Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety Global Partnerships for Chemical Safety

Contributing to the 2020 Goal

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ECO-ACCORD Center for Environment and Sustainable Development

Strojenije 5, 23, Podsosenski Per., 105062, Moscow, Russia Tel:+7.495.225-1619; Fax+7.495.225-1618 E-mail: accord@leadnet.ru

Program on Chemical Safety of Eco-Accord Centre in partnership with MAMA-86-Kharkov NGO (Ukraine) and Volgograd Ecopress NGO (Russia)

THE PROBLEM OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION BY CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY IN RUSSIA AND UKRAINE:

A SURVEY For further information contact: Olga Speranskaya Head of Eco-Accord Program on Chemical Safety Speransk2004@mail.ru

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THE PROBLEM OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION BY CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY IN RUSSIA AND UKRAINE: A SURVEY This document provides a survey of data and information collected by different governmental, research and non-governmental organisations and pertaining to analysis of environmental contamination by heavy metals and their health impacts. The document provides information on sources of releases of cadmium, lead and mercury to the environment, routes of human exposure and eco-toxicity of these heavy metals, as well as data from analytical reports on levels of environmental contamination in Russia and Ukraine by heavy metals. The project incorporated a special study of environmental contamination in Volgograd, including identification of releases of heavy metals from specific pollution sources. The report contains description of hot spots of heavy metals pollution and provides a comparative analysis of pollution from different sources. Besides that, the survey provides a brief analysis of applicable international legal acts in the sphere of management of heavy metals, as well as recommendations on mitigation of adverse health and environment impacts of heavy metals.

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The project was implemented by the Program on Chemical Safety of Eco-Accord Centre in partnership with MAMA-86-Kharkov NGO (Ukraine) and Volgograd Ecopress NGO (Russia). Eco-Accord expresses its particular gratitude to the following experts for their assistance in development of this Survey: Tsitser O.Yu., the Leading Specialist of the Russian Technical Supervisory Authority (Russia). Vasilieva E.A., the Head of Volgograd Ecopress NGO. Voronovich N.V., Candidate of Science (Engineering), an expert of the RF System for Certification of Analytical Laboratories. Yanin E.P., Candidate of Sciences (Geology), V.I.Vernadskiy GEOKhI. Laperdina T.G., Candidate of Sciences (Chemistry), the Laboratory of Ecological Geochemistry (Moscow). Tatsiy Yu.G., Candidate of Sciences (Engineering), the Laboratory of Ecological Geochemistry (Moscow). Treger Yu.A., Professor, Director of "Synthesis and Design Bureau" of the Ministry of Industry and Sciences of Russia. Revich B.A., Professor, the Centre of Demography and Human Ecology of the Institute of Forecasts of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Tsiguleva O.M., Candidate of Sciences (Chemistry), the Coordinator of Waste and Chemical Security Program of MAMA-86 Ukrainian National Environmental NGO. Timchyenko O.I., Doctor of Sciences (Medicine), Professor, the Chief of the Genetic Epidemiology Laboratory of A.N. Morzeev Institute of Hygiene and Medical Ecology of the Academy of Medical Sciences of Ukraine (a State Entity). Omelchenko E.M., Candidate of Sciences (Medicine), the Senior Research Associate of the Genetic Epidemiology Laboratory of A.N. Morzeev Institute of Hygiene and Medical Ecology of the Academy of Medical Sciences of Ukraine (a State Entity). Belitskaya E.N., Doctor of Sciences (Medicine), Professor, the Chief of the General Hygiene Chair of Dnepropetrovsk State Medical Academy. Glavatskaya V.I., Candidate of Sciences (Medicine), a lecturer of the General Hygiene Chair of Dnepropetrovsk State Medical Academy. Golovkova T.A., Candidate of Sciences (Medicine), a lecturer of the General Hygiene Chair of Dnepropetrovsk State Medical Academy. Vigovskaya A.P., Candidate of Sciences (Engineering), the Leading Research Associate of the Council for Study of Production Forces of Ukraine of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. Shumilo A.M., Candidate of Sciences (Law), Associate Professor, the Chair of EcoPravo-Kharkov City NGO.

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Introduction In September 2006, in Budapest, the Fifth Session of the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Security approved the " Budapest Statement on Mercury, Lead and Cadmium ". The document noted worldwide health and environmental impacts of mercury, lead and cadmium. The Statement listed ongoing and planned international actions to reduce risks associated with mercury, lead and cadmium, with a particular focus on the Global UNEP Program on Mercury and activities on the global assessment of cadmium and lead. The document stressed the need to discuss local, regional and global actions on mercury, lead and cadmium, with a particular focus on needs of developing countries and economies in transition1. The majority of participants of the Fifth Forum were inclined in favour of the urgent need of further global actions in connection with application of heavy metals. Some of them argued that lead and cadmium do not have transportation-related properties that could necessitate application of international actions, and these problems might be better addressed at local and regional levels. In contrast, some other participants emphasised that already available data and information on lead and cadmium justify their categorisation as "substances capable for long-range transfer", thus making international actions appropriate. At the Firth IFCS Session, some participants argued in favour of development of a legally binding international instrument or a global convention on mercury and other metals. Some participants argued in favour of partnerships as an efficient tool to address existing mercury-related problems. Many participants stressed the need to engage additional countries and NGOs into partnership initiatives for addressing problems associated with heavy metals. They referred to relevant technical and economic options and solutions for immediate actions on mercury. On November 16, 2007, as a follow-up of decisions of the Fifth Forum, in Bangkok, the first meeting of the Ad hoc Open Ended UNEP Working Group on Mercury (OEWG) was held. The experts intended to launch development of a global action plan to control mercury pollution. UNEP Governing Council provided mandate to OEWG for survey and assessment of existing international legal instruments and opportunities for adoption of voluntary measures to control mercury pollution. Based on results of Bangkok discussions, OEWG requested the UNEP Secretariat to develop the following materials for the second meeting:

• to analyse, whether a new mercury instrument should be a protocol to the Stockholm Convention, or a separate voluntary agreement; and analyse further countries' opportunities to continue development of such instruments for control of mercury pollution.

1 IFCS Forum V, The Budapest Statement on Mercury, Lead and Cadmium, para. 10 (IFCS/FORUM-V/05w, Executive Summary , para. 10 (2006) http://www.who.int/ifcs/documents/forums/forum5/report/en/index.html )

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• to identify, what mercury control measures might be applied at the national level and what measures could benefit from coordinated international efforts, regardless their nature (legally binding instruments or voluntary agreements). NGOs believe that the second OEWG session would allow to shape further actions at the global level. They believe that development of a global agreement on mercury pollution control becomes really possible.

In response to the Forum request on heavy metals, a background document2 was drafted, that analyses the need of coordinated international actions to protect human health and environment from adverse impacts of lead, mercury and cadmium that spread due to international trade in goods and wastes, containing these heavy metals. The background document explores whether trade may generate problems that cannot be addressed by individual countries, wtherer there problems could lead to international concerns and whether coordinated international actions are necessary to resolve them. The background document and the Sixth Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety will contribute into the broad discussion on heavy metals, scheduled for 2009 (in the course of the International Conference on Chemicals Management and 25th session of the UNEP Governing Council). In line with documents of the Fifth IFCS Session, results of efforts to develop a global agreement on mercury and the background document on the need of coordinated international actions on trade in goods and waste containing lead and cadmium, Eco-Accord initiated development of the survey on situation in the sphere of environmental pollution by mercury, lead and cadmium, including their health impacts, in Russia and Ukraine. LEAD, CADMIUM AND MERCURY: PRODUCTION AND TRADE Ukraine and Russia have a broad range of sources of non-ferrous metals, inc. lead and mercury. Besides that, both countries produce cadmium, secondary lead and mercury. Lead

In terms of explored lead reserves, the EECCA countries share the first place in the World with 22.4% of proven global lead reserves. The most substantial lead deposits are located in Kazakhstan (40.3% of all EECCA lead deposits), Russia (36.1%) and Uzbekistan (11.4%). Other countries - Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Kirgizia, Tajikistan and Ukraine - share only 12.2% of explored lead reserves of EECCA countries. Almost all lead reserves of the EECCA countries (92%) are associated with deposits of complex metal ores and zinc-lead ores.3

2 http://www.who.int/ifcs/documents/forums/forum6/en/index.html) 3 http://www.gornoe-delo.ru/art/?article_number=6

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Analysis of global lead consumption suggests the increase of the share of secondary lead to 85 - 90%. Russian statistics on lead still remains classified. However, according to some estimates of Russian experts, in the first quarter of 2005, production of lead concentrate reached 170 thousand tons (or 160% comparatively to the first quarter of the previous year). Mining and clarification of lead ores are rapidly increasing. While production of metal lead (including secondary lead) reached 72 thousand tons, lead import to Russia is increasing, particularly from Kazakhstan. Overall, the share of imported lead in the key sphere of lead consumption (production of lead batteries) is approaching 40%. Now, Russia imports 70% of lead from Kazakhstan. In general, the share of utilised waste batteries in Russia is substantially lower comparatively to developed countries (more than 95% in the USA) and even lower the global average of about 50%. At the same time, Russia imports lead concentrates. For example, "Sibir-Polimetally" Co. was granted a major quota for export of complex metal ores. Moreover, these general figures should be adjusted to account for numerous "grey" schemes of export of lead-containing materials, including waste lead. In the Far East region, thousand tons of obsolete lead batteries "migrate" to China. So far, attempts of Western environmentalists to reduce application of lead have not resulted in major successes. While there are some positive developments in electronics, growing production of car batteries only exacerbates global shortages of lead ores and refined lead, pushing lead prices up. At the same time, a favourable situation at the global market facilities development of mining and ore-processing facilities. Cadmium The International Cadmium Association expects the global production of nickel-cadmium batteries to increase, particularly in the case of successful results in production of electric cars. Cadmium demand in other spheres of application (production of paints and pigments, cadmium electroplating operations, etc.) is low. Production of nickel-cadmium batteries consumes 75% of the overall cadmium applications. Nickel-cadmium batteries remain usable even after a complete discharge.4 Ukraine does not have sources of raw materials for production of batteries (nickel hydroxide, cadmium oxide, zinc powder, etc.) and purchases them in Russia and East European countries. "Kadmii" Co. specialises in supply of cadmium to Russia, Ukraine and other CIS and non-CIS countries. The Company is an official dealer of DONAC HOLDINGS since 4 http://www.referatik.com.ua/subject/93/40374/

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2000, and uses all marketing and supply capacity of the holding in Russia, Ukraine and many other countries. Producers sell metal cadmium and face a high demand in cadmium-containing reagents (cadmium nitrate, cadmium standard solution, cadmium hexafluorosilicate, cadmium hydroxide, cadmium pellets, etc.) Mercury In terms of mercury resources, Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia countries (EECCA) share the second place in the World, after Spain. Mercury deposits are found at the territory of 7 EECCA countries with the overall estimated capacity of 94.6 thousand tons or 45.2% of the total global resources. The largest mercury deposits are located in Kyrgyzstan (47.5% of the overall EECCA resources), Russia (16.5%) and Ukraine (21.6%). Minor mercury deposits are also located in Uzbekistan (Karasu deposit – 0.3 thousand tons), Azerbaijan (Agyatgskiy and Sorbulakskiy deposits – 0.7 thousand tons) and Kazakhstan (mercury as a component of complex metal ores – 6.1 thousand tons). See information on proven industrial resources of mercury in the EECCA countries in Table 1.5

Table 1

Proven industrial resources of mercury

Countries The number of deposits

Industrial resources, thousand tons

Average mercury contents in explored

deposits, %

The share in the overall CIS

resources, % CIS total 46 94.6 100 Kyrgyzstan 3 44.9 0.3 47.5 Russia 23 15.6 0.45 16.5 Ukraine 5 20.4 0.3 21.6 Tajikistan 3 6.9 0.055 7.3 Kazakhstan 9 6.1 under 0.01 6.4 Azerbaijan 2 0.7 0.3 0.7 Uzbekistan 1 0.3 -

The EECCA countries meet now 80% of the domestic demand in metal mercury from accumulated stockpiles and by secondary mercury. See information on extraction of primary mercury in EECCA countries in Table 2.

Table 2 Primary mercury extraction

Countries 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 (estimate)*

5 Information and Analysis Compendium "The International and National Markets of Non-ferrous and Rare Metals" (as at 1.07.2002.). Issue#14. Mercury. Moscow, 2002.

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CIS total 446 675 629 637 648 648 Kyrgyzstan 380 660 611 629 630 630 Tajikistan 25 15 18 8 18 18 Ukraine 41 - - - - - Global total 2985.7 2560 2950 1950 1630 1640

* Source: "VNIIZarubezhgeologia" Co., Reserves and Extraction of Major Types of Mineral Resources in the Word, 2002.

In addition to mercury deposits, some part of mercury is also produced as a by-product of processing of other metal ores (e.g. gold., copper, zinc).

In 25 recent years, mercury production and consumption decreased due to high toxicity of the metal and a broad application of mercury substitutes in production of batteries, chlorine, sodium hydroxide, in production of instruments and in other spheres of application. A substantial fall in mercury demand induced many producers of primary mercury to close their production facilities. In Ukraine, Nikitovskiy Plant has a necessary production capacity to produce secondary mercury. In May 1997, Ukraine and Russia signed the Agreement on Co-operation in the Sphere of Processing of Mercury-containing Waste. According to the Agreement, Russian facilities are expected to supply about 500 tons of mercury-containing waste to Nikitovskiy Plant annually to produce 12 - 15 tons of mercury and mercury compounds. Mercury supplies of the EECCA countries substantially influence the global mercury market, however, these supplies are likely to rely heavily on old accumulated mercury stockpiles. 53 countries import primary and secondary mercury. More than a half of the global mercury imports (50.7% in 1993 – 1997) come to developing countries, a third (33.9%) to all developed countries, while the rest is imported by China (12.4%), Romania (2.5%) and other countries of the former "Eastern Block".

SOURCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL RELEASES OF HEAVY METALS

Cadmium The most serious sources of cadmium environmental releases include metallurgy, electroplating operations, as well as combustion of solid/liquid fuel. In clean air over the open sea, average levels of cadmium reach 0.005 µg/m3, in rural areas - up to 0.025 µg/m3, while in areas with operating industrial facilities with cadmium emissions (non-ferrous metallurgy plants, coal/oil fuelled power plants, producers of plastics, etc.) and in air of heavily industrialised cities cadmium levels in the air may reach up to 0.5 µg/m3 (usually from 0.02 to 0.05 µg/m3).

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About 52% of cadmium releases to the environment are associated with burning or processing of cadmium-containing products, particularly plastic items (cadmium additives improve plastic strength) and cadmium-based paints. Combustion of fuel oil and diesel fuel also represent a source of cadmium pollution.

Table: Key Sources of Cadmium Releases6 Key sources of Cd Shares in overall emissions (%)

Zinc and cadmium smelters 60 Copper and nickel smelters 23 Fuel combustion 10 Waste burning 3 Other 4

Cigarette smoke also contains cadmium, as tobacco intensively extracts cadmium from soil and accumulates it in leaves. One cigarette with about 1 g of tobacco contains 1.2 –2.5 µg of cadmium. Annual global tobacco production reaches about 5.7 million tons; so tobacco smoking results in releases of 6.8 to 14.2 tons of cadmium. About 25% of the above amount are accumulated in smokers' bodies, while the rest is released to the environment. Due to cadmium deposition from the air, its levels in surface layers of soil nearby metallurgic plants are 20 to 50 times higher comparatively to control areas; in large industrialised cities cadmium levels in the air exceed 15 MACs. Cadmium pollution in soil persists for a long time after elimination of a pollution source. In soil, up to 70% of cadmium are binded by soil chemicals and transformed into forms that can be adsorbed by plants. In zones with elevated cadmium levels in soil, its concentrations in vegetation are 20 to 30 times higher, comparatively to plants at clean territories. Cadmium and lead are capable to long-range transfer with air flows - these metals were identified in samples of deep ice layers from Greenland. Cadmium is a stable element and once released it circulates in the environment. Newly released cadmium simply adds to the already accumulated environmental cadmium stock. Cadmium compounds are relatively well soluble in water, as a result they are more environmentally mobile, with a generally high bioavailability and bioaccumulation capacity. Cadmium is widely spread in the environment. Its consumption is growing, as a result cadmium contamination of soil, water and air increases. In terms of global application, 77% of cadmium are used in NiCd batteries, 11% in pigments, 8% in paints and the rest (4%) in different spheres.

6 RCCnews.ru "Cadmiun- a Real Threat for Plants" (Rus.), http://www.rccnews.ru/Rus/NT/?ID=12257

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Cadmium emissions of human origin into biosphere are several times higher than Cd emissions from natural sources. For example, annual air emissions of cadmium reach about 9000 tons, and 7700 tons of cadmium emissions (i.e. over 85%) are associated with human activities. Annual cadmium inflow to the Baltic Sea alone reaches 200 tons. Cadmium easily bioaccumulates, particularly by bacteria and shellfish (bioaccumulation factors may reach several thousand times). Highest levels of cadmium were found in kidneys, gills and liver of hydrobionts, in kidneys, liver and bones of terrestrial species. Plants concentrate cadmium in roots and (to a lesser extent) in leaves. In freshwater aquatic environments cadmium is mainly adsorbed/absorbed from water, while in marine ecosystems, cadmium is mainly adsorbed from food. Lead In 70 recent years, in areas with heavy road traffic, lead was mainly emitted by road vehicles, accumulated in environmental media and living organisms, including humans, as internal combustion engines were fuelled by petrol with tetraethyl lead additive as an antiknock agent. Estimates suggest that exhaust gases of road vehicles annually emit up to 260 thousand tons of lead, while one car annually emits about 1 kg of lead in form of fine particulate matter. In US, road vehicles are responsible for more than 90% of the overall lead pollution of industrial origin 7. Besides that, tetraethyl lead enters natural water bodies due to application of leaded petrol as fuel of motor boats and with surface washout from urbanised areas. Tetraethyl lead is highly toxic and had cumulative properties. Coal burning adds 27.5 - 35 thousand tons of lead emissions to the environment, while in the case of burning of oil and petrol the share of lead reaches almost 50% of all emissions of industrial origin. Operations of metallurgic plants release about 90 thousands tons of lead to the Earth surface. Besides that, metallurgic and chemical plants emit lead oxides to the air, in addition to other pollutants. In addition, industrial and household waste may also release lead to the environment. Solid household waste may contain used lead batteries, electric cables, painted items (particularly old ones), crystal items, lead-containing glass, glazed ceramics, soldered items inc. old cans, some rubber items. In waste treatment products lead levels may exceed average lead levels in the Earth crust (0.16 - 1.6% mass) in hundreds to thousands of times.

7 Samotuga V.V., Malonog K.P., Bondarenko Yu.G., Litvichenko O.M. Assessment of Public Health Risks Associated with Carcinogenic Emissions of Road Vehicles //Relevant Problems of Transport Medicine.–2006. #3(5). – p.118-122. (Ukr.)

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Concentrations of lead ions well above background levels were found in soils nearby airports8. Producers of military hardware also belong to substantial sources of releases of lead and its compounds. For example, soldering operations in Russia are accompanied by emissions of lead and its inorganic compounds to lower layers of atmosphere - 1 ton/year. Painting, impregnation and enamelling works, use of lead-based compounds are responsible for annual emissions of lead and its inorganic compounds at the level of up to 150 tons (without accounting for application of compounds with high lead contents of limited use). Lead releases are also associated with production of lead-containing ammunition, application of lead coatings and other special works9.

Mercury In the global economy, mercury is used in batteries, in production of chlorine/alkalis, in small-scale extraction of gold and silver, in dental amalgams, control instruments, electric appliances, switches, electric lamps and in other spheres. Mercury is broadly used in electric engineering and production of control/metering devices, in production of chlorine and its compounds, as a component of alloys, heat exchange media, as a catalyst in production of some plastics, in laboratories, in heath care and in agriculture. The range of key sources of mercury releases includes: thermal processes in metallurgy, burning of organic fuel, waste water, production of non-ferrous metals, paints, fungicides, etc. Now, coal burning is considered as the largest single source of global mercury releases to the atmosphere. In addition, mercury releases are also associated with emissions of metallurgic plants, crematoriums, production of mercury-containing batteries and chlorine/alkalis, emissions of waste incinerators and other fixed emission sources. Mercury releases to the environment from industrial sources are fairly high. The overall mercury emissions (including emissions from both natural and industrial sources) reach over 6000 tons annually, and less than a half of the amount (2500 tons) are attributed to natural sources. Mercury compounds may infiltrate to surface water bodies due to leaching from minerals nearby mercury-containing ores and due to biologic destruction of aquatic organisms, that bio-accumulate mercury. Substantial amounts of mercury are delivered to water bodies

8 Prusov D.E. The Problem of Soil Pollution in the Course of Airport Construction, Reconstruction and Operations //Hygiene of Human Settlements: Compendium of Research Works.–2007.– Issue 49.– p .154-156. (Ukr.) 9 Lead Contamination of the Environment in the Russian Federation and Its Health Impacts, The Chair of Higher Mathematics and Informatics.. SibAGS, 1997, (Rus.)

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with industrial wastewater flows of facilities that produce paints, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, some explosives. Coal-fuelled power plants emit substantial amounts of mercury compounds, that are later deposited with rainfall, snow or dust. Intensive migration of mercury and its compounds in the environment is associated with its high volatility, persistence, natural atomisation, amalgamation of precious metals, ability to exist in different forms, solubility in water, ability to bio-concentration in soils and vegetation10. Evaporation of mercury form the Earth surface is considered as one of key sources of mercury releases (minerals, the ocean surface). However, industrial mercury releases are one order of magnitude higher than its releases due to natural causes. Bioaccumulation of mercury in plants depends on types of soil11 [101, 102]. Highest mercury levels were found in roots, but mercury also migrates to leaves and stems, while ferns (moss) adsorb mercury from air. Mercury of industrial origin does not form a separate environmental circulation, it enters natural mercury circulation and (in the case of intensive releases) creates a sharp misbalance between different media.

IMPACTS OF HEAVY METALS ON LIVING ORGANISMS

Cadmium Cadmium is hazardous in any form. Its lethal dose ranges from 30 to 40 mg12. Even drinking lemonade from vessels with Cd-containing enamel coatings may be risky. Cadmium excretion rates are rather slow - at the level of about 0.1%/day. Early syndromes of cadmium poisoning include: kidney and nervous system lesions, presence of proteins in urine, dysfunctions of reproductive organs (testicle lesions), acute pains in bones of legs and spine. Besides that, cadmium affects functioning of lungs and belongs to carcinogenic agents. Cadmium accumulates in kidneys (at the level of 0.2 mg of Cd per 1 g of kidney mass cadmium produces a heavy poisoning). 10 Radchenko A.I. Mercury in Crimean Geochemical Landscapes.//Synopsis of Candidate of Sciences (Geology) Thesis.– Kiev.–2006.–16 p. (Ukr.) 11 Radchenko A.I. Mercury in Crimean Geochemical Landscapes.//Synopsis of Candidate of Sciences (Geology) Thesis.– Kiev.–2006.–16 p. (Ukr.).; Kolesnichenko V.M. Bio-migration of Mercury Compounds in System: Soil - Water - Body of a Laying Hen // Synopsis of Candidate of Sciences (Agriculture) Thesis.- Kiev.- 2005.- 14 p. (Ukr.) 12 XUMUK.ru: Inorganic toxins. http://www.xumuk.ru/ecochem/13.html (Rus.)

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Cadmium enters food chains due to industrial emissions. Human intake of cadmium is mainly associated with vegetable food products, as plants easily adsorb cadmium from soil (up to 70%). Mushrooms may be particularly hazardous in terms of cadmium intake. Field mushrooms may bio-accumulate up to 170 mg of cadmium per 1 kg of weight. In Germany, Federal authorities recommend to limit consumption of wild mushrooms, as well as pig/bovine kidneys. Body deficit of iron accelerates accumulation of cadmium. This factor makes women more vulnerable to cadmium poisoning, as they lose large quantities of iron with menstrual blood. Pregnant women are particularly vulnerable, as growing foetal liver intensively accumulated iron. In such cases it is necessary to restore normal iron levels and prevent accumulation of cadmium. Dredged river silt should not be applied as a fertiliser, as sugar beets, potatoes and celeries are known to accumulate cadmium. Deficit of Zn and Se promotes accumulation of cadmium. Large concentrations of cadmium were found in tobacco leaves, causing high Cd contents in tobacco smoke. Excessive body intake of cadmium may result in anaemia, liver lesions, cardiopathy, emphysema, osteoporosis, deformation of bones, development of hypertension. The most serious effects of cadmium poisoning are associated with kidney lesions - dysfunctions of renal tubules and glomerules with delayed renal tubular reabsorbtion, proteinuria, glukosuria and further aminoaciduria and phosphaturia. As additional medical tests one may recommend estimation of calcium and phosphorus levels in blood serum, caocitonine and parathormone levels in blood, a common urine examination, examination of thyroid gland, electroencephalography, ultrasonic scanning of kidneys, dental examination and x-ray examination of bones. Lead In terms of its impacts on living organisms, lead belongs to the group of very hazardous substances, such as arsenic, cadmium, mercury, selenium, zinc, fluorine and benz(a)pyrene. Health hazards of lead are associated with its high toxicity and ability to accumulate in a human body. Different lead compounds have different toxicity: lead stearate has low toxicity; inorganic salts of lead are toxic (lead chloride, lead sulphate, etc.), while alkyl-lead compounds, such as tetraethyl lead are extremely toxic. However, in practice, only aggregate lead levels are usually measured in different environmental media, raw and processed food, without any differentiation and identification of different types of lead compounds.

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Human lead intake is predominantly associated with food (from 40 to 70%, depending on particular countries and particular age groups), some amounts of lead are also consumed with drinking water, tobacco smoke, occasional swallowing of lead-containing paints or contaminated soil. Air exposure is responsible only for a minor share of the overall human intake of lead - only 1 - 2%, however, in the case of airborne lead, the bulk of lead is adsorbed by a human body. In different countries lead levels in drinking water vary from 1 to 60 µg/l, in the majority of European countries, lead levels do not exceed 20 µg/l. Lead-contaminated soil is a source of lead pollution of raw food and a direct source of human lead intake, particularly in the case of children. The most high levels of lead in soil are registered at urban territories, nearby lead smelters and industrial facilities that produce lead batteries or lead-containing types of glass. Lead contamination of raw and processed food products may be associated with soils, water, air and feedstuffs (via food chains). Besides that, direct contamination in the process of production of finished food products may be of some importance. The most high lead levels were found in canned food, raw/frozen fish, wheat bran, gelatine, molluscs and crawfish, etc. High levels of lead were found in root-crops and other plant products produced at land areas nearby major roads and industrial sites. Lead contamination of canned food is associated with lead-containing solders used in the production process (they contain up to 60% of lead), while additional protective coatings may be damaged by corrosive components of a food product. Lead impacts: High risk population groups Adult population According to official statistics, workplace lead poisoning is No. 1 occupational intoxication in the World. The share of women in the group of workers affected by lead reaches about 40%. Lead is particularly hazardous for women as it crosses the placenta barrier and can accumulate in breast milk. WHO notes potential risks of spontaneous abortions at the level of lead in blood of pregnant women-workers of 30 µg/dkl and higher risks of chromosome aberrations at the lead blood level over 80 µg/dkl. Lead and children's health

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Levels of lead in blood are used as the key indicator for analysis of its impacts on children's health. Recommended safe lead levels in blood are regularly reviewed. Results of many major international and national projects suggest that the increase of lead levels in children's blood from 10 to 20 µg/dkl result in reduction of IQ levels. Lead pollution of environmental media affects health of the newborn - they demonstrate lower physical development comparatively to children from control areas. In industrial areas under study with developed metallurgy, higher incidence of infertility was registered, as well as higher incidence of spontaneous abortions, toxicosis, stillborn cases and birth defects, inc. development defects of bones and joints, congenial heart abnormalities, etc. Incidence of birth defects is higher among children of parents who worked at metallurgic facilities.

