (no. 3) i s quoted i n the Fa-yuan i-lin ehang (no. 26); and the Maitreya Sutra commentary (no. 9) i s quoted i n the commentary on the VimalahTrti-nirdesa (no. 8) and appears to be r e f e r r e d to i n the longer Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun commentary (no. 18).

7 T: 235, VIII.748-752.

T: 220.9, VII.979-986.

q FUKAURA S., luishikigaku kenkyu, V o l . I, p. 250.

1 0 T: 1511, XXV.781-798. This Vajraeahedika commentary was apparently never t r a n s l a t e d by Hsiian-tsang.

1 1 T: 251, VIII.848-849.

1 2 T: 220.10, VII.986-991.

- 1 0

T: 262, IX.1-63. -The\ Saddharmti-TpundarZka was never t r a n s l a t e d by Hsiian-tsang.

l h r See S. Weinstein, "Bio. Study," P. 122.

See note 13 above.

1 ^ T: 353, XII.217-223. The SrvmdlddevZ was never t r a n s l a t e d by Hsiian-tsang.

1 7 T: 476, XIV.557-588.

-1 o T: 452, XIV.418-421. None of the Maitreya sutras were

tr a n s l a t e d by Hsiian-tsang.

1 9 T: 366, XII.346-348.

Of)

T: 367, XII.348-351.

2 1 FUKAURA S., luishikigaku kenkyu, Vol.1, p. 250, MOCHIZUKI S., Jodokyo no kenkyu, p. 480; SAKAINO K., Shina Bukkyo-shi kowa, V o l . I I , p. 380.

169

Notes to Chapt. II (pp. 21 - 36)

2 2 T: 2031, XLIX.15-17-

2 3 pp. 300-310.

?4 T: 1579, XXX.279-883.

2 5 T: 1606, XXXI. 694-774.

2 6 T: 1600, XXXI. 464-477-

2 7 T: 1590, XXXI.74-77.

28 "K'uei Chi's Commentary on Wei-shih-er-shih-lun," JAOS, 53

(1933), 142-151.

29 Wei-shih-er-shih-lun, (1938). Cf. also the other a r t i c l e s by

Hamilton on the Twenty Verses l i s t e d i n the Bibliography below.

3°'T: 1585, XXXI.1-60.

31 VijHaptimdtratdsiddhi:La Siddhi de Eiuan-Tsang, (1929-1948).

32 Ch'eng Wei-shih Lun. (1973).

33 The passage occurs at the opening of the work, i n a discussion

of the transmission of the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun, T:XLIII.6o8b24-29. See above p. 7-

34 -YUKI R., luishikigaku tensekishi,^. 310-311.

35 -YUKI R.,. Joyuishikiron-ryoken no kenkyu; c f . also h i s luishikigaku

tensekishi, p. 310.

FUKAURA S., luishikigaku kenkyu, Vol. I, p. 250.

3 7 T: l6l4, XXXI.11-13.

FUKAURA S., luishikigaku kenkyu V o l . I, p. 250.

3 9 T: 1630, XXXII.11-13.

170

Notes to Chapt. II (pp. 21 -36)

^° R. S. Y. Chi, Buddhist Formal Logic, (1969).

1 1 1 T: 1628, XXXII. 1-6.

42

FUKAURA S., Yuishikigaku kenkyu, V o l . I, p. 250; and S. Weinstein, "On the Authorship of the Hsi-fang yao-chueh," pp. 12-13.

43 Weinstein, i b i d .

44 YUKI R., Yuishikigaku tensekishi, p. 227.

45 This i s a work a t t r i b u t e d to Asanga; i t i s r e l a t e d to the

Yogacarabhumi and survives only i n the Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n of. Hsuan-tsang (T: 1602-1603, XXXI.480-589) and the p a r t i a l t r a n s l a t i o n of Paramartha (T: 1618, XXXI .878-882).Cf. YUKI R., Yuishikigaku tensekishi, pp. 86-87, and 300.

46 -YUKI R., Yuishikigaku tensekishi, pp. 382-383.

47 ' The one exception i s the Mahayana-sutralankara, perhaps

because t h i s was not tr a n s l a t e d by Hsuan-tsang while the Hsien-yang-sheng-ohiao-lun was.

48 Several catalogs also record a K'uei-chi commentary to •'-

Hsuan-tsangls-'-translation (T: 1624, XXXI.888-889) of Dignaga's Alambanapar~ksa; c f . YUKI, i b i d . , p. 365.

49 The Sandhinirmooana was tr a n s l a t e d by Hsiian-tsang (T: 676,

XVI.688-711), but the Lahkaoatara was not, although i t was well-known i n the t r a n s l a t i o n s of Bodhiruci and Gunabhadra.

5 0 The Tsung-liao-ohien-ehang ^.^fa] 3 ^ , T: XLV.245-255-

^ See note 42 above.

Notes to Chapter III

(Pages 37 -68)

Jacques May ("La Philosophie.bouddhique i d e a l i s t e " ) provides a review of recent scholarship on these h i s t o r i c a l questions.

2 For recent.arguments supporting Frauwallner's contention that the

Yogacarabhumi represents a composite Schulwerk, see L. Schmithausen, "Zur Literaturgeschichte der Alteren Yogacara-schule." Schmithausen points out the absence.in t h i s work of the l a t e r Yogacara doctrines that are associated.with Asanga: Vijnaptimatrata, a p r a t i s t h i t a -nirvana, t r i - k a y a , etc.

See J . May, "La Philosophie bouddhique i d e a l i s t e , " p. 265 for a d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d i z a t i o n of what he prefers to c a l l -Vijnanavada.

h - -The meaning of v i j n a p t i as a te c h n i c a l term i n Yogacara i s

discussed i n d e t a i l below. The reader should note that here and i n the t r a n s l a t i o n below there are two forms of the term, vijnapti-Matra and Vijnaptimatrata. The -taending i n the second form corresponds to our s u f f i x -ness. Thus, the f i r s t form i s the a d j e c t i v a l form as i n the statement: "Everything i s nothing but v i j n a p t i " or " v i j n a p t i - o n l y . " The addition of the s u f f i x i n the second form turns the q u a l i f i c a t i o n into an abstract houn, as i n the phrase, "the doctrine of mere v i j n a p t i " or "vijnapti-only-ness. " The large case 'V w i l l be used i n the l a t t e r case to help d i s t i n g u i s h the two forms.

^ K'uei-chi takes up the topi c of the Two Emptinesses i n § 1 0 of his essay t r a n s l a t e d below.

^ K'uei-chi discusses the Trisvabhavata doctrine i n $1.1.1-5 and %"{.

7 Cf. Suzuki, Studies in the LanW.vata.ra Sutra, pp. 179-182.

8 2.2 i n the t r a n s l a t i o n .

9 Cf. E. Conze, Materials for a Dictionary of The Prajnaparamita

Literature, p. 352: v i j a n a t i and pp. 182-183: j a n a t i . See also Stcherbatsky's short a r t i c l e , "Uber den B e g r i f f vijnana i n Buddhismus."

http://LanW.vata.ra

Notes to.Chapt. I l l (pp. 37 - 68)

The -ana d e r i v a t i v e s , hut not the - t i derivatives (except f o r a few exceptions i n the masculine rather than the feminine) can also he agent nouns, i . e . , nouns i n d i c a t i n g the person or thing i n which the action appears; the reference i n that case .is concrete rather than abstract as with the action nouns. This grammatical a l t e r n a t i v e i s , however, q u i t e : u n l i k e l y i n the case of vijnana. Cf. W.D. Whitney, Sanscrit Grammar, pp. 420-428, 432-438.

1 1 Cf. Lahkdvatara: "Sagathakam" 459 (Suzuki ed.); but see also CWSL: v. 8a where c i t t a , . manas and vijnana are corr e l a t e d to the eight modes, o f mental a c t i v i t y (vijnana). K'uei-chi discusses t h i s at 5-2.3 i n the t r a n s l a t i o n below.

12 Besides being a state rather than an act, consciousness i s also

inappropriate because, when applied to the eighth vijnana, one has the anomaly of "unconscious consciousness."

13 Prajnapti has a long h i s t o r y as a te c h n i c a l term. It i s found

i n e a r l y abhidharma works (e.g., the PrajHaptis'dstra, one of the sub-s i d i a r y Pddas- to the ."Jftdnaprasthdna) . It i s .found-in the Prajnaparamita Sutras where Conze t r a n s l a t e s i t as concept, conception, conceptual e n t i t y , nominal concept, intimation (see Materials for a Dictionary of the Prajftdparamita. Literature, p. 269). It i s also found i n the Lahkdvatara where,:in.the opinion of Suzuki (Studies, p. 420, 440-44l) i t i s a synonym for v i j n a p t i .

Charles Prebish (ed.), Buddhism, A Modern Perspective, p. 290.

"Madhyamika," i n i b i d . , pp. 91.

See § 2 . 2 . 1 ' of the t r a n s l a t i o n below.

17 There i s one instance.in the Madhydnta-vibhdga (iV.lOcd v) where

para - v i j n a p t i i s rendered with a causative form i n Tibetan: ' mam par rig bhyed, but i n that case Hsuan-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n also r e f l e c t s the causative: l i n g - t 'o-shen-hsin-shou ^ l*$/i%^L • Thus i n a d i f f e r e n t context v i j n a p t i could be and.was. t r a n s l a t e d with the causative i n both languages.

18 Cf. Suzuki, Studies, pp. 440-441 on v i j n a p t i i n the Lanka.

19 In the West i t i s usually Freud that i s given c r e d i t for f i r s t

formulating a theory of dynamic, unconscious motivation; see for example, J.O. Wisdom, "Psychoanalytic Theories of the Unconscious," i n the Encyclopedia of Philosophy (New York: Macmillan, 1967).

Notes to Chapt. I l l (pp. 37 -'68)

20 Cf. Trims'ikd. I I : there i s some debate over whether manana i n

the text of t h i s verse: means manana (c o g i t a t i o n , r e f l e c t i o n ) or Manyana (conceit i n the sense of vain imagining and p r i d e ) . Both would f a l l within the a c t i v i t y of manas i n any case. See L e v i , Materiaux} p. 70, note 2 and La Vallee-Poussin, Siddhi} p. 90.

21 The occasions when.the manas. a c t i v i t y ceases are discussed

i n CWSL: v .2a-8a.

2 2 CWSL: ii . l 2 a - 1 3 a .

2 3 Trirnsikd IV

24

On the two obstructions see 9 of the t r a n s l a t i o n below and also CWSL: ix . 5b -7a .

25 See K ' u e i - c h i 1 s discussion of the difference between 8th and

9th vijnana at 5.2.1.(9) i n the t r a n s l a t i o n below.

2 ^ These are treate d at some length i n the CWSL (see esp. i i . 2 6 b -29a); c f . also La Vallee-Poussin's very h e l p f u l note, Siddhi3\sg. 8-9. K'uei-chi outlines the' four d i f f e r e n t opinions at § 5 - 2 . 2 .

27.

below.

28

29:

On the F i v e - l e v e l Contemplation see § 1 . 1 . 1 - 5 of the t r a n s l a t i o n

CWSL: ix .3b-8b: Siddhi: pp. 562-667.

See 6.1. where. K'ueir-chi discusses the difference between the four-stage theory and the five-stage theory.

3 0 Kosa: VI. 22-25. (xxiii . 7 b - 9 b )

31 On the Four.Examinations and the Four exact Comprehensions see

1.2.1 of the t r a n s l a t i o n and. e s p e c i a l l y Chapt. V, note 56.

32 On the ten.lands and t h e i r p o s i t i o n i n the f i v e stages see

Obermiller, "Doctrine of Ppm," pp. 51-57, and also pp. 14-47 where he contrasts, the. Banayana and the Mahayana versions of the f i v e stages,

33 - -For a study of t h i s doctrine In the Mahayana-samgraha and i t s

r e l a t i o n to the three v a r i e t i e s of nondiscriminating cognition (the preliminary, the fundamental and the subsequently acquired) see my a r t i c l e "Dynamic Li b e r a t i o n i n Yogacara Buddhism."

174

Notes to Chapt. I l l (pp. 37 -68)

On the t o p i c of doctrinal, c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . i n general and on the T ' i e n - t ' a i system of Chih-i i n p a r t i c u l a r , see Leon Hurvitz, Chih-i}

pp. 214-331.

175

Notes to Chapter IV

Pages 70 - 78

This section of the Taisho somokuruku flj fa >£f $9, g gfc

2 See bibliography for f u l l

La Vallee-Poussin amended pu b l i c a t i o n of the second volume i n the appendix, pp. 7^5-750.

has the separate t i t l e Showa hobo see Vol. I: pp. 480-481.

references.

his e a r l y reconstruction before the of the Siddhi; he discusses the issue

See bibliography f o r f u l l references.

Notes to Chapter V

Pages 79 - l 6 l

: i There are several variants of the t i t l e of t h i s p ortion of

the Ta-sheng fa-yuan i-lin ehang (no. 26): the Taisho e d i t i o n (based on a l8th cen. blockprint) has the "The D o c t r i n a l Forest of V i j n a p t i -matrata" j whereas, the 8th cen. commentaries of both of K'uei-chi's immediate successors, Hui-chao and Chih-chou have simply "Essay on Vijnaptimatrata" as t r a n s l a t e d here. The ten section headings l i s t e d i n the.Preface also occur i n the subsequent text as the main d i v i s i o n s . The sub-sectional headings are provided by the t r a n s l a t o r .

2 Reference to the Taisho text of the essay w i l l be given i n

t h i s manner at the end of each sub-section.

3 When K'uei-chi uses the expression t ' i . ' j ^ j ^ here and above, he has i n mind both the Chinese p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n between substance and function (see below:§ 1.1.l) and also the Buddhist t e c h n i c a l term svabhava ('own-being' ) which i n Hsiian-tsang's Chinese i s rendered sometimes as tzu-hsing ^ »| _ , sometimes as t z u - t ' i Q In t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n t ' i ', and t z u - t ' i & <<&£ are c o n s i s t e n t l y rendered as 'substance' and 'essential substance'; r e s p e c t i v e l y , although K'uei-chi does not seem to d i s t i n g u i s h between the two.

