The Transformative Potential of Counseling Education

LISATSOI HOSHMAND

Transformative learning and development in adult education, as defined in humanistic and critical perspectives, are examined. The transformative potential of counseling edu- cation is explored in terms of (a ) program philosophy, (b) pedagogy and curricular features, and (c) student outcomes. Challenges for a transformative approach to counsel- ing education are discussed.

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Sigruficant learning and development that involve second-order or total-system changes may be considered transformative. Ideas on transformative teaching and learning can be found in the adult education literature. Most perspectives on transformative education are based on either a human- istic student-centered philosophy of adult development or critical paradigms that emphasize social change (Brookfield, 1987; Daloz, 1986; Mezirow, 1991). In both perspectives, transformative education is associated with a change in worldview as a result of deep shifts in ways of knowing and ways of being. Given that developmental and humanistic perspectives inform many counseling education programs and that the counseling enterprise is con- cerned with facilitating change, certain goals and values, as well as peda- gogical practices in counseling education, may be considered congruent with transformative education.

In this article, I explore the transformative potential of counseling education, with reference to ideas and practices in transformative education. I examine the possibility of transformative counseling education under (a) program philoso- phy (b) pedagogy and curricular features, and (c) student outcomes. Drawing on teaching experience with two graduate counseling education programs over a span of 20 years, I offer observations and then discuss the challenges for a transformative approach to counseling education.

PROGRAM PHILOSOPHY

Although counseling education programs tend to endorse a developmental perspective, with many identifying specifically with a humanistic orienta- tion, other historical developments have had an impact on the philosophi-

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Lisa Tsoi Hoshmand, Division of Counseling and Psychology, Lesley University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Lisa Tsoi Hoshmand, Division of Counseling and Psychology, Lesley University, 29 Everett Street, Cambridge, M A 02138 (e-mail: lhoshman@mail.lesley.edu).

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cal commitments of those involved in delivering counseling education programs. Professionalization, credentialing requirements, and program accreditation have emphasized a comprehensive knowledge base and competence in skills of counseling practice. Many counseling educators refer to their master ’s-degree programs as preparing students to become scholar-practitioners, with some subscribing to a scientist-practitioner model that is more prevalent in doctoral programs. Another major development is the call for diversity and multiculturalism (Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992). Depending on the level of commitment of program faculty, multiculturalism has influenced program philosophy in counseling education to varying degrees. In still other pro- grams, faculty are interested in spirituality and the relationship between counseling and values (Koch, 1998; Miller, 1999). This last trend suggests a program philosophy that may be considered holistic. Within these varying program philosophies, one may be able to identify strands that are consistent with the goals and values of transformative education. A crystallization of program philosophy reflecting these goals and values is described below.

A humanistically oriented counseling education program that emphasizes the development of the personhood of the counselor would focus on the student’s self-understanding and the use of self in the process of learning and potentiating positive development in others. This focus as the corner- stone of a program’s philosophy is associated with the goals and values of reflective practice (Hoshmand, 1994; Schon, 1987). Reflexivity and a will- ingness to address personal issues that can enter into all aspects of one’s learning and counseling practice are expected. As much as possible, the curriculum and program experience are designed to facilitate the personal growth of the student. Moreover, students may be encouraged to seek per- sonal therapy as an adjunctive experience.

The transformative potential of curriculum and program experience that is based on this type of philosophy can derive from two major sources. One is the practice of critical reflection in all inquiry, including self-evaluative pro- cesses that are potentially self-changing. The other is the reconsideration of identity in the context of globalization and diversity. Critical reflection that is directed at one’s personal paradigm of living as well as the underlying assumptions of professional theories and other worldviews enables shifts in understanding and changes in the status quo. The fact that such critical reflection is considered a crucial aspect of transformative education (Brookfield, 1987; Mezirow, 1991) means that counseling education programs that foster self-reflective learning and reflective practice may have transformative poten- tial. The possibility of transformative experience is heightened by the fact that critical reflection must be accompanied by critical dialogue and the exercise of critical thinking. Both of these activities are likely to expose students to differ- ent perspectives and challenge their own accustomed ways of thinking. Reflective judgment, which develops from critical reflection on theory and prac- tice, is a valued outcome in adult education and development (King & Kitchener, 1994). Its pedagogical implications are discussed subsequently.

