THE STORMY ’60S

Chapter 38

Kennedy’s “New Frontier” Spirit

JFK is the youngest President elected, World War II hero, Harvard educated, from a wealthy family

Cabinet is young, mostly Harvard educated, called his “brain trust”

Brother Bobby is Attorney General

Wants to be a more active president, calls his vision for America the New Frontier

Kennedy inspires idealism Peace Corps is an army of idealistic

volunteers that bring “first world” skills to Third World countries

The New Frontier At Home JFK had only a narrow Democratic

majority in Congress; hard to get proposals through Congress

Kennedy has problem with conservative Southern Democrats

Most of his social legislation is axed by Congress

Kennedy’s disputes with Big Business They see him as unfriendly Kennedy does cut taxes though Announces project to put a man on the

Moon. Costs 24 billion, but was successful in

1969.

Rumblings In Europe June 1961 Kennedy meets

with Khrushchev in Vienna Berlin Dispute Khrushchev threatens to

cut off Western access to Berlin to keep population of Berlin from going to democratic West

1961 begins construction of Berlin Wall

Becomes symbol of Soviet domination and repression of E. Europe

Stubborn French Kennedy European tariff

policy He cut tariffs up to 50% to

promote trade between Europe and the U.S.

French refuse to participate They fear American

domination of Europe French develop their own

nuclear arsenal and want a Europe free of American influence

“Flexible Response”

With the end of colonization, the newly independent colonies became a headache as they flared into civil wars. Congo Laos

Leads Kennedy to move away from Ike’s “massive retaliation” and to adopt the doctrine of “flexible response” develop an array of military responses that can

be precisely calibrated to the gravity of the crisis.

Kennedy increases military spending and bolstered the special forces.

Stepping into the Vietnam Quagmire Corrupt right-wing, pro-US

government in South Vietnam. Communists in the south, Viet-

Cong, waging guerrilla civil war. Late 1961 Kennedy sharply

increases US military advisors Coup against South Vietnamese

leader. U.S. steps into Vietnam to foster

political stability Kennedy increases military and

economic aid Modernization theory- believed

that traditional societies could develop into industrial, democratic nations by following the Western nations path

Cuban Confrontations

Latin American countries saw the U.S. as a bully

Alliance for Progress Marshall Plan for Latin

America to provide aid for economic development

doesn’t have much effect. Bay of Pigs Invasion

CIA backed plan to topple communist government in Cuba

April 1961 invasion at Bay of Pigs was a failure

Kennedy assumes full responsibility.

Pushed the Cubans further toward the Soviets

Cuban Missile Crisis

Castro pushed into the arms of the Soviets.

October 1962 Khrushchev starts to install nuclear tipped missiles in Cuba

Spy photos reveal the missiles Plan was to keep pressure on the US to

back down on issues in other parts of the world

Kennedy rejects air strike; instead orders a military blockade and demands immediate removal of missiles.

Russian ships and quarantine line Khrushchev finally blinks when he agreed

to a compromise. Pulls missiles out of Cuba US agrees to not attack Cuba and to pull

missiles out of Europe targeted at Soviet Union

Seems to be a clear US victory

Missile Crisis Fallout Khrushchev forced out of power Kremlin begins an aggressive

program of military expansion; New Arms Race

Democrats gain in the midterm elections.

Kennedy begins to push for arms control and greater communications between Russia and the US. Hotline Ban on above-ground nuclear tests

agreed to in 1963 Kennedy urges Americans to live with

the Soviets as they are and find a method of peaceful coexistence. Origins of the policy of Détente.

The Struggle For Civil Rights

Kennedy moved very slowly on Civil Rights Lack of southern

Congressional support Events forced the

President’s hand. Freedom Riders tried to end

segregation in facilities serving bus passengers

After violent incidents federal marshals were sent to protect Freedom Riders

Kennedy works with SCLC to promote civil rights and to register black voters

Civil Rights Violence Integrating Southern

universities. Kennedy forced to send in 3000

troops. Spring 1963 King begins a

campaign against discrimination in Birmingham.

