Attack!TheorderreachedthetroopsofDesertStormat2a.m.onSunday,February24,1991.Withinminutes,asthecommandcrackledoverunitradios,thenightwasfilledwiththerumbleofmotorsturningoverin1,956M1A1Abramstanks.PulsespoundedasthebigmetalbeastsrolledintosouthernIraq,spearheadingamassivearmoredthrustaroundtherightflankoftheIraqiarmy,whichhaddugintodefensivepositionsinandnearKuwait.OtherM1A1s,manymannedbyU.S.Marines,ledthewayintoIraqipositionsontheotherflank.

ItwasahistoricmomentfortheU.S.military.Afterseventy-fouryearsofwarandpeace,itfinallyhadatankthatwasbetterthanthoseitwasabouttofight.OratleastthegeneralssomewhatnervouslysaidtheM1A1wasbetter.NumerouscriticsinandoutofCongressthoughtotherwise.TheyhadpredictedawiderangeofdisastersfortheAbrams,fromsand-cloggedenginestoimmobilitysimplyfromrunningoutofgas.

Suchfearswerenotentirelyunfounded.ItisacurioushistoricalanomalythattheUnitedStates,thegreateststeelproducerintheWesternworldforgenerations,thenationthatinventedtheairplaneandastaggeringarrayofothertechnologicalmarvels,neverfieldedagoodtankbeforetheM1A1.Thehistoryoftankshasseldomattractedtheattentionitdeservesfromreadersofmilitaryhistoryorevenfromthegeneralswhopurporttomakethathistory.

ThefirsttankwasbornoutofadesperatedesiretobreakthebloodyinfantrystalemateontheWesternFrontinWorldWarI.TheMarkI,designedbytheBritishin1915,weighedtwenty-eighttonsandhadatopspeedoffourmilesperhour.Witharmorhalfaninchthick,itcarriedacrewofeight,fourofwhomspenttheirtimedrivingitandworkingtheprimitivegearsofits105-horsepowerengine.Theotherfourfiredtwosix-poundcannonandfourmachineguns.Ventilationwaspoor,theheatwasoverwhelming,andtherewasnosuspensionsystem,whichmeantthemeninsidebouncedaroundliketennisballs.

Plaguebybreakdowns,fires,andbarelytrainedcrews,theMarkIneverthelesscreatedtemporaryconsternationontheWesternFrontinthelatesummerandfallof1916.Germaninfantryranorsurrenderedindroves.TheBritish,encouragedbytheearlyresults,nextfieldedalighttank,thefourteen-tonMarkAWhippet,withacrewofthree,aspeedofeightmilesperhour,andarangeoffortymiles.Itsfourmachinegunsjuttedinfourdifferentdirectionsfromafixedturret.Thedriverhadtooperatetwoseparateengines,combiningtheirspeedstochangedirection.

TheFrenchconcentratedonalightweighttank,theRenaultFT,weighingalmostseventons,withatwo-mancrewandasinglemachinegunorthirty-seven-millimetercannon.Ithadaspeedofaboutahalfamileperhour.TheAmericansboughtseveralhundredofthesethinlyarmoredvehicles,andtheysawactioninthebattlesofSaint-MihielandtheArgonneunderthecommandofLieutenantColonelGeorgeS.Patton,Jr.,whoputthestampofhisaggressivepersonalityonAmericantankersfromthestart.Hepersonallyselectedeveryofficerinthebrigade.Notsurprisingly,mostofthemsharedhisintenseapproachtomakingwar.

CaptainHarryH.SemmesofMarylandcommandedCompanyAofthe1stBattalionoftheAmericantankbrigadeatSaint-Mihiel.Thatmeantthathiswastheleadtankinthe

firstAmericanarmoredattack.Asthecompanyclankedforward,PattonclimbedontoSemmesturretandstayedthereuntilmachine-gunfirebeganchippingthepaintbeneathhisfeet.SemmesstoppedthetankandannouncedhewouldnotadvanceanotherinchuntilPattonquittryingtogethimselfkilled.Pattongrudginglyadmittedthathehadapointanddismounted.

Semmeswaskeenlyawareofthesignificanceofhisnewweapon.Itwasanincrediblethrilltohearmachine-gunfireclatteragainstyourarmorandknowyouwereinvulnerabletoit,herecalled.Allaroundyoutheinfantrywasburrowingintothegroundforsafety.Thetankerattackednomatterwhattheywereshootingathim.

AtSaint-Mihiel,theGermansresistancewashalfhearted;theywerealreadyretreatingfromthesalientwhentheAmericansstormedoutoftheirtrenches.Bythethirdday,KaiserWilhelmIIsgeneralshadpulledbackmostoftheirtroopstotheirmaindefensesintheHindenburgLine,leavingawideno-mans-land.Pattonpromptlylaunchedareconnaissanceinforcewithhistanks.Afterahalf-daywithoutsightingaGerman,theyencounteredasquadronofthe2ndU.S.Cavalryonasimilarmission.Itwasakeymomentintheevolutionofthetank:Pattonwasusinghismachinestodowhathadpreviouslybeenthecavalrysjob.Asithappened,CaptainErnestHarmon,whowouldbecomeoneofPattonsmostferociouswarriorsascommanderofthe2ndU.S.ArmoredDivisioninWorldWarII,wasamongthehorsemen.

