the shortcomings of shortwave

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    The Shortcomings of Shortwave

    U.S. Programming to Latin America

    during World War II

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    Abstract 1

    This paper revisits the early beginnings of (what wasto become) the Voice of America. More specifically, itanalyzes U.S. shortwave programming to LatinAmerica during World War II. Whereas previous

    scholarship focused on the institutional settings andthe successive takeover of the shortwave sector bygovernment agencies, in our case, Nelson A.Rockefellers Office of the Coordinator of Inter-

    American Affairs (most recently, Rabe 2007), thispaper explores the inherent potentials andlimitations of shortwave radioas a conduit for (what

    is now commonly called) public diplomacy.

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    Abstract 2

    Based largely on archival sources, including

    contemporary reception and audience research

    conducted by the Office of the Coordinator of

    Inter-American Affairs(OCIAA, 1940-6) and other

    wartime agencies, it shows how the United States

    was able to improve its relative standing vis--vis

    other shortwave powers (including Germany andBritain), but it also shows the limits of success.

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    Abstract 3

    Whereas contemporary Hollywood films attractedmass audiences throughout Latin America (Usabel1982), U.S. radio proved to have a very limitedappeal. Despite considerable efforts to produce

    informational and entertainment contents thatwould please larger audiences, U.S. shortwaveprograms continued to reach rather few listenerssouth of the Ro Grande; and even whenrebroadcast over popular local stations in LatinAmerica, most of the Spanish or Portuguese-language programs produced in the United States

    seem to have failed to generate the desired results.

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    Abstract 4

    In order to highlight the particular difficultiesinvolved in transnational shortwave broadcasting

    for public diplomacy purposes,

    this paper distinguishes between various program

    types and genres

    and it contrasts the shortwave experience with a

    different strategy employed during the war years:

    the outsourcing of radio productions to Latin

    America.

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    Abstract 5

    Vexed by the continuous failure of shortwave tobuild mass audiences south of the border,

    Rockefellers OCIAA increasingly took tocomplementing U.S. shortwave broadcasts withprograms produced in Latin America to be fedinto regional and national networks, employinglocal scriptwriters and radio talent.

    Whereas this was a strategy that allowed the

    OCIAA to overcome many of the shortcomings oftransnational shortwave, it brought along a hostof new predicaments (e.g. censorship by localgovernments)

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    Abstract 6

    Thus, although shortwave fell short of the

    highflying expectations that had accompanied

    the expansion of U.S. transnational

    broadcasting capacities in the late 1930s and

    early 1940s, it continued to be viewed as an

    indispensable component in the word war

    over Latin America (and beyond).

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    The OCIAA

    Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American

    Affairs (1940-6) = the Rockefeller Shop

    OCIAAs Radio Division = set up to

    cooperate with private shortwave providers

    in order to counteract Nazi German and Axis

    radio broadcasts directed at Latin America and (increasingly) to outdo other foreign

    powers (BBC)

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    OCIAA

    In 1942, the OCIAA assumed responsibility

    over all shortwave programming for Latin

    America

    After the war, the OIAAs functions were

    integrated into the Voice of America

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    U.S. Shortwave to LA in WWII

    Striking expansion: in terms of bothtransmission facilities and program-hours

    While Nazi-Germanys shortwave

    programming directed at Western Hemispherewas actually declining (Boehlke, 1977)

    By 1943: internal assessments of SW situation

    suggest: OCIAA Radio Division view not the Axis, but

    the British BBC as their main competitor

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    The OCIAAs Radio Research

    Increasing investments into audience research andprogram development

    first systematic research into Latin Americascommunications systems and listening habits:

    Few large-scale audience surveys: Brazil andArgentina, 1941 (Cramer forthcoming)

    Many smaller-scale investigations (for Mexico, seeOrtiz Garza, 1992)

    Plus: large amounts of ad-hoc analysis of feedback-groups in Latin America

    Quality of research = highly uneven = Need tointegrate few quantitative with host of scattered

    qualitative informacion

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    http://flowtv.org/2007/04/el-inicio-de-la-investigacion-cientifica-de-la-comunicacion-social-en-america-latina/

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    Rowland 1946, 62

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    Some characteristics of US Shortwave

    Outgrowth of private and, by and large

    commercial, sector: NBC, CBS, etc.;

    Except: Walter Lemmons World Wide

    Broadcasting Foundation and WRUL

    OCIAAs Radio Division Staff: drawn from private

    sector (radio industry and advertising; news

    agencies; expl. Pat Weaver)

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    First hypothesis

    Nature of Shortwave Sector =

    At first: tendency to view shortwave

    broadcasting for foreign audiences as an

    extension of domestic broadcasting

    Gave rise to optimism:

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    optimism

    U.S. radio seen as a far superior to Axis

    competitors and to Latin American domestic

    services

    Hence: U.S. shortwave

    will be so good it will blast all competitors

    practically of the air

    build large audiences in Latin America, by

    providing news and entertainment

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    Pan-America as imagined community

    Americanos todos: interviews with visiting

    statesmen from OAR

    Is a Mexican interested in what Argentinian

    politicians are saying, and viceversa?

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    Disillusionment

    From every possible source, we have been informedthat short-waving is not entirely satisfactory as amedia for the dissemination ofpropaganda.

    music and practically all forms of dramatic shows are

    badly butchered. And since these latter classificationsrepresent the major output of this office, it isreasonably to state that short wave is only partiallysuccessful.

    the human voice registers pretty well hence let`s

    concentrate on: straight news program, commentaryand special events program

    Memo Roberts to Don Francisco, Feb 3, 1943

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    News and shortwave: fading

    The public found an element of drama in that

    distant voice which came from a continent atwar, reported an Uruguyan analyst for the

    OCIAA, The tolling of Big Ben, the fading, therealization that this short wave in its voyagetoward America had perhaps collided with thepropellers of the Nazi Bombers all these things

    combined to create a paradoxically modern andlegendary atmosphere. Memorandum on Radio Broadcasting in Uruguay, by L.A. Ferreira, p. 3 (NARA II, RG 229, E14, Box

    574, File No 2, Uruguayan Radio Project, August 1- Dec 31, 1942).

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    Bibliography

    Boelcke, Willi A., Die Macht des Radios: Weltpolitik undAuslandsrundfunk, 1924-1976, Ffm/M: Ullstein, 1977

    Cramer, Gisela, Word War at the River Plate, in: AmricasUnidas!, eds. Gisela Cramer and Ursula Prutsch, Berlin/Madrid:Vervuert (forthcoming)

    Fejes, Fred, Imperialism, Media, and the Good Neighbor: New DealForeign Policy and United States Short Wave Broadcasting to LatinAmerica (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1986

    Ortiz Garza, Jos Luis, La guerra de las ondas, Mxico: Planeta, 1992

    Rabe, Robert A. Selling theOrtiz Garza, Jos Luis, La guerra de lasondas, Mxico: Planeta, 199 Shortwaves: Commercial Broadcastingto Latin America and the Limits of the AmericanSystem,American Journalism 24:4 (Winter 2007), 127-148

    Usabel, Gaizka S. de, The High Noon of American Films in LatinAmerica, Ann Arbor:UMI Research, 1982

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    Structure of Radio Division

    Head of Division at first: James W. Young, a

    former advertising expert with Lord &

    Thomas; then

    Don Francisco, advertising expert, also

    associated with Lord & Thomas;

    Most of production work carried out in NY