the rhetoric of research.pdf

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2 3 Seiler T, Wollensak J , Myopic photorefractive keratectomy with the excimner laser. I year follow-up. Ophthalmology 1991;98:1156-63. 2 4 Garty DS , Kerr Muir M G , Marshall J. Photorefractive keratectomy with a n -'-argon fluoride excimer laser: a clinical study. Refract Corneal Surg 1991;7: 420-35. 2 5 Gartry DS , Kerr Muir M G , Marshall J . Excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy-18 month follow-up. Ophthalmology 1992;99:1209-19. 2 6 Gartry D S , Kerr Muir MG, Lohmann CP, Marshall J . T h e effect o f topical corticosteroids on refractive outcome and comeal haze after photorefractive keratectomy. Arch Ophthalmol 1992;110:944-52. 2 7 McDonald MB , L u i J C , Byrd T J , Abdelmegeed M, Andrade H A , Klyce SD, e t a l . Central photorefractive keratectomy o r myopia. Ophthalmology 1991;98:1327-37. 2 8 Ficker L A , Bates A K , Steele ADMcG, Lyons C J , Milliken A B , Astin C , e t a l . Excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy f o r myopia: 1 2 month follow-up. Ey e 1993;7:617-24. 2 9 Gartry D S , Kerr Muir MG , Marshall J . T h e effect o f topical corticosteroids on refraction andcomeal haze following excimer laser treatmentof myopia: an update. A prospective, randomized, double-masked study. E y e 1993;7: 584-90. 3 0 Salz J J , Maguen E , Nesbum A B, Warren C , Macy J I , Hofbauer JD , e t aL A two year experience with excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy f o r myopia. Ophthalmology 1993;100:873-82. 3 1 LW , Matta CS, Deitz M R, Tauber J, Irvine JW , Sabates F N . Excimer photorefractive keratectomy f or myopia. Ophthabnology 1993;100: 1335-45. 32 Taylor H R , Guest C S , Kelly P , Alpins N A . Comparison o f excimer laser treatment o f astigmatism a n d myopia. Arch Ophthalmol 1993;111: 1621-6. 3 3 Seiler T , Holschbach A, Derse M, Jean B , Genth U . Complications o f myopic photorefractive keratectomy with t h e excimer laser. Ophthalmology 1994; 101:153-60. 3 4 L e s Jardins S L , Auclin F , Roman S , Burtschy B , L e s Jardins JL, Results o f photorefractive keratectomy on 6 3 myopic eyes with si x months minimum follow-up. J Cataract Refract Surg 1994;20(suppl):223-8. 3 5 K im J H, Hahn T W, L ee CY , Sah W J . Excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy f o r myopia: 2 year follow-up. J Cataract Refract Surg 1994;20(suppl):229-33. 3 6 Rogers C M, Lawless MA , Cohen P R . Photorefractive keratectomy f o r myopia o f more than 0 diopters. J ef Corneal Surg 1994;10(suppl):S 1 71-3. 3 7 Shimizu K, Amano S, Tanaka S . Photorefractive keratectomy f o r myopia: o ne year follow-up i n 9 7 eyes.j R e f Coneal Surg 1994;10(suppl):S178-87. 3 8 Orssaud C, Ganem S , Binaghi M, Patarin D, Putterman M, Viens Bitker C , e t a L Photorefractive keratectomy i n 1 7 6 eyes: one year follow-up. Ji R e f Comneal Surg 1994;10(suppl):S199-205. 3 9 Maguen E , Salz nJ, Nesburn AB,Warren C , Macy J I , Papaioannou T , e t al . Results of excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy f o r the correction o f myopia. Ophthalmology 1994;101:1548-57. 4 0 Epstein D, Fagerholm P , Hamberg-Nystrom H, Tengroth Twenty four month follow-up ofexcimer laser photorefracdve keratectomy f o r myopia. Ophthalmology 1994;101:1558-64. 4 1 Tengroth B , Epstein D, Fagerholm P , Hamberg-Nystrom H , Fitzsimmons T1D. Excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy f o r myopia. Clinical results i n sighted eyes. Ophthalmology 1993;100:739. 4 2 Dutt S , Steinert RF, Raizman MB , Puliafito C A . O ne year results o f excimer laser photorefracdve keratectomy f o r low t o moderate myopia. Arch Ophthalmol 1994;112:1427-36. 43 Sh er N A , Chen V, Bowers RA , Frantz JM Brown DC , Eiferman R , e t a l . T he u s e o f t h e 1 9 3 nm excimer laser f o r myopic photorefractive keratectomy i n sighted eyes. A multicenter study. Arch Ophthalmol 1991;109:1525-30. 44 S he r N A , Barak M, Daya S , DeMarchi J , TucciA,Hardten DR , e t a l . Excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy i n high myopia. A multicenter study. Arch Ophthalmol 1992;110:935-43. 45 Sher NA , Hardten DR , Fundingsland B , DeMarchi J , Carpel E , Doughman D J , et a L 193-nrm excimer photorefractive keratectomy i n high myopia. Ophthalmology 1994;101:1575-82. 4 6 K im Y J , Sohn J, Tchah H , L e e C . Photoastigmatic refractive keratectomy i n 1 6 8 eyes: 6 month results. I Cataract Refract Surg 1994;20:387-91. 47 Upschitz I , LowensteinA, Lazar M. Comparison ofexcimer laser treatment o f astigmatism a n d myopia. Arch Ophthalmol 1994;112:1510-1 1 . 4 8 O'Brart DPS, Lohmann CP, Klonos G, Corbett M C , Pollock WST, Kerr Muir M G , et a l . T h e effects o f topical corticosteroids a n d plasmin inhibitors o n refractive outcome, haze, and visual performance after photorefractive keratectomy. Ophthalmology 1994;1O1: 1565-74. 49 O ' Br a r t DPS, Gartry DS, Lohmann C P, Kerr Muir M G , Marshall J . Excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy f o r myopia: comparison o f 4 0 0 - and 5-00-millimeter ablationzones. R ef Corneal Surg 1994;1O:87-94. 5 0 Sher NA , Frantz J M , Talley A , Parker P , Lane SS , Ostrov C , e t a l . Topical diclofenac i n t h e treatment o f ocular pain after excimer photorefractive keratectomy. R e f Corneal Surgery 1993;9:425-36. 51 Tuft S J , Gartry D S, Rawe I M , Meek K M . Photorefractive keratectomy: implications of corneal wound healing. B r J Ophthalmol 1993;77:243-7. 5 2 Machat ] J , Tayfour F . Photorefractive keratectomy f o r myopia: preliminary results o f 47 eyes. R e f Corseal Surg 1993;9(suppl):S16-9. 53 Waring G O H I . Refractive keratotomy for myopia an d astigmatism. S t Louis: Mosby YearBook, 1992:166. Richard Horton criticises a n d editors f o r their increasing u s e o f rhetoricin scientific papers. W e invited Trisha Greenhalgh t o take u p h i s challenge t o readers t o decipher t h e encoded intentions i n h i s article. Lancet, 6 55 Avenue of t h e Americas, N e w York, NY 10010, U S A Richard Horton, North American editor B M Y 1995;310:985-8 T he rhetoric o f research Richard Horton A naturalist's life would be a happy o n e i f h e h a d only t o observe a nd never towrite. (Charles Darwin) B e careful while reading this article. M y purpose i s t o persuade. T o achieve this goal I must n o t only appeal t o your intellect a n d seek your sympathy f o r m y point o f view b u t also diminish your natural reticence t o believe a l l that y o u read. I f I a m successful should remain unaware o f m y intention t o penetrate your critical guard. Medical journals-and grant awarding bodies f o r that matter-proudly adhere t o the rigours of peer review despite t h e striking lack o f research about either it s efficacy o r i t s reliability. B u t this system o f collegiate accountability frequently ignores a factor that, t o t h e doctor o r scientist, m ay be thought t o o trivial t o devote much attention t o : t h e manipulation o f language t o convince t h e reader of t h e likely truth o f a result. T h e task o f removing hyperbole from a paper i s normally left t o a n editor. B ut just as qualitative review of research demands knowledge about t h e subject o f that research, a n d just as statistical review requires mathematical skill, s o t h e analysis o f argument demands a n understanding of t h e tools o f persuasion available t o the author. T o interpret a result correctly reviewers, statisticians, editors, a nd readers should know t h e conscious a n d unconscious tricks o f authorial rhetoric. Although applied widely, peer review i s b y n o means a secure discipline. F o r instance, Altman i s critical o f t h e entire notio ofpeer review, a term that h e believes i s jargon with n o agreed meaning.' H e h a s described good peer review a s t h e equivalent of good technical editing. This view i s unreasonable. Qualitative a n d statistical analyses of a research paper frequently raise important issues that, when resolved, improve th e manuscript substantially.2 I f peer review i s simply good editing then joumals, according t o Altman, should return t o a long past a g e of unaccountable decision making a n d attention t o stylistic matters alone, which made them t h e idiosyncratic b u t elegant communicators that they were 5 0 o r more years ago. However, i n o n e sense Altman's attempt to locate peer review within t h e sphere of language study i s correct. A critical linguistic analysis o f a research report, a s a complementary process t o other forms o f peer review, offers a w a y o f investigating t h e reasoning that underpins a n author's point o f view. Such a systematic analysis i s a n essential, b u t currently missing, part o f t h e review procedure. Rules o f discourse A scientific article i s carefully crafted b y i t s authors.34 A maxim taught t o many editors i s that, because a paper belongs t o these authors, they alone should make th e final decision about their article's content. T h e question I wish t o pose i s , should authors o w n their o w n words? Given that, fo r t h e time being, they d o , does their freedom benefit o r hindermedical research? T h e format o f research papers published i n this a n d other journals conforms to classical ideas o f rhetorical presentation. Aristotle distinguished four elements that make u p successful oratory: introduction, narration, proof, a n d epilogue.5 T h e historical link to t h e familiar "IMRAD" format o f a scientific paper- introduction, methods, results, a n d self evident. T o t h e extent that science i s a search f o r t h e reason BM J voLuME 3 1 0 15APRIL1995 9 8 5