^ Shingo (298b) comments that t h i s could mean ei t h e r 'existin g and non-existing' or 'conditioned (samskrta) and unconditioned (asamskrta) dharmas'. He opts for the former i n t e r p r e t a t i o n saying that the contemplation of the objective realm includes purely imaginary ( p a r i k a l p i t a ) objects which would not be included within the class of conditioned and un conditioned dharmas. Fa >^ i s , of course, the standard equivalent, for the Sanskrit 'dharma' whether i t means the 'Doctrine of the Buddha' (Dharma) or 'the elements of experience' (dharmah).

^ The commentators agree that jjLjjE- ^f^Jt should be understood as "the [contemplation] of Vijnapti[matrata] that banishes the f a l s e and preserves the Real; c f . T'ai-hsii (p. 954):

In a Buddhist context hsii used with a negative connotation 6

3 t

(abhuta). i s most l i k e l y to be understood asTisu-wang J^_^. > 'unreal' or ' f a l s e '

7 Shih ,standing alone, i s not a standard equivalent for any Sanskrit t e c h n i c a l term i n the Chinese of Hsiian-tsang and K'uei-chi. It i s probably best understood here as e l l i p t i c f o r chen-shih , which i s the standard equivalent for t a t t v a . There are a number of

Notes to Chapt. V (pp. 79 - l 6 l )

related. Yogacara terms that can he tr a n s l a t e d as 'Real,' 'the Re a l i t y , ' 'the Absolute,' e t c . ; c f . notes 9 and l6 below.

8 Cf. CWSL (viii. 2 9 a ) ; La Vallee-Poussin reconstructs r u c i and

yu k t i . The commentators say that ch'ing ('feelings') means wang-ch'ing .jjk ('deluded f e e l i n g s ' ).

9 & The chen JH. here, as i s often the case given the constraints

of the four-four rhythmK'uei-chi sought to maintain, i s probably e l l i p t i c f o r chen-ju ^ - ^ ^ . ( t a t h a t a ) or Thusness, which for the Yogacarins was Reality") See also note l6 below.

1 0 These two verses occur as quoted here i n the second s c r o l l of Hsuan-tsang's t r a n l a t i o n of the Mahayana-samgraha (T:XXXI . l43ci-4) and i n Asvabhava's Upanibandhana i n the s i x t h s c r o l l of Hsiian-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n (T:XXXI. 417c21-4l8al5). For the Sanskrit of the f i r s t verse, which survives i n the Mahayaha-sutralamkara, see XIX :h j , p. 168 i n the e d i t i o n of S. L e v i , and p. 276 i n his t r a n s l a t i o n .

^ The f i r s t l i n e (pada) of t h i s verse i s somewhat problematic since the Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n can very e a s i l y be misunderstood. Hsiian-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n has:

The Sanskrit, as preserved i n the Mahay ana-sutralankara (see note 10 above), says:

agantukatvaparyesa anyonyam namavastunoh \ prajnapter dvividhasyatra tanmatratvasya caisana ||

The Chinese k ' e * ^ (guest, lodger, t r a v e l e r , stranger, etc.) often occurs with chu (master, r u l e r ) expressing the r e l a t i o n s h i p between host and guest, l o r d and r e t a i n e r , proprietor and customer, etc. Now the Chinese for the f i r s t l i n e above says that "name and t h i n g are r e c i p r o c a l l y guest to each other," with the implication that one i s the host f o r the other and visa-versa. This should not however be understood to mean that they are"mutually r e l a t e d " i n any intrinsic way. Quite to the contrary the verse means to say they have no essen-t i a l or inherent r e l a t i o n s h i p whatsoever, t h e i r association i s purely acc i d e n t a l . This i s expressed more c l e a r l y by the Sanskrit agantuka-, which can also mean both 'stranger' and 'guest ,':', but as an adjective i n te c h n i c a l usage means 'adventitious' or 'accidental'. Thus the best l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n of the Chinese would be that they are "strangers to each other," but "adventitious" (following the Sanskrit) i s l e s s l i k e l y to mislead. K'uei-chi discusses these same two verses again i n Section Seven below, and at § 7 . 2 . 2(lc ) he glosses the r e l a t i o n s h i p between name and thing as pu-hsiang-shu ^ M\ > "not i n t e r - r e l a t e d " .

The "dual aspect," according to Asvabhava^s commentary (T:XXXI. 417c-4l8a2), r e f e r s to t h e i r apparent uniqueness or own-being and t h e i r apparent d i s t i n c t i o n s or s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .

178

Botes to Chapt. V (pp. 79 - l 6 l )

12 Asvabhava (Ul8a5-7) says these are the discrimination or

conceptualization of the name, the discrimination or conceptualization designating the name, and the discriminatio n or conceptualization designating the s p e c i f i c a t i o n s (see above, n. 10). For more on these see n. 55 below on the Four Examinations and the Four Exact Comprehensions,

1 3 The Three Natures are the Three Aspects of Own-being (trisvabhava) j£l ^ *\%. discussed i n Chapt. I I I . K'uei-chi c i t e s these verses again below i n h i s discussion of t h i s how the three natures are r e a l i z e d i n Section 7-2.

~^ Cf. La Vallee-Poussin Vs" note" ( S i d d k i 3 ' p . 67) on the term parinama and the differences i n i t s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by Sthiramati and Dharmapala.

La Vallee-Poussin., following SAEKI, takes these to be the viprayuktas, which the Yogacarins-—unlike the Sarvastivadins do not consider to be a separate category of dharmas completely d i s t i n c t from r u p a - c i t t a - c a i t t a .

~^ Chen-ju ^ - ^ t ^ . renders t a t hat'a '(Thusness) or t a t t v a (Reality) i n Hsiian-tsang's Chinese, not bhuta-tathata; t h i s i s attested by a number of occurrences i n h i s t r a n s l a t i o n of the Madhyanta-vibhdga3

for which the o r i g i n a l Sanskrit survives. On the difference between these terms and t h e i r Chinese equivalents see also La Vallee-Poussin's Appendix: "Notes sur l a Tathata ou Dharmata" (Siddhi3 pp. 743-761.

1 T CWSL: v i i . 2 5 a

l8 The r e l a t i v e facts correspond to the Dependent (paratantra)

aspect of own-being or existence, and the abstract u n i v e r s a l to the Absolute (parinispanna).

19 The extensive i n t e r p o l a t i o n necessary to make t h i s passage

comprehensible i n English i s based on the p a r a l l e l structure of the Chinese and on the explanations of the commentators.

20 This i s a s k i l l f u l means (upaya) to be employed only

p r o v i s i o n a l l y and l a t e r abandoned when the goal i s reached.

21 The Sanskrit saksatkr- ( l i t . : to do or put before one's

own eyes') has the meaning of 'experiencing d i r e c t l y , ' or ' v e r i f y i n g through one's own experience.' The Chinese render t h i s with cheng HjE^ ( l i t . : 'to t e s t i f y to') conferring upon i t a somewhat extended meaning. The best English equivalent i s 'to r e a l i z e ' understood to mean both 'to e f f e c t ' and 'to make part of one's own personal experience.'


22 - -This i s the c r u c i a l point regarding which the Yogacarins f e l t

they d i f f e r e d most s i g n i f i c a n t l y from the Madhyamikas.

23

Cf. note 5 above. 24

T'o"j£ means l i t e r a l l y 'entrusted to': In Buddhist Chinese the expression t'o-sheng i s used to describe the manner of procreation of higher l i f e forms whereby the male deposits, his. _ seed (usually thought of as a homunculus) into the womb of the female who subsequently bears the c h i l d .

2 ^ In Hsuan-tsang's Chinese ching £^usually renders visaya, 'the objective realm or f i e l d , ' but can also stand for artha, 'object La Vallee-Poussin prefers the l a t t e r , reconstructing 'artha-matra.'

2f^ This answers an unstated objection, namely: I f the inner noetic or subjective component and the inner noematic or objective component are i n e x t r i c a b l y joined, i t seems a r b i t r a r y to speak only of vijnapti-matra; why not say visaya-matra.

2 7 CWSL: x.31a

28

The Yogacarins often gloss c i t t a ('thought') and manas ('mind') as synonyms for vijnana ('mentation'); sometimes, however, they d i s t i n g u i s h between the three terms saying that c i t t a r e f e r s s p e c i f i c a l l y to the eighth mode of mentation, manas to the seventh, and vijnana, i n the s t r i c t e s t sense ('discrimination' or 'perception' to the f i r s t s i x modes. Cf. also 2.2.1 and note 109 below.

29 The Ghanavyuha Sutra was never t r a n s l a t e d by Hsuan-tsang;

however t h i s verse i s c i t e d i n the Cheng-wei-shih-lun ( v i i . 2 1 a ) , T: XXXI.39a, although the source i s not mentioned there.

30 This well-known assertion occurs several times m the

Avatatnsaka, see . for example T: X.194a and 195b.

31 The I-ckiao eking i s an al t e r n a t i v e name for KumarajTva's

t r a n s l a t i o n of the Fo-dh 'ui pan-nieh-p 'an lu^h-shuo-chiao-ch-ieh eking $^#L>f 4 tL^1#££( T : n o - 3 8 9 ) - K'uei-chi c i t e s with e l l i p s e s the passage occurring at T: X I I . l l l l a ! 5 - 2 0 .

32 Cf. note 5 above.

33 - t Mo ' 5 ^ i s more l i t e r a l l y the t i p s or ends of the branches,

The image i s of the root as the cource and the. branches as the extensions.

180

Notes to Chapt.. V (79 - l6l)

3 ^ This r e f e r s to the s e l f - v e r i f y i n g component (svasamvitti-hhaga), which occurs as t s u - t ' i - f e n & >j§w as well as tzu-cheng-fen fa Cf. note 36 below. *

35 This i s Hsiian-tsang's rendering of the f i r s t verse of

Vasubandhu's Thirty Verses (T: XXXI,60a23-24).

This i s the commentary on the above verse i n the CWSL (i.2b), T: XXXIlbl. Note that K'uei-chi i n c i t i n g t h i s passage uses the variant t z u - t ' i ^ ( l i t . : own-substance or e s s e n t i a l substance) rather than the more standard equivalent tzu-cheng ^ ( l i t . : s e l f - a t t e s t e r ) which i s what i s found at the corresponding spot i n the TaishS e d i t i o n of the CWSL.

3 7 T: XVI.698b2.

38 Cf. note 5 above.

39 Greed (raga) i s f i r s t i n the Yogacara l i s t of the s i x

a f f l i c t i o n s (klesa ) or defilements ( s a m k l e s a ^ f t ^ ), i . e . , those mental c o e f f i c i e n t s ( c a i t t a s ) that obstruct enlightenment.

F a i t h (sraddha) i s f i r s t i n the l i s t of the eleven wholesome or good (kusala )mental c o e f f i c i e n t s , i . e . , those mental states conducive to enlightenment.

41 This i s from the Mahayana-sutralarnkdra; K'uei-chi c i t e s the

verse as t r a n s l a t e d by Hsiian-tsang i n the CWSL (vii.8a) where i t occurs as a quote; c f . T: XXXI.36c27-28. The t r a n s l a t i o n of La V a l l e e -Poussin (Siddhi, p. 3l6) incorporates some h e l p f u l i n t e r p o l a t i o n s based on K'uei-chi's CWSL commentary:

Nous affirmons que l a pensee, unique, apparait double, comme objet et sujet (grahya, grahaka) oucomme image et v i s i o n (nimitta et darsanabhaga, . . . ) ; de meme e l l e apparait comme Raga, etc., comme Sraddha, etc.: i l n'y a pas de Dharma s o u i l l e ou bon en dehors du C i t t a .

For the surviving Sanskrit version of the verse, see S. Levi's e d i t i o n of the Mahayana-sutralamkara (p. 36).

This i s the s e l f - v e r i f y i n g component (samvitti-bhaga); cf . note 37 above.

Notes to Chapt. V (79 - l 6 l )

This passage occurs i n a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t form i n Hsuan-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n (T: XIV.5631)27-28). K'uei-chi c i t e s i t again, with yet another v a r i a t i o n , i n % 1 .3.3 (k); c f . note 87.

kk

Cf. note 5 above.

1 + 5 T: XII.222b4-c7.

^ The a " here i s problematic. K'uei-chi's commentators take i t as an equivalent for yuktas or yuktitas(as t r a n s l a t e d here) which i t often i s . Lamotte seems to ignore i t i n h i s t r a n s l a t i o n of the l i n e , "puis on examine l a corde et on comprend qu'elle n'est pas un serpent," {La Somme3 p. 164). There i s nothing to which i t corresponds i n the two Chinese and one Tibetan versions of the p a r a l l e l text c i t e d i n note 47 below.

^ A c t u a l l y the verse i t s e l f i s not i n the Mahay ana-samgraha, but rather i n Asvabhava's commentary (T: XXXI.Ul5b6-cl6). Asvabhava c i t e s no source but i t seems to be the same as the f i r s t verse found i n the Hastabhavaprakarana, a work the',Tibetans ascribe to Aryadeva and the Chinese to Dignaga; c f . F. W. Thomas and H. UI: "The Hand Tre a t i s e ' , A Work b y Aryadeva." This l a t t e r work seems to be the e a r l i e s t reference i n Indian l i t e r a t u r e to the famous rope-snake analogy, better known perhaps from the l a t e r Vedanta works of S*ankara.

H U The i n t e r p o l a t i o n follows Benkl (605cl4-6o6a27)• According to both the Mahay ana-samgraha and the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun there are two portions or aspects of the Dependent: one d e f i l e d ( i . e . , the paratantra as p a r i k a l p i t a ) and one pure ( i . e . , the paratantra as parinispanna).

1)9 Hsuan-tsang and K'uei-chi render prajna ( ' i n t u i t i v e wisdom')

with both chih and YmlJ^ . Hui i s used for prajna as one of the f i v e s p e c i a l or determinate (viniyata) mental c o e f f i c i e n t s ( cf. n. I l l below), while chih occurs i n more general contexts. Both forms, and also the t r a n s c r i p t i o n pan-jo J$S£ 7?^ occur i n the present d i s -cussion. The standard English equivalent i s 'wisdom' i n a l l three cases. Here h u i j l * i s rendered with "wisdom" and l a t e r i n t h i s passage c h i h ^ i s rendered with "knowledge" to r e f l e c t K'uei-chi's choice of the two d i f f e r e n t characters. The context makes i t c l e a r , however, that K'uei-chi c o n s i d e r s ^ ? "knowledge" (as used here) to be equivalent to wisdom^; . The argument that K'uei-chi develops here also assumes the association of insi g ht (vipasyana) with wisdom (prajna).