Determinedtoupstagethecavalry,whichcouldnotwithstandmachinegunsorartillery,Pattonorderedathree-tankpatroltoadvanceuntilitmadecontactwiththeenemy.LieutenantTedMcClureofVirginiawasgivencommandofthisriskyventure.Aboutanhourlater,muchfiringwasheardfromthedirectioninwhichhehadgone.Inanotherhour,McClurereturnedwiththebreechblockofanAustrianseventy-seven-millimetergun.Hehadcomeunderfirefromabatteryofthemandhadcharged,routedthegunners,anddestroyedtheguns-incidentallypunchingaholeintheHindenburgLine.

Patton,whohadtrainedasacavalryman,instantlygraspedthesignificanceofwhatMcClurehaddone-andwhatitmeantforthetankspotential.Itwasfarmorethantheinfantrymanshelper.Itwasabreakthroughweaponofawesomeproportions,capableoftearinganenemyapartifusedinsufficientnumbersandwithacavalrymansdaring.

IfSaint-MihielexpandedtheAmericantankershorizons,theArgonnebrutallycontractedthem.Inthisvastvalleyoftangledwoods,deepravines,andforbiddingridges,theGermansmadeaseriousstand,andtheAmericantankerstookaterriblebeating.Almosthalfthetankbrigadesofficerswerewoundedorkilled.

AmongthebadlywoundedwasCaptainSemmes,whohaddismountedfromhistanktoleadhiscompanythroughabogatthebaseofVauquoisHill,amajorGermanstrongpointinthefirstdaysadvance.Tyingawhitehandkerchiefaroundhisarmsothedriverscouldseehimintheearly-morningfog,Semmesstrolledupanddownunderrifleandmachine-gunfirefromtheelitePrussianGuardsdivision.HefinallyfoundsometerrafirmaandguidedhistanksintothefirstlineofGermantrenches.Amomentlater,abullettoreoffthetopofhishead.

Severalotherofficerswentdowninsimilarfashion.Withoutradios,itwasalmostimpossibletodirectacompanyoftheseprimitivetankswithoutgettingouttogivehandsignals,oftenunderfire.Laterinthefirstday,Pattonhimselfbecameacasualty,foolishlyleadingapickupteamofinfantrymeninafrontalassaultonamachine-gunnest.

Yet,thereweremomentswhenthetanksperformedwellintheArgonne.DuringtheassaultonthetownofCheppy,whichwascrammedwithGermans,the35thDivisioninfantryshoweredtheironhorseswithpraise.Thetankswithalltheirarmament,poundedthe[machine-gun]nestsandpillboxestopieces,saidonesoldier.Theone-pounders[thirty-seven-millimetercannon]firedhighexplosivesintothedefenses,andthemachinegunscutdowntheevictedgunners.Itwasbutaworkofminutesforthesewheeledforts,andthefrontwasclearedofanenemywhichhaddelayedtheadvanceforhours.

Butthefewtanksavailableforthebattle-Pattonhadonly141Renaultsandtwenty-eightFrench-mannedmediumtanks,calledSchneiders-couldnotmakeaseriousimpressionontheformidableGermandefenses.Lossesquicklydiminishedthebrigadesimpacttonearzero.Inthefirsttwodays,ninety-threetanksweredestroyedordisabled.ByOctober6,thebrigadewasdowntoapatheticseventeentanks.

Thetankersruefullydiscoveredthattheirbiggestproblemwasthepeopletheyweresupposedtohelp:theinfantry.Thefootsoldiersweremuchtoowillingtoletthetankersadvanceintoheavymachine-gunandartilleryfirewhiletheyshoutedencouragement.But,withoutinfantrysupport,thetanksweresoonintrouble.TheGermanswereequippedwithantitankriflesthatcouldpenetratetheRenaultsarmor,andtheybroughtseventy-seven-millimetergunsforwardtopoint-blankrangewithdevastatingeffect.Evenmoregallingwasthemechanicalunreliabilityofthemachinesthemselves.Atleastasmanytankswerelosttobreakdownsandditching(gettingstuckindeeptrenches)aswereknockedoutbyenemyfire.

Still,atCheppyandafewotherplaces,Pattonstankershadshownwhattheycoulddo.PerhapsthebestsummaryoftheirachievementwasanearlyreportbyaGermanofficer:ThebattlestartedwiththeAlliedinfantryprecededbymyriadsofbabytanksspewedfromthebrothofhell.

Nevertheless,theGermanHighCommanddiscountedthevalueofthetankinWorldWarI.TheyhadfarmoreconfidenceintheirinfantrysabilitytobreakthestalemateontheWesternFront.Aftercarefullyselectingthemostaggressivementobeshocktroops,theyemployed,in1917,anewkindoftactic.Insteadofassigningeachbattalionanobjective,suchasaridge-lineorwoods,theGermansgavetheshocktroopswhatwenowcallmission-orientedorders.Whentheybrokethroughtheenemysdefenseswiththehelpofamassiveartillerybarrage,theysimplykeptgoing,shootingupcommandposts,throwinguproadblocks,andattackingbypassedenemypositionsfromtherear.