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2 3 S e i l e r T , W o l le n s ak J , M y o p i c p h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y w i t h t h e e x c i m n e rl a s e r . I y e a r f o l l o w - u p . O p h t h a l m o l o g y 1 9 9 1 ; 9 8 : 1 1 5 6 - 6 3 .

2 4 G a r t y D S , K e r r M u i r MG, M a r s h a l l J . P h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y w i t h a n

- ' - a r g o n f l u o r i d e e x c i m e r l a s e r : a c l i n i c a l s t u d y . R e f r a c t C o r n e a l S u r g 1 9 9 1 ; 7 :

4 2 0 - 3 5 .

2 5 G a r t r y D S , K e r r M u i r MG, M a r s h a l l J . E x c i m e r l a s e r p h o t o r e f r a c t i v ek e r a t e c t o m y - 1 8 m o n t h f o l l o w - u p . O p h t h a l m o l o g y 1 9 9 2 ; 9 9 : 1 2 0 9 - 1 9 .

2 6 G a r t r y D S , K e r r M u i r MG, L o h m a n n C P , M a r s h a l l J . The e f f e c t o f t o p i c a l

c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s o n r e f r a c t i v e o u t c o m e a n d c o m e a l h a z e a f t e r p h o t o r e f r a c t i v ek e r a t e c t o m y . A r c h O p h t h a l m o l 1 9 9 2 ; 1 1 0 : 9 4 4 - 5 2 .

2 7 M c D o n a l d MB , L u i J C , B y r d T J , A b d e l m e g e e d M, A n d r a d e H A , K l y c e S D ,

e t a l . C e n t r a l p h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y f o r m y o p i a . O p h t h a l m o l o g y1 9 9 1 ; 9 8 : 1 3 2 7 - 3 7 .

2 8 F i c k e r L A , B a t e s A K , S t e e l e ADMcG, L y o n s C J , M i l l i k e n A B , A s t i n C , e t a l .

E x c i m e r l a s e r p h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y f o r m y o p i a : 1 2 m o n t h f o l l o w - u p .

E y e 1 9 9 3 ; 7 : 6 1 7 - 2 4 .2 9 G a r t r y D S , K e r r M u i r MG, M a r s h a l l J . The e f f e c t o f t o p i c a l c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s o n

r e f r a c t i o n a n d c o m e a l h a z e f o l l o w i n g e x c i m e r l a s e r t r e a t m e n t o f m y o pi a: a n

u p d a t e . A p r o s p e c t i v e , r a n d o m i z e d , d o u b l e - m a s k e d s t u d y . E y e 1 9 9 3 ; 7 :5 8 4 - 9 0 .

3 0 S a l z J J , M a g u e n E , Nesbum A B , W a r r e n C , Macy J I , H o f b a u e r J D , e t a L A

t w o y e a r e x p e r i e n c e w i t h e x c i m e r l a s e r p h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y f o rm y o p i a . O p h t h a l m o l o g y 1 9 9 3 ; 1 0 0 : 8 7 3 - 8 2 .

3 1 P i e b e n g a LW , M a t t a C S , D e i t z MR, T a u b e r J , I r v i n e J W , S a b a t e s F N .

E x c i m e r p h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y f o r m y o p i a . O p h t h a b n o l o g y 1 9 9 3 ; 1 0 0 :1 3 3 5 - 4 5 .