182

Notes to Chapt. V (79 - l6l)

The c i t a t i o n i s ungrammatical hecause of the e l l i p s i s ; see Lamotte's t r a n s l a t i o n of the complete passage, La Somme, pp. 167-168.

5 1 Cf. note 49 above.

52

Hsuan-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n of Asvabhava's Uphanibandana commentary to the Mahay ana-samgraha (T:XXXI.4l6c6).

5 3 Cf. note 49 above.

54

K'uei-chi seems here to be paraphrasing the passage c i t e d above (n. 52).

^ This i s quoted from the t r a n s l a t i o n of Hsuan-tsang, T: XXXI.142cl7-21. For a rendering of the complete passage, see Lamotte's t r a n s l a t i o n , La Somme, pp. l6l-l62.

^ The Four Examinations are:

1. nama-paryesana : examination of the fact that the name (naman) i s simply a mental expression (manojalpa).

2. art ha-parye sana ^ j f f - J ^ . :examination of the f a c t . that the thing or object (artha) i s simply a mental expression.

3. namarthasvabhava-prajnapti-paryesana %j. fa ^ fj( ^ examination of the fact that the uniqueness or own-being (svabhava) a t t r i b u t e d to the name or thing i s nothing hut conceptualization (Prajnapti).

4. namarthavisesa-prajnapti-paryesana, ^ 7 ^ ^ - ^ f j ^ 5oL examination of the : fact that the d i s t i n c t i o n s or s p e c i f i c a t i o n s (visesa) a t t r i b u t e d to the name are nothing but conceptualization.

The Four Exact Comprehensions are the corresponding states of comprehension a r i s i n g when one knows each of the above four, propositions to be true. For a discussion of these two Yogacara doctrines i n the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun and the Mahay ana-samgraha, see Siddhi, pp. 576-577 and La Somme, pp. l6l-l62. For references to the doctrines i n the Bodhisattva-bhumi,the Mahayana-sutralamkara and the Abhidharma-samueeaya-vyakhya, see La Somme, p. 30. On the rol e of the Examinations and the Comprehensions i n r e a l i z i n g the emptiness of the s e l f and of dharmas see 10.1 and esp. note 297 below.


57 Rather than a d i r e c t quote, t h i s appears to he a paraphrase

of T:. XXXI.l42h6-7 i n the t r a n s l a t i o n of Hsiian-tsang.

58 The commentators say i t i s at the Stage of Provisioning and

the Preliminary.Stage; c f . Tai-hsii, p. 993-

59 Chih-chou (53b) says, "The impure (sasrava) i s termed

'cause,' and the pure (anasrava) within the cause > i s given the general designation ' e f f e c t . ' "

^° For a discussion of these three v a r i e t i e s of wisdom see Ko§a VI.5 ( x x i i . l l a - 1 2 a ) . . For a more s p e c i f i c a l l y Yogacara presen-t a t i o n of the three, see•:MaTidydna-sutrdlamkdra3yj.. 6-7 (Levi ed., PP. 55-56; trans., p.103) and also St.S'chayer's study of that chapter, "Die Erlosungslehren der Yogacaras," esp. pp. 100-102.

^ The various ways by which things are considered wholesome or conducive to enlightment are defined i n the "Prakaraprabheda" section of the Abhidhavma-sgmueeaya.- Walpola Rahula {Le Compendium, p. 35) t r a n s l a t e s :

Qu'est-ce qui est favorable par l'obtention de naissance? C'est l a production des r e s u l t a t s ( v i p a k a b h i n i r v r t t i ) q u i leur conviennent (tadrupa) par suite de l a pratique h a b i t u e l l e anterieure (purvabhyasam agamya) de ces memes qualites favorables, de t e l l e maniere que l e penchant (ruci) vers e l l e s demeure naturellement (prakrtya) et inconscie.mment (apratisamkhyaya).

^ 2 T: XXXI.I42bl4 - l6 . In t h i s passage the causal aspect i s represented by the verbal concepts, while the stages attained are the e f f e c t .

^ Hsin-chieh / f | . fa i s one of several Chinese equivalents for the t e c h n i c a l term adhimukti which La Vallee-Poussin renders quite l i t e r a l l y as 'adhesion-sympathie.' It i s v a r i o u s l y glossed as involv i n g elements of zealous i n c l i n a t i o n , strong r e s o l u t i o n , f a i t h , c e r t a i n t y , etc., with regard to the Dharma.

6h On the two v a r i e t i e s of the Darsanamarga, v i z . , the

tattvadarsanamarga and the laksanadarsanamarga, see ix . l 3a -15a , and also La Vallee-Poussin's note {Siddhi pp. 588-560).

Notes to Chapt. V ( 7 9 - l 6 l )

This passage.is not a di r e c t - quote, hut rather a summary of the material i n the n i n t h s c r o l l which t r e a t s the f i v e stages (avastha) on the Holy Path.

^ The correct cognition, also known as the fundamental Enon-discriminatingH cognition (mula-Cnirvikalpaka3-jnana), i s : t h e state of awareness by which one r e a l i z e s enlightenment. The sub-sequently acquired cognition, which follows the correct cognition, i s the state of awareness by which the enlightened bodhisattvas and Buddhas are able to r e t a i n t h e i r s a l v i f i c e f f i c a c y i n the world of beings s t i l l bound by discrimination (vikalpa). Both of these are necessary i n the Yogacara conception of l i b e r a t i o n , i . e . , the Unfixed Nirvana ( a p r a t i s t h i t a - n i r v a n a ) . These two together with the preliminary cognition (prayogika-jnana),. make up the doctrine of the three kinds of cognition For a study of t h i s important Yogacara s o t e r i o l o g i c a l doctrine based on chapters 8 and 9 of the Mahaydna-samgraha see Sponberg, "Dynamic Lib e r a t i o n i n Yogacara Buddhism."

On the doctrine of pure and impure dharmas, see Kosa 1:4 (i . 3a -3b) .

68 On the d i s t i n c t i o n between dispersed and concentrated mental

dharmas see Kosa 1:33 (ii . 5 b - 6 a ) and IV:123 ( x v i i . l 7 a - b ) .

69

70

Cf. notes 60 and -6~ above.

This i s Vasubandhu's commentary to the Dasabhumika Sutra; the reference i s to the 10th chapter (12th s c r o l l ) of Bodhiruci's t r a n s l a t i o n , T: XXVI.193-203.

71 This i s another essay or chapter i n K'uei-chi's

Ta-sheng fa-yuan .i-Zin chang (no. 26), T: XLV.350-356.

The f i v e categories of Vijnapti-matrata are di f f e r e n t from the f i v e l e v e l s of Vijnapti-matrata t ^ ' i ^ ' ^ L which were treated above.in 1.1.1-1.1.5.

73 K'uei-chi c i t e s the verse as i t i s quoted i n the Mahdydna-

samgraha at T-.XXXI .148bl-2 i n the t r a n s l a t i o n of Hsuan-tsang. This same argument i s one of the four used to e s t a b l i s h Vijnaptimatrata i n the Vimsatika ( I I - I I I ) . The •Mahdydna-abdhidharma-sutra does not survive.

Notes to Chapt. V (79 - 1.6l)

1 _ r This i s one l i n e of a verse from the Lahkdvatara Sutra as i t occurs i n the t r a n s l a t i o n Budhiruci and as i t i s quoted i n the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun (ii . 2 9 a ) . K'uei-chi c i t e s the complete verse below at 1.3-3.1; see note 8 l .

75 y This i s Hsuan-tsang's rendering of Trimsika XVII

(T: XXXI.6la2-3)- It r e f l e c t s the Dharmapala t r a d i t i o n of i n t e r -p reting the Sanskrit o r i g i n a l which i n the e d i t i o n of Levi (Deux TraitSs,p. 14) reads:

vijnanaparinamo 'yam-vikalpo yad .vikalpyate XJ •' • tena tan n a s t i tenedam sarvamvijnaptimatrakam }| l7 l |

The t r a d i t i o n that followed Sthiranati parsed the Sanskrit somewhat d i f f e r e n t l y , y i e l d i n g an al t e r n a t i v e understanding, which i s followed by Jacobi (Trimsika, p. 47) who t r a n s l a t e s :

Diese Modification des Bewusstseins i s t eingebildete Vorstellung; was durch diese v o r g e s t e l l t wird, das i s t ''nichts'" Selendes .

This verse i s one of the most s i g n i f i c a n t of the t h i r t y f o r comparing the two divergent t r a d i t i o n s ; c f . La Vallee-Poussin's note (Siddhi, p. 416).

if\ This i s the f i r s t l i n e of two verses quoted i n the Mahdydna-

samgraha from the Yoga-vibhahga ( ? ) ^ S ' J 3$t4foi$ • T n e complete text of the two from the Chinese of Hsuan-tsang reads:

The bodhisattva i n the state of concentration

Sees that images (pratibimba) are nothing but thought..

Once the concept of objects (arthasamjna) has been destroyed,

He sees that there i s nothing but his own concepts (svasamjfia).

Residing thus i n i n t e r n a l thought (antascitta)

He knows that what i s apprehended (grahya) i s ine x i s t e n t ,

And then, that the apprehensor (grahaka) does not exist e i t h e r ;

F i n a l l y he touches the state where there i s nothing to be had (anupalambha).

K'uei-chi, no doubt, has i n mind the passage from the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun ( i x . l l a ) that c i t e s these two verses to i l l u s t r a t e the nirvedhabhagTyas or phases of the Station of Preliminary Training (prayogavastha).

186

Notes -to Chapt. V (79 - l6 l )

77 This i s quoted from Hsuan-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n of Bandhuprabha's

commentary to the Buddhabhumi Sutra, T:. XXVI. 302c.

7ft K'uei-chi c i t e s the verse as i t i s quoted i n the Ch'eng-wei-shi-lun,

( i i i . 1 5 a ) , T: XXXI.13c23-24.

79 1 7 TrimsikaXXX (T: XXXI.6lb22-23). Hsuan-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n i n

t h i s case i s a very l i t e r a l rendering of the Sanskrit (Levi, Deux Traites, p. 14):

sa evanasravo dhatur acintya^. kusalo dhruvah | . sukho vimuktikayo 'sau dharmakhyo 'yam mahamuneh 113011

80 Having discussed the f i v e categories of Vijnaptimatrata,

K'uei-chi now gives examples of s i x alternate ways of explaining the f i r s t of the f i v e categories, i . e . , Vijflaptimdtrata.'ln terms of the objective s e n s e - f i e l d .

8l Cf. note 74 above. The corresponding Sanskrit i s found i n

the Lankavatara Sutra X:101 (NANJO, ed., p. 227): svacittabhinivesena cittam v a i sampravartate | bahirdha n a s t i v a i drsyam ato v a i cittamatrakam ||

82 See note 30 above.

This i s Trimsika I (T: XXXI.60a23-24) which K'uei-chi has already c i t e d above at §1.1.3; c f . note 35 above.

84 The commentators explain that r e f e r r i n g to the subjective

and objective components i s to discuss Vijnaptimatrata i n terms of what e x i s t s c o n d i t i o n a l l y (samskrta-dha'rma), and that r e f e r r i n g . t o the c l i n g i n g to s e l f and dharmas i s to discuss i t i n terms of what i s clung t o .

85 The'following l i n e i s not i n the Taisho e d i t i o n of K'uei-chi's

t e x t , though i t does occur i n a l l the other e d i t i o n s . The Taisho ommission i s probably a simple p r i n t i n g error since no variant i s noted in the apparatus. The omitted l i n e reads:

86 The commentators explain that mundane people conventionally

state that s e l f and dharmas e x i s t basing themselves on what has no substance and following t h e i r deluded fe e l i n gs t h i s i s to discuss Vijnaptimatrata i n terms of what i s clung t o . The Holy Scriptures p r o v i s i o n a l l y state that s e l f and dharmas e x i s t basing themselves on what i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y established t h i s i s to discuss Vijnaptimatrata according to what e x i s t s c o n d i t i o n a l l y .


^ Cf. T: XIV.563h27-29. This passage was already c i t e d above in a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t form at § 1 . 1 . 4 ; c f . note 43.

88 In Hsiian-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n of the Sandhinivmooana Sutra

t h i s passage occurs at T: XVI.698b2.

89 The f u l l verse i s c i t e d above at § 1 . 3 . 2 : c f . note 73.

90 In that analysis the f i r s t three s e n s e - f i e l d , doctrine and

p r i n c i p l e s of the f i v e categories f a l l together under the heading of s e n s e - f i e l d understood more generally.

9 1 T: XXXIII.526a26-cl6; c f . no. 3 i n the Analysis of K'uei-chi's Surviving Works (Chapt. I I , p. 25 ) above.

9 2 In Buddhist Chinese shih"ti8fecan render the two d i f f e r e n t Sanskrit verbal nouns: vijnana (mentation or perception) and v i j n a p t i (representation or conceptualization). In the Buddhist Chinese of Hsiian-tsang, l i a o - p i e h ^ i j which i s given here as the gloss f o r v i j f i a p t i u s u ally renders a f i n i t e form of the verb v i j n a - . . ' V i j n a - ' means to know i n a discursive or discriminating manner; whence vijnana: discriminate know-ing, mentation, perception, etc. Contrast the verb prajna-: ' to know.intuitively; whence the noun prajna: i n t u i t i v e wisdom, gnosis, etc. Cf.$ 2.2.1 below where, rather than l i a o - p i e h f Jji] , K'uei-chi speaks of the l i a o - t a XjJix (understanding) and fen-pieh / ^ ^ ( d i s c r i m i n a t i n g ) a c t i v i t y of the mind.

9 3 Here (and below) K'uei-chi has simply shih "\$£fc , which could correspond to eit h e r vijnana or v i j n a p t i , and may indicate that he f e l t i t was unnecessary to d i s t i n g u i s h between the two; c f . Chapt. I l l above. Here mentation :(vijnana") •• seems more l i k e l y because of the context, even though he c l e a r l y s p e c i f i e s v i j n a p t i ^ . ^ " y ^ J u s t above

94 The commentators explain that the f i r s t four are the r e l a t i v e

p a r t i c u l a r s and the l a s t i s the universal p r i n c i p l e : c f . Tai-hsii, p. 1007.

