the role of the goat in society: past, present and perspectives for the future

Small Ruminant Research 60 (2005) 13–23

The role of the goat in society: Past, present andperspectives for the future�

J. Boyazoglua,∗, I. Hatziminaogloua, P. Morand-Fehrb

a Department of Animal Production, School of Agriculture, Aristotle University, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greeceb UMR INRA INAPG, 16 Rue Claude Bernard, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France

Abstract

The goat was the first animal domesticated to produce for the consumer. The geographic occurrence of this phenomenon,combined with the location of the cradle of the first known civilisations (Mesopotamia), contributed to the direct connectionof the goat to all phases of life of the people who created and developed civilisation in the area now known as the MiddleEast. The presence of the goat in all sectors of ancient societies has continued to the present, particularly in religion, economy,nutrition and tradition. Breeding goats was important during Greco-Roman times, Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Goatfarming reached a turning point in the 18th century in Europe when distinct populations emerged through selected breeding fromthe basic European, Asian and African goat populations. In the 19th century, a change in the social structure and in productionmethods was observed. Specialisation in agricultural production replaced traditional farming, aimed at supplying growing urbanpopulations. Other historical events affected the process. Large imports of wool from the southern hemisphere forced prices

pulationthreat tovary byestock

ulationslations.

ming isent andstries ofnsumer’sector in

ssor

down, frustrating sheep breeders in Europe many of whom switched to goat farming. Early in the 20th century, the goat poof Europe was forcibly reduced (except Greece) due, inter alia, to stringent laws that discriminated against goats, as ‘athe environment’, particularly in forested areas. Conditions prevailing today are fairly complex. Problems and prospectsregion, which consequently have different cultural and economic implications. Both global and regional approaches to livfarming are important from the economic aspect of developed and developing nations. Rapidly increasing goat popin developing countries, point to the goat assisting in solving some of the needs created by the rising human popuGoat farming in Europe also has a more positive outlook after nearly a century of a negative reputation. Dairy-goat farsignificant to the economies of the Mediterranean countries. The goat is clearly not synonymous with under-developmpoverty. Improving access to scientific information through research and extension services must benefit the goat indudeveloping regions where the demand is increasing due to growing human populations and their associated needs. Coacceptance of high quality goat products coupled to longstanding cultural traditions sets a positive outlook for the goat sthe developed countries. It remains important though that appropriate policies are implemented for each situation.© 2005 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Keywords: Animal production; Goat products; Developed countries; Developing countries; Europe; Food; Goat; History

� This paper is part of the special issue entitled Plenary Papers of the 8th International Conference on Goats, Guest Edited by ProfeNorman Casey.

∗ Corresponding author at: 51, Porto do France, 06800 Monlon, France. Tel.: +33 49 32 84 617; fax: +33 49 32 84 617.E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Boyazoglu).

0921-4488/$ – see front matter © 2005 Published by Elsevier B.V.doi:10.1016/j.smallrumres.2005.06.003

14 J. Boyazoglu et al. / Small Ruminant Research 60 (2005) 13–23

1. Introduction

The past two decades have been challenging anddemanding for those involved, mostly voluntarily,with the various aspects of the goat sector, in par-ticular: research, development and socio-economicgrowth. In recent years, the overall appreciation ofthis long-underestimated species has grown, enhancingits importance in the livestock sector. This particularsector has provided enjoyment for those involved inboth mainstream and applied research and develop-ment, and has shown its value as an important tool forthe economic growth and social enhancement of theless developed rural populations. In recent years, it hasalso been universally acknowledged – although mostlysoto voce – that goats provided the spark for many newand constructive ideas and contributed significantly tothe difficult integration of the more marginal regionsof the world.

During the past 20 years, much of the research hascovered the development of successful reproductiontechniques and selection modelling, while long-termpioneer and comparative studies were undertaken onnutrition and the management of both male and femalegoats. Original investigations were conducted in thefield to establish the social role of this species and farm-ing techniques have been modernised to a degree.