3 2 T a y lo r H R , G u e s t C S , K e l l y P , A l p i n s N A . C o m p a r i s o n o f e x c i m e r

l a s e r t r e a t m e n t o f a s t i g m a t i s m a n d m y o p i a . A r c h O p h t h a l m o l 1 9 9 3 ; 1 1 1 :1 6 2 1 - 6 .

3 3 S e i l e r T , H o l s ch b a c h A , D e r s e M, J e a n B , G e n t h U . C o m p l i c a t i o n s o f m y o p i c

p h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e ra t ec t om y w it h t h e e x c i m e r l a s e r . O p h t h a l m o l o g y 1 9 9 4 ;1 0 1 : 1 5 3 - 6 0 .

3 4 L e s J a r d i n s S L , A u c l i n F , Roman S , B u r t s c h y B , L e s J a r d i n s J L , R e s u l t s o f

p h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y o n 6 3 m y o p i c e y e s w i t h s i x m o n t h s m i n i m u m

f o l l o w - u p . J C a t a r a c t R e f r a c t S u r g 1 9 9 4 ; 2 0 ( s u p p l ) : 2 2 3 - 8 .3 5 Kim J H, Hahn T W, L e e C Y , S a h W J . E x c i m e r l a s e r p h o t o r e f r a c t i v e

k e r a t e c t o m y f o r m y o p i a : 2 y e a r f o l l o w - u p . J C a t a r a c t R e f r a c t S u r g1 9 9 4 ; 2 0 ( s u p p l ) : 2 2 9 - 3 3 .

3 6 R o g e r s CM, L a w l e s s MA , C o h e n P R . P h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y f o r m y o p i a

o f m o r e t h a n - 1 0 d i o p t e r s . J R e f C o r n e a l S u r g 1 9 9 4 ; 1 0 ( s u p p l ) : S 1 7 1 - 3 .

3 7 S h i m i z u K , Amano S , T a n a k a S . P h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y f o r m y o p i a : o n e

y e a r f o l l o w - u p i n 9 7 e y e s . j R e f C o n e a l S u r g 1 9 9 4 ; 1 0 ( s u p p l ) : S 1 7 8 - 8 7 .3 8 O r s s a ud C , Ganem S , B i n a g h i M, P a t a r i n D , P u t t e r m a n M, V i e n s B i t k e r C ,

e t a L P h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y i n 1 7 6 e y e s : o n e y e a r f o l l o w - u p . J i R e f

C o m n e a l S u r g 1 9 9 4 ; 1 0 ( s u p p l ) : S 1 9 9 - 2 0 5 .3 9 M a g u e n E , S a l z n J , N e s b u r n A B , W a r r e n C , Macy J I , P a p a i o a n n o u T , e t a l .

R e s u l t s o f e x ci m e r l a s e r p h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y f o r t h e c o r r e c t i o n o f

m y o p i a . O p h t h a l m o l o g y 1 9 9 4 ; 1 0 1 : 1 5 4 8 - 5 7 .4 0 E p s t e i n D , F a g e r h o l m P , H a m b e r g - Ny s t r o m H , T e n g r o t h B . T w e n t y f o u r

m o n t h f o l l o w - u p o f e x ci m e r l a s e r p h o t o r e f r a c d v e k e r a t e c t o m y f o r m y o p i a .

O p h t h a l m o l o g y 1 9 9 4 ; 1 0 1 : 1 5 5 8 - 6 4 .

4 1 T e n g r o t h B , E p s t e i n D , F a g e r h o l m P , H a m b e r g - N y s t r o m H , F i t z s i m m o n s

T 1 D . E x c i m e r l a s e r p h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y f o r m y o p i a . C l i n i c a l r e s u l t s

i n s i g h t e d e y e s . O p h t h a l m o l o g y 1 9 9 3 ; 1 0 0 : 7 3 9 .4 2 D u t t S , S t e i n e r t R F , R a i z m a n MB , P u l i a f i t o C A . One y e a r r e s u l t s o f e x c i m e r

l a s e r p h o t o r e f r a c d v e k e r a t e c t o m y f o r l o w t o m o d e r a t e m y o p i a . A r c h

O p h t h a l m o l 1 9 9 4 ; 1 1 2 : 1 4 2 7 - 3 6 .

4 3 S h er N A , C h e n V , B o w e r s R A , F r a n t z JM B r o w n DC , E i f e r m a n R , e t a l . The

u s e o f t h e 1 9 3 nm e x c i m e r l a s e r f o r m y o p i c p h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y i ns i g h t e d e y e s . A m u l t i c e n t e r s t u d y . A r c h O p h t h a l m o l 1 9 9 1 ; 1 0 9 : 1 5 2 5 - 3 0 .

4 4 S he r N A , B a r a k M, D a y a S , D e M a r c h i J , T u cc i A , H a r dt e n DR , e t a l . E x c i m e r

l a s e r p h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y i n h i g h m y o p i a . A m u l t i c e n t e r s t u d y .A r c h O p h t ha l m o l 1 9 9 2 ; 1 1 0 : 9 3 5 - 4 3 .

4 5 S h er NA , H a r d t e n DR, F u n d i n g s l a n d B , D e M a r c h i J , C a r p e l E , Doughman

D J , e t a L 1 9 3 - n r m e x c i m e r p h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y i n h i g h m y o p i a .

O p h t h a l m o l o g y 1 9 9 4 ; 1 0 1 : 1 5 7 5 - 8 2 .4 6 Kim Y J , S o h n J , T c h a h H , L e e C . P h o t o a s t i g m a t i c r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y i n

1 6 8 e y e s : 6 m o n t h r e s u l t s . I C a t a r a c t R e f r a c t S u r g 1 9 9 4 ; 2 0 : 3 8 7 - 9 1 .4 7 U ps c hi t z I , L o w e n s t ei n A , L a z a r M. C o m p a r i s o n o f e x c im e r l a s e r t r e a t m e n t o f

a s t i g m a t i s m a n d m y o p i a . A r c h O p h t h a l m o l 1 9 9 4 ; 1 1 2 : 1 5 1 0 - 1 1 .

4 8 O ' B r a r t D P S , Lohmann C P , K l o n o s G , C o r b e t t MC, P o l l o c k WST, K e r r M u i r

MG, e t a l . T h e e f f e c t s o f t o p i c a l c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s a n d p l a s m i n i n h i b i t o r s o n

r e f r a c t i v e o u t c o m e , h a z e , a n d v i s u a l p e r f o r m a n c e a f t e r p h o t o r e f r a c t i v ek e r a t e c t o m y . O p h t h a l m o l o g y 1 9 9 4 ; 1 O 1 : 1 5 6 5 - 7 4 .