95 This i s a paraphrase of a passage i n the Ch'eng-wei-shi-h-lun

(vii.25a) c i t e d by K'ei-chi i n ^ l . l . l above.

96 This i s a play on the Chinese equivalent for Thusness which i s

the combination of the two characters: chen-ju j|| The commen-tators explain that t h i s statement i s to answer the objection that i t seems just as v a l i d to say Thusness-only as to say representation-only While both are indeed accepted as tru e , t h e i r context and applications

188


vary. The latter-—-though, not as u l t i m a t e — — i s nonetheless preferred because.it focuses the aspirant's.attention on the delusory, grasping nature of the mind and i s thus more appropriate., to the f i r s t e f f o r t s towards l i b e r a t i o n . Cf. the l a s t paragraph of § 2.2.2 below.

ana x m r a cnaracters oi t i n s t r a n s c r i p t i o n d i f f e r e n t l y . (XLV.260al5) has -*IL for -ZjL , and fc>) f o r ^ . J with no varian-Ch'u-tz 'u (T'ang pronounciation: tsia ?-ts via h ) « d i - j j i ' J i s an i i

97 Each, of the editions of the text consulted reproduce the second

and t h i r d characters of t h i s t r a n s c r i p t i o n d i f f e r e n t l y . The Taisho iants c i t e d ,

impossible t r a n s c r i p t i o n f or the Sanskrit '-tra-.' and probably i s simply the result, of a misprint, or perhaps the error of an e a r l i e r s c r i b e . There i s some evidence for the l a t t e r p o s s i b i l i t y , since T'ai-hsu. (p. 1008) gets, the t h i r d c h a r a c t e r ^ correct, but l i k e the. Taisho has <*)£. f o r tfjt- . Shingo (LXXI. 342b26), and Mei (.35b) whose commentary i s based on h i s , both: have the correct form Kiben (LXXXI.6l5a23) abbreviates to RJ- .„8

The single character wei renders both the base form 'matra' (only) and the derivativ e 'matrata', (only-ness, exelusiveness). The t r a n s c r i p t i o n above i s c l e a r l y 'matrata', however the three meanings given i n the text seem to apply to the" base form; hence 'matra' here and 'matrata' above i n the t r a n s l a t i o n .

99 The English 'only' renders t h i s f i r s t meaning of '-matra'.

1 0 0 This appears to be a paraphrase of CWSL (vii.19b) \ T: XXXI.38c24-25, which, reads s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t l y : . "The expression '-matrata' Is meant to deny that there are r e a l things e x i s t i n g apart from vijnana w&iSt " f ijfy , tut not to deny that mental dharmas, etc. do e x i s t inseparable from vijnana jj ^ %&W('*jfti \& SAEKI, following K'uei-chi, glosses "mental dharmas, et c . " as the two perceptual .components (bhaga)., form (rupa), Thusness, etc.

101 K'uei-chi probably, has. in mind both the Sanskrit 'eva' ( j u s t ,

p r e c i c e l y , quite, that very . . ., etc.) and also the explative p a r t i c l e . 'tu.' which, does occur i n the verse he c i t e s below.

. 1 0 2 Although, the' Taisho apparatus gives no va r i e n t s , the ku (therefore) at 260al8 does not occur i n the T'as-hsu, Mei, or Shing5 editions of the text;. (.it i s i n that of Kiben). The meaning i s not s i g n i f i c a n t l y a ffected e i t h e r way.

http://because.it

189


This i s the second h a l f of the famous Madhydnta-vibhdga verse ( l : l ) , which survives i n the o r i g i n a l Sanskrit (NAGAO ed., pp. 17):

ahhuta-parikalpo ' s t i dvayan t a t r a na vidyate |

sunyata vidyate t v atra tasyam api sa vidyate | J l . l | |

This verse i s important because i t expresses an atttempt to resolve the dilemma of accepting p l u r a l i t y i n the world at the conventional l e v e l , while maintaining that at the ultimate l e v e l R e a l i t y i s an Absolute, here expressed as amptiness (sunyata). I t i s thus a key passage for determining the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the Dependent and the Absolute and i t i s also important to any study of e a r l y Madhyamika-Yogacara hybrid thought. See the following note for a f u l l t r a n s l a t i o n .

Two Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n s of the Madhyanta-vibhaga survive, that of Paramartha done between 559-570 and that of Hsuan-tsang done i n 66l; (YUKI, Tensekishi, mentions no l o s t t r a n s l a t i o n s ) . The l i n e quoted i s the same as Hsuan-tsang's version except for the character t i n g for which Hsiian-tsang gives 'wei ' . Shingo (6l5a29-bl) says that the version K'uei-chi c i t e s here i s that of Paramartha, however the Taisho e d i t i o n of Paramartha's t e x t , (T: XXXI. U6UblU), l i k e Hsiian-tsang's (T: XXXI.l+51alM has rather than , with no variant given. K'uei-chi could perhaps be r e f e r r i n g to an e a r l y draft of Hsiian-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n . 'Ting' i s a more accurate t r a n s l a t i o n of the Sanskrit 'tu' than 'wei'.

10H This alludes to the f i r s t h a l f of the above verse, which

K'uei-chi does not give i n h i s c i t a t i o n . Hsiian-tsang t r a n s l a t e s the complete verse:

Vain delusion e x i s t s .

In t h i s the two do not e x i s t .

Within t h i s there i s only emptiness.

In that there i s also t h i s . Vasubandhu's commentary (T: XXXL.U6Ubl6-22) explains that "vain delusion" r e f e r s to the discriminatio n of the apprehender and the apprehended. These "two" however do not e x i s t .

Gopa's commentary was never t r a n s l a t e d into Chinese; K'uei-chi quotes t h i s passage from a c i t a t i o n i n h i s own Vimsatikd commentary (no. .1.7) at T: XLIII.982a.

This gloss, which i s very frequently encountered i n Yogacara works, goes back to a h i s t o r i c a l l y questionable etymological derivatio n of c i t t a (thought) from the root V c i - : to gather, c o l l e c t .

The doctrine of citta-matra i s perhaps best known from the Lahkdvatara Sutra, but i s also found i n the Avatamsaka•Sutra, cf': note 113 below.


- i A O

Cf. note 92 above.

109 This comes from the opening of Vasubandhu's auto-commentary

on the Twenty Verses. Note, that here the Chinese for vijnana i s c l e a r l y distinguished from v i j n a p t i ~J . Cf. CWSL (v.8a) T: XXXI. 42c9-15)5 which explains how the terms c i t t a , manas and vijnana are used d i f f e r e n t l y , though they are of the substance.

1 1 0 In Sanskrit grammar karmadiaraya compounds are d e s c r i p t i v e compounds usually i l l u s t r a t e d by examples l i k e hilbtpala.. (blue l o t u s ) , or, i n English, by a compound l i k e b l a c k b i r d . Vijnaptimatrata can be understood as one of a sp e c i a l sub-class of karmadharya compounds made up of two substantives, rather than the more common adjective/adverb-substantive pattern.

~L1~'" As part of a discussion of the f i v e s p e c i a l or determinate (viniyata) mental c o e f f i c i e n t s ( c a i t t a ) , the Ch'eng-wei-shth-lim (v.31ab) defines wisdom (prajna) as discernment (pravicaya Ef] i f ). In Buddhist. terminology, pravicaya ( [ i n t u i t i v e or enlightened' d i s -cernment) has a p o s i t i v e connotation, whereas vi k a l p a ( [ f a l s e , v a i n , or deluded] discrimination) has a decidedly negative connotation; c f . also note 92 above.

11? Cf. Shingo (345b6-9).

113 The citta-matra(ta) doctine occurs several places i n the

Avatamsaka (e.g., T: X.194a, 195b and 288c) and very often of course, i n the Lankavatara.

m i ' ' " — " *'* ' ';o transport, transportation)

as sheng

115

The most important passage i n the Lotus dealing with the One Vehicle doctrine i s the Parable of the Burning House (T: IX.9b f f . i n KumarajTva's Chinese ve r s i o n ) . For an English t r a n s l a t i o n of the KumarajTva version, the most popular i n East A s i a , see L. Hurvitz, Scripture of the Lotus Blossom, pp. 58ff.

On the three kinds of cognition see note 66 above.

1 1 7 Shingo (347al9-20) and Mei (29a-b) say that t h i s means: "When we speak of r e a l i z i n g the p r i n c i p l e - that the Dependent i s l i k e an i l l u s i o n , then i t i s only the conventional and not the ab-solute 1 [that i s involved!."

The commentators gloss yun , (t< ; ( v e h i c l e ) ; hence 'conveyance.'


l l 8 Shingo (3^71>2l) c i t e s Zenju who says that the following

polemic i s directed p r i m a r i l y against.the Chinese. Madhyamika exegete Chi-tsang jjjw . The issue i s whether the One Vehicle should, be considered cause or f r u i t , or both. Chi-tsang discusses the three a l t e r n a t i v e s i n his Commentary on the Lotus Sutra.(T: no. 1722, XXXIV) deciding i n favor of the second a l t e r n a t i v e , that the One Vehicle i s the F r u i t i o n • Knowledge of the Buddhas. K'uei-chi attacked that position, maintaining that i t must be both cause and f r u i t . His arguments are i n t r i c a t e and s c h o l a s t i c . The present text i s only a b r i e f summary; they are presented more f u l l y i n K'uei-chi's Commentary on the Lotus Sutra (T: XXXIV.762a). The key point for K'uei-chi i s that the One Vehicle i s a conveyance, a means of reaching the goal of enlightenment. It must, therefore, be considered as cause. He accepts that, as the reward which i s waiting outside the burning house, i t can also be considered the f r u i t ; hence his p o s i t i o n that i t i s both cause and f r u i t .

1 1 9 Tao-ch,'' ang i s the standard equivalent for bodhimanda, the platform, terrace or seat of enlightenment the spot under the hodhi tree where the Buddha became enlightened.

1 2 0 According to the Srimdld-devT Sutra (T: XII.219b), the Six Dharmas or basic t o p i c s taught by the Buddha are the preservation of the True Doctrine, the decline of the True Doctrine, the monastic rules (pratimoksa), the monastic code (vinaya), going f o r t h from the home to take up the monastic l i f e , and the ordination of monks. For an English t r a n s l a t i o n of t h i s passage, see A. and H. Wayman, Lion's Roar, pp. 78-79.

121 This i s the fourth essay or chapter of K'uei-chi's

Ta-sheng fa-yuan i-'-lin ehang (no. 26), T: XLV.261+-268.

122 The chapter on the Dharma-theme of Non-duality, famous f o r

the passage r e l a t i n g VimalakTrti's "thunderous s i l e n c e , " i s i n the f i f t h s c r o l l of Hsiian-tsang*s t r a n s l a t i o n (T: XIV.577al2-23); cf . E. Lamotte's excellent French t r a n s l a t i o n of the Tibetan version of the chapter, L*Enseignement3 pp. 301-318.

123 Ta-hui ehing (Mahamati Sutra) i s an alternate name for

Gunabhadra's t r a n s l a t i o n of the Lahkdvatara Sutra: the doctrine r e f e r r e d to here i s found at T: XVI.506a.

124 s The doctrine of the Inconceivable i s discussed at T: XVI.526a

in Bodhiruci's t r a n s l a t i o n of the Lahkdvatara.


125 » i,v

In the Chinese of Hsuan-tsang and K'uei-chi, shih-she i s a standard equivalent for prajnapti and the. f i n i t e forms of the verb prajna- i n the causative, which means 'to form concepts o f , or 'to designate'.

This i s discussed at T: XXX.654a i n Hsuan-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n of the Yogdedrabhumi.

127 This i s taught several places i n the Mahayana-samgraha, see

esp. T: XXXI.139b6 f f . The phrase: "manifestests i t s u n i v e r s a l i t y , continuity. . . ," i s also found i n the CWSL ( v i i i . 3 0 a ) T: XXXI46bll.

128 This i s the Abhidharma-sumueeaya-vydkhyd which was t r a n s l a t e d

by Hsuan-tsang and was the subject of a .sub-commentary by K'uei-chi (no. 15). The passage r e f e r r e d to here (T: XXXI.702b3-c2) occurs i n a discussion of the eight unconditioned dharmas which include several of the other doctrines mentioned by K'uei-chi i n t h i s section.

129 Cf. Madhydnta-vibhdga verse 1:4 (NAGAO ed., p. 19).

130 This i s a seemingly un-Buddhist. doctrine, e s p e c i a l l y i f

avikaratva i s rendered 'immutability'. Shingo (353a29-bl) c i t e s Sthiramati's Abhidharma-samuccaya-vydkhya l(T: XXX.702b-c), which explains that what i s forever unaffected i s the lack of any true s e l f (anatman).

131 Shingo again c i t e s the same passage (see n. 130 above) from

Sthiramati's commentary which explains that akasa should be understood as the absence of matter or form.

132 The reference i s to a passage (T: V.71a) i n Hsuan-tsang's

t r a n s l a t i o n of the 'Satasdhasrikd Prajftdparamitd.

133 See notes 125 and 126 above.

The text of the Yogdedrabhumi (T: XXX.653c) goes on to explain that the Four Holy Truths are what can.be conceptually f i x e d and the Thusness (tathata), i s what cannot be conceptually f i x e d . See also La Vallee-Poussin's note, Siddhi, p. 582-583.

135 The passage occurs at T: XII.221b-c. For a discussion of the

difference, see the English t r a n s l a t i o n and notes i n A. and H. Wayman, Lion's Roar, pp. 96-98. The Waymans r e f e r to the two types as the "Create and Uncreate Holy Truths."

Notes to Chapt. V (79 - l6l)

1 3 6 T: XII.443a

137

T: XXXI.536c; t h i s i s from an important hut as yet rather neglected-early Yogacara t r e a t i s e , the Hsien-yang-sheng-chiao-lun

(ff: 1602), a work surviving only i n Chinese that i s ... a t t r i b u t e d to Asanga and was tr a n s l a t e d by Hsuan-tsang; the Sanskrit t i t l e has been reconstructed as Prakaranarya-sasana-sastra or -vaca-It i s an abridgement of the Yogdedrabhumi according to the preface, but Alex Wayman {Analysis, p. 32 and 39) f e e l s that i t i s an e a r l i e r work of which the Yogdedrabhumi i s an expansion; t h i s i s a problem that warrants more attention.