ThetacticsworkedmagnificentlyinthreeoffensivestheGermanslaunchedin1918.TheytoreapartwholeAlliedarmiesandscoredspectaculargains.Buttherewasoneflaw:Ashocktrooperwasstillafootsoldier.Hecouldadvanceonlytwentyorthirtymilesbeforehedroppedfromexhaustion.AftereachGermanbreakthrough,theBritishandFrench

wereabletorushreservesfromotherpartsofthefrontandre-establishabattleline.BolsteredbyamillionfreshAmericantroops,theAlliesmanagedtowinthewar.

Inthe1920s,Germanofficers,suchasHeinzGuderianandErwinRommel,realizedthattheweapontheirenemieshadalreadyproduced-thetank-couldmaketheirmission-orientedtacticswork.Shocktroopsontreadswouldnotgettired.Theycouldgomuchfarther,andtheirmobilecannonandmachinegunscouldwreakfarmorehavocintheenemyrear.Insteadoftyingthetanktotheinfantry,astheBritish,French,andAmericanarmiescontinuedtodo,theGermanscreatedthepanzerdivision,inwhichthetankwasthecentralweapon,withmotorizedinfantryandartilleryinsupportingroles.TheresultoftheseblitzkriegtacticswasaseriesofstunningvictoriesinthefirstyearsofWorldWarIIthatmadeAdolfHitlerthemasterofEurope.

ComparedwithwhattheGermanswereupto,Americanthinkingaboutthetankwaspracticallynonexistentbetweenthewars.WhenanobscuremajornamedDwightEisenhowerwroteanarticlein1920,urgingtheArmytotakemoreinterestinarmoredwarfare,hegotasevereofficialrebukeforimpugningsoundinfantrydoctrine.EvenPattonlostinterestintanksandtransferredbacktothecavalry.NothingbetterdemonstrateshowtorpidthingswerethanthestoryofaforgottenAmericangenius,J.WalterChristie.HestudiedthecrudetanksofWorldWarIandcreatedamachinethatwas,inmostrespects,amoderntankasearlyas1919.

Christiehadbeeninvolvedininventingandengineeringsincethe1870s,firstinsteamships,theninautomobiles.DuringWorldWarI,heturnedhisattentiontomilitaryordnance.Christiesmostimportantinnovationintankswasasuspensionsystem,whichaddedenormouslytomobilityinroughterrain.Italsodidwondersforthesafetyandsanityofthecrew,whohadoftenemergedfromtheearlytankswithbonesdislocatedorevenbroken.Withitssix-cylinder,120-horsepowerengine,the1919tankcouldtravelatsevenmilesperhouroverroughterrain.Itwasequippedwithafifty-seven-millimetercannonintherotatingturretanda.30-calibermachinegun.

AlthoughtheU.S.Armysinterestwasminimal,Christiecontinuedtoimprovehistank.Hecrammeda338-horsepower,LibertyV-12aircraftengineintothe1928model,allowingittotravelmorethanfortymilesperhourcrosscountry.Insideitstracks,thetankhadroadwheelsthatenabledittohitseventymilesperhouronpavedhighwayswiththetracksremoved,aninnovationthatsucceedingtankdesignershaveyettomatch.Still,theU.S.Armydidntmuchcare.Overtime,Christiebecamedisgusted.In1931,badlyinneedofcash-hehadbuilthistanksathisownexpense-hesoldhisdesigntotheSoviets.TheydiscardedtheroadwheelsandusedtherestofittocreateoneofthebesttanksofWorldWarII,theT-34.

InMay1940,withwarraginginEurope,theentireU.S.Armycouldmusteramere464tanks,andthesewereparceledouttovariousinfantrydivisions.OnlyaftertheNazishaddemonstratedtheawesomepowerofthearmoreddivisiondidtheArmyfinallycreateone.Thetanksproducedforthesedivisionsrangedfromawfultomediocre.TheM-3,knownastheGeneralLee,wassobadlymadethatevenanearmissfromenemygunswouldspringrivetsfromitsarmorplate,sendingthemwhistlingaroundtheinteriorofthetank

likelethalbullets.Itseleven-inchtrackwastoonarrow,soitwaseasilymiredbymud.Theturret,perchedononesideofthebody,couldnotrotateafull360degrees,analmostunbelievabledeficiencyinatankbythattime.Itsthirty-sevenmillimetergunwasajoke.TheBritishimprovedtheM-3byaddingaseventy-five-millimeterguninasponson;theynamedtheirversiontheGeneralGrant.Itwasstillquiteinferior.

TheexperienceofSecondLieutenantFreelandA.Daubin,commanderofCompanyAinthe1stBattalionofthe1stArmoredDivision,wasavividdemonstrationoftheGrantsweaknesses.In1942,shortlyafteritlandedinNorthAfrica,DaubinscompanywasattackedbyGermanMarkIVtanks,whichcarriedseventy-givemillimeterguns.BattlingaMarkIVheadtohead,Daubinmadeseventeenconsecutivehitswithhisthirty-seven-millimetergun.TheychippedsomepaintfromtheGermansfrontalarmor.TheGermancommanderwaiteduntilhewasonlythirtyyardsaway.ThenheblewDaubinoutofhisturretwithasingleshot.Later,inanambulanceheadedfortherear,DaubinfoundhimselflyingnexttoawoundedGerman,whoconfidentlypredictedthatGermanywouldwinthewar.Why?BecausetheAmericansbuiltsuchawfultanks.