4 9 O ' Br a r t D P S , G a r t r y D S , Lohmann C P , K e r r M u i r MG, M a r s h a l l J . E x c i m e r

l a s e r p h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y f o r m y o p i a : c o m p a r i s o n o f 4 0 0 - a n d

5 - 0 0 - m i l l i m e t e r a b l a t i o n z o n e s . R e f C o r n e a l S u r g 1 9 9 4 ; 1 O : 8 7 - 9 4 .5 0 S h e r NA , F r a n t z J M , T a l l e y A , P a r k e r P , L a n e S S , O s t r o v C , e t a l . T o p i c a l

d i c l o f e n a c i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f o c u l a r p a i n a f t e r e x c i m e r p h o t o r e f r a c t i v e

k e r a t e c t o m y . R e f C o r n e a l S u r g e r y 1 9 9 3 ; 9 : 4 2 5 - 3 6 .5 1 T u f t S J , G a r t r y D S , Rawe I M , Meek KM. P h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y :

i m p l i c a t i o n s o f c o r n e a l w o u n d h e a l i n g . B r J O p h t h a l m o l 1 9 9 3 ; 7 7 : 2 4 3 - 7 .5 2 M a c h a t ] J , T a y f o u r F . P h o t o r e f r a c t i v e k e r a t e c t o m y f o r m y o p i a : p r e l i m i n a r y

r e s u l t s o f 1 4 7 e y e s . R e f C o r s e a l S u r g 1 9 9 3 ; 9 ( s u p p l ) : S 1 6 - 9 .5 3 W a r i n g GO H I . R e f r a c t i v e k e r a t o t o m y f o r m y o p i a a n d a s t i g m a t i s m . S t L o u i s :

M o s b y Y e a r B o o k , 1 9 9 2 : 1 6 6 .

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a u t h o r s a n d e d i t o r s f o r t h e i ri n c r e a s i n g u s e o f r h e t o r i c i ns c i e n t i f i c p a p e r s . We i n v i t e dT r i s h a G r e e n h a l g h t o t a k e u p

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d e c i p h e r t h e e n c o d e d i n t e n t i o n si n h i s a r t i c l e .

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o n l y t o o b s e r v e a n d n e v e r t o w r i t e .( C h a r l e s D a r w i n )

B e c a r e f u l w h i l e r e a d i n g t h i s a r t i c l e . M y p u r p o s e i s t op e r s u a d e . T o a c h i e v e t h i s g o a l I m u s t n o t o n l y a p p e a l t oy o u r i n t e l l e c t a n d s e e k y o u r s y m p a t h y f o r m y p o i n t o f

v i e w b u t a l s o d i m i n i s h y o u r n a t u r a l r e t i c e n c e t o b e l i e v ea l l t h a t y o u r e a d . I f I a m s u c c e s s f u l y o u s h o u l d r e m a i n

u n a w a r e o f m y i n t e n t i o n t o p e n e t r a t e y o u r c r i t i c a l

g u a r d .M e d i c a l j o u r n a l s - a n d g r a n t a w a r d i n g b o d i e s f o r

t h a t m a t t e r - p r o u d l y a d h e r e t o t h e r i g o u r s o f p e e r

r e v i e w d e s p i t e t h e s t r i k i n g l a c k o f r e s e a r c h a b o u t

e i t h e r i t s e f f i c a c y o r i t s r e l i a b i l i t y . B u t t h i s s y s t e m o f

c o l l e g i a t e a c c o u n t a b i l i t y f r e q u e n t l y i g n o r e s a f a c t o r

t h a t , t o t h e d o c t o r o r s c i e n t i s t , ma y b e t h o u g h t t o ot r i v i a l t o d e v o t e much a t t e n t i o n t o : t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o fl a n g u a g e t o c o n v i n c e t h e r e a d e r o f t h e l i k e l y t r u t h o f ar e s u l t .

T h e t a s k o f r e m o v i n g h y p e r b o l e f r o m a p a p e r i s

n o r m a l l y l e f t t o a n e d i t o r . B u t j u s t a s q u a l i t a t i v e r e v i e w

o f r e s e a r c h d e m a n d s k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e s u b j e c t o f

t h a t r e s e a r c h , a n d j u s t a s s t a t i s t i c a l r e v i e w r e q u i r e sm a t h e m a t i c a l s k i l l , s o t h e a n a l y s i s o f a r g u m e n t

d e m a n d s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t o o l s o f p e r s u a s i o na v a i l a b l e t o t h e a u t h o r . T o i n t e r p r e t a r e s u l t c o r r e c t l yr e v i e w e r s , s t a t i s t i c i a n s , e d i t o r s , a n d r e a d e r s s h o u l dk n o w t h e c o n s c i o u s a n d u n c o n s c i o u s t r i c k s o f a u t h o r i a lr h e t o r i c .

A l t h o u g h a p p l i e d w i d e l y , p e e r r e v i e w i s b y n o m e a n s

a s e c u r e d i s c i p l i n e . F o r i n s t a n c e , A l t m a n i s c r i t i c a l o ft h e e n t i r e n o t i o n o f p e e r r e v i e w , a t e r m t h a t h e b e l i e v e si s j a r g o n w i t h n o a g r e e d m e a n i n g . ' H e h a s d e s c r i b e d

g o o d p e e r r e v i e w a s t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f g o o d t e c h n i c a le d i t i n g .

T h i s v i e w i s u n r e a s o n a b l e . Q u a l i t a t i v e a n d s t a t i s t i c a l

a n a l y s e s o f a r e s e a r c h p a p e r f r e q u e n t l y r a i s e i m p o r t a n ti s s u e s t h a t , w h e n r e s o l v e d , i m p r o v e t h e m a n u s c r i p t

s u b s t a n t i a l l y . 2 I f p e e r r e v ie w i s s i m p l y g o o d e d i t i n gt h e n j o u m a l s , a c c o r d i n g t o A l t m a n , s h o u l d r e t u r n t o al o n g p a s t a g e o f u n a c c o u n t a b l e d e c i s i o n m a k i n g a n d

a t t e n t i o n t o s t y l i s t i c m a t t e r s a l o n e , w h i c h made t h e m

t h e i d i o s y n c r a t i c b u t e l e g a n t c o m m u n i c a t o r s t h a t t h e y

w e r e 5 0 o r m o r e y e a r s a g o .H o w e v e r , i n o n e s e n s e A l t m a n ' s a t t e m p t t o l o c a t e

p e e r r e v i e w w i t h i n t h e s p h e r e o f l a n g u a g e s t u d y i s

c o r r e c t . A c r i t i c a l l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s o f a r e s e a r c hr e p o r t , a s a c o m p l e m e n t a r y p r o c e s s t o o t h e r f o r m s o f

p e e r r e v i e w , o f f e r s a w a y o f i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e r e a s o n i n g

t h a t u n d e r p i n s a n a u t h o r ' s p o i n t o f v i e w . S u c h as y s t e m a t i c a n a l y s i s i s a n e s s e n t i a l , b u t c u r r e n t l y

m i s s i n g , p a r t o f t h e r e v i e w p r o c e d u r e .