138 K'uei-chi often uses i n i t i a l , middle and subsequent to

re f e r to the three kinds of nondiscriminating cognition, the preliminary, the fundamental or correct, and the subsequently acquired; c f . note 66 above.

139 The Sanskrit nairatmya means l i t e r a l l y ' s e l f l e s s - n e s s ' .

Nairatmya-dharmata (the nonsubstantialit y of a l l dharmas [i n c l u d i n g the person or s e l f 1 ) i s mentioned i n the Mahayana-samgraha at T: XXXI.147c9, and Asvabhava analyses i t into the dual non-sub-s t a n t i a l i t y of both person and dharmas i n his commentary, T: XXXI.430al7 26... This doctrine i s a more frequently encountered top ic i n the CWSL.

l i | 0 See T: XVT.688b694a for the Sandhinirmocana chapter. There i s also a long discussion of these two doctrines i n the Mahayana-samgraha and the CWSL.

The Yogdedrabhumi (T: XXX.436b) l i s t s the three as emptiness (sunyata), the absence of signs (animitta), and the absense of desires (apranihita). They are also mentioned but not l i s t e d i n the commentary t Mahayana-sutrdlankdra XI:3 (S. Levi ed., p. 54).

142 I have not yet located t h i s doctrine i n the Yogdedrabhumi.

143 • In Hsuan-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n of the Yogacarabhumi these are

discussed at T: XXX.544a.

144 The doctrine of the Four Siddhantas or points of view i s

found only i n the Ta-chih-tu-lun (Mahaprajnaparamita-sastra?), T: XXV.59b-6lb; although there i s a p a r a l l e l doctrine of four r e a l i t i e s (tattva) i n the Bodhisattvabhumi (WOGIHARA ed., p. 37). For a t r a n s l a t i o n of the Ta-chih-t*u-lun passage, see E. Lamotte, Le t r a i t e , pp. 27-46.


See note 56 above and 297 below.

See note 56 above and 297 below.

- i , ^ 7 This i s the Jen-wang pan-jo-po-lo-mi-to ching . J . >j£ ^7 (T: no. 245). The discussion of/the Five Patiences i s

found at (T: VIII .,826b)-. On the Ten.Lands see. section nine of the t r a n s l a t i o n below.

148 The commentators, however, say that a l l three cognitions are

involved, and not simply the remaining two: c f . Shingo (358al6-17).

On the Six Abhisamayas see CWSL (ix.l6b-17a). Also very h e l p f u l . i s La Vallee-Poussin 1 s long note, "Les s i x Abhisamayas et le s deux Darsanamargas, (SiddhiyW. 601-602 ) which discusses the Sanskrit and P a l i sources for the Abhisamaya doctrine and also the various l i s t s that occur.

The Seven Components of Enlightenment make up the s i x t h d i v i s i o n of the Thirty-seven Aids to Enlightenment (bodhipaksya, dharmah); f o r a convenient l i s t of the thirty-seven aids with one set of the Chinese equivalents, see L. Hurvitz, Chih-I3 pp. 344-346. For a d e t a i l e d study of the thirty-seven , see Har Dayal, Bod. Doctrine, pp. 80-164.

151 The E i g h t - f o l d Noble Path i s , of course, the Fourth Holy Truth

and also the seventh d i v i s i o n of the Thirty-seven Aids to Enlighten-ment; c f . note 150 above.

152 A

This doctrine i s discussed i n the' Sravakabhwii section of the logacarabhwtij T: XXX.450cl5-20.

15 3 These are discussed i n the Hsien-yang-lun (cf. note 137)

at T: XXXI.496b5-12. 154

The four States of Mindfulness make up the f i r s t d i v i s i o n of the Thirty-seven Aids to Enlightenment; c f . note 150 above.

The Four Right E f f o r t s make up the second d i v i s i o n of the Thirty-seven Aids to Enlightenment; c f . note 150 above.

The Four Elements of Supernatural Power make up the t h i r d d i v i s i o n of the Thirty-seven Aids to Enlightenment; c f . note 150 above.


157 These are moral f a c u l t i e s rather than the f i r s t f i v e sense-

f a c u l t i e s . Together they make up the fourth d i v i s i o n of the T h i r t y -seven Aids to Enlightenment; c f . note 150 above.

158 These are the f i f t h d i v i s i o n of the Thirty-seven Aids (cf.

note 150 above); they are the powers corresponding to the f i v e (potential) f a c u l t i e s mentioned above.

Shingo (359al7-19) comments that the above doctrines (from the Six Comprehensions to the Five Powers) are common to a l l three v e h i c l e s , to that of the sravakas, the pratyeka-buddhas, and the bodhisattvas; therefore, they are not discussed i n d e t a i l .

In another chapter of K'uei-chi's Ta-sheng - fa-yuan i-lin ehang;. (no. 26), the "Essay on Severing the Obstacles" Jg " jSjjt f . , he says that t h i s r e f e r s to the four d i v i s i o n s of the Mahasamgikas plus the MahTsasakas (T: XLV.282cl7-l8). K'uei-chi's primary source for information regarding the doctrines of the ea r l y Indian schools of Buddhism that never gained any following i n China i s vasumitra's Samayabhedoparacanacakra, a d o c t r i n a l h i s t o r y t r a n s l a t e d by both Paramartha and Hsiian-tsang and also the subject of a commentary by K'uei-chi (no. 12).

These are the f i r s t s i x modes of mentation (vijnana), the l i s t common to a l l Buddhist schools.

l62 Following K'uei-chi's other works Shing5 (359"b22-24) says

that t h i s group includes the VatsTputrTyas and also the DharmottarTyas, the BhadrayanTyas, the. SammEtTyas and the Saimagarikas.

Shingo notes (359c4-10) that K'uei-chi does not specify i n h i s other works which schools are to be included, i n t h i s group, but he and the other commentators f e e l that K'uei-chi meant to include the rest of the t r a d i t i o n a l l i s t of eighteen Hinayana schools, according to Vasumitra (see note 160 above).

164 The f i r s t view i s ascribed to Bodhiruci, the second to

Paramartha. The references c i t e d by Shingo (359c-360a) i l l u s t r a t i n g these two views warrant discussion i n any future work on Yogacara i n pre-T'ang China.

T'ai^hsii (p. 1029) comments: "While s t i l l within the causal stage Ci.e., before the f r u i t of nirvana i s at t a i n e d ] , only the [mental c o e f f i c i e n t ] wisdom (prajna),associated with the s i x t h vijnana can be considered vijnana i n i t s subjective aspect."

Notes to Chapt. V (pp. 79 - 161)

In a more s p e c i f i c context the Chinese yii renders the sp e c i a l or determinate- (viniyata) mental c o e f f i c i e n t ( c a i t t a ) chanda (inte r e s t or d e s i r e ) . Here i t seems more l i k e l y to h e - e l l i p t i c for t'an-yu ^ , and thus to he understood as the more serious a f f l i c t i o n : greed of covetousness (raga). The compound l i . - y i i occurs i n Hsiian-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n of the Kosa for vit a - r a g a , vairagya-, etc.

This statement occurs i n a s i g n i f i c a n t passage discussing the d i s t i n c t i o n s of the s i x t h vijnana: T: XXX.280h i n Hsiian-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n .

l68 This is. i n the same passage c i t e d above i n note 167.

T'ai-hsii (pp. 1029-1030) and the other commentators explain that, from the time that the bodhisattva begins on the Path - of Vis i o n (darsana-marga) and the s i x t h vijnana begins to develop into wisdom, the seventh also follows, gradually developing into wisdom as w e l l . Shingo" (360b-c) c i t e s at some length the texts on which t h i s view i s based.

170 _ _ On the samanya-laksana and the prabheda-laksana see CWSL

(ix . 7a ) and Kosa -III:32c-d* (x.8a), VI:15c-d ( x x i i i . 2 b ) . La V a l l e e -Poussin reconstructs *samasta-laksana and vyasta-laksana r e s p e c t i v e l y , but the forms given above are attested i n Hsiian-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n of both the Kosa and thQ^Mad^ydnta-vibhaga. T'ung-hsiang ilsl i s an alt e r n a t i v e f o r kung-hsiang Z.^ • '

171 L i t . : ". . .because of a l l the darmas, which are a general

object ^samaatalambanasarvadharmebhyah)"; on the samastalambana, see the Kosa references c i t e d i n note 170 above.

1 7 2 For examples see the Yogacarabhumi (T: XXX.628c), Sthiramati's Vyakhya to the Abhidharma-samuceaya (l: XXXI-.726,ST-727a), and also the commentary to the Buddhabhumi 'Sutra (T: XXVI.3l8a-b).

17 3 The Dependent (paratantra) has a d e f i l e d , i l l u s o r y nature

and a pure nature, i . e . , i t can be seen as the Imaginary ( p a r i k a l p i t a ) or as the Absolute (parinispanna); c f . §1.1 . 5 and note 48 above.

174 The "bodhisattvas of one category" maintained that there i s

only one category or mode of mentation, v i z . manas, and that everything can be reduced to i t . For a discussion of t h i s p o s i t i o n see the Mahay ana-samgraha (T: XXXI.138 c23-13916) and the corresponding commentaries: Vasubandhu (339c23-342bl3) and Asvabhava (401c27-402bl0). Cf. also Lamotte's trans. (La Somme, pp. 101-103); Lamotte


understands i - l e i p'u-sa.-- to mean "one category of bodhisattvas" rather than "the bodhisattvas of one category." No names of any Indian masters who held t h i s view are given,'but Kiben (630al-2) says that K'uei-chi's famous r i v a l , the Korean monk Wonch'uk $ 7$'^ 1 S a s s o c ^ - a " t e d with one v a r i e t y of the doctrine.

175 The fundamental mode of mentation i s another name for the

eighth or store (alaya) mode, and the developed (.pravrtti)- '.'•' modes are the f i r s t seven. The passage c i t e d occurs at T: XXX.651b i n the t r a n s l a t i o n of Hsuan-tsang.

This i s Hsuan-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n (T: XXXI.U64c9) of the f i r s t h a l f of Verse 1:3; i n Sanskrit (NAGAO ed. p. 18):

artha-satvatma-vijnapti-pratibhasam prajayate |

vijnanam n a s t i casyarthas tad-abhavat tad apy asat j|

There are a c t u a l l y four terms mentioned here, but K'uei-chi's commentators explain that the f i r s t two, what appear as objects and beings, are included i n the alaya-vijnana; the t h i r d , what appears as a s e l f , i s the seventh vijnana (manas); and the fourth, what appears as representations, comprises the s i x sensory vijnanas.

1 7 7 This i s verse 2a-b of the Tvimsikd T: XXXI.60a26 i n Hsuan-tsang' s t r a n s l a t i o n . F r u i t i o n i s the eighth or alaya-vijnana, c o g i t a t i o n i s the seventh (manas) and discrimination of the sense-f i e l d s comprises the remaining s i x sensory vijnanas.

The CWSL, i n i t s commentary on the above verse (ii.12b-13a), explains that the eighth vijnana can be considered both cause and e f f e c t : as cause i t i s termed sarvabTjaka, that which has a l l the seed p o t e n t i a l i t i e s ; as e f f e c t , i t i s the vipakaphala, the ripened f r u i t of the p a r t i c u l a r existence ( i . e . , b i r t h ) a given i n d i v i d u a l experiences as the re s u l t of his.previous actions that i s as a result, of the seeds l a i d down previously. This i s not the same cause-fruit d i s t i n c t i o n that distinguishes the s p i r i t u a l path (cause) from Buddha-hood ( f r u i t ) .

1 7 9 T'ai-hsu (1034) says that t h i s view i s represented by the Vimsatikd. Shingo • (366cl6-367a7) analyzes., i t -more c a r e f u l l y , : citing"* passages out of .'several'works including the Yogdcavdbhurni.

180 T: XVI.721b; see also the commentary a t t r i b u t e d to

Bandhuprabha: T:•XXVI.302b. On the four cognitions see Chapt. I l l above.

198

Notes to Ch.. V ( p p . 79 _ I'6l:)

T: XII.222h.

l82 Of the eighteen realms or factors i n the process of

perception, ( v i s . , s i x sense f a c u l t i e s , s i x sense objects and s i x sensory perceptions) seven are considered to be mental i n the HTnayana Abhidharma.

18 3 • , On the ..eight modes p f mentation, see Chapt. I l l above. -1 oJ. • ' -

T: XVI. 565b The Wu-hsiang-lun (aZaksana-sdstra?) was a long work, probably

a compilation of several Yogacara t e x t s , s a i d to have been t r a n s l a t e d by Paramartha. It i s no longer existent as such", however, Paramartha's t r a n s l a t i o n of the Trimsikdjthe Chuan-shih-lun tsSfcl w ( T : 1587, v o l . XXXI) i s said to have been one part of i t . K'uei-chi's reference i s to a passage i n t h i s l a t t e r work (T: XXXI.62C).

1 8 6 T: XVI.642c-643a.

-1 Qrj Shingo.(369a22-29) explains that these two texts consider the

amala-vijnana to be Thusness (t-athata) rather than simply the p u r i f i e d form of the eighth vijnana. This i s of course contrary to the Dharmapala t r a d i t i o n .

1 Aft This verse i s quoted i n the CWSL (iii.1 5 a ) T: XXXI.13c.

189 This view maintains that a l l eight vijnanas function at the

causal l e v e l , but only the sixth,.seventh, and eighth remain when the f r u i t i s r e a l i z e d . The f i r s t f i v e are excluded from the f r u i t i o n ' stage because i t i s held that they and t h e i r respective objects and f a c u l t i e s , i . e . , the f i r s t f i f t e e n realms or factors of perception (cf. note 182 above) are inherently impure and a n t i t h e t i c a l to the f r u i t of Buddha-hood. K'uei-chi r e f e r s to the passage i n the Budanabhumi at T: XXVI.293c, and probably also has i n mind CWSL (x .l9a-22b) T: XXXI.57a.

190 Sthiramati thus maintains that, while the causal stage

comprises a l l eight vijnanas, the f r u i t i o n " • s t a g e lacks the seventh because i t i s e s s e n t i a l l y d e f i l e d and must be t o t a l l y cut o f f .