TheGrant,basicallyalighttank,wassoondiscardedforthemedium-weightM-4,orGeneralSherman,whichbecametheAlliesworkhorseofthewar.It,too,wasinadequate.Itshigh,boxyprofilemadeitaneasytarget,anditsshortseventy-five-millimetergunwasoutrangedafullthousandfeetbytheGermanPanther,whichtheNazisbeganproducingin1942todealwiththeSovietT-34.Furtherworseningtheodds,theShermansgun-stabilizationsystemwassobadthatgunnerspreferredtoturnitoffandrelyontheircrosshairs.

TheShermanwasatanevenworsedisadvantageagainsttheGermansheavytank,theTiger,whichcarriedaneighty-eight-millimetergun.NotonlyweretheAmericanandBritishcrewsmurderouslyoutranged,theyhadnohopeofpenetratingthebowarmorofthesesixty-eight-tonmonsters.WelbornG.DolvinruefullyrememberedhisexperiencefightingaTigertanknearMonteCassinoinItalyin1944.MajorDolvin,commandingthirty-fivetanks,encounteredaGermantankcolumnledbyaTiger.Hefiredfirstandsawhisroundbounceoffthefrontofthebehemoth.Withmajesticdeliberation,theTigerscommandertrainedhiseighty-eight-millimetergunonDolvinandfiredafirstshotwithgreentracers,whichgavehimtherange.HisnextshotwentthroughthemiddleofDolvinstank,killingthedriverinstantlyandsettingthetankafire.Dolvinandtherestofthecrewsurvivedwithseriousburns.

Dolvinwasbitterabouttheexperience.Itfriedmyasstogetinthefirstshotandseeitricochetoff.Thefellowwhogetsinthefirstshotdeservestowin,hesaid.AfterWorldWarII,Dolvin,whoeventuallymadegeneral,becameaferventadvocateofU.S.tanksuperiority.Meanwhile,duringthestruggleagainstGermany,thousandsofU.S.andBritishtankersdiedintheirsecond-rateShermans.

OnJuly18,1944,duringOperationGoodwood,anattempttobreakoutoftheNormandybeachhead,1,350British-andCanadian-mannedShermanswerepittedagainstabout400GermanTigerandPanthertanksnearCaen.Almostinoneminute,wroteaBritishsurvivor,allofthetanksofthreetroopsandSquadronHQwerehit,blazingand

exploding.Inseventy-twohours,theGermansdestroyedatleast300Shermans.NowondertheynicknamedthemfortheflamethrowerRonson-theylitupeverytime.

ProbablynoincidentinWorldWarIIdemonstratedthestoppingpowerofasuperiortankasgraphicallyastheexploitofMichaelWittmann,thecommanderofaTigertankwhoencounteredaBritisharmoredcolumnnearBayeux,France.Attackingalone,WittmannandhiscrewknockedouttheleadShermanwithhisfirstshotandthelastShermaninthecolumnwithhissecond.Rumblingdownthecolumn,heproceededtodestroynineteenShermans,fourteenhalf-tracks,andfourteenBrenguncarriersinfiveminutes.

Bynow,youmaybewonderinghowtheAllieswonthewar.TheanswerisinstatisticsmusteredbytheBritishhistorianJohnEllis.TheAlliesachievedoverwhelmingsuperiorityineverything:planes,artillery,infantry,andtanks.TheUnitedStatesproducedmorethan48,000Shermans.GeneralOmarBradleyruefullyconcededthattheywereneveramatchforPanthersandTigers.But,hepointedout,ourU.S.superiorityinnumbersenabledustosurroundtheenemyinbattleandknockhistanksoutfromtheir[thinlyarmored]flanks.BradleyalsoadmittedthatthiswillingnesstoexpendShermansofferedlittlecomforttothecrewswhowereforcedtoexpendthemselvesaswell.

AirpowerandartilleryalsohelpedwintankbattlesfortheAmericans.Wittmann,forinstance,perhapsthegreatestGermantankwarriorofthewar-with119victoriesontheRussianfrontalone-waskilledinacarpet-bombingattackinAugust1944.Afterthewar,thecommanderofthe116thPanzerDivisiontoldAlliedinterrogatorsthathistankswereontheirwaytomakingaseriouspenetrationoftheNormandybeachheadwhentheyweremauledbyoverwhelmingairandartillerybombardments.SimilarcommentswerecommoninGermanarmyreportsthroughout1944and1945.AdespairingErwinRommelsummeduptheGermanplightinaDecember1943messagetoHitler:BritishandAmericansuperiorityintheairalonehasagainandagainbeensoeffectivethatallmovementofmajorformationshasbeenrenderedcompletelyimpossible.