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A significant part of the personal work involved in personal inquiry and self-reflection concerns the social and cultural dimensions of identity. At a time of globalization and increasing diversity, multiculturalism is becom- ing a normative worldview in counseling education (Atkinson, Brown, & Casas, 1996; Axelson, 1999). The complexities of promoting multiculturalism as a worldview become evident in conjunction with self-reflective learning and public analysis of the sources of one’s identity. When coupled with critical reflection and critical dialogue about the effects of power, privilege, and oppression on personal identities and group relationships, tension and dis- orienting experiences can result. It can be an especially powerful transfor- mative experience for students to encounter multicultural lessons that point to their own blind spots and prejudices.

The critical perspective can complement the humanistic orientation in that social systems and cultural realities are critically evaluated for their impact on human development and well-being. Counseling education programs that include social change in addition to personal growth as the goals of coun- seling work are concerned with humanistic improvements at a system’s level. A program that aims to combine humanistic counselor self-development with a critical perspective and multiculturalism as its philosophical orientation may have transformative potential if its pedagogy and curriculum are imple- mented with such goals and values in sight.

PEDAGOGY AND CURRICULAR FEATURES

A counseling education program with the type of philosophical commitment previously described in this article must have teaching approaches and pro- gram experiences that are congruent with transformative education in order to have a transformative effect on members of the program. In addition to a philosophical commitment to reflective practice and multiculturalism, the pro- gram environment also must foster transformative learning and student devel- opment. For example, a holistic orientation informed by humanistic values can provide a safe context for addressing emotional and spiritual issues of personal development that may be dismissed otherwise as nonacademic concerns. The holistic approach to teaching and student development also takes into account the life experience and personal resources brought into teaching and learning by all participants. It enriches the learning context, reduces cultural encapsula- tion, and therefore contributes to transformative development.

Experience suggests that all aspects of a program, including faculty-student relationships, its teaching approaches, and its evaluative practices, must au- thentically reflect the program philosophy. To induct faculty and students into such program philosophy and practices, intensive experiential learn- ing opportunities can be introduced from the outset, to be reinforced by sub- sequent transformative learning as students progress through the program. Transparency of program philosophy and values is critical because even though many counseling students are motivated by a desire for personal

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growth and to be a change agent, not all are prepared for what is involved in a transformative educational experience. The use of a learning contract (Reinkraut, 1999) is one vehicle for clarifying the mutual expectations be- tween faculty and students in a program. It can also define the evaluative procedures used in the relational context of teaching and learning. Students are made aware of the choices and responsibilities involved in participat- ing in the program. Hence, personal agency becomes a part of the transfor- mative learning process.

The sensitive use of clinical teaching in counseling education (Gere, Hoshmand, & Reinkraut, 2002) is inherent in pedagogy that is congruent with transformative education. Not only must instructors model reflexivity and appropriate boundaries while engaged in personal reflection in a learning setting, but they must be prepared for the personal issues and sense of risk that can surface for individual students. Trust building, genuine caring, and modeling of tolerance are needed to provide safety in the personal process- ing of new experiences that are challenging to a person’s way of being. Empathic engagement enables intersubjectivity to develop in understand- ing differences in worldviews. Judgments may be more easily rendered with respect to a person’s openness or resistance to bansformative experience when there is a close mentoring relationship. The mutuality of this process also lies in the fact that transformative educators are open to examining their own inner life as teachers (Palmer, 1997). They do not see themselves as training technicians in counseling skills (Sokol, 1998). Rather, they hope to foster self- transformation in students as professionals who, like themselves, are inter- ested in developing their inner resources and operating from an articulated worldview and sense of values.