Although many decision- and policy-makers, andheads of international organisations still appear tounderestimate the capital role the goat has played sincet itht longw ataa ciest farml

oft asica ly,p bul-l notc etherw hatw rldi entm ter-n andt

has published results of original research undertakenon goats, thus making this valuable information avail-able to a much wider scientific community. The missionof the IGA and SRR has also been to assist scientistsin responding to the constraints of scientific journals,which are generally quite demanding. This has been adifficult and uphill battle for those who took this high-road of action in the years following the birth and earlygrowth of these two institutions. Today, these achieve-ments can be looked upon with appreciation and thoseinvolved in the sector can plan the future of the industryin the era of animal biotechnology without forgettingor underestimating the important and longstanding roleof the goat in sociology, history and culture.

It is obvious that the rearing of goats should beexamined in a new light and from a new perspective.The cliches of the past (e.g. ‘the goat is the cow of thepoor’) should be abandoned. This dynamic sector mayprove to be a new lever for agricultural development inthe 21st century.

However, despite the recognition of the newdynamism and prospects of goat farming, a studyshould be made to trace and document the historicaldevelopment of this animal, the methods of farming,as well as the role it has played in all phases of thehistory of mankind. The current situation will be pre-sented, and this provides the launching point for futureactivities.

2

sti-c an).T asd sa-t tici-p hoc nowr goata tiesh ulars my,n

niang godO . Asa fed

he early times of humanity, they are now faced whe impressive results of basic investigations, aith meaningful surveys, applied experimental dnd breakthrough information that show this spe

o be a reference model for other more advancedivestock sectors.

A point that should be made here is that muchhe research conducted prior to the 1980s (both bnd applied), was unfortunately mainly, if not onublished in obscure non-referenced journals and

etins, which the scientific leadership of the time didonsider as serious reading. In fact, the goat, togith the camel and the buffalo, were relegated to was euphemistically declared to be of ‘Third-Wo

mportance only’. In this context, acknowledgemust be made of the crucial role played by the Inational Goat Association (IGA) since its creation

he journalSmall Ruminant Research (SRR), which

. The past

The goat was the first farm animal to be domeated (8000 BC, Ganj Darech, today known as Irhe vicinity of the place in which the species womesticated with the cradle of the first known civili

ions (Mesopotamia), contributed to the direct paration of the goat in all walks of life of the people wreated and developed the civilisations in the areaeferred to as the Middle East. The presence of thend its involvement in all aspects of ancient socieas not only been uninterrupted, but is of particignificance. The goat is present in religion, econoutrition, customs, everyday habits, etc.

The goat was sacred to the Sumarian and Babyloods Marduk and Ningirsu, while the Pharaonicsiris appears sometimes in the form of a goatn infant, Zeus, the father of gods and men, was

J. Boyazoglu et al. / Small Ruminant Research 60 (2005) 13–23 15

milk of the goat Amalthea, the horn of which has beenconsidered a symbol of fertility and abundance. Eventhe skin of the goat (aegis) was said to have miraculousqualities (Cooper, 1992; Encyclopedia Mythica, 2004).

In oriental cultures, the Chinese goat spirit YangChing is the god of the stay Fan-yin, the transcendentgoat with a white face, horns, long beard and specialheaddress. The goat is also a Mongolian god, Russiahas a wood-spirit, theLeshi, which resembles Pan andthe Satyrs in the shape of a human with the horns, earsand legs of a goat (Cooper, 1992). The relationshipbetween the goat and the gods is also connected to thenegative connotation of the scapegoat. The introductionof a scapegoat to bear the sins of the entire communityis a universal custom that started in ancient Babylon(Cooper, 1992). Goats played an important role in therural economies of Egypt, Palestine, Crete and Myce-nae. They were sometimes more popular than sheep asthey could graze pastures of poorer quality. In India, theterm ‘goat’ also means ‘not-born’; it is thus the symbolof the unknown primary substance of the living world.The goat is the mother of the world (Pzakriti) and isrecognised by three colours, red, white and black, thethreegunas or primordial qualities of life (Chevalierand Gheerbrant, 1982).