R u l e s o f d i s c o u r s e

A s c i e n t i f i c a r t i c l e i s c a r e f u l l y c r a f t e d b y i t s a u t h o r s . 3 4A maxim t a u g h t t o many e d i t o r s i s t h a t , b e c a u s e a

p a p e r b e l o n g s t o t h e s e a u t h o r s , t h e y a l o n e s h o u l d m a k e

t h e f i n a l d e c i s i o n a b o u t t h e i r a r t i c l e ' s c o n t e n t . T h e

q u e s t i o n I w i s h t o p o s e i s , s h o u l d a u t h o r s ow n t h e i ro wn w o r d s ? G i v e n t h a t , f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g , t h e y d o ,d o e s t h e i r f r e e d o m b e n e f i t o r h i n de r m e d i ca l r e s e a r c h ?

T h e f o r m a t o f r e s e a r c h p a p e r s p u b l i s h e d i n t h i s a n d

o t h e r j o u r n a l s c o n f o r m s t o c l a s s i c a l i d e a s o f r h e t o r i c a l

p r e s e n t a t i o n . A r i s t o t l e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f o u r e l e m e n t s

t h a t m a k e u p s u c c e s s f u l o r a t o r y : i n t r o d u c t i o n ,

n a r r a t i o n , p r o o f , a n d e p i l o g u e . 5 The h i s t o r i c a l l i n k t ot h e f a m i l i a r "IMRAD" f o r m a t o f a s c i e n t i f i c p a p e r -

i n t r o d u c t i o n , m e t h o d s , r e s u l t s , a n d d i s c u s s i o n - i s s e l fe v i d e n t .

T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t s c i e n c e i s a s e a r c h f o r t h e r e a s o n

BMJ voLuME 3 1 0 1 5 A P R I L 1 9 9 5 9 8 5

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t h a t l i e s b e h i n d a n o b s e r v a t i o n , t h e s t u d y o f r h e t o r i c i s

p a r t o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c t r a d i t i o n . I n d e e d , t h e progress o f

l i n g u i s t i c t h o u g h t d u r i n g t h e p a s t h a l f century h a s b e e n

c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a move b e y o n d s i m p l e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f

l a n g u a g e t o w a r d s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h o s e d e s c r i p t i o n s .I n m a k i n g t h i s m o v e , 2 0 t h c e n t u r y l i n g u i s t s h a v e

d e v e l o p e d a s e t o f p r i n c i p l e s t h a t h a s e n a b l e d s y s t e m a t i ca p p r a i s a l o f l a n g u a g e .

The a i m o f m o d e m l i n g u i s t i c s t u d y i s t o i n v e s t i g a t ea n d , i n some i n s t a n c e s , t o c h a l l e n g e t h e d o m i n a n t

b e l i e f r u n n i n g t h r o u g h a t e x t . Th e p r e m i s e o f t h i s

i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s t h a t a u t h o r s us e t h e i r power as o w n e r s

o f t h e i r w r i t i n g t o e m p h a s i s e o n e p o i n t o f v i e w more

t h a n a n o t h e r . T h e c r i t i c a l l i n g u i s t a n a l y s e s a u t h o r s 'a t t e m p t s t o us e l a n g u a g e t o s u p p o r t t h e i r p o i n t o f v i e w .

S u c h a n a n a l y s i s i s p a r t o f t h e c r i t i c a l c u l t u r e o f s c i e n c ea n d w o u l d b e a w e l c o m e t h i r d component o f peer

r e v i e w , i n a d d i t i o n t o q u a l i t a t i v e a n d s t a t i s t i c a l

a s s e s s m e n t .

T he m os t i m p o r t a n t cons equences o f t h i s a p p r o a c h

w o u l d b e t o p r i s e t h e t e x t o f a n a r t i c l e away f r o m t h ea u t h o r . Th e n e e d f o r t h i s s h i f t o f o w n e r s h i p i s t h a te f f e c t i v e p e e r r e v i e w w i l l b e a c h i e v e d o n l y when t h el a n g u a g e o f a s c i e n t i f i c p a p e r i s " o w n e d " b y t h e w i d e r

r e s e a r c h c o m m u n i t y , t h r o u g h m o d e r a t i o n o f t h e

" s p i n " t h a t a u t h o r s p l a c e on t h e i r own w o r k .

L e v e l s o f ar gument

The s t u d y o f a r g u m e n t a t i o n h a s a n a r r a t i v e m e t h o -

d o l o g y . T e c h n i q u e s o f p e r s u a s i o n e x i s t a t b o t h

s u p e r f i c i a l a n d d e e p l e v e l s . A t a s u r f a c e l e v e l l i e t h et y p e s o f argument u s e d i n e a c h p a r t o f t h e t e x t - t h e

" a r c h a e o l o g y o f a r g u m e n t s " - f o r e x a m p l e , t h e q u a l i t ya n d l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e m e t h o d s , t h e c l i n i c a l i m p o r t a n c e

o f t h e w o r k , s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e

r e s u l t , d i r e c t i o n s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h , c l a i m s a b o u t

t h e success o f t h e o r i g i n a l a i m o f t h e s t u d y , a n d

t h e s t a t i s t i c a l arguments t h a t s u p p o r t a p a r t i c u l a rv i e w p o i n t .

A r i s t o t l e p r o v i d e s some i n s i g h t i n t o t h e r u l e s o f t h i s

s t y l e o f c o m p o s i t i o n a s a p p l i e d t o t h e s c i e n t i f i c p a p e r .

H e groups p r o o f s i n t o o n e o f t h r e e t y p e s : f i r s t l y , t h e

argument i t s e l f , w h i c h i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e statement o f

r e s u l t s a n d a s s o c i a t e d c l ai m s d e ri v e d f r o m t h e s e d a t a ;s e c o n d l y , t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e a u t h o r , w h o s h o u l d b e

s e e n as f a i r m i n d e d a n d b a l a n c e d i n o u t l o o k ; a n d

t h i r d l y , t h e e m o t i o n a l s t a t e o f t h e r e a d e r , w h i c h ca n

b e a p p e a l e d t o b y s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t t h e c l i n i c a l

i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e r e s u l t s a n d t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s f o rf u t u r e r e s e a r c h .

D e e p arguments l i e w i t h i n s e n t e n c e s . F o r e x a m p l e ,

t h e p e r s u a s i v e p o w e r o f e a c h sentence d e p e n d s on

e l e m e n t s s u c h a s t h e use o f t h e a c t i v e o r p a s s i v e f o r m ,

p o s i t i o n i n g o f a d v e r b s a n d a d j e c t i v e s , t h e c h o ic e o f f i r s t

person o r t h i r d person n a r r a t i v e , a n d r e f e r e n c i n gp a t t e r n s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e a u t h o r ' s own p r e v i o u s l yp u bl i s h e d w o r k ) .