Moreover, because discernment and reflective judgment are necessary for ethical counseling practice, students are taught to apply critical thinking and to question assumptions that are otherwise taken for granted. Griffith and Frieden (2000) provided excellent guidelines on how to facilitate reflec- tive thinking, using strategies of Socratic questioning, journal writing, inter- personal process recall, and the reflecting team model. Clinical supervision that allows students to take an active role in self-assessment and in reflect- ing on critical choice points in their work is usually helpful in creating a readiness for transformative learning. As stated previously, the development of critical thinking and reflective judgment often occurs through critical dia- logue. The attitudes and skills of participation in such potentially transfor- mative discourse are delineated in the public conversation model described by Becker and colleagues (Becker, Chasin, Chasin, Herzig, & Roth, 1995). All of these pedagogical approaches may be shared in faculty development and peer consultation. When the teaching approach matches with curricu- lar content of a critical yet personally sensitive nature, such as course work related to culture and identity, the overall effect can be transformative.

In another sense, it is not the particular courses in the curriculum that constitute the essence of transformative education. Rather, it is the intellec-

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tual and interpersonal climate of a program that enables all participants to question and debate deeply personal existential assumptions and differences. Whether it is a course on cross-cultural counseling or a course on human development across the life span, cultural and value assumptions that may be contrary to one’s own are entertained and integrated into one’s system of meaning. The unexpected shifts in understanding after struggling through such a process can be transforming.

STUDENT OUTCOMES

What, then, are the student outcomes in transformative counseling education? Faculty in counseling training programs have identified a capacity for critical thinking and self-reflectiveness as basic to transformative learning. In counsel- ing education, this refers to the student’s demonstration of critical reflection in written assignments, class discussions, and counseling practice and supervision. The ability to critique theoretical assumptions and the ”culture-ladenness” of counseling practice is one of the desired outcomes. The ability to partici- pate constructively in critical dialogue may be considered a communica- tion competency. Beyond these evident cognitive and behavioral outcomes, the affective and deeply personal aspects of transformation are equally important. In spite of some attention to students’ worldviews in graduate professional prepa- ration programs (Hansman, Jackson, Grant, & Spencer, 1999), however, there is little systematic research on reported or observed deep personal shifts in under- standing that may constitute an outcome of transformative education efforts. Trevino (1%6), who conceptualized change in counseling (especially crosscultural coun- seling) as a change in worldview, described a promising model that can serve as a framework for evaluating transformative educational outcomes. The use of portfolios in student outcome assessment is also appropriate (Coleman, 1996). Narrative data from students’ self-reflective journals about their learning experi- ences may be an example of the type of information to be gathered.

If counseling education is to involve transformative teaching and learn- ing, faculty in counseling training programs must be able to define both the teaching-learning processes and the long-term student outcomes associated with such transformative educational efforts. As stated previously, transpar- ency of program philosophy and clear contractual understanding between program faculty and students are crucial. Even if such outcomes as “personal growth” are generally assumed because they are part of the meaning system of counseling, they may not be formalized as program goals in every case. When there is a lack of clarity about individuals’ goals relative to undergoing trans- formative experiences, both instructors and students can be at risk because of the lack of a social contract. A helpful parallel process occurs when the in- structor or supervisor can model for students how to negotiate personal thresh- olds of comfort in exposing oneself to potentially transforming experiences.

The assessment of long-term student outcomes is a future research need. Many programs conduct periodic alumni surveys for program review and

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other institutional purposes. Faculty in counseling programs could consider how the information on type of employment, professional activity, and lead- ership roles may reflect participation in transformative work. As with the assessment of ongoing student outcomes, narrative data are likely to pro- vide qualitatively more meaningful information. Actual case examples of the transformative impact on systems and communities can indicate long- term outcomes beyond individual achievements.

The criteria for transformative teaching and learning tend to be holistic rather than reducible to isolated competencies. Holism does not mean vagueness in com- municated intentions and expectations. Counseling educators who communicate an interest in the personhood and total development of the student can create safety by contextualizing challenging learning situations that may be otherwise perceived as risky. The same applies to the evaluation of a student‘s clinical development and related professional maturity. Without a sustained relationship with a student or supervisee, it is not possible for faculty to engage in meaningful evaluations of transformative learning outcomes. Thus, transformative education involves the holistic evaluation of students’ development and professional worldview in addition to observable cognitive abilities and communication com- petencies. Its implementation, however, presents a number of challenges.