The milk of goats and the quality of the meat areimportant to the Hebrews, as mentioned in the Book ofGenesis in theBible. In Egypt, Pharaoh Tutankhamenordered 22 tubes of his favourite goat-milk cheese to beplaced in his tomb so he could not only be nourished ash thath theM tiono musb

ce ofg thati thec ted;tG

godo ust tot arlya

ni-m nean

region for thousands of years. The skins of goats wereused in many ways, e.g. for the wrapping of the dead,parchment making (Egypt), as well as the making ofclothes. Goat skin became the standard bottle to trans-port liquids (e.g., water, milk, wine) in countries wherethis had to be carried for long distances and in greatheat; it was the only container suitable for travellers.From early times, these skin bottles were in regular useuntil tins and then much later Jerry cans (World WarII) replaced them (Cansdale, 1970).

At the time of prayer, some Romans and Syrianswore a hair-cloth, called acilicium made out of the hairof goats. The early Christians used a similar hair-cloth.Goats were bred for this purpose in great abundance,the most popular being those in Cilicia with the longesthair. Monks wear a similar cloth today (Chevalier andGheerbrant, 1982). The hair was woven into cloth andwas used for a multitude of cloths, including the coarsehabits, which sailors and fishermen wore, horse cloths,tents, sacks and bags and was even used for stuffingpillows. This cloth remains the material used to makethe characteristic warm rough cloaks of the shepherdsand goat-keepers in winter (Cansdale, 1970).

In the late Greco-Roman world, goat breeding pre-served its importance. In fact, the vast and unitedRoman Empire facilitated the development of this sec-tor, which survived into later centuries, mainly in theso-called eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium). Thevalue of the goat in the survival of the desolate massesof Western Europe during the Middle Ages in periodso

asyt , itst oatsw milkb us,1 ury)(

rab Mid-d BC)(

forE eedsa ari-o (fore tral)( at

e travelled forward to the next world, but also soe could offer them as gifts to the gods. In regard toycenean Greeks, it is sufficient to read the descripf the incident at the cave of the Cyclops Polyphey Odysseus (Homer’s Odyssey, 2005).

The idea of associating the goat with the presenod is an ancient one. Diodoros of Sicily mentioned

t was ‘the goats that led the humans of Delphi’ toentre of the earth from where the flames had eruphis is the origin of the famous Oracle (Chevalier andheerbrant, 1982).Some Chinese populations link the goat to the

f lightening; the same link exists in Tibet. It is thhe figure and the instrument of celestial activityhe privilege of earth in general and more particulgriculture and livestock farming (Zwaenepoel, 1920).

Goat’s milk and meat from young or adult aals has been consumed throughout the Mediterra

f great famine is also worth recording.The course of this graceful animal is not always e

o follow, due to the lack of specific data. Howeverracks have not been lost. History reveals that gere often carried on ships as a source of freshy the early explorers to the New World (Columb5th century), or later to Oceania (Cook, 18th centAGBA, 2004).

In 1554, King Charles V introduced the Angoreed to Europe, a breed that was common in thele East since the time of Moses (13th centuryOSU, 2004).

The 18th century proved to be a turning pointuropean goat breeding. From the three basic brround the world (European, Asian and African), vus populations were formed and clearly identifiedxample, in France: Alpine, Pyrenees, Massif CenDenis, 1988; Haenlein, 2001). In France, a large go


population was recorded (3,500,000 head during therevolution). The value of goat milk was also recognised,although the threat of large and unsupervised goat pop-ulations to forests was a cause for concern (Solakian,1988). Some preventive measures were taken, whichled to the slaughter of animals if they were caught caus-ing damage.

In the 19th century, a change in social structureand production methods was observed. Specialisedproduction replaced traditional plant and animal farm-ing and intense production was designed to feed theurban populations that developed around fast growingcities. Milk-producing cow units were established andgoats were relegated to more marginal and poor areas,where their role was limited to providing rural com-munities with milk and manure for fertiliser (Hubert,1988). However, in the early 1840s the drop in theprice of wool, due to large imports from the south-ern hemisphere, frustrated sheep farmers worldwideand encouraged a move towards goat farming (Rubino,2002). Nonetheless, goat farmers were considered asbeing on the lowest step of the social ladder, wherethey remained for a long time. The worst depressionin the history of the wool industry began in the late1920s; this again contributed to a revival of the goatsector (e.g. mohair and cashmere).