Americanantitankgunswerenotmuchbetterthantheirtanks.ThefirsttankdestroyersusedinNorthAfricawereWorldWarIvintage,seventy-five-millimetercannonmountedonhalf-tracks,whosequarter-incharmorwasvulnerabletoeverythingexceptsmall-armsfire.Whenoneofthegunswasfiredbroadside,itsrecoiloftentippedthevehicleover.HarrySemmes,whohadmiraculouslyrecoveredfromhisheadwoundintheArgonneandfoughtunderPattoninNorthAfrica,saidthatinthepresenceofGermantanks,thehalf-trackshadnoalternativebuttorunlikerabbits.

ThearmoreddivisionsthatlandedinNormandywereequippedwithatowed,fifty-seven-millimeterantitankgun,anotherinferiorweapon.It,too,couldnotpenetrateGermanbowarmor.DonaldWillis,amemberofaguncrewinthe3rdArmoredDivision,recordedhisdismayinhisdiaryafterexaminingacapturedGermantankinJuly1944.TheirarmorismuchheavierthanthearmoronourShermans.Alsotheirshellsarelonger,withmorepowder.TheGermanshaveverygoodweaponsofwar.

Inlaterentries,Willisgrewgloomier.Ourforcesarefindingthelargetanksoftheenemyverydifficulttocopewith.ManyofourShermansareleftburningwhentheymeetthesehugemachines,hewroteinJanuary1945.WillisdiarysoonbecameahymntotheP-47

Thunderbolt,theArmysprimaryground-supportplaneinEurope.Againandagain,ThunderboltsbrokeupGermanarmorconcentrations,clearingthewayforthedivisionsadvance.

TheonegoodantitankweapontheAmericansproducedinWorldWarIIwasthebazooka.ThisBuckRogersgundeliveredashaped-chargedeviceonashoulder-firedrocketthatwaspowerfulenoughtoknockoutlighterGermantanks,suchastheMarkIV,andevendisablePanthersandTigersiffiredattheirsidearmor.InNorthAfrica,wherethefirstbazookaswentintoaction,adetachmentofGermantankssurrenderedonthespot,thinkingtheywereunderfireby105-millimeterguns.

Thesuccessofthebazooka,likethatofallnewweapons,diminishedwithtimeandfamiliarity.Itsrangewasshort,andthesoldier-gunnerhadtoexposeadangerousamountofhisbodytoaimtherocket.Inthedesertorotheropenterrain,thebazookaseffectivenessdeclinedsteeply.OntheRussianfront,whereimmensearmoredclashessuchastheBattleofKursksawasmanyas3,000tankssluggingitout,thebazookawasvirtuallyirrelevant.

FromtheexperienceofWorldWarIIemergedanaxiomthateverymilitarythinkertookseriously:Inthefinalanalysis,tankscouldbestoppedonlybybettertanks.Planescouldhurttanks,butairsuperioritycouldneverbeassumed.IntheBattleoftheBulge,GermantanksstruckwithferociousimpactinweatherthatgroundedtheAlliedairforce.Fortherecord,GeneralLesleyJ.McNair,whotrainedtheAmericanArmythatfoughtinWorldWarII,wenttohisgravedenyingthisprinciple.Itispooreconomytousea$35,000tanktodestroyanothertankwhenthejobcanbedonebyaguncostingafractionasmuch,hesaidinJuly1941.ToMcNairsgreatfrustration,theUnitedStatesneverproducedsuchagun.WhenvictoryoverGermanyandJapandisintegratedintotheColdWarbetweentheWestandtheSovietempire,theGreatTankRacebegan.

SeveralothertruthshadbecomeapparentinthecourseofWorldWarII.Theheavytankandthelighttankwereabouttogothewayofthedodo.ThelatermodelsoftheGermanTiger,whichreachedseventy-fivetons,underscoredalltheproblemsoftheheavytank.Bridgescollapsedunderitsweight;roadscrumbled,makingitimpossibleforothervehiclestousethem.Theconceptofthemainbattletank(MBT)-onevehiclethatwouldcombinemobility,lethality,andsurvivability-hadbeenborn.

Unfortunately,thenexttwowarstendedtodiminishtheimportanceofthetankinAmericaneyes.InKoreaandVietnam,therewerefewtank-to-tankbattles.InKorea,theenemyusedWorldWarIIT-34s,whichprovedinvulnerabletothesmallbazookaswithwhichtheAmericantroopswereequippedintheearlyfighting.Largerbazookas,developedlateinWorldWarII,wererushedintobattleandsoondisposedofmostoftheoutdatedenemyarmor.

InmountainousKoreaandthejunglesofVietnam,Americantanksrevertedtotheiroriginalroleastheinfantrymanshelper.TheomnipotenceofairpowerinU.S.militarythinkingalsocontributedtothemalaise.TheassumptionthatcontroloftheairwasaguaranteeofvictoryinalandbattleremainedapeculiarlyAmericanaxiom.Sowhyworrytoomuchabouthavingasuperiortank?

Ratherthanattemptanythingnewororiginal,theAmericanssimplyimprovedthetanktheyhadintroducedattheendofWorldWarII,theGeneralPershing.Itweighedinatforty-twotonsandhadamaximumroadspeedofthirtymilesperhour.Fromit,theAmericansderivedtheirfirstgenerationofpostwartanks,thefifty-tonM-47andthefifty-two-tonM-48,bothmediocrevehicles,withprofilesmuchtoohigh,firepowertoolow,andthesamethirty-mile-per-hourroadspeed.Theirenginesstillranongasoline,makingthemalmostguaranteedfireballsifhitintherightplace.