C r i t i c a l l i n g u i s t i c s i n ac ti on

T o i l l u s t r a t e my argument I o u g h t t o b e g i n w i t h a n

u n p u b l i s h e d m a n u s c r i p t . N a t u r a l l y , e d i t o r i a l e t h i c s

p r e v e n t s u c h a n a p p r o a c h . I w i l l t h e r e f o r e t a k e a n

e x a m p l e o f a p u b l i s h e d p a p e r t o s h o w h o w a n u n d e r -

s t a n d i n g o f t h e p e r s u a s i v e e l e m e n t s o f a t e x t c o n t r i b u t e

t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e meaning t h a t t h e a u t h o r s

w i s h t o convey.

E a c h p a r t o f a p u b l i s h e d paper i s o p e n t o r h e t o r i c a l

m a n i p u l a t i o n b y t h e a ut h o r. F o r e x a m p l e , a n u n -

s t r u c t u r e d a b s t r a c t g i v e s a u t h o r s more f r e e d o m t oi n c l u d e o r e x c l ud e i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e i r own c h o o s i n g .F i g u r e s a n d t a b l e s may e n h a n c e t h e p e r s u a s i v e p o w e r

o f o n e r e s u l t o v e r t h a t o f a n o t h e r . T h e d i s c u s s i o n ,h o w e v e r , o f f e r s t h e m o s t u s e f u l s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r a

c r i t i c a l l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s as i t i s t h i s s e c t i o n o f a paper

t h a t m o s t obviously seeks to c a j o l e a n d convince.6 I

h a v e c h o s e n a p a p e r p u b l i s h e d i n t h e L a n c e t i n 1 9 9 3 a s

a n e x a m p l e .

The E u r o g a s t s t u d y g r o u p c o r r e l a t e d t h e p r e v a l e n c e

o f H e l i c o b a c t e r p y l o r i i n 1 3 c o u n t r i e s w i t h i n c i d e n c e

o f g a s t r i c cancer.7 Th e summary r e p o r t e d a n a p p r o x i -m a t e l y s i x f o l d i n c r e a s e d r i s k o f g a s t r i c c a nc er i np o p u l a t i o n s w i t h 100% H p y l o r i i n f e c t i o n c o m p a r e d

w i t h p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t h a v e no i n f e c t i o n . T he d i s c u s s i o ni n t h e p a p e r c o n s i s t e d o f e i g h t p a r a g r a p h s . The

b o x s h o w s t h e t y p e s o f s u r f a c e arguments t h a t w e r e

a d o p t e d . S e v e r a l p o i n t s a b o u t t h i s s c h e m e a re w o r t h

n o t i n g , a n d t h e s e a re g r o u p e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t h r e eA r i s t o t e l i a n r u l e s o f c o m p o s i t io n .

ARGUMENT

The d i s c u s s i o n p r e s e n t s a n a c t i v e r a t h e r t h a n a

p a s s i v e a r gume n t s t r u c t u r e - t h a t i s , i t b e g i n s w i t h

a statement o f t h e p o s i t i v e r e s u l t r a t h e r t h a n , f o re x a m p l e , a r e v i e w o f p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d w o r k . Th e

statement o f r e s u l t i s r e i n f o r c e d b y r e p e t i t i o n i n t h es e c o n d sentence o f t h e f i r s t p a r a g r a p h a n d a g a i n i n t h ef i n a l p a r a g r a p h .

CHARACTEROFAUTHORS

Th e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s or s e c u r i t y o f t h e m e t h o d o l o g y

i s e m p h a s i s e d i n f i v e o f t h e e i g h t p a r a g r a p h s . The

a u t h o r s c l e a r l y se e t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e i r p a p e r a s

p o t e n t i a l l y v u l n e r a b l e . The l i m i t a t i o n s are d i s c u s s e d i n

d e t a i l , a n d e x t e n s i v e r e a ssur a nc e s are p r o v i d e d . The

s t r o n g e s t b e i n g t h a t t h e d r a w b a c k s n o t e d are l a r g e l yu n a v o i d a b l e i n t h i s type o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n . P r e v i o u s

s t u d i e s are q u o t e d t o p l a c e t h i s w o r k i n c o n t e x t ; i n t h es e c o n d p a r a g r a p h , t w o s u p p o r t i v e s t u d i e s a n d o n e

n e g a t i v e s t u d y are c i t e d .

EMOTIONALAPPEALTO READERS

A s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e c l i n i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f t h ew o r k i s made i n p a r a g r a p h 6 . T he statement g o e s

b e y o n d a n e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n - s t r o n g a s i t

may be-to s u g g e s t a c a u s a l l i n k b e t w e e n g a s t r i cc a nc e r a n d H pylon i n f e c t i o n . M o s t s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h i s

s p e c u l a t i o n s u r v i v e d i n t o t h e summary.T he b o x s h o w s t h e c o m p l e x p a t t e r n o f t h e s e argu-

m e n t s i n t h e p u b l i s h e d t e x t . T h e st at em ent o f r e s u l t i s

g i v e n t h r e e t i m e s , a n d r e a ssur a nc e s a b o u t t h e s t u d y ' sl i m i t a t i o n s a n d s t r e n g t h s are f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t . A

s i m p l e r , a n d p e r h a p s f a i r e r , arrangement w o u l d b e t o

g r o u p e a c h p a r t o f t h e d i s c us s i o n i n a l o g i c a l o r d e r - f o r

e x a m p l e , statement o f r e s u l t , c o n t e x t , s t r e n g t h s a n d

l i m i t a t i o n s , a n d , f i n a l l y , t h e c o n c l u s i o n .T he nature a n d s u b t l e t y o f d e e p arguments become

c l e a r e r b y e x a m i n i n g t h e f i n a l p a r a g r a p h o f t h e

B M J VOLUME 310 1 5 A P R I L 1 9 9 5

A r c h a e o l o g y o f s u r f a c e a r g u m e n t s i n

d i s c u s s i o n o f E u r o g a s t s t u d y 7

P a r a g r a p h A r g u m e n t

1 S t a t e m e n t o f r e s u l tR e s t a t e m e n t o f r e s u l tL i m i t a t i o n s o f s t u d y

2 S u p p o r t i v e p r e v i o u s s t u d i e sC o n f l i c t i n g p r e v i o u s s t u d y

3 C o n t e x t o f o t h e r r i s k f a c t o r s4 L i m i t a t i o n s5 S e c u r i t y o f m e t h o d o l o g y

R e l i a b i l i t y o f r e s u l t

6 S e c u r i t y o f m e t h o d o l o g y

S p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t c l i n i c a l i m p o r t a n c e