An important reduction in the European goat popu-lation took place in the middle of the 20th century, dueessentially to the enforcement of extremely stringentlaws against goats, which were considered a threat tothe environment (Mavrogenis and Sinapis, 2003).

With the exception of Greece, goat populations havedeclined significantly over the past 100 years (Table 1).The reduction in goat numbers was particularly sig-nificant following the two World Wars. Food short-ages encouraged an intensified approach to agricul-ture, which, among other things, would promote thedevelopment of the dairy cow. Furthermore, the culti-vation of grass in the form of intensive prairies was notfavourable to the goat sector (Morand-Fehr, 1981).

Although goat populations were severely reducedduring the 20th century, this proved to be the cen-tury during which a ‘melting pot’ of old ideas, beliefs,superstitions, new technologies, revised concepts, anda fresh outlook on modern life, were moulded. Thiscreated different conditions, prospects and orientationsthat heralded a more dynamic phase of management forgoat farming. For the first time after May 1968, highproductivity in agriculture and even certain scientificadvances were contested due to the growing sensitiv-ity for the environment. The goat symbolised ecolog-ical agriculture, diversification and provided quality

Table 1Breeding goat population of Europe, 1900–2003 (selected countries)

C a 1910b b c

A 1255 0B NAB 1384 0D 40F 1417 00G 3534 00G NA 0H 309 0I 2715 0T 22 00N 2860R 232S 3216 0S 69S 362 0

T 15043 00

N

ountry 1900

ustria 2100000elgium 247000ulgaria 1450000enmark 31800rance 1500000ermany 3000000reece 2500000ungary 400000

taly 2350000he Netherlands 154150orway NAomania NApain 4500000weden NAwitzerland 415000

otal 18647950

A: not available.a Diffloth (1908).b Zwaenepoel (1920).c FAO (2003).

1920 2003

000 1256000 5780218000 NA

000 1464000 90000000 41000 NA000 1197000 12300000 4526000 1600

3575000 500000000 26000 14000000 3082000 1330004000 311000 265000 270000 64000

000 186000 633000000 4182000 304600

000 133000 NA000 356000 6750

000 20823000 128933


livestock products. There was renewed interest in thisspecies from the consumer at the end of the 1960s.

An interesting example is the case of France (LeJaouen, 2002), which moved from the stagnant situ-ation of the first 60 years of the 20th century to thecreation of thefiliere or chain (1960–1970). The system(production, milk production, scientific supervisionand support) was successful by taking good advantageof the desire of society to return to more natural produc-tion methods (1970–1980), and finally (1980–2000)by responding to new requirements (bacteriologicalquality). This not only led to new achievements inthe sector of scientific support but also created addi-tional complications (insufficient production to meetthe needs of industries specialising in goat cheeses and,consequently, the need for imports). This also stimu-lated competition from Spain and the Netherlands atthat time and later from other countries, mainly in theMediterranean region.

The conditions that prevail today can be described asbeing multi-faceted and relatively complex. The prob-lems and prospects vary depending on where in theworld the farming activity takes place as this involvesdifferent cultural, financial or geopolitical issues ineach case. Therefore, in addition to examining thepopulation figures, products and characteristics (advan-tages and shortcomings) on a global level, the problemshould also be approached with respect to the economyof specific developed and developing countries.

3

ctsb s ona .

TT ds)

R %)

AAEAOW

F

Table 3Goat milk and meat production between 1993 and 2003 (thousandsof tonnes)

Region/country

Milk Meat

Year Change(%)

Year Change(%)

1993 2003 1993 2003

Africa 2100 2745 30.7 664.6 813.6 22.4Asia 6241 6291 0.8 2015 3004 49.1Europe 2169.1 2421.4 11.6 141 122−13.0Americas 357 359 0.5 127 137.5 8.5Oceania 25 30 20.0 14.4 13.9−3.5World 10867 11816 8.7 2961 4091 38.1

FAO (2003).

Table 4Comparative world goat, sheep and cattle populations, 1963–2003(thousands)

Species 1963 Change(%)

1983 Change(%)

2003

Goats 369855 32.3 489195 56.3 764510Sheep 999137 12.5 1124476 −8.6 1028594Cattle 970281 28.6 1247802 9.6 1368055

FAO (2003).