Mercury Mercury belongs to the group of thyol toxins, that block HS-groups of proteins, disrupting protein metabolism and enzymatic processes. Digestion of 1 g of a mercury salt is lethal. If converted into contents of the metal, the lethal dose reaches 150 - 300 mg Hg; adverse mercury effects become manifested at a doze of "pure" mercury of 0.4 mg13. In terms of toxic health impacts, mercury has a broad spectre of diverse toxic effects, depending on properties of mercury compounds a human body is exposed to (e.g. mercury vapour, inorganic and organic compounds), routes of exposure and doses. Mercury adversely affects health of adults and children, men and women. In household environments, key pathways of mercury exposure are associated with air (breathing), and (to a lesser extent) with food products and drinking water. Besides that, there are other occasional but common exposures: adsorption by skin, swimming in contaminated water, children may eat contaminated soil, pieces of plaster, etc. Mercury particularly affects nervous and excretory systems of human beings and other living organisms. Mercury generates acute toxic effects (quick and sharp consequences of high-dose exposure) and chronic toxic effects of longer-term low-dose impacts. A human body adsorbs about 80% of inhaled mercury vapour, the metal accumulates in the central nervous system, brain and kidneys. Available data suggest that many forms of mercury may penetrate human skin. In the case of pregnant women, mercury crosses the placentary barrier and affect foetuses. Analysis of consequences of known large-scale mercury poisonings in Japan and Iraq demonstrated incidence of cerebral palsy among children of mothers with moderate poisoning by organic mercury compounds. Therefore, the stage of prenatal development is particularly vulnerable to mercury impacts.

13 "On Problems of Mercury Pollution of the Environment and Measures to Address Them" (the background note for the meeting of the Inter-ministerial Commission on Environmental Security of the Security Council of the Russian Federation).

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Chronic mercury poisoning results in nervous lesions and manifests itself by astenovegetative syndrome with marked mercury-induced tremor (tremor of hands, tongue, eyelids, even tremor of legs and the whole body), irregular pulse, tachycardia, excitement, psychic disorders and gingivitis. Other symptoms include apathy, emotional instability (mercury neurasthenia), headache, dizziness, insomnia, psychic hyperexitability (mercury erethism), memory impairments. Intensive exposure to mercury vapour is accompanied by symptoms of acute bronchitis, bronchiolitis and pneumonia, changes in blood and elevated mercury levels in urine. In extreme cases, acute poisoning by mercury vapour may result in destruction of lungs. Mercury vapour and inorganic mercury salts cause contact dermatitis. In the case of long-term exposure to low levels of mercury vapour in air (a typical situation in cities and many occupational environments) so called mercurialism and micro-mercurialism may develop. These disorders usually manifest themselves in reduction of work efficiency, tiredness, hyperexitability. Eventually, these manifestations intensify, in addition to memory impairments, low self-esteem, irritability and headache. Other potential symptoms include: catarrh, gingival haemorrhage, heart pains, tremor, frequent urination, etc. Now, in addition to general toxic effects, mercury was proven to generate gonadtoxic effects (impacts on sex glands), embryotoxic effects (impacts on embryos), teratogeneous effects (resulting in birth defects) and mutageneous effect (chromosome aberrations). Metal mercury is a suspected human carcinogen. Adverse health impacts of mercury are seriously aggravated by its ability to undergo chemical and biochemical methylation (formation of extremely toxic organomercury compounds) in natural conditions and its high bioconcentration capacity in trophic (food) chains, particularly in aquatic ecosystems. These properties necessitate a permanent sanitary/environmental monitoring of mercury levels in environmental media, workplace and residential environments, in food products, as well as a large-scale monitoring of mercury levels in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. In recent 40 years, mercury pollution problems got a high high profile in international agenda, due to several severe environmental emergencies in different regions of the World. The most well known large-scale poisoning accident happened in 1950s in Japan, nearby Minamata Bay - where a PVC-producing facility discharged its mercury-containing wastewater to the bay. The facility used metal mercury as a catalyst for production of vinyl chloride. Local residents were poisoned by local fish and other types of seafood, that accumulated substantial amounts of methyl mercury (the poisoning was called "Minanata disease"). Now, many countries imposed limits for consumption of fish, caught in polluted water areas - US, Canada, Sweden, Finland, Denmark, etc. Application of mercury-containing pesticides for seed treatment and other purposes may result in hazardous contamination of food products, cultivated land, water bodies and -eventually - in human poisoning. As an example, we may refer to poisoning of members of rural communities in Iraq in 1959 - 1960 and 1971 - 1972 due to consumption of seeds

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treated by methyl mercury fungicides (6900 people were hospitalised and 459 of them died). Another well known example - a large scale mercury pollution in gold mining regions of North and South America, where mercury was used for a long time for amalgamation enrichment in gold extraction operations.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION BY HEAVY METALS IN RUSSIA AND UKRAINE

RUSSIA In the framework of the project, research studies were implemented in Volgograd to assess soil contamination by heavy metals (mercury, lead and cadmium). Analysis of governmental reporting on state of environment and public health in Volgograd suggests that the lowest environmental quality is observed in Kirovskiy and Krasnoarmeiskiy districts of the city in the Southern Industrial Zone, in Krasnooktyabrskiy and Traktorozavodskiy districts in the Northern Industrial Zone.

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In the Southern Industrial Zone, major chemical and petrochemical facilities and located - "Kaustik" Co., "Khimprom" Co., "Lukoil-Volgogradneftepererabotka" (Lukoil-VNP), as well as some thermal power plants. Cooling and collector ponds of major industrial facilities make a substantial contribution into secondary pollution. "Krasniy Oktyabr" Co. - a major old metallurgic plant - belongs to key polluters of the Northern Industrial Zone. The city stretches along the Volga for about 100 km. Almost all residential areas of the city are crossed by roads and railways. There are two major railway facilities at the city area, the both have repair facilities of their own - Volgograd-1 and Volgograd-2 railway terminals in the Northern Zone and Sarepta railway terminal in the Southern Zone. It in necessary to note that production and sale of leaded petrol were prohibited in Volgograd since 1996. As a result, lead emissions in the city substantially decreased. In order to identify levels of mercury, lead and cadmium in soil, we selected 11 sampling points in the Southern Industrial Zone and 3 points in the Northern Zone and the adjacent central part of the city, where the Medical Equipment Plant operates in close proximity to residential buildings (see the list of sampling points attached). In the Southern Industrial Zone, samples were taken in location of chemical and petrochemical facilities and in nearby residential areas. The highest shares in overall emissions in Volgograd are generated by "Lukoil-Volgogradneftepererabotka" Co., "Khimprom" Co., Thermoelectric Plant 2, Thermoelectric Plant 3 and "Kaustik" Co. Emissions of the above facilities contain a broad range of toxic substances, including phenol, formaldehyde, hydrogen sulphide, vinyl chloride and chlorine. In addition, these facilities emit mercury (100% of the overall city mercury emissions) and hexavalent chromium, that are categorised and substances of 1st hazard class. These facilities also accumulate sludge, mercury-containing waste, used hydrochloric and sulphuric acids and waste rubber - the bulk of these waste types are not processed and are usually landfilled. Industrial wastewater mainly undergoes biological treatment at "Kaustik" Co. site and then accumulates in collector (evaporation) ponds. Sludge of biological treatment facilities is collected at specialised sludge ponds. In order to measure mercury, lead and cadmium levels we selected 2 sampling points nearby "Khimprom" Co. site/ The first sampling point was located within the sanitary protection zone of the facility, between Volgograd - Astrakhan federal highway (100 m) and the facility's entrance (200 m from the bus stop). In this point, we found 2-fold excess of cadmium (4.3 mg/kg vs. the standard of 2.0 mg/kg), a high level of lead (20.9 vs. the standard of 20.0+1.0 mg/kg for joint measurements of lead and mercury. Besides that, we found mercury in the sample (0.024 vs. the standard of 2.1 mg/kg).

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Samples taken in the residential area opposite to "Khimprom" Co. (100 m from the federal highway and 200 m from the previous sampling point (farther from the plant) were found to contain mercury (0.014 mg/kg). Cadmium and lead were not registered. Geographically, "Sarepta" railway terminal is located between "Khimprom" Co. and the zone of "Kaustik" Co. and "Lukoil-VNP" Co., however, the distance from these industrial facilities reaches several kilometres. We selected two sampling points there: at the railway line (at the distance of 200 m from the repair facility) and in the residential area nearby the terminal. Mercury levels in the both samples were almost equal (0.022 and 0.021 mg/kg, respectively), while cadmium level in the sample from the railway line was twice higher comparatively to the sample from the residential area, however, the both levels were under the standard (1.4 and 0.75 mg/kg, respectively). Lead was not found in the both samples. "Kaustik" chemical plant and "Lukoil-VNP" oil refinery are located along Volgograd - Astrakhan federal highway, at southern outskirts of the city (directly in front of collectors (evaporation ponds) of all production facilities of the Southern Industrial Zone). Now, "Lukoil-VNP" Co. belongs to the range of leading oil processing facilities in Russia. The company annually processes up to 10.0 million tons of oil from Volgograd and Western Siberia oil fields with relatively low sulphur contents. For purposes of the study, we selected two sampling points in close proximity to the facility's site: one point in the downwind area of the torch tower at the opposite site of the federal highway, nearby the tram/trolley depot and another point nearby the collector pond for oil-containing waste of the facility. Mercury contamination (however, under the standard level) was found in the both samples. Lead was found only in the sample taken at the distance of 100 m from the torch tower (5.0 vs. the standard level of 30.0 mg/kg), while cadmium was found nearby the collector pond (0.88 vs. the standard level of 2.0 mg/kg). High levels of mercury (2.43 vs. the standard level of 2.1 mg/kg) and lead (19.5 vs. the standard level of 20.0+1.0 mg/kg) were found in the sanitary protection zone of "Lukoil-VNP" and "Kaustik" Co. The highest levels of mercury (3.74 mg/kg) and cadmium (2.67 mg/kg) were registered in samples from sludge ponds of biological wastewater treatment facilities of "Kaustik" Co. These samples also contained lead (9.8 mg/kg). Analysis of soil samples from Svetliy Yar township of Volgograd Oblast (the township is located in close proximity to industrial facilities of the Southern Industrial Zone, the

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waste dump and evaporation ponds) revealed some mercury contamination (0.012 mg/kg). In the northern part of the city, samples were taken nearby two production facilities and the railway terminal. The residential area nearby "Krasniy Oktyabr" site is directly adjacent to the facility area and constitutes its sanitary protection zone. The range of key pollution sources at the territory the facility includes: electric and open-hearth furnaces, continuous steel casting machines, etching workshops, cupola furnaces. Outdated technologies and deteriorated equipment substantially aggravate already serious adverse environmental impacts, inherent to the metallurgic production processes. Earlier studies (the ones implemented in the framework of the municipal survey of residential areas) revealed a pollution pattern, specific for steel works: lead, manganese, iron, nickel, zinc. Extremely high levels of molybdenum were identified in soil samples taken within the facility impact zone. However, no large-scale studies of cadmium levels were conducted at that time. For control purposes, we took a sample in the residential area within the sanitary protection zone of the facility. The analysis revealed rather high levels of lead (26.9 mg/kg) and cadmium under the relevant standard (1.28 mg/kg), besides that, a minor mercury contamination was also identified (0.064 mg/kg). "Medical Equipment Plant" is located in the central area of the city (Voroshilovskiy district, Profsoyuznaya St.), the plant site is surrounded by residential buildings. Samples were taken in a public garden within the sanitary protection zone of the facility. It was the only sample that did not reveale any mercury contamination. Lead level there reached 2.22 mg/kg - such a high lead content was associated with specific production processes at the site. Samples taken nearby "Volgograd 2" railway terminal (at the railway line and in the residential area) did not revealed cadmium and lead pollution. In the case of the sample from the residential area, mercury level (0.041 mg/kg) was higher comparatively to the sample from the railway line (0.015 mg/kg), however, it still was under the standard. The research studies suggest that "Kaustik" Co. is the key source of mercury releases (the facility produces caustic soda by mercury electrolysis process). The assumption is clearly confirmed by analytical results for samples taken at sludge ponds of wastewater treatment facilities. Chemical and metallurgic facilities also belong to main sources of soil pollution by cadmium and lead. Results of cadmium determinations # Sampling points Cadmium

mg/kg Standard mg/kg

1 100 m from Volgograd - Astrakhan federal highway, opposite 4.3 2.0

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to "Khimprom" Co. (field) 2 The residential area nearby "Sarepta" railway terminal 0.75 2.0 3 The railway line nearby "Sarepta" terminal, 200 m from the

repair facility 1.40 2.0

4 The sanitary protection zone of the oil waste collector pond of "Lukoil-VNP" Co., 100 m to the North-West from the pond.

0.88 2.0

5 Sludge ponds of the biological wastewater treatment facilities of "Kaustik" Co., 100 m from Volgograd - Astrakhan federal highway.

2.67 2.0

6 The sanitary protection zone of "Krasniy Oktyabr" Co., 100 m to the North-West from the fence.

1.28 2.0

Results of lead determinations # Sampling points Lead

mg/kg Standard (lead + mercury) mg/kg

1 In the field, 100 m from Volgograd - Astrakhan federal highway, opposite to "Khimprom" Co.

20.9 20.0+1.0

2 The sanitary protection zone of "Lukoil-VNP" Co., 100 m from the torch tower.

5.0 20.0+1.0

3 The sanitary protection zone of "Kaustik" Co., at the border between "Kaustik" Co. and "Lukoil-VNP" Co., 100 m from Volgograd - Astrakhan federal highway.

19.5

20.0+1.0

4 Sludge ponds of the biological wastewater treatment facilities of "Kaustik" Co., 100 m from Volgograd - Astrakhan federal highway.

9.8 20.0+1.0

5 The sanitary protection zone of the Medical Equipment Plant, 50 m from the side of Profsoyuznaya St.

22.2 20.0+1.0

6 The sanitary protection zone of "Krasniy Oktyabr" Co., 100 m to the North-West from the fence.

26.9 20.0+1.0

Results of mercury determinations # Sampling points Mercury

mg/kg Standard mg/kg

The residential area opposite to "Khimprom" Co., 100 m from the federal highway.