CHALLENGES FORTRANSFORMATIVE COUNSELING EDUCATION

Transformative education is demanding of both instructors and students. It takes time, energy, and commitment to nurture the relationships involved and to develop a program culture that would sustain transformative education efforts. Impersonal educational settings, in which students enter programs mainly to obtain the desired credentials, would not be conducive to transfor- mative teaching and learning. An overemphasis on counseling techniques and skills, without a holistic framework of the students’ development, may also be alien to the goals and practices of transformative education.

It takes a high degree of skill to maintain a safe environment for transforma- tive experiences. Critical conversations are often involved in the discussion of diverse worldviews. Oftentimes, instructors must manage group dynamics that can become difficult. This is especially intense when cross-cultural is- sues are the subjects of classroom discussions. At other times, there is student resistance because of the perceived psychological and cultural risk involved in critical reflection and critical dialogue. It is unsettling to question long-held beliefs and assumptions. For individuals with cultural backgrounds that em- phasize group loyalty and censor public expression of personal opinions about the status quo, participation in critical conversations can be threatening. Sen- sitivity and respectfulness on the part of instructors are essential in building trust and safety and in modeling care and tolerance.

As mentioned previously, there should be congruence between program philosophy, goals, and values on the one hand and program pedagogy, cur-

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riculum, and student outcomes on the other. The extent to which this can happen depends on whether a program’s faculty have shared philosophi- cal commitments and ongoing communication about teaching and student development. Where teaching responsibilities are assigned to adjunct instruc- tors without proper induction into the program, the transformative project can suffer. It also requires considerable thought and acuity to design assess- ment approaches that would allow the outcomes of transformative teaching and learning to be evaluated.

There may also be institutional barriers to overcome. Faculty workload and the lack of time for building a moral, intellectual community can leave in- structors with the best intentions incapable of being engaged in transforma- tive teaching. To the extent that there is allowance for critical dialogue in an institution, and when the institutional leadership demonstrates an open- ness to organization learning, transformative education is more likely to thrive. Where these conditions are absent, those who are interested in transforma- tive education must gradually build a reflective, student-centered culture among colleagues. Peer consultation and support for faculty development can help to introduce concepts and practices of transformative teaching. In other words, there must be institutional support in every respect.

Perhaps most basic to the challenges of transformative counseling educa- tion is how we see ourselves professionally. The professional identity of counselors (and by implication, that of counseling educators) may not be one that is consistent with a transformative agenda. Human change involves not only personal growth but also the development of environments and supportive structures that are consistent with humanistic goals and values. Some counseling students have traditional views of the role of a counselor and believe in a limited scope of change. Critical perspectives are alien to assumptions about counselors serving as unquestioning supporters of the existing system, whether they concern school systems, mental health sys- tems, or other human services. A commitment to action beyond one-to-one counseling in an office would mean developing other helping skills such as consultation and community organizing and education. Preventive inter- ventions and system changes are often a necessary part of personal and social transformation. Curricular changes, therefore, may be necessary to incorpo- rate more features in a program that would provide students with critical perspectives on social change and how system-level interventions can be made toward transformative, second-order change. Cocurricular activities that provide faculty and students with the opportunity of being involved in community service learning and action research projects can also be part of the transformative education experience.

Finally, future research is needed to document transformative counseling education and to evaluate its long-term outcomes in terms of the subsequent roles and activities of those who have experienced transformative education. It would take a change in professional standards to include transformative goals, values, and outcomes in the review and accreditation of professional

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preparation programs such as counseling education programs; the pressure on program faculty to deliver competencies required for accreditation and credentialing may otherwise result in an exclusive attention to managing curriculum content at the expense of those processes that are critical in trans- formative teaching and learning.

We live in a time of diversity and differences with respect to the role of values in education. Transformative education is not value neutral because it is based on developmental outcomes informed by humanistic values as well as visions of social change informed by critical perspectives, nor is transformative educa- tion intended to create uniformity. As a community counseling educators seem relatively open to considering value-based visions of human development and social well-being. To the extent that our profession recognizes the transforma- tive potential of counseling education, we may have a urufylng value base for our diverse philosophical and educational commitments.

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