Changes in all ruminant populations from 1963 to 2003are presented inTable 4. Most countries in Africa havewitnessed growing populations in recent years, whilethe very important growth in Asia is due primarily tothe large goat population in the People’s Republic ofChina; this is also the case, albeit to a lesser extent,in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. Populations haveremained stable in the Near and Middle East. Milk pro-duction has increased world-wide by a meagre 8.7% inrecent years, while meat production by an impressive40% in the past 10 years (50% in Asia).

4. Developing countries

Goat farming is an extremely demanding activity,especially for the economically developing continents(Asia, Africa). Of interest is a study of the evolution ofgoat populations and products between 1969 and 2003(Table 5), classified according to relative developmentand income levels.

The continuous and rapid increase in goat popula-tions and products in developing countries, especially

. Analysis of the present goat situation

The evolution of goat populations and produetween 1993 and 2003 for a selection of countriell continents are given inTables 2 and 3, respectively

able 2otal world goat populations between 1993 and 2003 (thousan

egion/country Years Change (

1993 2003

frica 176996 219736 24.1sia 370269 487588 27.1urope 18940 18425 −2.7mericas 37652 37940 0.7ceania 871 817 −6.2orld 604727 764510 26.4

AO (2003).


Table 5Ruminant populations and goat products, 1969–2003

Countries/species/production Year 1969 Change (%) Year 1983 Change (%) Year 2003

Developed countries stock (×1000 head)Goats 30000 −9.0 27000 17.0 31600Sheep 548000 −9.5 524700 −32.0 356600Cattle 346000 23.0 427750 29.0 553250

Goat production (×1000 tonnes)Milk 2706 −27.0 1980 280 2539Meat 140.7 14.5 161.2 16.5 187.8

Highly industrialised countries stock (×1000 head)Goats 20700 −9.6 18700 9.6 20500Sheep 367750 −9.2 337750 −15.0 287100Cattle 246400 11.0 273600 −10.0 247000

Goat production (×1000 tonnes)Milk 1575 −2.6 1534 8.6 1667Meat 77.8 47.4 114.7 10.0 126.3

Developing countries stock (×1000 head)Goat 340000 36.0 462200 58.6 733000Sheep 451140 33.0 600000 12.0 672000Cattle 609000 35.4 824650 27.0 1048000

Goat production (×1000 tonnes)Milk 4075 54.0 6276 47.8 9278Meat 985 78.0 1754 122.0 3904

Low income countries stock (×1000 head)Goats 183000 59.0 290700 57.7 458500Sheep 163550 38.3 226155 33.9 302830Cattle 346000 23.6 427700 29.3 553240


Least developed countries stock (×1000 head)Goats 90190 33.4 120330 68.4 202700Sheep 84400 30.4 110089 26.0 138776Cattle 124230 31.8 1638000 31.3 215140


FAO (2003).

among the poorest of those countries, indicates that thisanimal might provide the tool required to meet someof the needs accompanying the continuous increase ofhuman populations (Table 6). This point of view isreinforced by the formidable resilience and adaptabil-ity this animal shows under harsh conditions, namely:adaptability to excessive temperatures, both cold andhot, underfeeding, altitude levels, ability to walk longdistances, surviving droughts, etc. (Haenlein, 2001;Iniguez, 2004; Morand-Fehr, 1988).

In addition to these merits, the consideration of thegoat as an almost ‘sacred’ animal, which is used forevents of a religious or traditional character, make the

animal a cultural feature, as opposed to one of purelyeconomic interest (Alexandre et al., 2002). However,this positive portrayal of specific facts does not neces-sarily reflect reality or expectations. The goat sector hasreceived significantly less support than other animalproduction sectors, such as the cow milk, beef meat,poultry or pig sectors. Despite the acknowledgement ofthe qualities and potential of goats, this species appearsto obtain less favour economically and commercially.In the developing countries, a survey of the situationshows that probably less than 5% of all marketed milkis obtained from goats (Dubeuf et al., 2004). Further-more, rural households own >90% of the goats. These