Police reaction Attacked protesters with dogs and

fire hoses All seen on TVs across the country

June 11, 1963 Kennedy responds. Calls for new Civil Rights legislation Calls problem a moral issue

I Have a Dream

Medger Evers black civil rights worker is killed

August 1963, March on Washington and King’s “I have a Dream” Speech

September 1963 bombing of black Birmingham church kills 4 black girls at Sunday School

Kennedy’s Civil Rights Bill was making little headway and many African Americans were growing impatient

THE KILLING OF KENNEDY

November 22, 1963 Kennedy is shot in Dallas

Johnson takes over as president

The LBJ Brand On The Presidency

Lyndon Johnson was profane, earthy, vain, idealistic

Master politician; former Senate Majority Leader in the Senate.

Johnson’s Great Society Johnson puts power behind Civil

Rights Bill. Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Prohibits discrimination in facilities open to the public

Strengthened power to end segregation in schools

Created federal Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

Prevents both race and gender discrimination.

Southern Senators try to kill with a lengthy filibuster.

Johnson launches a billion dollar war on poverty designed to help those not yet getting the benefits of America’s vast wealth. Dubbed the Great Society Program. Medicare/Medicade central pillar New Deal type economic and welfare

measures designed to free Americans from poverty and social injustice

Johnson Battles Goldwater In 1964

Johnson is easily nominated in 1964; runs on a very liberal platform.

Republicans nominate Senator Barry Goldwater very, very conservative. Strongly anti-red, strongly anti-New

Deal. Believes in small national government

(Jeffersonian) Wanted American field commanders

to have authority to use tactical nukes in the battle field.

Johnson convinces national that Goldwater “scary” “In your heart you know he’s right” vs.

“In your gut you know he’s nuts” Johnson wins biggest landslide in US

history.

Tonkin Gulf Resolution

Tonkin Gulf incident August 1964 Johnson calls attack by North Vietnamese

on U.S. Navy ship unprovoked Orders air raids on North Vietnam Johnson uses to get Tonkin Gulf Resolution from

Congress Consequences?

Gives the president a virtual blank check to use force in Southeast Asia against the North Vietnamese.

Gives Johnson discretion to widen the war, which he does after the election.

The Great Society Congress

Johnson has 2-1 democratic majority in both houses of Congress.

Legislative slate passed by Johnson after the 1964 election was comparable to FDR’s 100-days.

Sweeping package of social reform and new aid to the poor and down-trodden.

Continues the war on poverty Created the Dept. of Transportation

and Housing and Urban Development. Names the first Black cabinet

secretary—Robert Weaver Creates national Endowment for the

Arts

Legislative Landmarks Four legislative achievements at heart of

Great Society: Federal Aid to Education Medicare for the Elderly/Medicaid for the Poor Immigration Reform Voting Rights Act

Medicare and Medicaid provide medical insurance at governmental expense for elderly and poor

Medicare and Medicaid join social security and unemployment insurance as part of social safety net

Despite critics poverty did decline and general health conditions improved for many Americans

Voting Rights Act In 1964 Voting Rights becomes

the main goal of civil rights movement.

Passage of 24th Amendment Freedom Summer of 1964 was a

massive voter registration drive in Mississippi

Three civil rights workers were murdered

MLK resumed voter registration drive in AL, “March to Selma”

Voting Rights Act of 1965. Johnson sends in federal officials

to oversee voter registration. Over the next 25 years totally

transforms the south because blacks are voting.

Black Power Voting Rights Act ends era of non-violence for

civil rights movement Civil Right movement moves north and out of

the control of MLK, becomes more militant and violent

1965—Watts riots. New voices advocate confrontation, violence

and separatism. Malcolm X Stokely Carmichael Black Panthers

Riots across the US in 1967, all shown on TV Many white Americans become outraged Civil Rights Movement increasingly focuses on

economic demands MLK assassinated in 1968; wisest black voice

gone.