191 Dharmapala d i f f e r s from Sthiramati i n that he accepts a

p u r i f i e d state of the seventh vijnana (manas) which i s fun c t i o n al in..the f r u i t i o n ? . stage of Buddhahood.

192 ^ • This view i s also ascribed to Bandhusri


193 That i s to say: the eight vijnanas have d i f f e r e n t a c t i v i t i e s ,

they have the d i f f e r e n t sense f a c u l t i e s as t h e i r base, they have the di f f e r e n t sense-fields as t h e i r objects, and they are associated with, d i f f e r e n t mental states.

194 The eighth vijnana i s what i s perfumed (so-hsun H]^* )»

whereas the remaining seven vijnanas are the perfuming agents (neng-

195 This appears, to be a paraphrase of a passage occurring at

CWSL (vii.18a) T: XXXI.38c; c f . La Vallee-Poussin's t r a n s l a t i o n and very h e l p f u l i n t e r p o l a t i o n s (Siddhi3 p. 414).

196 In the Lankdvatdra t h i s verse i s found at T: XVI.574b-c.

It i s also quoted i n the CWSL passage c i t e d above i n note 195 and La Vallee-Poussin (Siddhi, pp. 414-415) adds a very i n t e r e s t i n g note. This verse,, i n i t s d i f f e r e n t versions warrants further study.

197 This l a s t paragraph seems out of place, coming a f t e r the

stated conclusion. It might, be an addendum of K'uei-chi's or the in t e r p o l a t i o n of some l a t e r commentator. It might also be a displaced portion of the o r i g i n a l t e x t : l o g i c a l l y i t should come at the beginning o f § 5 . 2 before the discussion of the eight modes of mentation.

198 The. stages of s a n c t i f i c a t i o n are the Four Paths (marga) and

the Five Stages (avastha) discussed above i n Chapt. I I I . Here K'uei-chi f i r s t (§6.1.1) c i t e s three d i f f e r e n t passages from Yogacara.treatises that seem to outl i n e the progression of s a n c t i -f i c a t i o n d i f f e r e n t l y , and then (§6.1.2) he explains how these passages are to be understood so that there i s no contr a d i c t i o n .

199 K'uei-chi c i t e s Hsuan-tsang's. t r a n s l a t i o n of the Mahaydna-

samgrdha.: (T: XXXI.142bl4-17); c f . Lamotte's French t r a n s l a t i o n (La Somme3 pp. 155-156).

2 0 0 This c i t a t i o n from Asvabhava's Upanibandana i s s l i g h t l y abbreviated; see Hsuan-tsang's Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n (T: XXXI.414a3-5) and also the French, t r a n s l a t i o n of Lamotte (La Samme, pp. 155-156).

This phrase, "yu'shih hsiang hsin was apparently dropped i n La Vallee-Poussin's.translation of the CWSL (Siddhi3 p. 563) Rather than Wei Tat's.(p. 667) reading of vijnana f or shih i n t h i s l i n e i t seems.preferable to take i t as an e l l i p s i s f o r wei-shih , necessary to maintain the s t r i c t four-four rhythm. Understood thus (as t r a n s l a t e d here) i t i s p a r a l l e l with, the c l o s i n g phrase of the

200


202 "^ The ""belief and understanding"/^ nT n e r e ^ s "the same as the

"fi r m r e s o l v e " ^ jJJj; i n the Mahayana-samgraha i n the f i r s t paragraph above. Both are standard Chinese equivalents for the Sanskrit adhimukti, which i s perhaps best understood as 'resolute b e l i e f . ' •

2 0 3 CWSL (ix.4a-b) T: XXXI.48bl5-20

204

The passage i s c i t e d from Hsuan-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n , T: XXX.628bl5-24.

205 The "stage of concentration" ref e rs to the c u l t i v a t i o n of

the Four Examinations (paryesana) and the Four Exact Comprehensions (yatha-bhuta-par'ijnana )undertaken at the Stage of Preliminary Training (prayogavastha); c f . note 56 above.

2 ° ^ Though there i s no subduing and elimination- of the a f f l i c t i o n s i n the period of hearing and thinking about the Dharma, there i s some subduing and elimination when one begins t r a i n i n g i n the Four Examinations and the Four Exact Comprehensions; therefore, these two periods which comprise the F i r s t Land (bhumi) i n the Mahayana-samgraha are counted separately as two d i s t i n c t stages i n the CWSL formula.

207 The Four Steps Conducive to I n t e l l e c t u a l Penetration are the

preparation f o r entering the Path of V i s i o n (darsana-marga), i n the five-stage formula of the CWSL they make up the Stage of Preliminary Training; whereas, i n the four-stage formula of the Mahayana-samgraha they are mastered at the very end of one's residence i n the Land where One Practices Firm Resolve (adhimukticarya-bhumi). The Four Examinations and the Four Exact Comprehensions are acquired during the course of mastering these nirvedha-bhagiyas. The Path of Vi s i o n i s also known as the Stage of Penetration (nirvedhavastha).

2 0 8 Tai-hsu (p. 1042) says t h i s r e f e r s to those who f i r s t follow the HTnayana and l a t e r the Mahayana, or i n some cases, to those who f a l l back to the Hinayana from the Mahayana, only l a t e r to take up the Mahayana once again. In the l a t t e r case e s p e c i a l l y y u - h u i . can be understood i n i t s common meaning of 'winding about l i k e a r i v e r . ' Those who convert to the bodhisattva path are those of unspecified or indeterminate clan (aniyata-gotra); c f . La Vallee-Poussin's "Carriere du Bodhisattva" i n the appendix to the Siddhi3 p. 723, and also Ober-m i l l e r ' s "Doctrine of Prajna-paramita.," p. 33.

209 Pure, discursive ^ contemplation i s the highest of the

anupurva-samapattis and i s the preparation for nirodha-samapatti, the concentration of ext i n c t i o n accessible to the saints of a l l three v e h i c l e s .

201


210 According to...the CWSL (ix . l 3 a - l 6 b ) there are two d i v i s i o n s

of the Path of V i s i o n (darsana-marga), the chen-chien-tao $ v jvf' and the hsiang-chien-tao J^Q , which La Vallee-Poussin "reconstructs as tattva-darsana-marga and laksana-darsana-marga respectively.There are problems with both reconstructions however: the f i r s t could be *bhuta-darsana-marga or *tathata- ; and the second, even more problematic, could be laksana- , n i m i t t a - 0 0 or even a k a r a - 0 0 , where h s i a n g ^ would stand for hsing-hsiang ^ Jjf)^ • The commentators to K'uei-chi's text seem to have the l a t t e r , i . e . , akara-darsana-marga, i n mind, but the issue remains a problem r e q u i r i n g further•study and a d d i t i o n a l sources. See also La.Vallee-Poussin's note (Siddhi, pp. 588-589).

211 The commentators point out that t h i s r e f e r s only to the

Second, Third and Fourth Land, since the F i r s t Land i s attained already on the Path of V i s i o n (darsana-marga). The following statements thus pertain to the Path of C u l t i v a t i o n (bhavana-marga).

The n i r n i m i t t a - v i h a r a f u l l y attained only i n the Seventh Land; c f . Siddhi, p. .616, for a discussion of "being without notions."

213 The Stage of C u l t i v a t i o n (bhavana-marga) comes to an end

with the Tenth Land bringing K'uei-chi now to the Final. Stage (nisthavastha*) which i s the Land of the Buddhas (buddha-bhumi).

214 The f i r s t two of the Cognitions are s p e c i f i e d or determinate

i n that they always take the absolute and the conventional together as t h e i r object. The s i x t h of the contemplations that make up the t h i r d Cognition, however, takes them sometimes together, sometimes separately as i t s object.

215 The commentators say that the preceeding view i s that of

•Dharmapala and what follows i s that of Prabhamitra, the d i s c i p l e of Dharmapala's who wrote the commentary on the Buddhabhumi Sutra.

This occurs at the Stage of Provisioning(sambharavasta) ; according to the commentators.

217 This occurs at the Stage of Preliminary Training (prayoga-

vastha).

01 A Shingo5. (383a26-27) says that t h i s l i n e means that "the

r e a l i z a t i o n of the mind and the s e n s e - f i e l d come together with R e a l i t y . "

Notes t o Chapt. V (pp. 79 - l 6 l )

P I Q This i s said to. occur on the Path, of V i s i o n (.darsana-marga).

220 This, corresponds to the c u l t i v a t i o n of the Ten Lands on

the Path of C u l t i v a t i o n (bhavana-marga).

221 This i s s a i d to occur at the F i n a l Stage (nis.thavastha).

222 This paragraph analyses c u l t i v a t i o n with reference to the

condition or states of the contemplating mind as i t progresses through the Five Stages. The next paragraph gives another analysis of c u l t i -vation, t h i s time s p e c i f y i n g which of the three v a r i e t i e s of wisdom i s operative at each stage, whether one i s c u l t i v a t i n g the mani-festations or the seed-potentialities,and whether the reference i s to impure or pure dharmas.

223 These are the three v a r i e t i e s of wisdom: that produced through

er u d i t i o n (srutamayT prajna), that produced through r e f l e c t i o n (.cintamayi"); and that produced through c u l t i v a t i o n (bhavanamayT).

224 This r e f e r s not to the Ten Lands of the Bodhisattva Path

discussed above, but to the nine stations of the three realms. There nine lands or stations are the l e v e l s of existence, one land at the l e v e l of the Desire Realm (kama-dhatu), four lands i n the Realm of Form (rupa-dhatu) and four more i n the Formless Realm (arupya-dhatu). They are both l e v e l s of r e b i r t h and of meditative concentration.

Another name for the nine stations of existence ( c h i u - t i i s the nine paths (chiu-tao -j]^ jjjf. ) .

226 This quote i s from a passage (T: XXXI.738al2-68) discussing

four types of cultivation., the two which K'uei-chi t r e a t s here plus two more, v i z . : the c u l t i v a t i o n of disposing (vinirdhavana-bhavana) and the c u l t i v a t i o n of opposing (pratipaksa-bhavana). In the f i r s t of the four, the c u l t i v a t i o n of a c q u i s i t i o n , one c u l t i v a t e s the whole-some dharmas that have not yet been produced i n order to acquire them. In the second, the c u l t i v a t i o n of p r a c t i c e , one c u l t i v a t e s the whole-some dharmas that have already been produced i n order to enhance and expand them. In the t h i r d , the c u l t i v a t i o n of disposing, one c u l t i -vates the expulsion of .unwholesome dharmas that have been produced i n order to permanently dispose of them. And f i n a l l y i n the fourth, the cultivation- of. oppostion, one opposes those unwholesome dharmas that have not yet been produced so that they w i l l never be produced.

227 The manifestation can produce new seeds; t h i s i s what i s

meant by an increase i n the substance. However, the newly produced seeds can be only of the same l e v e l as the manifestation i t s e l f , hence only of the lower state i n t h i s case. An increase i n


function, on the other hand, r e f e r s to.the reinforcement of seed-, p o t e n t i a l i t i e s already present,. and these, can he of any state, higher states as well as the current lower state.. Therefore,. although there can he no new production of s e e d - p o t e n t i a l i t i e s of higher states, the already e x i s t i n g s e e d - p o t e n t i a l i t i e s of higher states, can he r e i n f o r c e d and thus enhanced;cf. T'ai-hsu's comment to t h i s passage (p. 1050).

P P R

CWSL (vii.33a) T: XXXI.41a24-25.

229 What i s manifest i s only the thought of the higher state;

however, a l l wholesome s e e d - p o t e n t i a l i t i e s , even those already acquired.in lower states, are enhanced and so the ' c u l t i v a t i o n of a c q u i s i t i o n ' i s s a i d to be of both the higher and the lower l e v e l s .

230 This case d i f f e r s from the above only i n that i t i s i n i t i a t e d

i n one of the higher states. The r e s u l t s are the same as the case above. The commentators discuss a number of theories on the d i v i d i n g l i n e between these two cases within the nine states.

2 3 1 T: XXXI.74255-12•

232 L i t . : Cat the stage] of the i n i t i a l actions. This term

occurs as the f i r s t of a ser i es of progressive degrees i n several Abhidharma c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s ; cf. Kosa VI:9d ( x x i i . l 4 b ) , VI:70 (xxv.l4a-15a), and VIII:31c'(xxix2b-3a).

233. The t r a n s l a t i o n follows the commentators rather than the

punctuation indicated i n the Taisho ed.; c f . Shingo (370a8-12) and Jiben (639c20-23).

2 3 ^ Hsing "Id (nature) as i s often the case, stands for tzu-hsing Q 7flL : svabhava (own-being). The question treated by K'uei-chi i n

t h i s section i s : to which of the three aspects of existence or own-being (svabhava) does contemplation belong. Jiben (639c26-28) glosses kuan-fa Jg^y^ (contemplation-dharma) i n the t i t l e of t h i s section as meaning 'contemplation and dharma(s)' rather than 'the dharma of contemplation.' He goes on to say that contemplation means 'what contemplates'. ( i . e . , the subjective factor) and dharma(s) means what i s contemplated (I.e..., the objective f a c t o r ) . This i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s not found i n the other commentaries and i s not r e f l e c t e d i n the present t r a n s l a t i o n .

2 3 ^ Wu-ju "J fyX renders the Sanskrit verb praskand- which means 'to enter,' but with the a d d i t i o n a l connotation of 'coming to under-stand completely.' Thus 'to enter' the Three Natures i s to f u l l y understand and experience a l l t h e i r implications, not simply to

Notes to Chapt. V (pp. 79 - l6l)

know them as, d o c t r i n a l statements. Both.Chinese and English lack a single verb, that conveys this, meaning adequately. The Chinese t r a n s l a t o r s employed: the compound wu-gu. (to awaken to. and. enter, or awakened-ly to enter). The l i t e r a l E n g l i sh equivalent seems somewhat clumsy, hut i t makes i t possible to r e f l e c t K'uei-chi's. play on the Chinese wu-ju which he l a t e r s p l i t s into two separate verbs.

2 36 There i s a discrepancy here between K'uei-chi's c i t a t i o n and

the text of Hsuan-tsang's Mahdydna-samgraha t r a n s l a t i o n . Hsiian-tsang' s t r a n s l a t i o n i n a l l surviving versions has lisiang jN 7 (samjna: conception, notion), whereas a l l editions of K'uei-chi's text have hsiang which can be ei t h e r laksana or nimitt a ( c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s or signs). The present t r a n s l a t i o n follows the Hsiian-tsang text.