7 S t r e n g t h o f s t u d yU n a v o i d a b l e l i m i t a t i o n s8 R e s t a t e m e n t o f r e s u l t

C o n c l u s i o n

9 8 6

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E u r o g a s t s t u d y : " O u r r e s u l t s s h o w a s t a t i s t i c a l l ys i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n H p y l o n i n f e c t i o n , a sd e t e r m i n e d b y s e r u m a n t i b o d y p o s i t i v i t y , a n d g a s t r i cc a n c e r m o r t a l i t y a n d i n c i d e n c e . T h i s f i n d i n g a d d s

f u r t h e r w e i g h t t o t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t H p y l o n i i n f e c t i o ni s a r i s k f a c t o r f o r g a s t r i c c a n c e r . " I n t h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e

t h e p r o p o s i t i o n , i n i t s s i m p l e s t f o r m , i s t h a t H p y l o ni n f e c t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o g a s t r i c c a n c e r . The a u t h o r s c a n

u s e a n y o f t h r e e t e c h n i q u e s t o c o n v e y t h i s p r o p o s i t i o nt o t h e r e a d e r : t h e f o r c e w i t h w h i c h t h e p r o p o s i t i o n i s

m a d e ( w h a t l i n g u i s t s c a l l m o d a l i t y ) , t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f

t h e w r i t e r i n m a k i n g t h i s p r o p o s i t i o n ( t r a n s i t i v i t y ) , a n d

how t h e t r u t h o f t h e p r o p o s i t i o n i s e n c o d e d i n t h es e n t e n c e ( s e m a n t i c s ) ( f i g u r e ) . 8

S u r f a c e a r g u m e n t s

M a p o u t a r c h a e o l o g y o f a r g u m e n t s , w i t h s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e

t o a c t i v e v p a s s i v e b e g i n n i n g ; c o m p l e x v s i m p l e

c o n s t r u c t i o n ; a n d l o g i c , c h a r a c t e r , a n d e m o t i o n a le l e m e n t s i n c o n s t r u c t i o n

D e e p a r g u m e n t s

F o c u s o n k e y p r o p o s i t i o n a r o u n d w h i c h t h e a r g u m e n to f e a c h p a r a g r a p h i s b a s e d . I n e a c h c a s e i d e n t i f y a n d c r i t i c a l l y

j u d g e p h r a s e s t h a t s u p p o r t t h r e e m a i n p e r s u a s i v e

c o m p o n e n t s : f o r c e ; e x p e r i e n c e ; t r u t h v a l u e

S c h e m e f o r l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s o f d i s c u s s i o n s e c t i o n o f r e s e a r c h p a p e r

I n t h i s i n s t a n c e f o r c e i s c o n v e y e d b y t h e v e r b " t os h o w , " s i n c e s h o w i m p l i e s a v i s u a l c l a r i t y i n t h e r e s u l t st h a t s h o u l d b e a p p a r e n t t o t h e r e a d e r w i t h o u t n e e d

f o r a d d i t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n ; m o r e o v e r , n o q u a l i f y i n gp h r a s e s , s u c h a s m a y , m i g h t , o r p r o b a b l y , a r e u s e d .E x p e r i e n c e i s t r a n s m i t t e d b y u s e o f t h e f i r s t p e r s o n a sn a r r a t o r : t h e r e s u l t s w e r e d i s c o v e r e d b y a n d b e l o n g t ot h e a u t h o r s . T h e a u t h o r s s e n d a s t r o n g m e s s a g e a b o u t

t h e t r u t h v a l u e o f t h e s e n t e n c e b y e m p h a s i s i n g t h em e t h o d o l o g y c h o s e n i n t h e s t u d y - p o s i t i v i t y f o rH p y l o n i a n t i b o d y - a n d t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n i s s i g n i f i c a n t .

T h e s e c o n d s e n t e n c e i n t h i s s a m e p a r a g r a p h c a n b e

e x a m i n e d i n t h e s a m e w a y . I n p a r t i c u l a r , r e a d e r s m i g h t

c o n s i d e r t h e p e r s u a s i v e e f f e c t s o f a s w i t c h t o t h e t h i r dp e r s o n n a r r a t i v e , t h e u s e o f a n a d j e c t i v e , a m e t a p h o r ,

a n d t h e v e r b " t o a d d , " a n d t h e c a u s a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f

t h e p h r a s e " r i s k f a c t o r . "

C o n c l u s i o n

Th e t e x t o f a s c i e n t i f i c p a p e r i s n o t a n a t l a s t h a t o f f e r sr e a d e r s s e v e r a l e q u a l l y a p p e a l i n g r o u t e s t h r o u g h

t e r r a i n m a p p e d o u t b y t h e a u t h o r s . R a t h e r , t h e t e x t

d e s c r i b e s a s p e c i f i c p a t h , c a r e f u l l y c a r v e d b y t h ea u t h o r s , t h r o u g h a c o m p l e x u n d e r g r o w t h o f c o m p e t i n g

a r g u m e n t s . B y e x a m i n i n g t h i s p a t h m o r e c l o s e l y , wec o m e t o s e e t h e a u t h o r s ' i n t e n t i o n a n d t h e m e a n s

b y w h i c h t h e y c o n v e y t h i s i n t e n t i o n . S u c h t e x t u a lc r i t i c i s m o f s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o u r s e i s a c r u c i a l a n d l a r g e l ym i s s i n g c o m p o n e n t o f p e e r r e v i e w .

T h e t i m e i n s c i e n c e w h e n a n o b s e r v a t i o n c o u l d b e

h e l d t o s p e a k f o r i t s e l f h a s l o n g p a s t . I n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s ak e y p a r t o f r e s e a r c h a s s c i e n t i s t s now d e a l l e s s w i t h

d e m o n s t r a b l e f a c t s t h a n w i t h p r o b a b i l i t i e s . H e n c e t h ew r i t i n g s o f r e s e a r c h e r s a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y d e c o r a t e d b y

t h e i r own v a l u e s a n d b i a s e s . I n t h e h u m a n i t i e s t h ep r a c t i c e o f t e x t u a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s c a l l e d h e r m e n e u t i c s .