0.014 2.1

1 The sanitary protection zone of "Lukoil-VNP" Co., 100 m from the torch tower.

0.200 2.1

2 The sanitary protection zone of "Kaustik" Co., at the border between "Kaustik" Co. and "Lukoil-VNP" Co., 100 m from Volgograd - Astrakhan federal highway.

2.430 2.1

3 Sludge ponds of the biological wastewater treatment facilities of "Kaustik" Co., 100 m from Volgograd - Astrakhan federal highway.

3.740 2.1

4 The residential area nearby the tram/trolley depot. 0.012 2.1 5 The railway line of "Volgograd-2" terminal, 200 from the repair

facility. 0.015 2.1

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6 The residential area in Svetliy Yar township. 0.012 2.1 In addition to mercury determinations at the territory of Volgograd, samples were taken and analysed in Podolsk, at Oktyabrskaya railway and in Dzerjinsk. See the results below. Sampling points # Sampling points Ingredients Analytical

results (mg/kg) 1 Podolsk, nearby a residential house. mercury 0.063 2 Podolsk, opposite to Podolsk Knitting Factory mercury 0.047 3 Oktyabrskaya railway, between the railway line and

Spaso-Androinikovskiy Monastery (Moscow). mercury 0.160

4 Igumnovo township, 5 m from building # 20 at Skolnaya St. (Dzerjinsk)

mercury 0.021

5 The poplar grove, behind a shop in Igumnovo township, opposite to building # 9 at Suvorova St. (Dzerjinsk).

mercury 0.066

Cadmium Waste dumps with nickel-cadmium batteries represent the key source of cadmium releases to the environment. In 2004, the European Parliament and the Council banned marketing of batteries with cadmium contents over 0.002%. By 2008, their production and use are expected to be completely prohibited14. The above decision directly affected Russian railways. Nickel-cadmium batteries were traditionally installed in passenger railway carriages of GDR manufacture. However, their service life had been already exceeded. In 1996, Russian alkaline nickel-cadmium batteries were developed. Now, these batteries are mainly used in railway carriages with 100 V power supply system. Manufacturers assess them as reliable and durable and their operational characteristics are much better, comparatively to imported ones. However, they are still far from being perfect. According to expert assessments of the Russian R&D

14 "Acid is Good for Your Health", Gudok newspaper, 24.12.2005. (Rus.)

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Institute of Railway Hygiene, these batteries contain hazardous substances of 1st, 2nd and 4th hazard classes (toxic and carcinogenic substances). In the course of electrolyte discharge operations (a source of direct exposure of repair workers who contact with the electrolyte), high levels of hazardous substances were identified (in 2 to 13 times in excess of applicable MACs). It is worth to remind that cadmium poses health risks even in low doses. Cadmium poisoning symptoms include rapid fatigability and dyspnoea, while contacts with mixtures for nickel-cadmium batteries are associated with allergies, eczema, cardiac dysfunctions. Incidence of cancer exceed average levels. In 1994, Moscow government approved new rules for discharge of industrial wastewater to the municipal sewers - the rules prohibit discharge of industrial wastewater if cadmium levels exceed 0.01 mg/g wastewater (for comparison - lead levels might be 10 times higher). It is prohibited to discharge exhausted electrolyte of nickel-cadmium batteries to sewers. Due to high toxicity of cadmium compounds, electrodes of used NiCd batteries need reprocessing, that needs be to made by a specialised facility. However, even the most advanced processing technology allows to extract only a third of cadmium. The problem of choice among different types of batteries for railway applications has not been resolved yet. Some argue for acid batteries, while others prefer alkaline nickel-cadmium batteries. Which ones are safer and cheaper? In 1996, "Zavod AIT" Co. designed new NiCd batteries that are not inferior to similar imported ones and produces more than 1 thousand of them annually. More than 2 thousand new batteries have been already installed in railway carriages and locomotives of the Russian Railways. Two years ago, the Russian Railways initiated application of environmentally safer batteries. The Russian R&D Institute of Railway Transport, jointly with "TransEnergo" Co. designed and produced high-capacity armoured lead acid batteries - these batteries have already gone through bench and operational tests. Now, such batteries are installed in 500 passenger carriages with air conditioning and in 200 locomotives. Results of controlled application of these batteries in different climate conditions in 2004 - 2005 confirmed their reliability in different climate zones. A broad application of acid batteries instead of alkaline ones will improve environmental safety of railway transport. In the course of study of health impacts of cadmium in Russia, cadmium levels in environmental media, as well as cadmium levels in human urine and hair in three Russian cities - Vladikavkaz, Kursk and Dulievo (Moscow Oblast)15. Sources of cadmium

15 Cadmium in the environment of three Russian cities and in human hair and urine. Author(s):Kira A. Bustueva, Boris A. Revich and Lidija E. Bezpalko. Source:Archives of Environmental Health 49.n4 (July-August 1994): pp284(5). (2103 words)

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releases included a factory that produces alkaline batteries in Kursk, a metallurgic plant in Kursk and a production facility that produced cadmium-containing paints in Dulievo. The study covered workers of these three production facilities, women of the age group from 27 to 70 years and children of the age group from 5 to 7 years, who lived nearby these facilities, as well as the control group of persons, who were not exposed to cadmium. Overall, 150 workers, 153 adults and 430 children were examined. The control group included women of the age group from 27 to 70 years and children of the age group from 5 to 7 years. The study results show that as workplace cadmium levels in air increase over the MAC of 10 mg/m3, cadmium levels in urine and hair of exposed workers also increased. Almost in all urine samples, cadmium levels exceeded 14 mg/l - such levels may cause kidney dysfunctions. It is important to note that in all sampling points cadmium levels in air did not exceed the MAC. Cadmium levels in soil samples taken in close proximity to sources of emissions were substantially higher the background level of 1 mg/kg. Nearby emission sources, substantial amounts of cadmium were adsorbed by plants and other food products (about 75% comparatively to 30% at some distances from sources). Cadmium levels in drinking water did not exceed the standard level of 1 mg/l. Cadmium levels in hair and urine of children and adults who lived nearby sources of cadmium emissions, exceeded applicable MACs. Cadmium level of 9 mg/l is considered as a critical threshold for occupational exposure to cadmium16. In Vladikavkaz, human daily cadmium intakes were estimated for air, drinking water and food. Residents of the city mainly consume locally produced food - some types of local food products contained cadmium levels in excess of MACs. The average daily dose was estimated - 0.113 mg. Cadmium levels were estimated in some fruits, meat and dairy products. In some products (e.g. bread, meat, potatoes and dairy products) cadmium levels exceeded the sanitary limit (0.06 mg). Table: Cadmium levels in food products and daily intakes of cadmium

Products Daily consumption (g) Cadmium levels (mg) bread 300 0.012 meat 200 0.029 fish 60 0.006 dairy products 500 0.017 potatoes 300 0.038 vegetables 450 0.014 fruits 200 0.006 Total 0.113

16 Friberg J. Assessment of exposure to lead and cadmium through biological monitoring: results of a UNEP/WHO global study. Environ Res 1983; 30:95-128.

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Lead Human lead intake is mainly associated with food, water and particulates17. Main sources of lead releases to the environment include road vehicles (leaded petrol) and fixed sources - non-ferrous metallurgic plants. Maximal lead loads that cause environmental degradation are observed in Moscow, Vladimir, Novgorod, Ryazan, Tula and St. Petersburg oblasts. The most harmful route of lead exposure is associated with inhalation of lead with dust of contaminated soils, as increase of lead levels in soil by every 100 µg/kg results in increase of lead levels in blood by 0.5 - 1.6 µg/dkl. Food is responsible for up to 70% of the overall human daily intake of lead. Among domestically produced food products, the most high levels of lead were found in canned food, raw/frozen fish, wheat bran and gelatine. High levels of lead were found in root-crops and other plant products produced at land nearby major roads. In cities with low to middle pollution levels, daily lead intakes with food vary from 14 to 68 µg/day, while in districts with industrial emission sources the relevant figures vary from 48 to 163 µg/day. In the case of people without professional exposure, lead intake with pieces of paint and household dust is also of some importance. In the course of study of health impacts of lead, biomonitoring methods are widely applied - these methods allow to estimate accumulation of lead in biological media (blood, hair and teeth) and compare results with acceptable, biologically tolerable levels. Lead level in blood is the key indicator of its health impacts. WHO Expert Committee considers the level of lead in blood of 10 µg/dkl as the acceptable level (using changes in high psychic functions as a criterion). Different population groups: lead levels in blood

Lead levels (µg/dkl) Cities, population groups Adults Children

St. Petersburg children of radio-plant workers - 16.5 - 19.5 nearby a battery production facility 11.4 - 15.3 17.4 - 20.9 nearby major roads 8.7 - 11.9 2.6 - 15.3 Perm traffic control policemen 16.0 - 68.0 - persons without occupational exposure 18.8 13.5 17 "Lead as a Toxic Substance", http://med-stud.narod.ru/med/hygiene/lead.html (Rus.)

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Studies of linkages between lead levels in hair and functions of the nervous system revealed that at lead level of 24.0±14.2 µg/g, a higher incidence of CNS disorders was registered. Lead levels in teeth reflect a long-term process of lead accumulation in bone tissues (95% of the overall lead body burden are stored in bone tissues). Normal levels of lead (in succedaneous teeth) reach 13.1±1.1 µg/g; for comparison - its levels in teeth of residents of some Russian regions without occupational exposure reach 20 - 35 µg/g, while nearby the battery production facility in St. Petersburg the relevant figure reaches 29.7±1.3 µg/g. Similar levels were registered in Germany, while in Denmark lead levels in children's teeth were found to reach 10.7 µg/g. In major cities, average levels of lead in the air reach 0.5 - 1 µg/m3 (at MAC of 0.3 µg/m3). In such conditions, an adult intakes daily about 8 µg, while a child intakes 2 µg (according to WHO experts, human intakes of lead with air should not exceed 2.4 µg/day for adults and 0.6 µg/day for children). In outdoor air of the majority of cities, where the Russian Hydrometeorology Committee maintains monitoring of lead, annual average levels vary within the range from 0.01 to 0.05 µg/m3, or substantially lower than MAC of 0.3 µg/m3. About 44 million of urban dwellers live in such conditions18. About 10 million people live in cities with higher lead levels - from 0.1 to 0.2 µg/m3. Higher lead levels in outdoor air were registered in the course of special studies in cities with major industrial sources of lead emissions: Belovo, Vladikavkaz, Verkhnyaya Pyshma, Gus-Khrustalniy, Yekaterinburg, Karabash, Kirovograd, Krasnouralsk, Kursk, Novosibirsk, Revda, Usolie-Sibirskoye, etc. Overall, there are about 2.5 million residents in these cities, where lead levels in outdoor air exceed MAC in several times. In Moscow, lead levels in drinking water vary in the range from 0.7 to 4 µg/l. There is a potential problem of lead infiltration into drinking water nearby smelters or industrial waste dumps with high lead contents. The most high lead levels in soil were registered in cities where some industrial facilities operate (lead smelters, production of lead batteries or lead-containing glass) as in Belovo, Vladikavkaz, Dalnogorsk, Saransk, Rudnaya Pristan, Svirsk and in some others. Information on consumption of food products in the Russian Federation suggests that estimated average annual human daily intakes of lead reach 65.25 mg (or 1.25 mg per capita/week). In some industrialised cities lead intakes are somehow higher: for 10% of the surveyed residents, the intake exceeds 2 mg per capita/week. In daily diets of children of the age group from 1 to 3 years, daily lead intake reaches 14 µg, 64 µg for the age group from 4 to 6 years, 68 µg for the age group from 7 to 14 years and 87 µg for the age

18 Lead contamination of the environment of the Russian Federation and its impact on human health, Department of mathematics and informatics, Siberian Academy of State Service, 1997

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group from 14 to 17 years - i.e. lead intake with food products in the case of children under 7 years varies from 14 to 60 µg/days, depending on age. In the case of cities with low lead levels in environmental media, lead levels in blood of children are close to the standard limit (10 µg/dkl). In cities with high levels of lead in environmental media, relevant figures might be almost twice higher. Lead and children's health Lead level in children's blood is the key indicator of its health impacts. Assumed safe limits are regularly reviewed and reduced. Results of many large-scale international and national projects confirmed that increase of lead levels in children's blood from 10 to 20 µg/dkl results in lower IQs. The safe level of lead in hair is assumed to vary from 8 to 9 µg/g. Since 1980, systematic studies of lead accumulation in human hair in different cities of Russia were conducted. In particular, in 1994, monitoring results were published19 on lead levels in urine and hair of adults and children from industrial regions of Russia. The authors studied the cumulative effect of lead emissions of industrial sources and road vehicles. Highest lead levels were observed in the case of children, who lived nearby copper smelters (18.2 mg/g), lead and cadmium smelters (31.1 mg/g) and storages of battery-producing plants (48.3 mg/g). Levels of lead in blood of adults who lived at contaminated areas were lower, but anyway they exceeded relevant figures for the control group in five times. Lead levels in hair of children was found to correlate with lead levels in air and soil. In the case of children under impact of higher lead exposures, the most high levels of lead accumulation were observed at areas nearby metallurgy plants and battery-producing facilities in Vladikavkaz. Kursk, Karabash, Krasnouralsk, Kyshtym, Saratov, Chelyabinsk, as well as in the impact zone of the Chernobyl disaster. A major accumulation of lead in teeth was registered for children of some cities at the Urals (Karabash, Kirovograd, Krasnouralsk, Verkh-Neivinsk and Verkhnyaya Pyshma). Lead levels in children's teeth there substantially exceeded relevant figures for US and other countries. Lead impacts on children's heath are considered below for selected body systems that are particularly heavily affected. The most marked changes in psycho-neurological status of children were registered for children who lived nearby battery-production facilities in St. Petersburg and Saratov, and

19 Revich, Boris A. "Lead in hair and urine of children and adults from industrial areas. " Archives of Environmental Health. 49.n1 (Jan-Feb 1994): 59(4). General OneFile. Gale. UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO. 29 Mar. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/itx/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T002&prodId=ITOF&docId=A14930024&source=gale&srcprod=ITOF&userGroupName=utoronto_main&version=1.0>.