NextcametheM-60,essentiallyanM-48witha105-millimetergunandagooddieselengine.Itsroadspeedwasthesameoldthirtymilesperhour,anditsprofilewasstillhigh-tenfeetsixinches.Clearly,theUnitedStateswasnotdoingmuchoriginalthinkingabouttanksandtankwarfare.GeneralJamesH.Polk,whocommandedtheU.S.ArmyinEuropeinthelate1960s,revealedthisunfortunatetruthinascathing1972articleinArmymagazinethatsummedupthirtyyearsofAmericantankersfrustration.HecalledtheM-60aninferiortank,partofatired,old,second-rateseries.HelamentedthattheUnitedStateshadbeenoutgunnedbytheGermansinWorldWarIIandbySoviet-builtT-34sinKoreaandwereinseriousdangerofthesameexperienceagainstthenewestSoviettanks.

ThepostwarSovietarmyremainedwhollycommittedtotankwarfare.MorethansatisfiedwiththeperformanceoftheT-34inWorldWarII,Moscowdecidedthatevolution,notrevolution,wasthewaytogo.Well-slopedarmorandlowsilhouettes,trademarksofSoviettankdesign,madethepostwarT-54sandT-55sformidablemachines.Perhapswhatwasmostimpressiveaboutthesetankswastheirweight-tentofifteentonslessthantheirWesternMBTcounterparts,suchastheM-60.

TheSovietscontinuedtheirevolutionwiththeT-62andtheT-72.TheIsraelisthoughtcapturedT-62sweregoodenoughtointegrateintotheirowntankcorps.Theyparticularlyadmiredthehittingpowerandaccuracyofthemaingun.OnedismayedU.S.generaltookalookattheT-72andsaid,TheSovietsnowhavetechnicalaswellasnumericalsuperiorityinmainbattletanks.ThemoststartlingfeatureoftheT-72wasanautoloaderforammunition,whichreducedthecrewtothreemen.

ButSovietMBTsalsohadmanydefects,whichemergedintheArab-Israeliwars.WhilethelowsilhouetteaddedtoaSoviettankssurvivability,theSovietsdeterminationtoreducethesizeoftheirtanks(tomakethemhardertohit)leftsolittleroomforthecrewthatnoonetallerthanfivefeetfourinchescouldfightinone.InprototypesoftheT-72,theautoloaderrevealedadistressingtendencytoloadvitalpartsofthegunner,whowasjammednexttoit.OneU.S.ArmytankerwhostudiedIsraeli-capturedtankssaid,WebelievethisishowtheSovietArmyChorusgetsitssopranosection.

PoorventilationwasanotherseriousprobleminSoviettanks.Fightinginhundred-degreeheatagainsttheIsraelisin1973,manySyrianandEgyptiandriverscollapsed-afewwereevenasphyxiated-intheairlesscompartmentsoftheirT-55sandT-62s.Sovietdesignersmadenoattempttoprotectthecrewfromthemanyprojectionsandswitchesthatcaninflictseriousspineandkidneyinjurieswhenthetankisrumblingacrosscountry.ThecrudetransmissionsystemsintheT-55sandT-62srequiredconstantdoubleclutching

fromthedrivers,whichledtoprematureexhaustion.

TheArab-Israeliwarsnotonlydemonstratedthestrengthsandweaknessesofrivaltanks,theyintroducedawholenewrangeofweaponsthatthreatenedtodrivethetankfromthebattlefield.Themostpotentoftheseantitankdeviceswasaguidedmissileusinghighexplosives,knownasaHEAT(HighExplosiveAnti-Tank)round.WhentheprobeinthenoseofaHEATprojectilehitsatank,itignitestheexplosive,whichisshapedbyaninternalconeintoahigh-velocityjetofmoltenmetalthatpiercesarmorlikeanacetylenetorch.

TheSovietsbegandevelopingwire-guidedmissilescarryingHEATroundsinthe1950s.Bytheearly1970s,theyhadproducedtheSagger,whichcouldpenetratearmorsixteeninchesthick.Theyalsodevelopedbazooka-likeRPG-7launchers,whichenabledtheSaggerstobefiredbyindividualfootsoldiers-orgunnersinlightarmoredvehicles.Inthe1973YomKippurWar,theSaggersdestructivepowercausedconsternation,notonlyintheIsraeliarmoredcorpsbutamongtankersaroundtheworld.

Anotherpotenttankdestroyerthatemergedinthe1970swasHESH(HighExplosiveSquashHeadrounds).Thesesplatterintoacakeofplasticexplosiveonthetanksarmorbeforeblastingchunksoftheinteriorplatearoundthecrewcompartment.HESHroundsareparticularlydestructiveagainstMBTsrunninggearandthinsideandtoparmor.Theycanbedeliveredbyguns(includingtankguns)orbyrocketsfiredfromplanesorhelicopters.