Vietnam Escalation 1965 Johnson escalates the

war Operation Rolling Thunder Starts bombing and the use of

troops on the ground. War becomes Americanized By end of 1965, 184,000

America troops; 1968 almost 500,000

Believes American escalation will show US resolve and north will back down.

Believes in domino theory The fall of one non-communist

state would cause neighboring countries to become communist as well

US casualties start to mount, end is nowhere in sight

Vietnam Vexations World opinion was turning against

the US Hawks vs. Doves

Appeared that US was beating up a third-world nation over US zeal to spank communism.

Made it harder for US to respond elsewhere Six Day War (Israel and Egypt)

Led to a lot of domestic discontent. Many blamed Johnson. Major protests in San Francisco, New

York and on college campuses. Anti-war demonstrations gradually

mounted on campuses. Draft resisters flee to Canada, burn draft

cards, burn flags

Quagmire By late 1960s opposition to the war was

hardening. 1966-1967 Fulbright hearings. Public feels increasingly misled about the war

and ability to win. By 1968 had become the longest and most

unpopular foreign war in US history. Government had failed to adequately explain

why we were fighting there and/or what was at stake.

Johnson, orders the CIA to spy on American anti-war activists.

FBI turns against peace groups Johnson stubbornly continues to assert that

victory is just around the corner.

Vietnam Topples Johnson

Jan. 1968 Tet offensive Political and psychological

victory for the Viet Cong Military demands 200,000

more troops. Johnson challenged from

within his party by Eugene McCarthy and Robert Kennedy.

March 1968 Johnson’s announcement he would not run for the presidency

1968 Election Chaos

Hubert Humphrey front-runner for the democratic nomination.

Strong challenge from Robert Kennedy.

June 1968 Kennedy assassinated after primary victory in California

Convention Chaos

1968 Democratic convention in Chicago in chaos. Democrats were bitter, divided and angry over the death of

Kennedy, the war, etc. Many young, radical, anti war protester showed up to vent their

frustration The Chicago police and demonstrators clashed outside of the

convention Democrats came off looking like a disorganized, fratricidal mob. Humphrey wins the nomination on the first ballot.

Richard Nixon and George Wallace

Republicans nominate Richard Nixon who is running as a conservative-moderate.

Platform Tough on crime, , “hawk” on

Vietnam Supported by white, conservative

southern Democrats George Wallace American Independent Party. Wallace ardently anti-integration

“Segregation Now, Segregation tomorrow, Segregation forever.”

Victory For Nixon Nixon and Humphrey have similar policies on VN.

No real choice between the two. As a result, many doves sat out the election because no

standard-bearer for their views. Nixon wins by half a percentage point without

carrying a single major city and with no coat-tails.

Both houses of Congress remain Democratic. Democrats win 95% of the black vote.

Nixon wins only 43% of the vote because Wallace had siphoned off votes from both. No mandate.

Wallace wins 46 electoral votes from the deep south. Largest third-party electoral vote in American history.

Cultural Upheaval

1960s become a dividing line of two different era of morals, values and behavior

Vietnam, Civil Rights Struggle and materialism undermine faith of youth in government and “establishment”

Roots in the 1950s among the “beats” who voiced disillusionment with material pursuits

Division also appeared between more educated and less educated Americans

Idea of shared purpose seemed to be losing its grip

Cultural Upheaval

Organized students movements against established authority 1964 Free Speech movement in

Berkley 1968 Students for Democratic

Society were anti-war and anti poverty; eventually became a domestic terrorist group the Weather Underground

Many young people became political and cultural rebels

Many protests fueled by outrage over Vietnam

Became opposed to traditional American values, developed their own counterculture

Sexual Revolution (development of birth control?) , gay rights also became issues at this time