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nearby metallurgic plants in Belovo and Krasnouralsk. In Belovo (Kemerovo Oblast) with average levels of lead in children's blood of 9.9±0.5 µg/dkl, anxiety incidence is higher comparatively to other cities; nervous disorders among children under 1 year are mainly represented by encephalopathy and convulsive syndrome, while older children suffer from neurosis, enuresis, epysyndome. In Krasnouralsk, with the average level of lead in children's blood of 13.1±0.5 µg/dkl), mental retardations was registered for 76% of children. Lead impacts result in certain changes in the cardiovascular system. Lead-induced pathologies are associated with damage of mitochondria, in particular with inhibition of adsorption of calcium ions. Functional changes of the cardiovascular system were found among children with elevated lead levels in blood (more than 20 µg/dkl) who lived nearby the battery-producing facility in St. Petersburg. Lead contamination of environmental media adversely affects infant health. Newborn infants from Belovo (Kemerovo Oblast) and Karabash (Chelyabinsk Oblast) demonstrate lower physical development indicators comparatively to the control area. In another city with metallurgy facilities - Vladikavkaz - a higher incidence of infertility among women was registered, as well as spontaneous abortions, gestosis, stillborn cases and birth defects (inc. development defects of bones and joints, heart abnormalities, etc.). Incidence of birth defects was found to be higher among children whose parents were employees of the local metallurgic plant. In the same city, a higher incidence of chromosome aberrations was found among workers of melting facilities. Estimates of different exposure pathways that define lead body burdens of children in Russian cities suggest the decisive role of food products: more than 85% of the overall human lead intake. Almost 44% of children in Russian cities may encounter lead-induced behavioural and learning problems; about 9% of them need medical treatment; health of 0.2% of children is at risk and about 0.01% of children (500 children of the surveyed population) need urgent medical interventions. Sources of environmental pollution 99.86% of lead emissions are associated with 11 of 39 non-ferrous metallurgy facilities, while 5 individual facilities are responsible for 94% of these emissions: • Sredneuralskiy Copper Smelter (291 tons/year); • Krasnouralskiy Copper Smelter (170 tons/year); • Kirovogradskiy Copper Smelter (114 tons/year); • "Dalpolymetall" Co. (28 tons/year); • "Elektrotsink" Plant (16 tons/year). Estimates at the base of official statistical data on consumption of fossil fuels in constituents of the Russian Federations in 1993, suggest that combustion of organic fuel (coal, fuel oil, gas) results in emissions of about 400 tons of lead.

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Emissions and discharges of lead compounds by chemical facilities are associated with production of pigments, siccatives, special types of glass, lubricants, antiknock agents, polymerisation operations, etc.). Lead-based pigments are still used albeit in decreasing amounts. Lead-containing pigments are used in corrosion-protection coatings (i.e. primarily protective, not decorative applications). Overall lead emissions by glass factories in Russia are assessed at the level of 100 - 200 tons/year. Production of cut glass, optical flint glass, parts of CRTs, special types of glass should be considered as sources of environmental pollution by lead compounds, particularly air pollution. Lead losses at such facilities reach 2 - 8% of the technological input of lead. In the case of production of glass with low lead contents, lead levels in flue gases reach up to 600 mg/m3. According to data of the State Statistics Committee of Russia, relative contributions of different industries into lead emissions to air from fixed sources are assessed as follows:

• non-ferrous metallurgy - 86.7%; • engineering and metal processing - 8.8%; • ferrous metallurgy - 1.4%; • chemical and petrochemical industry - 0.5%; • timber, paper and pulp industry - 0.3%; • transport facilities, food processing, production of construction materials, power

plants and fuel industry - 0.1% each; • other industries - about 1.8%.

Mercury So far, in modern Russia, no large-scale federal projects have been conducted for inventory of sources of mercury emissions into the environment and assessment of mercury contamination of the national territory. At the same time, emissions of mercury in Russia only in the course of its application in industry, agriculture and gold extraction reach at least tens of thousand tons. In the Russian Federation, only mercury is legally categorised as a 1st class sanitary hazard substance in environmental media, necessitating its environmental monitoring and a detailed study of the scale and intensity of mercury contamination at the territory of the country20. In Russia, by 2000 - 2002, application of metal mercury substantially decreased (generally in several times) in chemical industry, in production of mercury-based and mercury-containing galvanic cells (by 2 orders of magnitude), instruments, mercury 20 "On Problems of Mercury Contamination of the Environment and Measures to Address Them" (the background note for the session of the Inter-ministerial Commission on Environmental Security of the Security Council of the Russian Federation). (Rus.)

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compounds, lithium isotopes, etc. Now, the major share of primary mercury production inputs is associated with chemical industry (production of chlorine and sodium hydroxide, production of vinyl chloride), production of mercury-filled thermometers and fluorescent lamps. Table: Amounts and composition of mercury consumption in Russia in 2001/2002 (tons) S p h e r e s o f a p p l i c a t i o n 2001/2002 2010

(forecasts)

Production of chlorine and sodium hydroxide * 103 40 – 45 Production if vinyl chloride ** 7.5 6 – 7 Production of thermometers 26 30 – 35 Production of fluorescent lamps 7.5 4 – 6 Production of gas-discharge items (ignitrons, etc.) *** 0.2 – 0.4 0.2 – 0.3 Production of high-amperage semiconductor items *** 2.2 – 2.5 1 – 1.5 Production of galvanic cells 0.9 – 1.2 0.5 – 0.8 Gold extraction operations **** 4.5 1 – 2 Dental applications 0.7 – 0.9 0.2 – 0.3 Production of mercury compounds ***** 1.5 – 2 1 – 1.2 Production of semiconductors ****** 0.5 – 2 0.3 – 1 Production of super pure materials by amalgamation ****** 5 – 7 1 – 3 Other ******* 12 – 14 8 – 10 TOTAL ~ 172 – 179 ~ 93 – 113

* Including secondary mercury (regenerated on-site from production waste and returned to technological processes) - the share of regenerated mercury does not exceed 10% of the annual consumption. ** As metal mercury (mercury dichloride - HgCl2 - is used in production of vinyl chloride), including secondary mercury (regenerated on-site from production waste and returned to technological processes) - the share of regenerated mercury does not exceed 10% of the annual consumption at a facility. *** Individual production of items that are not produced in large batches. **** Illegal application of amalgamation methods in regions with gold deposits. ***** Without accounting for mercury dichloride in production of vinyl chloride. ****** With a high degree of uncertainty. ******* With a high degree of uncertainty (production of paints and mercury fulminate. radio applications, application in laboratories, chemical analysis, research, R&D works, household applications, etc. According to preliminary estimates, Russian production facilities in the sphere of mining, clarification and processing of ores of non-ferrous metals annually process from 31 to 92 tons of mercury. It is important to note that mercury emissions of facilities that directly apply mercury in technological processes reach only 13% of its overall emissions, 10% of its emissions are associated with waste treatment and recycle, while the major share of mercury emissions (77%) is associated with sources and processes where mercury is an impurity in other production inputs.

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Dental applications of mercury (amalgam fillings) in Russia substantially decreased in the last decade from 6 tons to 0.8 ton in 2001. Now, Russia uses much less mercury for dental applications comparatively to other countries. Application of mercury-containing pesticides is banned now in Russia, however, some cases of their application were registered. According to estimates of the Public Health Ministry of Russia, in 2001, from 20 to 40 tons of mercury-containing pesticides were applied (with mercury content of about 0.6 tons). It seems that accumulated stockpiles of these pesticides were utilised. For example, at the territory under control of the Western Siberia Directorate of the Russian Committee for Hydrometeorology, that monitors residual levels of pesticides, in 1997, application of 250 kg of granozan was registered (granozan is the most common mercury-containing pesticide), 170 kg in 1998, 1575 kg in 2001 and 2165 kg in 2002. Besides that, mercury-containing pesticides are buried, often after their transportation for many thousands of kilometres. In the course of the selective inventories of pesticide storage facilities, conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia, in addition to tens of other obsolete and banned pesticides, mercury-containing seed protectants (ethyl mercury chloride) were identified, inc. (granozan M, granozan, ceresan M): 1.1.1.1. - Altaiskiy Krai 97952 kg; 1.1.1.2. - Arkhangelsk Oblast 490 kg; 1.1.1.3. - Krasnoyarskiy Krai 6550 kg; 1.1.1.4. - Kurgan Oblast 2300 kg; 1.1.1.5. - Magadan Oblast 150 kg; 1.1.1.6. - Omsk Oblast 33014 kg; 1.1.1.7. - Tyumen Oblast 8670 kg. Preliminary inventory data as at 01.01.2004 suggest that more than 500 tons banned mercury-containing pesticides may be stored at the territory of the Russian Federation. Their storage conditions do not meet applicable environmental and sanitary standards. Liquidation of stockpiles of banned and obsolete pesticides (inc. mercury-containing ones) is one of the most pressing environmental problems. Overall, in the country, thousands tons of metal mercury may be used in different operational industrial installations, in instruments and other items. For example, operational electrolysers of chemical pants that produce chlorine and sodium hydroxide, contain about 800 tons of mercury. Large amounts of mercury (inc. mercury-filled instruments, etc.) are stored by different facilities and organisations, as well as by individuals (inc. at least 230 tons of mercury in thermometers alone). The problem of indoor mercury contamination of residential, public and other buildings is relevant for any industrial city. Selective studies in Moscow, conducted in late 1990s, revealed intensive mercury contamination in 15% of surveyed schools and kindergartens. More detailed studies in St. Petersburg demonstrated mercury contamination in 50% of schools and 30% of kindergartens in the city.

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The scale and intensity of mercury contamination of the national territory are rather high. Just a few examples of the most significant facilities that apply "mercury technologies" and cause irreversible environmental damage: "Usoliekhimprom" Co. (Usolie-Sibirskoye in Irkutsk Oblast); plants and other production facilities in Novomoskovsk, Volgograd, Novosibirsk, Chelyabinsk, Belgorod, Smolensk, Saransk, Cheboksary, Norilsk, Vladikavkaz, Dzerzinsk (Nizniy Novgorod Oblast), Murom (Vladimir Oblast), Bolokhov (Tula Oblast), Golynki township (Rudnyanskiy district of Smolensk Oblast), Krasniy Bor township of Leningradskiy Oblast, etc. For example, even preliminary results of special studies suggest that mercury emissions in Usolie-Sibirskoye (1992) reached 1.5 tons/year - i.e. in 29 years of its operations, the local facility emitted more than 43 tons of mercury. In mid 1990s, "Usoliekhimprom" Co. monthly discharged 2.5 tons of mercury with its wastewater or 870 tons for the whole period of its operations. High levels of mercury were found in bottom sediments of the Angara and Bratsk Water Reservoir. Symptoms of chronic mercury poisoning were registered among many workers of "Usoliekhimprom" Co. Studies of samples of tissues of fish and birds, mushrooms and local agricultural products revealed levels of mercury several times higher than relevant MACs. The majority of residents of coastal townships of Bratsk Water Reservoir (their diets include a rather high share of local fish) were found to accumulate mercury in their bodies. Mercury levels in children's hair exceeded the regional background level in 8.7 times; high levels of mercury were found in urine of local residents. In Moscow, very high mercury concentrations (many times over the background level) were found in a rather high share of the city area (almost 20%). To a large extent, these industrial pollution zones are of residual nature, as soils accumulate pollutants and their pollution patterns reflect results of many years of impacts of different pollution sources. Besides that, soil is a source of secondary pollution of air, groundwater and surface water bodies. Dust with high mercury levels may cause pollution of indoor air, as even modern windows and air-conditioners cannot prevent this. UKRAINE Cadmium Industrial cadmium pollution of the territory of Ukraine Notwithstanding reduction of electroplating and manufacturing operations in Ukraine, as well as some other sources of environmental releases of cadmium in Ukraine, cadmium pollution of industrial origin in industrialised regions continues. Cadmium emissions and discharges of industrial facilities in Dnepropetrovsk were studied from 1996 to 200121.

21 Biletska E.M., Rizenko S.A., Golovkova T.A. /Experience of Eco-sanitary Assessment of Heavy Metals in Environmental Media in Connection with Industrial Pollution of an Industrial City //Hygiene of Human Settlements.–2003.– Issue 42.– p.373-376. (Ukr.)

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According to Dnepropetrovsk Oblast Directorate of the State Statistics Committee of Ukraine, annually, 0.005 - 0.095 tons of cadmium were released to the air in Dnepropetrovsk or (at average) about 98% of the overall cadmium emissions in the oblast. According to Dnepropetrovsk Oblast Water Management Directorate, annual discharges of cadmium to the Dnieper reached 0.015 - 0.190 tons of cadmium, in particular, the share of cadmium discharges of Dnepropetrovsk facilities in the overall oblast-level discharges to the Dnieper reached 54%. Cadmium is regularly registered in air samples in residential areas of Dnepropetrovsk. However, no levels in excess of monthly average and annual MACs were found. At the same time, annual cadmium levels exceeded the background concentration at clean territories (0.0002 µg/m³) in 35 times. See annual cadmium levels in outdoor air in Dnepropetrovsk in the table below (MAC = 0.3 µg/m³). Table: Annual cadmium levels in outdoor air in Dnepropetrovsk

Years 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Cadmium levels, µg/m³

0.01± 0.001

0.006± 0.001

0.005± 0.001

0.006± 0.001

0.0004± 0.0004

0.0049± 0.0009

Monitoring data of water quality in three water distribution networks of Dnepropetrovsk (Kaidatskiy, Lomovskiy and Aulskiy) suggest permanent presence of cadmium in drinking water, however, cadmium concentrations did not exceed the MAC. Elevated levels of cadmium were found in flour made of wheat from Krinichinskiy and Krivorozskiy districts of Dnepropetrovsk Oblast22. Statistic processing of results of epidemiological surveys of women of Dnepropetrovsk suggests a correlation between cadmium pollution of air, water, food and reproductive disorders. Therefore, at the territory of Ukraine, cadmium pollution of air, water and soils was found, the pollution poses a direct health threat and necessitates implementation of efficient measures to reduce pollution levels and cadmium exposure of the country population. Lead

22 Skalniy A.V., Esein A.V. Monitoring and Assessment of Environmental and Health Impacts of Lead with Use of Human Biosubstrates //Toksikologicheskiy Vestnik. – 1996. – #6. – p.16-23. (Rus.)