237 This i s a c i t a t i o n of T: XXXI.I43a9-l6 that has become rather

d i s t o r t e d by the e l l i p s e s indicated. Working p r i m a r i l y from the Tibetan, Lamotte (La Somme, pp. l64-l65) renders the complete passage as follows:

Air:.si done,en entrant dans l a parole mentale (mano-jalpa) qui est •--l;''objeti apparent (nirbhasarthalaksana), l e Bodhisattva est entre dans l a nature imaginaire ( ; parikalpitasvabhava); en entrant dans l e Rien qu'idee (vijnaptimatra), i l est entre dans la-rtature dependante (paratantrasvabhava); comment e n t r e - t - i l dans l a nature absolue (parinispannasvabhava)? II y entre en rejetant (nirakarana) encore l a notion de Rien qu'idee ( v i j n a p t i -matrasamjfia). Alors,pour- l e Bodhisattva qui a .de.truit (vidhvams-) l a notion d'objet' '• (arthasamjna), l e s paroles mentales (manojalpa), resultant de 1'impregnation des Dharma ou'is (srutadharmavasananvaya), n'ont pas l a p o s s i -b i l i t e (avaksasa) de n a i t r e sous l'apparence d'un objet et, par consequent, ne naissent pas non plus comme idee, sans plus. Quand l e Bodhisattva reside .'"dans l e nom-sans-concept a l' e n d r o i t de tous l e s objets (sarvarthesu nirvikalpakanama), quand i l reside par perception directe (pratyaksayogena) dans 1'element fondamental (dharmadhatu), alors i l a t t e i n t l e savoir i n t u i t i f (nirvikalpakajnana) pour qui l'obje t (alambana) et l e sujet de connaissance (alambaka) sont parfaitement identiques (samasama).C'est a i n s i que l e Bodhisattva est entre dans l a nature absolue.

238 These two verses were already quoted above i n 1.1.1.; c f .

notes 10 and 11 for d e t a i l s on t h e i r o r i g i n and the surviving Sanskrit o r i g i n a l f or the f i r s t .

This i s samskara (hsing ) in the more general sense of ' a l l conditioned states," which i s very close to-.rsamskrt'adharma rather than the more s p e c i f i c use of samskara (predisposition) f o r the fourth skandha and the second nidana; c f . Edg. p. 542.


CWSL ( v i i i . ' 3lb), T: XXXI.46c-6; SAEKZ notes! that t h i s verse i s from.the Avatamsaka Sutra, but gives no s p e c i f i c reference. See also La Vallee-Poussin 1 s note. (Siddhi, p. 533c) comparing t h i s verse t a l i n e from Nagarjuna.

241 This i s the f i r s t of the Sixteen Thoughts of the an a l y t i c

view of the second division-, of the Path of V i s i o n ( v i z . , laksana-darsanamarga, see note 210 above). Cf. Obermiller, "Doctrine of the Prajna-paramita," pp. 21-24 and 37-41.

2 42 Contrary t o the Taisho punctuation, t h e k u . ^ ^ a t 262cll should

go with what preceeds rather than what follows i t .

243 This paragraph explains why the CWSL passage unlike those

from the Mahayana-samgraha gives no s p e c i f i c point at which the Imaginary, i s r e a l i z e d separately•from the other two. There i s no content to the: r e a l i z a t i o n of the Imaginary because i t has no substanc Its r e a l i z a t i o n i s constituted by the r e a l i z a t i o n of the Dependent and the Absolute; i t follows n e c e s s a r i l y : when they are r e a l i z e d , i t i s r e a l i z e d .

2 ^ T'ai-hsu (p. IO58) explains t h i s rather e l l i p t i c passage as follows:. "Prior t o the Path of V i s i o n the Exact Comprehensions contemplated.the Pinnacle of Worldly Truth. Degree Cof the Stage of Preliminary T r a i n i n g ] . Even though one has. therein also contemplated the emptiness of that which, apprehends and that which, i s apprehended, t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of emptiness i s s t i l l a permutation of conscious-ness and not the r e a l i z a t i o n of wisdom. Because one has not yet acquired the Two Wisdoms, one i s s t i l l , unable to r e a l i z e the l a t t e r two Natures.. Because to r e a l i z e the l a t t e r two Natures i s to r e a l i z e the F i r s t , the CWSL says t h a t . i t i s on entering the F i r s t Land, and only then, that one r e a l i z e s the Three Natures."

245 This r e f e r s to the f i r s t part of the f i r s t of the two

Mahayana-samgraha verses c i t e d above i n § 7 - 2 . 1 ( l b ) ; c f . also 1.1.1, note 11.

246 This r e f e r s to the second part of the f i r s t of the two

Mahayana-samgraha verses c i t e d above i n § 7 . 2 . 1 ( l b ) .

247 This refers, to the second of the two Mahayana-samgraha

verses cited, above i n § 7 - 2 . 1 . ( l b ) .

248 This seems preferable to the punctuation indicated by the

Taisho.bunt en at T: XLV.262c27-28: i t makes t h e . f i r s t statement more p a r a l l e l to the next.

2 0 6

Notes to Chapt. V (pp. 7 9 - l 6 l )

Hsiian-tsang and K'uei-chi render asraya (base) a numher of d i f f e r e n t ways: iffi., s o — i f^^L , so-i-chih^f<fjc. j]c f s o - i - s h e r :

ffy^fc~$t s o - i - s h e n - h s i a n g /if 4ft. a r e a l l a ttested i n the tr a n s l a t i o n s of the Kosa and Madhyanta-vibhdga.

250 The lands (hhumi) here again r e f e r not to the Ten Lands of

the bodhisattva path, but to the nine stations of existence i n the three world-realms.

2 5 1 The base may, depending on circumstances, be any one of the

three realms of existence. K'uei-chi's discussion of the base ( §8.l) . i s divided into a consideration of the base from which one f i r s t gives r i s e to.the contemplation of Vijnaptimatrata ( § 8 . 1 . l ) and the base from which one f i r s t r e a l i z e s Vijnaptimatrata ( § 8 . 1 . 2 ) . Each, of these i s further sub-divided depending on the type of i n d i v i d u a l involved.

2 5 2 The discussion of the base from which one f i r s t gives r i s e to

the contemplation of Vijnaptimatrata', ( § 8 . 1 . 1 ) i s again divided into several parts on the basis of what type of p r a c t i t i o n e r i s involved: ( l ) those whose awakening was sudden and d i r e c t , ( 2 ) those whose awakening was gradual. Each of these i s then further sub-divided.

2 5 3 The commentators say t h i s . r e f e r s to those who enter the

bodhisattva path and proceed d i r e c t l y to the goal, as opposed to those who begin i n one of the other paths and take up the bodhisattva practices only l a t e r .

2 5 4 On t h i s work see note 1 3 7 above.

2 5 5 The wretched de s t i n i es are b i r t h as a ghost (preta), as a

denizen, of h e l l (nairayika) or as an animal (tir.yagyoni). These, along with, the favorable births: as a god (deva) or as a human (manusya), make up the f i v e d e s t i n i e s to which one may be reborn.

Because existence i n the Realm of'Fbrm(rupa-dhatu) and the Realm of Formlessness (arupya-dhatu) i s so pleasant, t h e i r inhabitants have no incentive t o seek, release of death and rebirth.. This i s often said of existence as a god (deva) generally.

T: <XXXi ; $60b l 9 -20 . In the text c i t e d , the verse i s followed by a prose section c l a r i f y i n g the rather terse expression and syntax of the four, five^character phrases (pada).


258 This refers, to.those, who. f i r s t follow the sravaka or

pratyeka-buddha path, and l a t e r convert to. the. bodhisattva path.

259 It i s not clear from the text or the commentaries exactly how

K'uei-chi understood t h i s designation, which i s rendered into Chinese as pu-ching-sheng-che ^ 3—>& '.' The term i s mentioned i n the Kosa commentary to.VI:40c-d (xxiv . 6 6 ) ; La Vallee-Poussin (VI, p. 219) t r a n s l a t e s : "II a r r i v e qu'un.Arya, devenu Arya dans une premiere naissance par 1'acquisition du f r u i t de Srotaapanna ou Sakrdagamin obtienne dans l'existance suivante l e f r u i t d' Anagamin. On designe cet Anagamin par 1 'expression parivrttajanma anagami." How the term was employed by the Yogacarins requires further research i n the Yogacarabhumi.

The previous paragraphs discussed the base upon which the bodhisattva f i r s t gives r i s e to the contemplation of Vijnaptimatrata; t h i s paragraph and the one following discuss the base upon which the bodhisattva has the f i r s t r e a l i z a t i o n of Vijnaptimatrata.

This refers, to the p a r t i c u l a r state of existence to which the meditator was born (as the r e s u l t of past deeds) and from which he i n i t i a t e s the contemplation.

Chia-hsing-shan J>2 ^ occurs once i n Hsuan-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n of the Kosa for prayogika gunah (virtues of t r a i n i n g ) ; much more often, however, i t renders simply prayogika (preliminary or preparatory) i n contrast t o upapatti-pratilambhika (acquired through birth.).

263 In Hsuan-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n of the Yogacarabhumi the

corresponding passage i s found at T: XXX:663a.

2 ^ Pure (anasrava) discursive contemplation i s said to be the same as the subsequently acquired.cognition; c f . Siddhi, pp.. 406-407-

On the anagamya stage see Kosa IV:l8a-b (xiv.51 -5b) , VI:47cd (xxiv . l 4 a ) and La Vallee-Poussin's notes.

The term 'defilements' renders samklesa (tsa-jan and ' a f f l i c t i o n ' renders klesa (fan-nao "IS ) • The former i s a generic designation-, the l a t t e r are s p e c i f i c , u s ually enumerated as si x or ten: see below 9-2 and e s p e c i a l l y notes 288 and 294.

208


267 There are thus four categories of obstacles or obstructions

( c f . , the table below). And, as analyzed below, each of these has three forms, i . e . , each of the four occurs i n the form of manifestations, impregnations and seeds. Manifestations of each category are the actual ;cccurrehces .of the obstacle i n our experience. Impregations or impressions are the r e s i d u a l traces and impurities l e f t by the manifestations a f t e r they pass out of existence. F i n a l l y , the seeds are the latent or p o t e n t i a l d i s p o s i t i o n of the obstacles to come into manifestation at some future time.. Each of these three forms i s , in the order given ( i . e . , manifestationsj impregnations, and seeds), progressively more d i f f i c u l t to suppress or destroy.

Categories and Forms of the Obstacles

A f f l i c t i o n - o b s t a c l e •

Wisdom-obstacle•

• innate

• discrimination-produced

•innate

.discrimination-produced

\

each occuring i n the form of:

. Mani f e st at ions

-Impregnations

Seeds

268 K'uei-chi's discussion here i s a summary of the'-CWSL •• - •

section (ix ,27b-x.3a) on the Ten and Eleven Obstacles. He analyzes ' the three forms (manifestations,impregnations and seeds) of each of the categories of obstacles: the portion of the;.obstacle, c o n s t i t u t e d . by the a f f l i c t i o n s t h a t . i s innate (^9.1.l); the portion of the obstacle constituted by the a f f l i c t i o n s that i s produced by CvainU discrimination (%9.1.2); the portion of the obstacle barring wisdom that i s innate (§9.1.3); and the portion of the obstacle b a r r i n g wisdom that i s produced by CvainD discrimination (§9.1.4)

269 K'uei-chi's discussion of t h i s three-stage doctrine i s based

on the Bodhisattva-bhumi passage found at T: XXX.562a27-bl4.

270 On the three v a r i e t i e s of crude dross see Sandhinirmocana

IX.28-29 (pp. 145-146 i n Lamotte's ed. and p. 145 of his t r a n s . ) . There i s also a Bodhisattva-bhumi passage discussing three v a r i e t i e s of crude dross, v i s . , tvaggata, phalgugata, and saragata dausthulya; cf. J . Rahder, Dasabhumika, Appendice, p. 25.

271 The following discussion of the three p r o c l i v i t i e s i s based

on the Sandhinirmocana passage that corresponds to Chapt. IX.28-29 of Lamotte-'s- ed. of the Tibetan version (pp. 145-146 i n the ed. and p. 254 i n the t r a n s . ) . Parts of K'uei-chi's text are d i r e c t quotes


from the Chinese, t r a n s l a t i o n of the Sandhinirmocana done by Hsiian-tsang (T: XVI.707C); the .quoted portions are indicated i n the t r a n s l a t i o n below.

2 T 2 T: XVI.707clU-l6

2 7 3 Based p r i m a r i l y on the Tibetan version of the Sandhinirmocana, Lamotte understands t h i s category of anusaya (Fr. : l a trace) somewhat d i f f e r e n t l y . He tra n s l a t e s (Sandhinirmocana, p. 254):

La trace qui d e t r u i t son compagnon, a savoir dans l a cinquieme t e r r e . Les passions d ' a c t i v i t e spontanee (asahaja) sont l e compagnon des passions d ' a c t i v i t e innee (sahaja). Les premieres n'existent plus a ce moment Cdans l a cinquieme terreH. C'est pourquoi on parle de "trace qui d e t r u i t son compagnon."

2 T ^ T: XVI.707cl6-17

275

This assertion i s found i n Gunabhadra's t r a n s l a t i o n of the Lahkavatara at T: XVI .495all-12.

2 T 6 T: XVI.707cl7-19

277 What follows i s a paraphrase of the Sandhinirmocana passage

at T: XVI.707c22-25.

2 7 8 Ch'an-t'i \HLi i s an abbreviation of i - c h ' a n - t ' i — |^J which transcribes 'icchantika' a Buddhist t e c h n i c a l term for those who t o t a l l y lack the p o t e n t i a l of Buddha-hood; c r . La Vallee-Poussin's note, Siddhi, p. 724.

279 Not having comprehended the Mahayana doctrine asserting that

there i s no difference between the world of s u f f e r i n g (samsara) and l i b e r a t i o n (nirvana), the sravaka seeks to escape from the world of s u f f e r i n g into nirvana as. quickly as po s s i b l e , not remaining i n the world to benefit other beings.