A l t h o u g h i n m e d i c i n e w e t a l k o f " c r i t i c a l a p p r a i s a l "w h e n e v a l u a t i n g e v i d e n c e , t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a l i n g u i s t i cp e r s p e c t i v e w h e n d i s c o v e r i n g m e a n i n g i n a p a p e r

c o n v i n c e s me t h a t a c l i n i c a l h e r m e n e u t i c a p p r o a c h

w o u l d b e a s t e p f o r w a r d i n t h e p e e r r e v i e w p r o c e s s . 9S h o u l d a u t h o r s h a v e u n r e s t r a i n e d f r e e 4 o m i n t h e i r u s e

o f l a n g u a g e w h e n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e i r r e s u l t s ? S u c h

f r e e d o m f o s t e r s a n a d v e r s a r i a l t r e n d i n r e s e a r c hc o m m u n i c a t i o n , w h i c h may m a k e g o o d j o u r n a l i s m b u t

w h i c h may a l s o d i m i n i s h t h e p r a c t i c e o f s c i e n c e .S o s h o u l d a u t h o r s ow n t h e i r own w o r d s ? C l e a r l y ,

t h e r e a r e d a n g e r s i n t h i s f r e e d o m . W h e t h e r e d i t o r ss h o u l d e n f o r c e a n i d e a l i s e d f o r m o f s c i e n t i f i c p r e s e n t a -t i o n - f o r e x a m p l e , a s i m p l e r a t h e r t h a n a c o m p l e x ,

s t r u c t u r e d d i s c u s s i o n - i s w o r t h y o f d e b a t e . T h i s i s s u ei s p e r h a p s e v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t i n e v a l u a t i o n o f t h ea r g u m e n t s a n d o p i n i o n s p r e s e n t e d i n r e v i e w a r t i c l e st h a t g i v e n o i n d i c a t i o n o f how p r i m a r y d a t a w e r e

s e l e c t e d f o r i n c l u s i o n . E v e n i f a u t h o r s r e t a i n t h e i rp r o p r i e t a r y r i g h t s o v e r t h e i r t e x t t h e r e a d e r s h o u l d a tl e a s t b e e q u i p p e d w i t h t h e b a s i c t o o l s t o d e c i p h e r t h eo f t e n u n c o n s c i o u s l y e n c o d e d i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e a u t h o r .Yo u c o u l d b e g i n w i t h t h i s a r t i c l e .

T h i s p a p e r i s a n e d i t e d v e r s i o n o f a n a r t i c l e p u b l i s h e d i nC B E V i e w s ( 1 9 9 5 ; 1 8 : 3 - 5 ) .

1 A l t m a n L K . T h e m y t h o f " p a s s i n g p e e r r e v i e w . " I n : CBE E d i t o r i a l P o l i c yC o m m i t t e e , e d s . E t h i c s a n d p o l i c y i n s c i e n t f i c p u b l i c a t i o n . C h i c a g o : C o u n c i l o fB i o l o g y E d i t o r s , 1 9 9 0 : 2 5 7 - 6 8 .

2 Goodman S N , B e r l i n J A , F l e t c h e r S W , F l e t c h e r R H . E f f e c t o f p e e r r e v i e w a n d

e d i t o r i a l c h a n g e s o n t h e q u a l i t y o f m a n u s c r i p t s p u b l i s h e d i n t h e A n n a l s o f

I n t e m a l M e d i c i n e . P r o c e e d i n g s o f s e c o n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n g r e s s o n p e e r r e t i e w i n

b i o m e d i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n . C h i c a g o ; S e p t e m b e r , 1 9 9 3 .3 G r o s s A R . T h e r h e t o r i c o f s c i e n c e . C a m b r i d g e : H a v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 9 0 .

4 L o c k e D . S c i e n c e a s w r i t i n g . Y a l e : Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 9 2 .

5 A r i s t o t l e . T h e a r t o f r h e t o r i c . L o n d o n : P e n g u i n , 1 9 9 1 .6 H o p l d n s A , D u d l e y - E v a n s T . A g e n r e - b a s e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n

s e c t i o n s i n a r t i c l e s a n d d i s s e r t a t i o n s . E n g l i s h f o r S p e c i f i c P u r p o s e s 1 9 8 8 ; 7 :1 1 3 - 2 1 .

7 E u r o g a s t S t u d y G r o u p . An i n t e m a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n H e l i c o b a c t e r

p y l o r i i n f e c t i o n a n d g a s t r i c c a n c e r . L a n c e t 1 9 9 3 ; 3 4 1 : 1 3 5 9 - 6 2 .8 S i m n p s o n P . L a n g u a g e , i d e o l o g y , a n d p o i n t o f v i e w . L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e , 1 9 9 3 .

9 H o r t o n R C . A n t i h y p e r t e n s i v e d r u g s : a s s e s s i n g t h e p u b l i s h e d r e s u l t s . I n :K e n d a l l M J , K a p l a n NM, H o r t o n R C , e d s . D i f f i c u k h y p e r t e n s i o n . L o n d o n :

M a r t i n D u n i t z , 1 9 9 5 : 2 6 5 - 8 8 .

( A c c e p t e d 2 3 J a n u a r y 1 9 9 5 )

L o n d o n N3 2EDT r i s h a G r e e n h a l g h , m e d i c a lw r i t e r

C o m m e n t a r y : S c i e n t i f i c h e a d s a r e n o t t u r n e d b y r h e t o r i c

T r i s h a G r e e n h a l g h

D e a r Dr H o r t o n ,

W h e n I r e a d a s c i e n t i f i c p a p e r , e i t h e r f o r i t s ow n s a k eo r w h e n w e a r i n g a n e d i t o r i a l h a t , I u s u a l l y d r i n k i n t h ei n t r o d u c t i o n ( t o w h e t my a p p e t i t e f o r t h e s u b j e c tm a t t e r ) , s k i m t h e m e t h o d s , e y e b a l l t h e f i g u r e s a n d

t a b l e s , a n d t h e n r e a d e v e r y w o r d o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n .T h e n I g o b a c k t o t h e m e t h o d s a n d r e s u l t s s e c t i o n s a n d

w e i g h t h e r h e t o r i c o f t h e a u t h o r s ' c o n c l u s i o n s a g a i n s tmy own a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e o b j e c t i v i t y a n d g e n e r a l v a l u eo f t h e i r w o r k . Wh y d o I d o i t t h a t w a y ? B e c a u s e i f I

c o n c e n t r a t e d o n t h e s t r u c t u r e d a n d m e a s u r a b l e b i t s t ot h e e x c l u s i o n o f t h e r e s t , I w o u l d b e f l a t o u t , d e a d ,

u n d e r t h e t a b l e f r o m b o r e d o m .

T h e r e a s o n t h a t y o u r p a p e r w o r r i e s me i s t h a t ,h a v i n g d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o t h e " ' s p i n ' t h a t a u t h o r s

p l a c e o n t h e i r w o r k , " y o u t h e n e n t i c e t h e r e a d e r i n t ot h e u n j u s t i f i e d a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h i s s p i n i s n e c e s s a r i l ye v i l , i n s i d i o u s , a n d t h e l a s t r e m a i n i n g b a s t i o n o f

c a p r i c e i n t h e o t h e r w i s e o b j e c t i v e t e r r a i n o f s c i e n t i f i cp u b l i c a t i o n . What s o r t o f a w o r d i s " s p i n " ? What

B MJ voLuME310 1 5 A P R I L 1 9 9 5 9 8 7