Table 6Evolution and predicted increase of goat populations in selected regions, 1960–2020

Region/continent Year 1960 Increase (%) Year 1980 Increase (%) Year 2000 Increase (%) Year 2020

RegionDeveloped 970000 20.8 1172000 12.1 1314500 0.3 1355700Developing 2050400 59.0 3259000 45.5 4742200 31.2 6223500Industrial 656100 20.2 789000 14.4 902600 6.5 962050Least developed 245200 62.4 398250 67.6 667600 61.6 1079300Low income 946500 59.7 1511500 62.6 2458100 39.7 3435200

ContinentAfrica 267700 66.9 446800 77.6 793600 55.5 1231000Asia 1666000 54.5 2575100 42.6 3672300 24.7 4581500Latin America 148400 63.3 242300 42.6 345700 27.3 440260

FAO (2003).

households are characterised by poverty and thereforepractise low agricultural input. They also lack mod-ern management skills that are essential to improveproductivity. It is common knowledge that nationalinvestments in the goat sector in most developing andeven developed countries are not sufficient in terms ofinfrastructure, marketing input and services, researchand extension (Lebbie, 2004).

5. Developed countries

After a century of being perceived in a negativelight, goat farming is now viewed by developed coun-tries more positively. The change has different originsand reflects different dynamics, but also raises vari-ous problems. The term ‘developed countries’ appliesparticularly to Europe where positive development per-tains to the ‘resilience’ the goat has demonstrated incomparison to other species, the animal enjoys a newprofile and there is gradual acceptance of the supe-rior quality of goat breeding products (milk and meat).Europe has shown a decrease in goat populations, butan increase in milk production due to the high perfor-mances of few countries (Bulgaria, Cyprus, France andSpain). The lack of production restrictions has playeda significant role in the maintenance of and increasesin the credibility of goat breeding. Although valued fora long time, goat milk is consciously being elevatedbecause of its exceptional nutritional value (Haenlein,2

cet spe-c ece,

Italy and Spain), which have shown that goat (andsheep) dairying is not synonymous with underdevelop-ment and poverty (Boyazoglu and Morand-Fehr, 2001;Haenlein, 2001). In these countries, goat milk (andcheese) production is associated with the production ofgoat meat, which, especially in the case of Greece, ishighly valued. Furthermore, the healthy and ecologicalimage of goat products is often associated with agro-tourism in many mountainous regions (Dubeuf et al.,2004).

Finally, goats are now used more frequently toactively and positively modify vegetation cover byclearing areas thick in bushes, shrubs and thorny veg-etation, so that sheep and cattle can graze on bettervegetation afterwards. At the same time, the removal ofthe undergrowth reduces or avoids the risk of forest fires(Hart, 2001; Morand-Fehr et al., 2004). Nevertheless,some factors impede the growth of goat farming in bothdeveloping and developed countries. Many forestersbelieve that the goat is the prime culprit of deforesta-tion and desertification. In fact, goats can only damagevegetation when animal densities are too high and whenthey roam freely and without supervision. This percep-tion continues to give goats a poor image in many areas(Morand-Fehr et al., 2004). In many countries, peopleare not familiar with or do not like the taste of goat milk,yoghurt, cheese or meat. This fact obviously limitsthe consumption of goat products considerably. How-ever, the principal factor that limits the growth of goatfarming is to be found in the sociological sector. Fre-q pingc rod-u re

004; Iniguez, 2004).Dairy goat (and sheep) farming is of importan

o the national economies of many countries, eially those in the Mediterranean (France, Gre

uently, in some of both the developed and develoountries, the rearing of goats or eating of goat pcts denotes the foot of the social ladder (Morand-Feht al., 2004).


