The Structure of The Structure of Argument:Argument:

Key Terms Key Terms & Concepts& Concepts

What is Argument?

Persuasion & Persuasion & ArgumentArgument

Persuade: win over (reason, Persuade: win over (reason, emotions, torture)emotions, torture)

Argument: relies on reason Argument: relies on reason (physical evidence, expert (physical evidence, expert testimony, common sense, testimony, common sense, probability). probability).

Need: at least one conclusion and Need: at least one conclusion and ONE premise ONE premise

ToneTone

The writer’s attitude towards The writer’s attitude towards what s/he is communicating.what s/he is communicating.

Denotation and connotation. Denotation and connotation.

Why Why Study Study Argument?Argument?

Get your Definitions StraightGet your Definitions Straight

SynonymSynonympornography is obscenitypornography is obscenity

ExamplesExamplesPlayboyPlayboy, , PenthousePenthouse, nude photos of children , nude photos of children

StipulationStipulation

By pornography, I mean images or writing By pornography, I mean images or writing whose primary purpose is to cause whose primary purpose is to cause

sexual sexual arousal.arousal.

Define the Following Words Define the Following Words

MarriageMarriage GayGay

MurderMurder LifeLife

LoveLove

Claim/ThesisClaim/Thesis

FactFactValueValuePolicyPolicy

Claims of FactClaims of Fact Condition has existed, exists, or will Condition has existed, exists, or will

exit based on objectively verifiable exit based on objectively verifiable facts and data:facts and data:

Whenever the number of illegal Whenever the number of illegal aliens increases, the crime rate also aliens increases, the crime rate also

increases.increases.

Secondhand smoke is deadly.Secondhand smoke is deadly.

Claims of ValueClaims of Value Some things are more or less desirable Some things are more or less desirable

than others. Approval or disapproval of than others. Approval or disapproval of standards of taste and morality:standards of taste and morality:

Tom Hanks is a more versatile actor thanTom Hanks is a more versatile actor than

Tom Cruise.Tom Cruise.

Having sex before marriage is wrong.Having sex before marriage is wrong.

Smokers do not care about themselves or Smokers do not care about themselves or others.others.

Claims of PolicyClaims of Policy Policy SHOULD, MUST, or OUGHT be Policy SHOULD, MUST, or OUGHT be

instituted as instituted as solution to problem:solution to problem:

Both intelligent design & evolutionary Both intelligent design & evolutionary theory should be taught in public theory should be taught in public

schools.schools.

Smoking ought to be illegal in public.Smoking ought to be illegal in public.

Ways of ReasoningWays of ReasoningDeduction and InductionDeduction and Induction

Deduction: valid or invalidDeduction: valid or invalid

Latin “lead down from”Latin “lead down from” Starts with a premise—a fact or general Starts with a premise—a fact or general

principle, commonplace—and applies it principle, commonplace—and applies it to a specific case to reach a conclusion to a specific case to reach a conclusion (e.g. premise therefore conclusion).(e.g. premise therefore conclusion).

Valid deductive arguments: conclusion Valid deductive arguments: conclusion cannot be false if premises are true.cannot be false if premises are true.

Drawing inferences on straightforward Drawing inferences on straightforward or practical principles. or practical principles.

Example: DeductionExample: Deduction

Buss drivers require would-be Buss drivers require would-be passengers to present the exact passengers to present the exact change. I do not have the exact change. I do not have the exact change. Therefore, I infer that I can not change. Therefore, I infer that I can not ride the bus.ride the bus.

Induction: strong or weakInduction: strong or weak

Latin: “to lead into or up to”Latin: “to lead into or up to” Opposite of deduction: takes specific Opposite of deduction: takes specific

cases and uses them to prove a premise cases and uses them to prove a premise or conclusion (specific to general).or conclusion (specific to general).

Deals in probability rather than Deals in probability rather than necessity; premises are necessity; premises are supposedsupposed to to support the conclusion.support the conclusion.

Works best when you’re not sure shares Works best when you’re not sure shares a commonplace.a commonplace.

Example: Induction Example: Induction

The subway ran yesterday at 6:00 A.M. The subway ran yesterday at 6:00 A.M. and the day before at 6:00 A.M., so I and the day before at 6:00 A.M., so I infer from this evidence that the infer from this evidence that the subway will also run today at 6:00 A.M. subway will also run today at 6:00 A.M.