280 I t i s d i f f i c u l t to trace t h i s passage i n the one surviving

Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n of the Ratnagotra-vibhaga. The four types of obstacles are discussed i n the t h i r d s c r o l l (T: XXXI.829al6-b3), but the s p e c i f i c p r a c t i c e s by which they are overcome as discussed by K'uei-chi i n the next paragraph are not mentioned i n the Ratnagotra-vibhaga passage. Turning to Obermiller's t r a n s l a t i o n of the Tibetan version of the work, the closest p a r a l l e l seems to be the passage on pp. 232-233', although i t i s again d i f f e r e n t from both the Chinese.translation and from K'uei-chi's synopsis.

210


28l The Ten Degrees..of Faith, and the Ten Ahodes are the f i r s t .

and second d i v i s i o n s of the Fifty-two'. Stages of Bodhisattva P r a c t i c e ; see Hurvitz, C h i h - i , p. 363. In b r i e f the Ten Degrees of F a i t h are: l ) f a i t h , 2) mindfulnes, 3) e f f o r t , 4) wisdom, 5) concentration, 6) non-relapse, 7) diversion or t r a n s f e r of merit, 8) protection of the Dharma, 9) d i s c i p l i n e , and 10) vows. The s i x t h degree i s s i g n i f i c a n t here because at t h i s point the bodhisattva becomes confirmed i n his pursuit of the Buddha's teaching and no. longer subject to the icchantika's lack of f a i t h .

282 See note 28l above; i n b r i e f , the Ten Abodes are: l ) gi v i n g

r i s e to the thought. Cof Enlightenment,1; 2) the well-regulated stage; 3) p r a c t i c e ; 4) noble r e b i r t h .[to the clan of TathagatasD; 5) per-;: f e c t i o n of s k i l l f u l means; 6) r e c t i f i c a t i o n of thought; 7) no relapse; 8) perennial, youth; 9) Dharmafprince; and 10) consecration or baptism.

283 On the four types of nirvana see CWSL (x.9a-10a) T: XXXI.55b.

284 One t r a d i t i o n a l explanation of pratyeka-buddhas i s that they

are saints who a t t a i n Buddha-hood by contemplating the p r i n c i p l e of dependent c o - a r i s i n g (pratTtya-samutpada) as manifest i n the twelve-fold chain of cause and e f f e c t .

285 The doctrine discussed here i s found i n a long passage

t r e a t i n g the differences between the path of a bodhisattva and that of the sravakas and pratyeka-buddhas; i n G-unabhadra's Chinese t r a n s -l a t i o n i t i s found at T: XII.219c-220b. The text f i r s t discusses four types '?of p ersisten t : " a f f l i c t i o n that can eventually be severed by the sravakas and pratyeka-buddhas. It then discusses a f i f t h a f f l i c t i o n , that of nescience, which i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from the other four i n that i t can be completely severed only by a, bodhisattva who becomes a Buddha. Cf. the Engli sh t r a n s l a t i o n of the SrTmala-devT Sutra done by A. and H. Wayman (pp. 84-85),. and see also the note concerning (p. 84, n. 56) the f i r s t four a f f l i c t i o n s and t h e i r c o r r e l a t i o n with the Abhidharma subdivision of the term upadana.

286 The f i r s t four of these are considered to be the a f f l i c t i o n -

obstacle and the l a s t to he the wisdom-obstacle.

287 T'ai-hsu. (p. 1082) explains t h a t , i f the doubts a r i s i n g as

a r e s u l t of nescience are a r e s u l t of dis c r i m i n a t i o n , they are severed a l l at once; whereas, i f they are innate, they are severed b i t by b i t .

Notes to Chapt. V (pp. 7 9 -II61)

The Six A f f l i c t i o n s (klesa) are: 1) raga (greed or covetousness) 2) pratigha ( h o s t i l i t y or anger) 3) moha (delusion or f o l l y ) k) mana (conceit or pride) 5) v i c i k i t s a (doubt) 6) k u d r s t i (false views or prejudice)

These are discussed i n a l l the basic Abhidharma works; c f . esp. CWSL (vi.l2b-14b).

2 8 9 The Seven P r o c l i v i t i e s (anusaya) are

1) kamaraga (craving f o r pleasure or sensual desire) 2) pratigha ( h o s t i l i t y ) 3) bhavaraga (craving f or existence or r e b i r t h ) h) mana (pride or conceit) 5) avidya (nescience) 6) d r s t i (fals e views) 7) v i c i k i t s a or vimati (doubts)

The Eight Envelopments (paryavasthana) are: 1) ahrTkya (shamelessness) 2) anapatrapya (immodesty) 3) Trsya (envy) k) matsarya (avarice) 5) auddhatya (di s s i p a t i o n ) 6) kaudrtya (regret or remorse) 7) styana (torpor) 8) middha (drowsiness)

The Nine Fetters (samyojana) are 1) anunaya (attachment or desire) 2) pratigha ( h o s t i l i t y ) 3) mana (pride or conceit) h) avidya (nescience) 5) d r s t i ( f a l s e views) 6) paramarsa (clinging) 7) v i c i k i t s a (doubt) 8) Trsya (envy) 9) matsarya (avarice)

292 The Ten A f f l i c t i o n s comprise the f i r s t f i v e of the a f f l i c t i o n s

l i s t e d above i n note 288 along with the f i v e v a r i e t i e s of the s i x t h , k u d r s t i (false views). The l a t t e r 7 f i v e are:

1) satkayadrsti: the erroneous view of i n d i v i d u a l i t y . 2) antagrahadrsti: the view that c l i n g s to the

extreme of eternalism or n i h i l i s m . 3) mithyadrsti: f a l s e views generally, prejudices.

212


4) drsti. paramarsa: to.consider excellent and . conducive t o . p u r i t y any other f a l s e views.

5) sllavrata.paramarsa: to consider ..excellent; and conducive to p u r i t y a code of moral precepts based on any f a l s e views.

Cf. CWSL (yi . l 4h -15b) .

293 The doctrine of the Ten Dis t r a c t i o n s i s not a commonly

encountered enumeration. -K'uei-chi mentions these i n h i s "Chapter on the. Severing of A f f l i c t i o n " (.286a4; c f . note 295 below), but does not l i s t or discuss them i n d i v i d u a l l y .

294 , _ _ _ ' The Ten Discriminations are treated i n the Mahayana-sutra-

lahkdra (XI:77); see Levi's e d i t i o n (p. 76) and. t r a n s l a t i o n (p. 136).

295 The "Essay on the Severing of Obstacles" i s the seventh

essay or chapter of the Ta-sheng. fa-yuan, .i-tin ehang (no. 26), T: XLV.282a-287b. In section eight of t h i s essay (285a-286a) K'uei-chi discusses these and other groups of a f f l i c t i o n s , obstacles, etc.

2-96 - -The. doctrine of the two emptinesses i s a basic Mahayana

doctrine that receives much attention i n the Yogacara treatises.. The. emptiness of the i n d i v i d u a l (pudgala) i s a variant term f o r the emptiness of the s e l f . The arhats of the l e s s e r two vehicles are said to r e a l i z e the emptiness of the s e l f or the i n d i v i d u a l , but only bodhisattvas r e a l i z e also the emptiness of a l l elements of experience (.dharmas); according to the Yogacarins, they do t h i s by the contemplation of Vijnaptimatrata. The important point necessary to understand the following discussion i s . t hat, since the i n d i v i d u a l i s simply an aggregation of dharmas, the '-.emptiness of the i n d i v i d u a l i s subsumed by the emptiness of dharmas.

297 On the Four Examinations and the Four Exact Comprehensions .see

note. 56 above. Shingo (4l5a23-24) comments: "The Examinations contemplate the. emptiness of what i s apprehended and eliminate the notion of a t r u l y e x i s t i n g s e l f (atman) and t r u l y , e x i s t i n g dharmas. The Exact Comprehensions contemplate the emptiness of what apprehends and eliminates only the notion of t r u l y e x i s t i n g dharmas."

298 "' The commentators say t h i s r e f e r s to a passage i n the CWSL

(.vi.i..22ab) where It i s said that the Buddha declared the doctrine of .the. Twelve Entrances' (the s i x sense f a c u l t i e s and t h e i r respective objects.) to. e s t a b l i s h the emptiness of the s e l f or i n d i v i d u a l , while declaring the doctrine of Vijnaptimatrata to e s t a b l i s h the emptiness of dharmas. Cf. La Vallee-Poussin's.translation.of the passage (_Siddhi, p. 426); and also Vimsatika IX which. Is c i t e d by K'uei-chi below i n § 1 0 . 2 . 2 . .

213


299 The l o g i c a l error involved i n the. objection i s quite

rudimentary: the objector f a i l s to.recognize the. v a l i d i t y . o f the modus t o l l e n s argument:

P 3 1

' ~p

3 0 0 'Nonsubstantiality' renders 'nairatmya'; dharma-nairatmya (fa-wu-wo >^ ) and pudgala-nairatmya. (sheng-wu-wo ^ . ^ j * ) are equivalent to the emptiness of dharmas and the emptiness of the s e l f .

301 This i s from the 9th Verse i n Hsuan-tsang's t r a n l a t i o n

(T: XXXI.75b26). K'uei-chi c i t e s only the second h a l f of the verse: the f i r s t h a l f explains that the nonsubstantiality of the s e l f i s entered by means of the doctrine of the Twelve-: .Entrances .„ See note 298 above on CWSL (vii .22ab) which presents the same view.

3 0 2 The ku (therefore, because) should be punctuated with t h i s phrase rather than the one following as i n the Taisho e d i t i o n ; the four-four rhythm i s broken i n eith e r case.

303 Here and below, when K'uei-chi speaks of the contemplation

of the i n d i v i d u a l and the dharmas, he means s p e c i f i c a l l y the contemplation of t h e i r emptiness.

304 Thus the contemplation of Vijnaptimatrata can be seen as

both broad and l i m i t e d i n i t s range of extension. The former applies when i t i s considered v i s - a - v i s the contemplation of the emptiness of the i n d i v i d u a l , and the l a t t e r applies v i s - a - v i s the contemplation of the emptiness of dharmas.

305 The syntax and the rhythm of t h i s passage are somewhat

i r r e g u l a r . The t r a n s l a t i o n follows the t r a d i t i o n a l punctuation indicated by the e a r l i e s t Japanese commentators and found in•the Taishd the KD and the KI editions of the text. T'ai-hsu, however, punctuates d i f f e r e n t l y taking the f i r s t part of t h i s sentence' as the l a s t part of the preceding sentence. Thus, he understands the close of the l a s t paragraph and the beginning of th i s , paragraph as follows:

The contemplation of •Vijnaptimatrata ' i s more l i m i t e d i n extension i n that there may be cases of Cthe contemplator of3 the emptiness of the i n d i v i d u a l , but they are not, by vi r t u e of that, cases of the contemplation of V i j n a p t i -matrata.

When we d i r e c t our attention to the contemplation of the emptiness, of the i n d i v i d u a l , i t must be analyzed according to the above statements. . . .


For tso^ft (establish) some older versions have chu/fjj^ (all - , in..every case), a variant, not. noted in the Taisho apparatus. Shingo.rejects the variant;. Kiben mentions the controversy, deciding that' chii i s acceptable; and T'ai-hsu. simply amends his e d i t i o n of the text to: read chu with.no comment.

307 The commentators disagree on what the "two" here r e f e r s t o :

the Japanese say i t r e f e r s to the l a s t two sets of assertions, i . e . , §10 . 2.3 (2) and (.3), but T'ai-hsu takes i t to r e f e r to the analysis of the contemplation of Vijnaptimatrata i n i t s broad sense and i t s r e s t r i c t e d sense, i .e .,§ 10.2. 3 ( l ) .

The present e d i t i o n of K'uei-chi's Ta-sheng fa-yuan i - l i n ohang (no. 26) does not contain an "Essay on Emptiness," and there seems to.be no i n d i c a t i o n that i t ever did. The commentators suggest the p o s s i b i l i t y . t h a t this, may be a reference to the work of someone else.""

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215

ABBREVIATIONS

See bibliography f o r p u b l i c a t i o n d e t a i l s .

BEFEO

BSOAS

BZ

Chih-chou

CWSL

Edg./Edgerton

IBK

IHQ

JAOS

KD

KI

Kiben

Kosa

Bulletin de L'Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

Dainihon Bukkyo zensho.

See Commentary no. 2, Chapt. IV, p. 71•

Ch1 eng-wei-shih-lun, references to the ed. of SAEKI Join which also allows easy reference to the trans, of La Vallee-Poussin.

Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary

Indogaku bukkyogaku kenkyu. l^f/JE-fj^^^^J^^^

Indian Historical Quarterly

Journal of the American Oriental Society

Kokuyaku Daizokyo ijj ^ \ Toky5: T5hS Shoin j£ j£ ^ , 1928-1932.

Kokuyaku issaikyo —""* j^J Series 2.

T5ky5: Daito Shuppansha j- jj Jjj^ J ___ 1928- .

See Commentary no. 3, Chapt. IV, p. 71.

Abhidharmakosa of Vasubandhu, references give f i r s t the chapter and verse number, then the s c r o l l and page number i n the Chinese ed. of SAEKI

K y o k u g a ^ t ' f ( K y 5 t 5 : Hozokan % j $ / | £ , l 8 8 7 ) . This allows easy reference both to the Sanskrit editions and to the t r a n s l a t i o n of La V a l l e e -Poussin (Paris: Geuthner, 1923-1931) as w e l l .

La Somme La Somme du Grand Vehicule d'Asanga, t r a d , par E. Lamotte.

216

Melanges Chinois et Bouddhiques


Philosophy East and West

La Vallee-Poussin 1 s trans, of the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun, Vijrtaptimdtratdsiddhi, La siddhi de Eiuan-tsang.

Sung-tsang i - c h e n * ^ ^ ^ jjjf (Rare Books of the Sung Canon), r p t . Commercial Press.

Taisho ed. of Chinese Canon, see under TAKAKUSU and WATANABE i n h i h l i o g .


CWSL t r a n s l a t i o n : Ch'eng Wei-shih Lun: The Doctrine of Mere Consciousness.

Wiener Zeitschrift fur'Aie Kunde Sud- und Ostasiens und Arehiv fur Indische Philosophie.

Dainihon zokuzdkyd, see under MAEDA and NAKANO i n h i h l i o g .

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