6. Perspectives and recommendations

6.1. Developing countries

The lack of documented research in regard to theoverall value of the goat for problem areas is a sig-nificant constraining factor. General knowledge onthe issue is also lacking (Iniguez, 2004). Clear sci-entific information on the goat sector is difficult tocreate on account of the complex nature of the sec-tor (Morand-Fehr and Lebbie, 2004). Lack of trainingof goat farmers, as well as of those in the extensionservices sector, has also contributed to this situation.The fact that most researchers turn to other species,which guarantee easier and faster career developmentalso compounds the issue (Morand-Fehr et al., 2004).This phenomenon has spread somewhat to developedcountries as well. Efforts must be made to improveresearch efficiency and sustainability. With regard toresearch goals, preference should be given to those thatwill provide answers to the actual needs of producersand goat farmers, at centres where relevant decisionsare taken. New technology, if used sparingly and inrelation to reality, would have a positive impact on theevolution and development of this sector, which stillhas a long road ahead (Sinapis et al., 2000). Transfer-ring research results to practice is yet another vital linkin the chain of measures that should be implemented.Finally, an investment policy should be adopted for thissector; this is not always apparent to developed coun-t

g int pos-i ese hichl bsis-t par-i ureso ilkc efi-np dings botho cre-a ,2 nlyi cir-c ns of

the world, they represent the lowest strata of economicdevelopment, at both national and international lev-els. This could also be due to the fact that trade ingoat products is not well organised and that consump-tion is mainly linked to local markets. However, thegoat is the species of domesticated livestock that hashad the most significant growth in population numbersworld-wide in recent years, due mainly to growing pop-ulations in developing countries. This illustrates a realneed in many of the marginal regions of the world, withemphasis on local consumption. The products of otherspecies (cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry) tend to be mar-keted away from the production areas. Furthermore, itmust be noted that all relevant international organisa-tions and donor agencies – with very few exceptions –give little importance to the goat sector, compared toother livestock. The decision-makers of these organi-sations tend, unfortunately and with no valid excuse, todowngrade, voluntarily or out of ignorance, the majorrole played by the goat in the less developed worldand to avoid funding projects where the goat is directlyconcerned.

6.2. Developed countries

In developed countries, prospects for developing thegoat breeding sector appear positive and solutions toexisting problems will contribute, firstly, to preservingexisting support and, secondly, to creating conditionsthat will generate a better and broader acceptance ofg cu-l ablec el-op rlyi arep i-l .,2 e ofg ain-tr ivelyp ort ofg vivald ol-i lb s wella ugh

ries.Prospects for the development of goat farmin

hese more extensive regions of the world appeartive. This opinion is based mainly on the sometimxplosive parallel increase of goat populations, w

eads to a pressing need to find other means of suence. Goat farming requires less investment in comson to other sectors, as shown by performance figver the past 40 years. However, infrastructure for mollection and marketing dairy produce should ditely be improved (Soryal and Metawi, 2003). Theowerful bonds that exist between this stockbreeector and ancient cultural and religious traditions,f which refer to the same animal and products,te a perpetual impetus for development (Riethmuller003). Goat farmers in developing countries are o

nvolved in developing programmes in exceptionalumstances. In many of the less developed regio

oat products. The existing traditional links, partiarly in the Mediterranean where the goat is a valuulture and production feature, will contribute to devpment (Hatziminaoglou and Boyazoglu, 2004). Theroduction of milk and milk products are particula

mportant in this context. Both Italy and Spainlanning a highly organised chain of activity, sim

ar to that which exists in France (Morand-Fehr et al003). The result has been an increase in the pricoat milk compared to that from cows and the m

enance of the typical goat cheeses (Haenlein, 1994)ather than the creation of other standard ‘massroduced’ cheeses. Nonetheless, substantial suppoat breeders is required to ensure that their suroes not depend exclusively on the overall milk p

cy (Morand-Fehr et al., 2004). The creation of sociaonds between goat breeders and other classes, as the effort to attract new people to this sector thro


the encouragement of young people who wish to pursuethis vocation would provide an indirect but importantforce for the sector. Moreover, maintaining the positiveimage of this animal as the primary carrier of new alter-native breeding methods (organic, etc.) and thus theattraction of new consumers with special requirementsopens new horizons. However, as mentioned in regardto developing countries, improving scientific researchto reach the level of that for cows and sheep will alsobe of strategic importance.