Studyingtheseweapons,manyAmericanswonderedaboutsinkingmillionsintodevelopinganewtank.AningloriousexperimentwithbuildinganMBTincollaborationwiththeWestGermansinthe1960shadalreadydisillusionedmanygeneralsandmembersofcongress.EventheIsraelis,whohadbegunbuildingatankoftheirown,wonderedifanewstrategy,withthetankinasubordinaterole,wasinthecards.HESHroundscouldbedealtwithbyaddingmetalskirtstodetonatethembeforetheymadecontactwithatankstreadsorsidearmor.ButtheonlysolutiontoHEATmissileslayinimprovingatanksbowandturretarmor.Howthiscouldbedonewithoutsacrificingmobilitybaffledeveryone.

ThesalvationoftheMBTasacombatvehicleemerged,fittinglyenough,fromthelaboratoriesofthecountrythathadcreatedthetank,GreatBritain.ResearchersatChobham,theBritisharmorcenter,beganexperimentingwithlayersofarmoratoddanglesinthemid-1960s.TheysoondiscoveredthisarrangementcoulddeflectthehotmetaljetofaHEATmissileandwasequallygoodatstoppingHESHandordinarysolidprojectilerounds.In1972,excitedAmericantankersarrangedademonstrationforArmyChiefofStaffGeneralCreightonW.Abrams,aWorldWarIItanker.HewatchedacapturedSaggermissilefiredatChobhamarmor;theonlydamagewassomescratchesonthepaint.Thetanklivesagain!Abramsdeclared.

RenewedconfidencealsocamefromareportmadebyagroupofAmericantankerswhowenttotheSinaiPeninsulatostudythehulksofthealmost1,700tanksdestroyedintheYomKippurWarof1973.AlthoughSaggersaccountedforalargenumberoftheIsraelitanksobliteratedintheearlyfighting,roughly90percentofalltanksdemolishedinthe

eighteen-dayconflictwerethevictimsofothertanks.

TheIsraelisdecidedtogoaheadwiththeirnewmachine,theMerkava(Hebrewforchariot).Germany,France,andBritainalsoproducednewMBTsonthecrestofthisrenewedconfidenceinthetank.TheU.S.Army-withtheenthusiasticbackingGeneralAbrams-decidedtobuildtheM1.Itsverynamemadeitcleartothemaincontractor,Chrysler(whichsolditstankbusinesstoGeneralDynamicsin1982),thattheArmywantednotmerelyanimprovedM-60butanentirelynewtank,withtheabsolutelybestcombinationofmobility,firepower,andsurvivabilityattainable.

ThesevenyearsoftheM1sdevelopmentweretorturousforeveryone.In1974,asprototypeswerebeingbuilt,GeneralAbramsdiedofcancer,andtheArmynamedthetanksforhim.

Forawhile,itlookedasiftheM1itselfwouldbefollowitssponsortoaprematuregrave.Thetankbecameafavoritetargetofmilitarycritics,whofoundfaultwitheverythingaboutit-especiallyits$2millionpricetag.

AparticularlynoisyconflicteruptedovertheM1sengine.OtherWesternMBTs(andRussiantanks,untiltheirnewest,theT-80)havereliedondieselengines.Themainreasonsaredurabilityandthehighflashpointofdieselfuel.TheAbramstanksubstitutedagas-turbineengine,whichisquieterandsmallerandcreateslesssmoke.Itcanrunonawidevarietyoffuels,includingdiesel.Inearlytrials,theAbramsenginerevealedalarmingtendenciestobehypersensitivetodustanddirt.Worse,itwasafuelguzzlerofshockingproportions.TheArmyestimateditwouldconsume500gallonsadayincombat.Anarmoreddivisionwouldneed600,000gallonsoffueladaytokeepfighting.Itwouldhavetobeshadowedconstantlybylarge,unarmoredtankertrucks.

In1980,thefirstM1productionmodelsweredeliveredtotheArmy.Overthenextyears,some8,000enteredtheranks,atatotalcostofmorethan$20billion.LatermodelsweredesignatedM1A1becausetheywereequippedwithaharder-hitting120-millimetergunandamicroclimaticcoolingsystemthatwouldprotectthecrewagainstnuclear,chemical,andbiologicalwarfare.

UntilDesertStorm,theMerkavawastheonlynewWesternMBTthathadmetRussiantanksinbattle.DuringtheinvasionofLebanonin1978,theslow(twenty-fivemilesperhour),heavilyarmoredIsraelichariotshadnodifficultydisposingofseveralSyrianT-72s.Thebigquestion,astheAbramsrolledintoIraqandKuwait,waswhetheritcouldequalthatperformance.Inthenexthundredhoursofwar,itquicklybecameapparentthattheanswerwasyes-andthensome.

Battle-loaded,theAbramsweighedsixty-threetons,yetonlevelgrounditcouldhitforty-oneandahalfmilesanhour,closetothetopofitsclass.Thetorsion-barsuspension,rotaryshockabsorbers,andextra-longtracksguaranteednotonlyasmoothridebutanabilitytoabandonhighwaysandrollacrossthedesertstrickyterrainatthirty-fivemilesperhourwithoutshakingthebrainsandgutsoutofthecrew.Thelowprofile-eightfeetfrombottomtreadstoturretroof-madeitadifficulttargetforenemygunners.