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Dnepropetrovsk Oblast belongs of the most densely populated and urbanised regions of Ukraine, it is the industrial centre of Ukraine. For 100 years, a multisectoral industrial complex had been developing in Dnepropetrovsk and Dnepropetrovsk Oblast and its development is associated with heavy pollution of all environmental media by emissions and discharges of industrial facilities. Lead belongs to substantial components of these emissions and discharges. Lead emissions are associated with combustion of coal, oil shales and leaded petrol (average annual lead emissions per 1 car reach 1 kg, while there are more than 25 thousand cars daily at streets of Dnepropetrovsk). According to Dnepropetrovsk Oblast Directorate of the State Statistics Committee of Ukraine, annually, 0.33 - 0.685 tons of lead were released to the air in Dnepropetrovsk. Data of Dnepropetrovsk Oblast Water Management Directorate suggest that annual discharges of lead to the Dnieper varied from 0.360 - 1.379 tons of lead - the share of wastewater flows of Dnepropetrovsk industrial facilities in these lead discharges reaches 63%. Studies of lead levels in food revealed its presence in all main groups of food products of plant and animal origin (average levels varied from 0.1188±0.0097 to 0.0071±0.0017 mg/kg). These levels did not exceed relevant MACs, except in the case of edible fats - 0.1188 mg/kg vs. MAC of 0.1 mg/kg. Estimates of cumulative lead daily loads in Dnepropetrovsk suggest that average loads reach 0.14 mg/day, while the maximal load - 0.26 mg/day - exceed the safe limit of 0.24 mg/day. The fact that 60% to 76.6% of pregnant women have lead levels in blood in the range of so called "warning" concentrations from 0.2 to 0.4 mg/ml (the level of metal carriage)23 24 causes serious concerns. Levels of lead in blood that meet modern sanitary standards were found only among 16% of women surveyed. Analysis of results of epidemiological observations (incidence of pregnancy and childbirth complications among women in Dnepropetrovsk) allowed to reveal the most strong correlation between lead pollution (inc. lead levels in air, water, food and cumulative human lead intakes) and such complications as anaemia, gestosa, hypotension, chronic placentofetal deficiency, premature discharge of amniotic fluid, afterbirth defects. Lead accumulation in a human body starts in the antenatal period due to its trans-placentary migration even at low external exposures. In samples of umbilical blood of the

23 On the Problem of Carriage of Heavy Metals /I.M. Trakhtenberg, V.A.Tychin, Yu.N. Tamakin et al. //Journal of the Academy of Medical Sciences of Ukraine. – 1999. – v.5. # 1.– p.87-95.(Rus.) 24 Key Normal Human Physiology Parameters. A Manual for Toxicologists /I.M. Trakhtenberg, V.A.Tychin, R.E.Sova et al.– K. "Avicenna", 2001.–372 p. (Rus.)

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newborn infants in Dnepropetrovsk lead levels were found to reach 87.0±0.12 µg/dkl [49], or much higher than the relevant limit. Therefore, results of monitoring of lead levels in environmental media in Dnepropetrovsk suggest that lead is permanently present in the environment. Notwithstanding relatively low concentrations of the toxic element in air, drinking water and food products, its systematic gradual human intake results in a rather substantial body burden, creating higher risks of deviations in porphyrin metabolism and alterations in composition of peripheral blood among pregnant women, inducing a higher incidence of reproductive complications. The above results are confirmed by results of similar studies of daily lead loads in Lvov Oblast (0.143 mg/day)25, in Donetsk (0.06 - 0.09 mg/day)26, in western oblasts of Ukraine (0.15 - 0.28 mg/day) 27 and in central oblasts (0.128 - 0.64 mg/day)28. Analysis of routes of human lead intake suggests that food is responsible for the bulk of lead intake - its contribution exceeds 90% of the overall intake. Lead intake with drinking water is negligible, while contribution of airborne lead reaches only 0.025%. Research studies in Chernovtsy revealed a linkage between morbidity of pre-schoolers and levels of lead pollution of soils29. Elevated levels of lead were registered in Kiev - in children's hair, teeth and urine, at the background of deviations in porphyrin metabolism, in parallel with alterations in status of the central nervous system, attention and intellectual capacity30. Moreover, lead levels in children's hair are 1.6 times higher comparatively to adults, apparently due to more active lead absorption31. 95% of the overall human lead body burden are believed to concentrate in bone tissues and its accumulation in bode tissues, inc. accumulation in teeth, reflects the process of long-term exposure to lead. In the case of children, lead levels were found to reach 4.0±1.1 µg/g in primary teeth and 13.3±1.1 µg/g in permanent teeth. Lead levels in dentine of primary teeth were found to correlate with behaviour and emotional disorders

25 Kitsula L.M. Hygiene Assessment of Adequacy and Chemical Safety of Nutrition of Pre-school Children //Hygiene of Human Settlements: Compendium of Research Papers.– K., 1999. – Issue .35.– p.424-431. (Rus.) 26 Stepanova M.G. Hygiene Assessment of Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals and Its Health Impacts in Donetsk Oblast: Synopsis of Candidate of Sciences (Medicine) Thesis /Ukrainian Research Hygiene Centre. – Kiev., 2004. – 19 p. (Ukr.) 27 Trakhtenberg I.M. The Book on Toxins and Poisonings: Toxicology Sketches. – K.: Naukova Dumka, 2000. – 368 p. (Rus.) 28 Trakhtenberg I.M. The Book on Toxins and Poisonings: Toxicology Sketches. – K.: Naukova Dumka, 2000. – 368 p. (Rus.) 29 Yatsenko Yu.B. Risk Factors of Deviations in Cognitive Activities among Pre-schoolers // Bukovina Medical Bulletin. – 1998. – v.2., #3-4. – p. 67-71. (Ukr.) 30 Kundiev Yu.I., Trakhtenberg I.M. Chemical Hazards in Ukraine and Prevention Measures // Journal of the Academy of Medical Sciences of Ukraine. – 2004. – v.10, #2. – p.259-267. (Rus.) 31 Rozanov V.A. Neurotoxicity of Lead in Children Age: Epidemiological, Clinical and Neurochemical Aspects // Ukr. Medical Journal.–2000. – v.IX/X, #5.– p.9-17. (Rus.)

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of children. 32 33 34 In industrial districts of Dnepropetrovsk, average levels of lead in children's blood exceed applicable standards in 1.6 - 5 times and exceed relevant figures for control regions in 9.5 - 30 times. Lead levels in blood of 70 to 100% of children were found to reach the level that might cause deviations in intellectual development, according to assessment scales of USA and WHO of 1997. Average levels of lead in primary teeth of children in surveyed districts were 4.6 times higher comparatively to children of control districts - these levels substantially exceed the WHO standard. A psychophysiologic study revealed that 34 to 45% of children in industrial districts have a weak type of nervous system, low learnability, display disturbed logical sequences in fulfilment of test tasks and poor visual memory. Only 36.7% of them have a well developed ability to analyse objects by shape, size and colour. In contrast, in the case of children from the control district, 89% of children have medium or strong types of nervous system, 70% have well developed thinking, high learnability and visual memory, 89% of them have a good level of perception of objects and display a sufficient level of concentration. Results of the study of lead levels in air, water and food, its accumulation in biosubstrates of pre-schoolers and pregnant women allow to assume that (at least) these population groups are affected by lead intoxication, which (at least) affects their adaptive capacity and future health status. Data for residents of Dnepropetrovsk may be rather reliably extrapolated to residents of other industrial cities of Ukraine with well known heavy environmental pollution (Donetsk, Mariupol, Zaporozie, Lugansk, etc.). Study of soil pollution by lead and other heavy metals in some regions of Ukraine Study of levels of heavy metals in soils in the country is rather relevant as Ukraine is a major producer of agricultural products, while quality of these products to a large extent is determined by soil quality. Accounting for high industrial loads on the territory of the country and high adsorption capacity of soil (soils are known to accumulate different chemicals, inc. heavy metals), soil contamination by heavy metals seems fairly likely.

32 Lukovenko V.P. Determination of Lead in Primary Teeth to Assess Its Heath Effects // Medical Practice.– 1990.– #4(973).– p.105-107. (Rus.) 33 Dovgalyuk T.Ya., Pikalyuk V.S. Some Skeleton and Bone Tissues Changes in the Case of Lead Exposure // Odessa Medical Journal.–2000.– #1(57) .– p.81-83. (Ukr.) 34 Revich B.A. Biomonitoring of Toxic Substances in a Human Body // Hygiene and Sanitation – 2004.–#6 – p.26-31. (Rus.)

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In 2006, selective studies were implemented to estimate industrial toxicants in soil in 18 cities of Ukraine. High annual concentrations of heavy metals (lead, cadmium, copper and zinc) in the range from 1.1 to 11.2 MACs were found in soil samples from Dnepropetrovsk, Yalta, Konstantinovka and Mariupol (Donetsk Oblast), Vishnevoye and Fastov (Kiev Oblast)35. Eco-geologic survey of soils in Mariupol and at adjacent areas revealed lead levels in excess of the MAC (18 mg/kg) in 2.95 times [85]. In soils in Donetsk, the average level of lead reached 33.56 mg/kg, also twice higher than the MAC [86]. A specific feature of soil contamination by heavy metals is associated with extremely low rates of soil self-cleaning. In the case of lead, its elevated levels in soil result in reduction of soil microcenosa and their diversity. As a result, such contamination poses a real threat of large-scale degradation of Ukrainian black soil areas in regions with developed industries. Besides black soil, there are many other types of soil in Ukraine (grey forest, sod-podzol, sandy soils, etc.), that accumulate heavy metals more intensively and release them slower. As a result, even low levels of these toxicants in soils may cause a serious contamination of agricultural products. Average levels of heavy metals in urban soils are relatively low. At the same time, there are areas with medium, hazardous, and very hazardous contamination levels. These contamination levels are defined by the sum of over-background concentrations of heavy metals in soils. High levels of soil contamination are generally found in industrial zones and nearby municipal landfills. Lead levels were estimated in soil of agricultural lands in Sribnyanskiy, Inchyanskiy, Kozeletskiy and Bobrovitskiy districts of Chernigov Oblast. It is worth to note that soils in Chernigov Oblast (inc. the districts surveyed) are mainly represented by low-humus light soils with a low buffer capacity - as a result, these soils have limited ability to inactivate industrial pollution by heavy metals. The most high average level of mobile forms of lead compounds was registered in Sribnyanskiy district (5.75 mg/kg, a low contamination level) while the highest maximal level of lead was registered in soils of Bobrovitskiy districts (11.24 mg/or, a medium contamination level). The average level of lead in soils in the four districts surveyed reaches 5.11mg/kg or it is close to relevant figures in other districts of the oblast in 5 recent years. Minimal levels of lead in soils in 4 districts, similarly to the whole oblast, were found to vary close to the background level. Lead levels in excess of the MAC were not identified36.

35 The National Report on Industrial and Natural Security in Ukraine in 2006. – K.: SF "Chernobylinterinform" Agency, 2007, 236 p. (Ukr.) 36 http:mail.menr.gov.ua./publ/regobl02/dpsir/Chernigivska_2003/zmist/3_3.htm

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Mercury In Ukraine, mercury in different concentrations was found in association with gas, oil and coal deposits. For example, in Donetsk mercury biogeochemical province and in Trans-Carpathia (Vishkovskiy district) mercury is present in excessive concentrations almost in all environmental media and poses serious environmental risks. Results of measurements of background mercury levels in different districts of Odessa Oblast show that the highest mercury levels in soil were found in Belyaevskiy district (0.0122±0.002 mg/kg), while the lowest background levels were found in soils in Lyuvbashevskiy district (0.098±0.001 mg/kg)37. Results of studies revealed low to medium levels of mercury contamination of soil in Rovno Oblast. Mercury-containing pesticides represent a substantial source of mercury pollution. Now, these pesticides are responsible for the major share of mercury releases to water, air and soil. Methyl mercury and other alkyl-mercury compounds are particularly toxic. Mercury levels in water exceed the relevant MAC (0.0005 mg/dm3). It is worth to note that the range of water supply sources in these regions includes low/deep water wells and local water distribution systems that intake water from the Turunchuk, the Dniester and the Ingul. In some districts of Odessa Oblast mercury levels in water reached: 0.0068±0.001 mg/dm3 in Lyubashevskiy district, 0.0093±0.003 mg/dm3 in Belyaevskiy district and 0.0078±0.002 mg/dm3 in Tatarbunarskiy district. The most substantial mercury anomalies of industrial origin are located nearby Nikitovskiy Mercury Plant, in ground water in the Central Donbass. Mercury levels there reach 0.01 mg/l, or 20 times higher than the relevant MAC. High levels of mercury (15 to 20 MACs) were found nearby coke by-products and metallurgic plants, as well as in areas nearby burning waste poles of coal mines 38. Waste fluorescent lamps represent another source of anthropogenic mercury releases as one fluorescent lamp contains 0.2 g of liquid mercury. In Ukraine, 10 years ago there were more than 180 thousand waste fluorescent lamps in need of utilisation. From that time these stockpiles continued to grow, while no necessary actions were made to utilise them. However, it is worth to note that in late 2006, Cherkassy executive authorities decided to allocate funds for utilisation of waste fluorescent lamps accumulated in the city. There is only rather scarce information on mercury pollution of the environment and its potential (and actual) adverse health effects in Ukraine. At the same time, high toxicity of mercury and its rather broad spread necessitate a closer attention and some managerial decisions.

37 Kolesnichenko V.M. Bio-migration of Mercury Compounds in System: Soil - Water - Body of a Laying Hen // Synopsis of Candidate of Sciences (Agriculture) Thesis.- Kiev.- 2005.- 14 p. (Ukr.) 38 Titenko G.V. Environmental Quality Assessment of City Soils as a Method of Territory Optimisation// SSU Bulletin, 2006.- #5(89).- p.149-152. (Ukr.)