Finally, the social role goat farming can play in thefuture should also be emphasised. Many urban childrenhave less and less contact with the biological realitiesand conditions necessary to achieve a harmonious bal-ance between vegetation, animals and people. Schoolsin urban environments must develop educational ani-mal farms. Goats are well adapted to this purpose aschildren can handle them. Goats can have a therapeu-tic role, as is the case with horses and other animals, byassisting with the therapies for children and adults whohave health handicaps or need psychological rehabili-tation (Morand-Fehr et al., 2004).

6.3. Research and information

The available relevant scientific information is notwell adapted to the true needs of the development of thegoat sector. Thus, technology transfer is difficult andthe implementation of experimental results restricted.M arlyi om-p jectsr ctivea byt blea ctorst fort pedw

•• the

• o-

• ref-tors

In addition, it must be noted that the organisationof extensive networks is the only way of avoidingisolation of research into the goat sector and the imple-mentation/application thereof, standardisation amongresearch units, responses to rules, standards and regula-tions and involvement of the various disciplines are themost effective way of using to best advantage the scarceresearch funds available. The ‘North–South’ relation-ship must be governed by an ‘equal to equal’ approach.The North can offer new methodologies and the Southcan expose the problems that require classification andoffer proposals in relation to the experience acquiredin the sector. It is important that the representatives ofgoat-farming communities (the end-users) are involvedin the choice and elaboration of research programmes;they must at least have the possibility to clearly expresstheir needs. On the other hand, the scientists must tendtowards global and not purely local or partial answers tothe problems involved. A good farmer is never inclinedto apply research results if he knows only part of thestory.

An interesting aspect of the goat sector is that themost valuable research articles for development pur-poses are generally still found in what is considered tobe the border or secondary literature.

7. Conclusions

Throughout its long history and co-existence withc n alls itieso nvi-r oorq is-t encel c-t tureo es.

nott ersa so-c uchb rna-t Onem allya tema tor in

uch can be done to improve this situation, particulf specialists could prepare more simplified and crehensive presentations of the most urgent subelating to development, presented in a clear, objend informative way that will be easily understood

he end-users. In the light of the knowledge availand with regard to current needs, the research se

hat require urgent attention today, in particularhe development of goat farming in the less develoorld are:

Sociological aspects (e.g. work and way of life).Quality of goat products to meet the demand ofconsumer.Adaptability characteristics of the different gentypes.Study of goat production systems with specialerence to the parameters and discriminating facof interest to the farmer.

ivilisation, the goat has maintained its presence ipheres of human activity. The exceptional qualf this species (adaptability to a broad range of eonments, ability to graze on a wide variety of puality forage and browse, ability to walk long d

ances, high turnover rates on investment and how investment risk, high efficiency of milk produion, etc.) have made the animal an important feaf marginal rural regions with dry or semi-dry climat

The objective of the current agricultural policy iso intensify goat farming and the majority of producre far from ready to move in that direction. Thealled ‘barter exchange-based economy’ resisted metter than the system of large national and inte

ional marketing in the less developed societies.ust thus be very careful in regard to systematicnd blindly adopting new standard commercial syspproaches. Furthermore, the value of the goat sec


an increasingly environmentally aware consumer pop-ulation should not be underestimated. Creating effec-tive goat product chains to prevent the possible dropof prices means combining the cultural heritage of thepast with the excellent environmental conditions, mod-ern methods and technology.

The goat has met nutritional needs in countrieswith population booms. In addition, it has often beenthe focal point of religious customs and has providedopportunities for employment for even the most disad-vantaged members of poor societies. On the other hand,goat breeding has made a dynamic comeback, aspir-ing to attain levels other stockbreeding sectors havereached. The positive ecological image of the animal,the quality and nutritive value of its products and thepossible existence of new niches in developing marketsthroughout the world have contributed to this result.However, the situation is still precarious and vigilanceshould be maintained. Policies should be thoroughlyexamined and properly adapted to each given situa-tion, namely: to a market economy or to an exchangeeconomy before being adopted and implemented.

Social aspects of goat breeding, both in developedand developing countries, should be maintained andpromoted further, especially in regard to issues con-cerning forest and regional land management. Suchpolicies should respond to the new wishes of consumersfor the production of high-quality products and, in par-allel, the need to preserve biodiversity at the level ofgenotypes and breeding methods and, make use of thel

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the role of the goat in society: past, present and perspectives for the future

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