Insidethehull,thefour-mancrewshadastaggeringarrayofStarWarstechnology.

MostimportantwastheThermalImagingSystem,whichcanseethingsonstarless,moonlessnightsandpeerthroughtheduststormsamoderntankbattleinevitablygenerates.Itpicksuptheheatemittedbyenemytargets,frominfantry(knowntotankersascrunchies)totanks.Theyglowgreenandwhiteagainstadarkgreenbackground.

InpreviousU.S.tanks,ifthecommanderspottedanenemytarget,hehadtoscreamtothedrivertoslamonthebrakes.ButintheM1A1,anon-boardcomputerlinkedtothemainguncompensatesfortherolling,pitchingmotionofthechassis.Thedriverdoesnotevenhavetoslowdown.Thegunner,manipulatinghisknobs,playsthemaingun,whilealaserrangefinderfixesthedistancetothetarget.Withinasecondacomputerhassolvedtheballisticproblem,integratingeverythingfromdistancetowindvelocitytotheheatofthegunbarrel.

TheM1A1s120-millimetermaingunhasarangeof3,500yards-versus2,000yardsforthebestIraqitank,theSovietT-72.Firingonthemove,theM1A1washardtohit,whilestoppedIraqitankswerefareasiertargetsfortheThermalImagingSystemsights,whichenabledtheAmericanstoshootthroughthesmokeofburningoilwellsandatnight,whentheIraqitankerswerevirtuallyblind.Finally,thealmostnoiselessturbineengineenabledtheAmericanstoapproachIraqipositionswithamazingstealth.AGeneralDynamicsfieldrepresentativereportedthathetalkedtoonecapturedIraqitankerwhocomplainedthatthewarwasnotfair.HesaidtheyneverheardtheAmericanscominguntiltheM1A1swereontopofthem.

Notoneofthe1,956M1A1tanksthattookpartinDesertStormwaslosttoenemyaction.Fourweredamagedbutrepairable;oneburnedoutitsmotortowinganotherarmoredvehiclethathadbrokendown.NotasingleAmericantankerwaskilled.NowonderColonelJohnLeMoyne,abrigadecommanderinthe24thMechanizedInfantryDivision,declared,TheM1A1absolutelyproveditself.

Criticswhopredictedtheair-cooledturbineenginewouldsuckinsandandstuttertoastopwereconfoundedbyefficientfilters.True,thesehadtobechangedoften-notaneasytask.Therearethreefilterstoatank;whenloadedwithsand,eachweighed200pounds.Butthecrewsgotusedtoheftingthem,andbreakdownswereaverted.Foresightalsodealtwiththemotorsgas-guzzlingpropensities.Thecrewsshutdowntheengineswhenevertheirunitspausedinasweep.Withcontroloftheairsecure,therefuelingtruckswereabletofollowtheMBTswithlittlefearofenemyretaliation.

TheArmydidnotbecomecomplacentaboutthisDesert-Stormtriumph.InMay1991,itbegantestingtheMIA2,atankthatlookedlikeitspredecessorfromtheoutsidebutinsidehadawholenewweaponssystem.Usingaircraft-styleavionics,theM1A2wasabletodealwithanumberoftargetssimultaneously.Overthenextseveralyears,morethan600M1A1tankswereupgradedtoM1A2s.

M1A1sjoinedtheinfantryinthe2003U.S.invasionofIraq.Earlyinthatprotractedstruggle,theywonavictorythatechoedDesertStorm.Confrontingseven,enemyT-72tanksabouteighteenmilessouthofBaghdad,Americantankersdestroyedthemallwithoutthelossofaman.But,overthenextfewyears,theAbramsrevealeditwasvulnerabletoenemyinfantryattacks,usingshort-range,anti-tankrocketsfiredatthe

tracks.Evenmoretankswerelosttotheenemysfavoriteweapon,IEDs(improvisedexplosivedevices),buriedinroadsandtownstreets.TheUnitedStateshasrespondedtoambushesinandneartownswithTUSK,forTankUrbanSurvivalKit.Itprovidesaddedprotectiontotherearandsideofthetank.InAfghanistan,meanwhile,theruggedterrainandtheabsenceofenemyarmorhasmadethetanklargelysuperfluous.OnlyahandfulM1A1shavebeendeployedthere.

Nevertheless,onthebattlefieldoftheimmediatefuture,theaxiomthatemergedfromWorldWarIIseemslikelytoprevail.Onlysuperiortankswithwell-trainedcrews,directedbysoldierswhounderstandtanktactics,canstopothertanks.Nootherweaponhasbeenfoundtomatchthetanksabilitytodominateacombatsituationwithitsimmensestrikingpowerandmobility.ItisnicetoknowthattheUnitedStateshasfinallydevelopedagoodoneandiscontinuingtoimproveit.ThelatestwordfromtheArmyisthedevelopmentofanew,lighter,fasterversionoftheM1A2,tobecalledtheM1A3.ThedaysoflettingAmericantankersgointobattleininferiormachinesaregoneforever.

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PublishedbyNewWordCity,Inc.,2012www.NewWordCity.comThomasFleming

Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproduced,inanyformorbyanymeans,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.

ISBN:978-1-61230-699-5

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