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LEAD, CADMIUM AND MERCURY IN WASTE Russia Cadmium At the territory of the Russian Federation, nickel-cadmium batteries are produced in Kursk, Podolsk, Pskov, St. Petersburg, Saratov, Svirsk, Tyumen and Khabarovsk. Now, burials of nickel-cadmium batteries represent the main source of environmental releases of cadmium in Russia. Russian railways very broadly use alkaline (nickel-cadmium) batteries in passenger railway carriages. As a result, railway facilities every year accumulate huge stockpiles of obsolete NiCd batteries. According to Russian Railways Co., batteries installed in one passenger carriage may contain up to 94 kg of pure cadmium. The situation is further aggravated by the fact that there are no efficient technologies for utilisation of cadmium-containing alkaline batteries in Russia. Some recommend to replace alkaline (NiCd) batteries by acid (lead) batteries for railway applications, with eventual replacement of the latter type by maintenance-free lead acid batteries according to EC Directive 2006/66/ЕС (September 6, 2006) that prohibits marketing of batteries with cadmium content over 0.002 %. Lead According to expert estimates, obsolete lead batteries in Russia contain up to 1 million tons of lead - these batteries are scattered in waste dumps, transport facilities and other places. If we account for the contemporary situation in utilisation of these batteries, the above figure will increase annually by 50 - 60 thousand tons. The range of household sources of lead in solid household waste in Russia includes obsolete lead batteries, unusable cables, painted coatings (particularly in items produced in past decades), cut glass items, lead-containing glass, glazed ceramics, solded items, including cans, some rubber items. Levels of lead in waste processing products exceed its natural contents in the Earth crust in hundreds to thousands of times - i.e. 0.16 to 1.6% (mass). Mercury In recent years, there were growing problems of accumulation of mercury-containing waste at the territory of Russia, as well as associated problems of mercury supply for industrial consumers.

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According to request of the Environmental Parliamentary Committee of the State Duma of 02.04.98 and request of the RF Government of 27.05.98 (No. BN-P1-1482), the R&D Centre of PURO of the RF Ministry of Economy implemented a research study on Analysis of Environmental Contamination by Mercury in the Russian Federation to systematise available data on generation and accumulation of mercury-containing waste (MCW) and to ascertain the contemporary situation in the sphere of MCW utilisation. According to these data39, by late 1990s, the overall amount of MCW reached 1.1 million tons, including 58% (mass) of waste with mercury contents in the range from 10 to 30 mg/kg, about 12% with mercury contents from 100 to 5000 mg/kg, and 30% of waste with mercury contents over 5000 mg/kg. The overall amount of mercury in the waste was estimated to reach about 2100 tons. At the contemporary level of industrial mercury consumption in Russia (estimates suggests the range from 200 to 250 tons/year), the above amount could be sufficient to meet the mercury demand of the Russian industry for 10 years. It is necessary to account for the fact that about 11 thousand tons of MCW are annually generated additionally and temporary stored in Russia. There is another relevant problem of large-scale mercury pollution in gold-mining areas of Russia. Notwithstanding the ban on application of mercury for gold extraction purposes, there are cases of use of amalgamation methods in gold-mining regions40. In recent years, nothing was made to eliminate or localise mercury contamination of the region. The problem is not limited to Russia alone, it exists in other CIS countries as well. The mercury anomaly of industrial origin nearby Pavlodar (Kazakhstan) poses a major threat to the Irtysh floodplain - the anomaly is associated with the site of decommissioned "Khimprom" plant41. In the period of operations of the mercury facility of the plant (from 1975 to 1993) more than one thousand ton of mercury accumulated in soil. The mercury spot reached depths of 4 to 21 metres and migrates towards the Irtysh with rate of 50 metres/year. In 1999, due to severe risks of mercury pollution, the site was declared an emergency area. In the course of emergency response actions, the mercury electrolysis facility was completely dismounted, 17 tons of mercury and 130 tons of mercury-containing sludge were collected from the facility floor and equipment parts. At the same time, the so called first dike of the burial site for mercury-containing waste was constructed. In addition, construction works were launched to install an insulating clay wall in soil. 130 metres of the wall have been already constructed (from the planned length of 700 metres). An equally dangerous mercury accumulation is associated with different education facilities, research institutes, experimental plants and residential users in major cities. In 1997, in the framework of implementation of the municipal program of inventory of 39 Report on R&D works - "Analysis of Environmental Contamination by Mercury in the Russian Federation". R&D Centre of PURO under the Ministry of Economy and the Ministry of Environment of the Russian Federation, 1999, (Rus.). 40 Order No. 124 of the Directorate General on Precious Metals and Diamonds under the USSR Council of Ministers of 29.12.1988 on Termination of Application of Mercury (Amalgamation) in Technological Processes for Enrichment of Gold Sand and Ores" (Rus.) 41 "Moskovskiy Komsomelets" "Mercury Rivers, Dead Banks", 23.05.2002 (Rus.)

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mercury sources in St. Petersburg, the overall amount of mercury in thermometers and tonometers in possession of the city residents was assessed at the level of at least 3 tons. Industrial facilities, research institutes, public health facilities, schools and pre-school facilities store 10 to 12 tons of mercury and these sources are responsible for emergency spills of metal mercury and mercury pollution (more than 250 officially registered cases annually)42. In Russia, in 1998 - 2002, every year up to 9 million mercury thermometers were damaged (broken, destroyed, etc.) that contained about 18 tons of metal mercury43. There is another important component of MCW - mercury-containing consumption waste - thermometers, tonometers and, finally, metal mercury in possession of individuals (people get mercury from different sources and buy it, mainly for resale). There are 44 operational facilities at the territory of Russia, that predominantly process fluorescent lamps. The estimated capacity of these facilities is sufficient to process the whole amount of unusable fluorescent lamps at the territory of Russia44. Some Russian facilities organised on-site processing of their concentrated mercury-containing waste for regeneration of mercury: ("Kaustik" (Bashkiria), "Usoliekhimprom" (Irkutsk Oblast), "Kaustik" (Volgograd), "Belvitaminy" (Belgorod). However, these operations generate waste with lower mercury contents (0.2 - 0.4%). Such a waste is categorised as 1st hazard class waste and requires special storage arrangements. Recycled mercury, regenerated from MCW, is used as input for production of marketable mercury and its compounds. Units of the Ministry of Emergency Response organised collection and storage of secondary mercury, mercury-containing instruments, demercurisation waste from some industrial and household premises45. Ukraine In 2006, the amount of generation of waste lead and lead compounds in Ukraine (according to statistical reporting) reached 77110.5 tons, including 3304.5 tons of 1st hazard class waste. Table: Management of waste containing lead and lead compounds (inc. intact or damaged batteries) in 2006, tons* Management options 2. Amounts by hazard classes

42 Puminov Ya.A., Reshetov V.V., Mashiyanov N.R. "Specific Features of Mercury Deposition at the Territory of St. Petersburg". Proceeding of III Theoretical and Practical Conference - "Mercury. A Comprehensive Safety System", St. Petersburg, 1999, p. 47-49 (Rus.) 43 Yanin E.P. "Mercury Thermometers: Environmental Aspects of Production, Use and Utilisation". Moscow, IMGRE, 2004 (Rus.) 44 Report on R&D works - "Analysis of Environmental Contamination by Mercury in the Russian Federation". R&D Centre of PURO under the Ministry of Economy and the Ministry of Environment of the Russian Federation, 1999, (Rus.). 45 "Problems of Processing of Mercury-containing Waste in Russia" D.K. Donskikh, V.L. Skitskiy - in compendium "Mercury. Problems of Geochemistry, Ecology and Analytical Chemistry" The Russian Acad. Sci, V.I. Vernadskiy Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry. (Rus.)

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І-ІІІ hazard classes (medium hazard)

ІІ hazard class (high hazard)

І hazard class (extreme hazard)

Generation 77110.5 73806.5 3304.5 Used 42388.5 41580.8 807.7 Neutralised 20.3 14.8 5.5 Disposed to dedicated facilities/sites 135.0 109.9 25.1 Disposed to unspecialised storages outside facilities' sites

4.9 2.9 2.0

Presence in dedicated areas and on facilities' sites

13098.0 12175.4 922.6

Note:* according to Statistical Reporting Form # 1 – hazardous waste in 2006. Lead-containing waste is mainly represented by II hazard class waste (95.7%), the share of generated I hazard class waste reached 4.3%. From the overall amount of generated waste, 54.9 thousand tons of lead waste were used (including 807.7 tons of I hazard class waste). By late 2006, the overall accumulation of waste in dedicated facilities and on facilities' sites reached 13098 tons, including 922.6 tons of I hazard class waste. 4.9 tons of waste of I-III hazard class were disposed to unspecialised storage facilities outside facilities' sites (including 2.0 tons of I hazard class waste.) Lead acid batteries represent the most common type of lead-containing waste. It is necessary to note that only 20 - 25% of obsolete lead batteries are collected. As a result, every consecutive year, the amount of uncontrolled hazardous waste increases (lead batteries contain sulphuric acid and lead compounds). According to statistical reporting, in Ukraine, in 2006, the overall generation of waste with cadmium and cadmium compounds (I-III hazard classes) reached 31.4 tons, including 2.4 tons of I hazard class waste. Table: Management of waste containing cadmium and cadmium compounds in 2006 (tons)*

3. Amounts by hazard classes Waste management options І-ІІІ hazard classes (medium hazard)

ІІ hazard class (high hazard)

І hazard class (extreme hazard)

Generation 31.4 29.0 2.4 Used 0.3 0.3 - Neutralised - - - Disposed to dedicated facilities/sites

4.8 4.8 -

Disposed to unspecialised storages outside facilities' sites

- - -

Presence in dedicated areas and on facilities' sites

42.5 12.9 26.9

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Note:* according to Statistical Reporting Form # 1 – hazardous waste in 2006. In terms of composition of waste generation, waste with cadmium and cadmium compounds (I-III hazard classes) is mainly represented by waste of II hazard class (92.3%), while the share of I hazard class waste reaches 7.7%. In terms of composition of waste accumulation, the share of I hazard class waste reaches 62.3%, while the share of II hazard class waste reaches 30.3%. Less than 1% of waste with cadmium and its compound are utilised. There is no available information on neutralisation of this type of waste. According to statistical reporting data (Form # 1 - hazardous waste), in Ukraine, in 2006, the overall generation of waste with mercury and mercury compounds reached 1342.6 tons, including 1061.4 tons of I hazard class waste. Table: Management of waste containing mercury and mercury compounds in 2006, including fluorescent lamps (tons)*

4. Amounts by hazard classes Waste management options І-ІІІ hazard classes (medium hazard)

ІІ hazard class (high hazard)

І hazard class (extreme hazard)

Generation 1342.6 281.2 1061.4 Used 26.4 7.9 18.5 Neutralised 1374.4 - 1374.4 Disposed to dedicated facilities/sites

360.3 0.2 360.1

Disposed to unspecialised storages outside facilities' sites

0.2 - 0.2

Presence in dedicated areas and on facilities' sites

911.0 227.3 683.7

Note:* according to Statistical Reporting Form # 1 – hazardous waste in 2006. The share of I hazard class waste reaches 79% of all mercury-containing waste. Obsolete fluorescent lams represent the most common type of mercury-containing waste. Waste of this type is generated by facilities of all regions of Ukraine and almost all regions of Ukraine organised their collection. Besides that, there are several facilities in Ukraine that demercurise mercury-containing waste. Notwithstanding more or less sufficient organisation of collection of mercury-containing waste, the problem of management of MCW cannot be considered as resolved. A substantial amount of I hazard class waste (360.1 tons) is stored in dedicated facilities/sites, while the accumulated amount in dedicated facilities and on facilities' sites reached 911.0 tons (including 683.7 tons of I hazard class waste).

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The practice of unauthorised disposal of mercury-containing waste continues to exist, for example 200 kg of waste were disposed to unspecialised storages outside facilities' sites. From the overall amount of generated І-ІІІ hazard type waste, only 1.9% were used, while the ratio of used to generated waste of I hazard class reaches 1.7%. The amount of neutralised waste somehow exceeds the amount of generated waste - the fact may be attributed to processing of waste stockpiles, accumulated earlier. As it was already noted, in 2006, due to lack of specialised waste dumps, some lead and mercury-containing wastes (5.1 tons of waste of I-III hazard classes, including 2.2 tons of waste of I hazard class) were disposed to unspecialised waste storage sites. "Unspecialised waste storage sites" mean open pits, ravines, water bodies (according to the Manual on Procedures of Completion and Submission of State Statistic Supervision -Form #1 (Hazardous Waste) - Reporting on Generation, Treatment and Utilisation of Waste of I-III Hazard Classes"). The Manual was approved by Order No. 289 of the State Statistics Committee of Ukraine of 28.09.2005. In general, it is necessary to note that almost complete lack of specialised sites for burial of toxic industrial waste, insufficient capacity for their neutralisation and treatment, inadequacies in their registration and collection arrangements, lack of relevant infrastructure, specialised centres for their neutralisation and utilisation result in their accumulation on facilities' sites in all regions of Ukraine. On-site facilities' storages of toxic waste often do not meet applicable environmental requirements, resulting in releases of toxic waste into the environment due to waste disposal to unauthorised waste dumps and other inadequate sites. At the same time, operating facilities can ensure permanent control of waste due to efforts of their personnel or different supervisory agencies, while in the case or decommissioned facilities such control options are not available. A BRIEF REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL LEGAL ACTS IN THE SPHERE OF MANAGEMENT OF HEAVY METALS 1. The Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy provides the base for promotion of application of a consistent approach and identification of general objectives in the framework of national and regional efforts for implementation of provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The range of relevant problems includes drainage of wetland ecosystems of major importance for the Eastern Europe, including Danube and Volga deltas, and the Mediterranean region. The Strategy refers to the widespread decline of habitats quality, mainly due to dregging operations and construction of dams, drainage, extraction of peat, eutrofication, acidification and pollution (in particular by pesticides, PCBs, heavy metals), destruction of coastal forests, destruction of habitats and aquaculture, growing recreational loads, particularly in connection with tourism and hunting.