Induction or DeductionInduction or Deduction

1. All men are mortal. (premise)1. All men are mortal. (premise)

2. Socrates was a man. (premise)2. Socrates was a man. (premise)

3. Socrates was mortal. (conclusion)3. Socrates was mortal. (conclusion)

1.1.Socrates was Greek. (premise)Socrates was Greek. (premise)

2.2.Most Greeks eat fish. (premise)Most Greeks eat fish. (premise)

3.3.Socrates ate fish. (conclusion)Socrates ate fish. (conclusion)

Support Support

Evidence (logos)Evidence (logos)

Motivational Appeals Motivational Appeals (ethos & pathos)(ethos & pathos)

““MotivationalMotivational”” Appeals: Appeals: ethical, emotional ethical, emotional

Pathos: Appeals to emotionsPathos: Appeals to emotions

Ethos: Appeals based on Ethos: Appeals based on ethos of arguer (creditability)ethos of arguer (creditability)

Does the author primarily depend upon Does the author primarily depend upon logos, pathos, or ethos? logos, pathos, or ethos?

Christopher Lasch, "The Lost Art of Political Argument"Let us begin with a simple proposition:  What democracy requires is public debate, not information.  Of course it needs information too, but the kind of information it needs can be generated only by vigorous popular debate.  We do not know what we need to know until we ask the right questions, and we can identify the right questions only by subjecting our ideas about the world to the test of public controversy.  Information, usually seen as the precondition of debate, is better understood as its by product.  When we get into arguments that focus and fully engage our attention, we become avid seekers of relevant information.  Otherwise, we take in information passively--if we take it in at all.

Martin Luther King, Jr. "Letter from Birmingham Jail"My Dear Fellow Clergymen:

While confined here in Birmingham city jail, I came across your recent statement calling my present activities "unwise and untimely."...Since I feel that you are men of genuine good will and that your criticisms are sincerely set forth, I want to try to answer your statement in what I hope will be patient and reasonable in terms.

I think I should indicate why I am here in Birmingham, since you have been influenced by the view which argues against "outsiders coming in."...I, along with several members of my staff, am here because I was invited here.  I am here because I have organizational ties here.

But more basically, I am in Birmingham because injustice is here.  Just as the prophets of the eighth century B.C. left their villages and carried their "thus saith the Lord" far beyond the boundaries of their home towns, and just as the Apostle Paul left his village of Tarsus and carried the gospel of Jesus Christ to the far corners of the Greco-Roman world, so am I compelled to carry the gospel of freedom beyond my own home town.  Like Paul, I must constantly respond to the Macedonian call for aid.

James Garbarino:"Children in a Violent World: A Metaphysical Perspective”

For me, commentary on war zones at home and abroad begins and ends with personal reflections.  A few years ago, while watching the news in Chicago, a local news story made a personal connection with me.  The report concerned a teenager who had been shot because he had angered a group of his male peers.  This act of violence caused me to recapture a memory from my own adolescence because of an instructive parallel in my own life with this boy who had been shot.  When I was a teenager some thirty-five years ago in the New York metropolitan area, I wrote a regular column for my high school newspaper.  One week, I wrote a column in which I made fun of the fraternities in my high school.  As a result, I elicited the anger of some of the most aggressive teenagers in my high school.  A couple of nights later, a car pulled up in front of my house, and the angry teenagers in the car dumped garbage on the lawn of my house as an act of revenge and intimidation.

Evidence / Logical Evidence / Logical AppealsAppeals

Argue from Examples:Argue from Examples:

1. real events1. real events

2. invented instances (artificial or 2. invented instances (artificial or hypothetical)hypothetical)

3. comparison / analogies3. comparison / analogies

Other Types Of EvidenceOther Types Of Evidence

Argue from:Argue from:

1. authoritative testimony1. authoritative testimony

2. statistics2. statistics

3. graphs, tables, numbers3. graphs, tables, numbers

Nonrational AppealsNonrational Appeals

SatireSatire IronyIrony SarcasmSarcasm

Watch: Watch: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k1T75jBYeCs

AssumptionAssumption(also called warrants)(also called warrants)

Belief or principle taken for granted Belief or principle taken for granted (make connection between the (make connection between the

support and the claim). support and the claim).

Stated or unstated.Stated or unstated.

What is the assumption?What is the assumption?

You should buy a Nissan Sentra You should buy a Nissan Sentra because it is economical.because it is economical.

You should buy a Volvo because they You should buy a Volvo because they are safe.are safe.

You should buy a yellow Hummer You should buy a yellow Hummer because it’s cool.because it’s cool.

AudienceAudience

Why? Why? How much do they know?How much do they know? Are they divided or agreed?Are they divided or agreed? What is their emotional What is their emotional

involvement? involvement?

Strategies for Analyzing Strategies for Analyzing ArgumentsArguments

Purpose & AudiencePurpose & Audience Identify Thesis/ClaimIdentify Thesis/Claim What assumptions are being made?What assumptions are being made? Are terms defined?Are terms defined? How well does the author appeal to How well does the author appeal to

the audience? (logos/pathos/ethos)the audience? (logos/pathos/ethos)