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3. The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal came into effect in 1992. The main aim of the Convention is associated with environmentally sound management of hazardous waste. Environmentally sound management protects human health and the environment by minimising generation of hazardous waste, including firm control of wastes from their generation to storage, transportation, processing and final disposal. Main objectives of the Convention:

• minimisation of waste generation in terms of their amounts and associated hazards;

• waste disposal as close to their sources as possible; • reduction of opportunities for movements of hazardous waste.

The Convention deals with toxic, explosive, inflammable, corrosive. eco-toxic and infection waste. Russia and Ukraine ratified the Basel Convention. 3. The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution of the UN Economic Commission for Europe (UN ECE), approved in 1979, allowed to establish the base for joint actions against air pollution. The document belongs to fundamental international agreements that ensure coordination of activities in the sphere of study and monitoring of air pollution and its regional impacts, as well as development of emission reduction strategies. Russia and Ukraine are parties of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. The document provided the base for reduction of emissions of specific pollutants by development of legally binding protocols. So far, eight protocols were approved to reduce emissions and transboundary flows of sulphur (sulphur dioxide), nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and to reduce emissions of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ammonia and VOCs that cause acidification, eutroficaiton and generation of ground level ozone. 4. The Protocol on Heavy Metals was approved in Aarhus in 1998 and came into effect on December 29, 2003. The Protocol requires reduction of emissions of three metals, causing particularly hazardous impacts (cadmium, lead and mercury), and stipulates opportunities to include other metals if deemed necessary. Parties of the Protocol are obliged to reduce their emissions of these three metals under the level of their emissions in 1990 (or an alternative year in the period from 1985 to 1995). The Protocol seeks to reduce emissions from point sources in production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, emissions from combustion of fuel (inc. power industry and

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transport), as well as waste generation. The Protocol obliges countries to reduce emissions of heavy metals (in particular emissions of lead, mercury and cadmium) to the level of 1990. The Protocol sets deadlines to ensure application of new emission limits for new and existing major point sources that apply BATs and mercury-free processes. The Protocol demands to ensure phase-out of application of leaded petrol and introduction of measures to reduce mercury emissions. In order to implement these measures for limitation and reduction of emissions of heavy metals, national strategies, policies and programs should be developed, that may stipulate: application of economic incentives, use of environmentally sound energy sources, introduction of environmentally clean transportation systems, gradual phase-out of production operations that generate emissions of heavy metals and application of cleaner technologies. Bans or limitations may be imposed for products that contain cadmium, lead and mercury. Ukraine signed the Protocol on Heavy Metals, but has not ratified it yet, Russia has not signed the Protocol. 5. High international attention to the problem of environmental pollution by heavy metals is reflected in documents of V session of the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS, Budapest, September 25 – 29, 2006) and in documents of the back-to-back event on heavy metals (September 23, 2006)46. IFCS-V endorsed the Budapest Statement on Mercury, Lead and Cadmium – "Heavy Metals: The Need of Further Global Action?" The statement documents health and environmental impacts of mercury, lead and cadmium at the global level and refers to ongoing and planned international actions to reduce risks associated with these heavy metals. The statement particularly focuses on ongoing activities under the UNEP Global Mercury Program and the global assessment of cadmium and lead. The Budapest Statement on Mercury, Lead and Cadmium considers follow-up steps in connection with these heavy metals.

1. We call IFCS members to initiate actions that would help to reduce health and environmental impacts of mercury, lead and cadmium.

2. We call WHO and other organisations to intensify, distend and expand activities to accomplish this aim.

3. We call the Forum members to organise, continue and intensify appropriate steps to reduce global mercury supply by diverse measures such as export bans, prevention of secondary inflow of excessive mercury to the world market and cancellation of primary mercury production at the global level.

4. We call countries, regional economic integration organisations and stakeholders, in particular industries, to consider and, if possible, to implement different

46 www.ifcs.ch

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measures and actions, including environmentally sound use, storage, recycle and utilisation of mercury, lead and cadmium, as well as to apply partnership programs and voluntary agreements in parallel with more legally binding instruments to address problems associated with use of mercury, lead and cadmium.

5. We call the UNEP Governing Council to initiate and strengthen voluntary actions on mercury, lead and cadmium at the global level.

6. We call the UNEP Governing Council to prioritize consideration of further actions for mitigation of health and environmental impacts of mercury, lead and cadmium, to assess the need of further actions and review all options, including the option of development of a legally binding instrument, partnerships and other actions in addition to ongoing discussions on the matter.

7. We call the UNEP Governing Council to consider opportunities for reduction and/or elimination of mercury production at the global level.

8. We call IFCS participants to support and contribute into further discussions on reduction of risks associated with mercury, lead and cadmium, with a particular focus on needs of developing countries and economies in transitions, that were launched at the International Conference on Chemical Management (ICCM), hold in the framework of the Strategic Approach to International Chemical Management (SAICM).

9. We also call IFCS participants to support and take part in global partnerships for reduction of mercury use.

10. We call ICCM in the framework of SAICM, taking into account potential decisions of the UNEP Governing Council, to consider action at local, national, regional and global levels with a particular focus on needs of developing countries and economies in transition.

11. We call developed countries and other countries that are able to do it to make all necessary measures to support the above actions.

6. A major attention to addressing problems of heavy metals is paid by SAICM - the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management. SAICM was approved by countries at the International Conference on Chemical Management in February 2006. The Global Plan of SAICM Implementation lists specific actions that may promote reduction of adverse health and environmental effects of heavy metals. For example, the section on risk mitigation considers such measures as "Promotion of reduction of health and environmental risks primarily posed by lead, mercury and cadmium, in particular by means of rational use of natural resources, and by throughout review of relevant research studies, such as the UNEP global assessment of mercury and its compounds"47. These activities are presumed to be implemented by trade unions, NGOs, industries, UNEP, WHO, UNITAR, OECD, UNDP and the World Bank. 7. In February 2007, the UNEP Governing Council discussed issues of the need to protect human health and the environment environment from adverse impacts of mercury. The Governing Council recognised that "contemporary efforts for mitigation of mercury

47 http://www.chem.unep.ch/saicm/SAICM%20texts/SAICM%20documents.htm

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impacts are insufficient to address of mercury-associated global problems" and came to the conclusion that further long-term international actions are necessary. In this connection, the Governing Council decided to establish the Ad Hoc Open Ended Working Group on Mercury, including governmental representatives and stakeholders to study and assess potential options for strengthening voluntary measures, new or already existing legal instruments in order to reduce mercury-related risks. The UNEP Governing Council decided to review suggestions of the Working Group on Mercury in February 2009 at 25th session of the Governing Council to decide on its final report.

RECOMMENDATIONS

As it was already noted, heavy metals cause serious health problems, degradation of soils and corruption. An inter-sectoral approach is needed to address problems of heavy metals with involvement of producers, users, governments and NGOs. The need to implement projects for reduction of levels of pollution by heavy metals and mitigation of their adverse health impacts is reflected in the Strategic Approach to International Chemical Management (SAICM), approved by governments in February 2006. Russia and Ukraine make substantial efforts to implement SAICM provisions. However, a multifaceted nature of the problem of environmental pollution by heavy metals in Russia and Ukraine and their adverse health impacts in these countries necessitates development and implementation of more specific actions to reduce pollution and mitigate adverse health impacts of heavy metals. These measures should incorporate actions at the state level and active public participation in monitoring of implementation of decisions made. AT THE STATE LEVEL:

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• Development of a complete information and analytical survey (the State Report) at the base of available information on environmental contamination by heavy metals.

• Development of necessary laws and regulations (inc. rules, manuals, instructions, etc.) on management, registration and reporting, practical use of cadmium, mercury and lead, their compounds and finished goods containing these metals, processing of consumption and production waste.

• Conducting a complete inventory (development of a database) of industrial and natural sources of emissions of cadmium, lead and mercury to the environment.

• Regulation of import of finished goods and instruments that contain heavy metals. This provision is particularly important in connection with development of international trade in goods that contain hazardous substances, including heavy metals. Expanding international trade results in globalisation of many health and environmental problems. According to UNEP, the flow of goods with heavy metals represent the key source of their health and environmental impacts in developing countries and economies in transition.

• It is important to support development of further global actions in connection with use of heavy metals and to participate actively in these actions at the governmental level.

• It is important to support the decision on the need of coordinated international actions for protection of health and environment exposed to heavy metals as a result of international trade in goods and waste containing these hazardous substances.

Addressing the problem of waste

• Development of a uniform system (mandatory of all users) for registration and reporting, collection, transportation and processing of wastes containing cadmium, mercury and lead by development of regional specialised centres and a network of specialised facilities for their collection.

• Introduction of strict limitations (or bans) for disposal of waste with heavy metals at landfills and waste dumps. It is appropriate to set targets for collection of such wastes.

Successful addressing of the problems of waste of heavy metals (as well as addressing broader problems of hazardous waste) substantially depends on clear organisational arrangements in this sphere. Organisational arrangements to address the most urgent problems, should include:

• development of the list of sources of hazardous waste and ensuring their accountability;

• development of the list of hazardous wastes that require top priority utilisations and organised disposal;

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• identification of leading facilities for utilisation of the most valuable types of hazardous waste and for neutralisation of the most hazardous types of waste that cannot be utilised;

• identification of burden-sharing arrangements for facilities and organisations involved in management of hazardous waste, including development of relevant regional clusters;

• organisational support of local authorities for accumulation of finance resources. The most urgent tasks in the sphere of regulation of management of hazardous waste include:

• introduction of a new version of the Waste Classifier, harmonised with the European Waste List;

• development of waste lists for different hazard classes and the base of the above Classifier and their approval as legislative acts;

• development of rules and specifications for disposal (storage) of wastes by hazard classes and development of a methodology for assessment of health and environmental risks;

• development of methodological (and classification) principles for categorisation of hazardous waste;

• reforming the system of state statistical registration and reporting on waste and development of the new statistical waste classifier (harmonised with the European Waste List);

• introduction of requirements to operations in the sphere of management of hazardous waste;

• introduction of rules for transportation, identification, categorisation, packaging and labelling of hazardous waste;

• introduction of standards and rules for operations of waste dumps, stipulating limits for and gradual phase-out of disposal of untreated hazardous waste;

• introduction of rules and requirements for incineration of hazardous waste and other waste management operations that meet European standards;

• reforming the system of waste disposal charges, that should account for associated risks and should stipulate introduction of higher rates of these charges and a progressive scale of rates for storage of hazardous waste;

• introduction of procedures for on-site storage of waste, particularly for hazardous waste.

In order to address the problem, it is particularly important to construct regional sites (technology centres/clusters) for neutralisation, utilisation and disposal of hazardous waste and to develop a relevant infrastructure. These facilities should be appropriately financed at a multilateral basis, with co-financing from waste sources themselves (facilities and organisations that generate waste), as well as the state budget and local budgets. Such arrangements may be supported by development of a mechanism for accumulation of finance resources for implementation of relevant activities at both national and regional levels. The mechanism may be developed in the framework of dedicated regional and national funds. These dedicated funds may operate as independent entities or as sections of environmental funds.

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However, a nation-wide nature of the problem of hazardous waste necessitates centralised budgetary financing of high priority activities, particularly in the sphere of research and development projects. Budgetary sources should provide full financing for research, development of methodologies, underlying laws and regulations for addressing the problem. Besides that, these activities should be also co-financed by local budgets, extra-budgetary and innovation funds. Technical solutions for reduction of emissions

• development of a register of methods, techniques, technological solutions for reduction of emissions of heavy metals by facilities of different administrative subordination, for decontamination, rehabilitation of polluted areas, detoxication of residential housing and production facilities, waste neutralisation and processing.

• replacement of alkaline (nickel-cadmium) batteries in railway applications by acid (lead) batteries, with their eventual replacement by maintenance-free lead-acid batteries according to EC Directive 2006/66/ЕС of September 6, 2006, that prohibits marketing of batteries with cadmium contents over 0.002%,

• replacement of lead-based pigments in production of decorative paints by ferrites, titanates and aluminates. In this connection, it is necessary to organise a firm environmental supervision (inc. both state and facility-based control).

• Development of high sensitivity methodologies for determination of mercury and its compounds (e.g. methyl mercury) in environmental media, food products and human biological liquids.

• Ensuring supply of modern analytical instruments, reagents and equipment to state control laboratories. Development of high sensitivity automatic analysers.

Reduction of adverse health impacts of heavy metals

• Improvement of the system of state sanitary and environmental control, including assessment of health impacts of heavy metals and their compounds, their levels in environmental media, in workplace environment and in impact zones of facilities that use heavy metals in production processes or use raw materials with high contents of these metals.

• Development of a system of permanent automatic monitoring of levels of heavy metals in workplace air of production facilities that emit heavy metals, as well as in major cities in crowded places (transport infrastructure, sales and recreation facilities, education facilities, clinics. etc.) for prevention of terrorist acts.

• Development and implementation of state programs, including activities for reduction of adverse health impacts of heavy metals. Implementation of such programs, primarily in highly industrialised regions could reduce environmental releases of lead, cadmium and mercury from industrial and transport sources,

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reduce their levels in soils, and - as a result - their levels in food products and human body burden. In this connection, one may expect a substantial reduction in numbers of people - carriers of these heavy metals.

• Russia and Ukraine practically do not participate in the European process of implementation of national health and environment action plans (NEHAPs). NEHAPs are implemented only formally. However, NEHAPs priorities still remain relevant. Moreover, decisions of the Fourth European Conference of Environment and Public Health Ministers (Budapest, 2004) demand continuation of there Plans with a focus on reduction of adverse impacts of environmental factors (inc. heavy metals) on children's health.

Information

• Organisation and implementation of awareness raising activities among practitioners and the general public, training of representatives of different bodies and organisations, municipal authorities.

The role of non-governmental organisations Non-governmental public movements have a major role to play in addressing the problem of environmental pollution by heavy metals. Non-governmental organisations should actively participate in development of national policies for prevention of environmental contamination by heavy metals, they should fulfil control functions in the process of implementation of environmental programs and exchange relevant information with NGOs of other countries. They should facilitate early ratification and rigorous compliance with provisions of international treaties on management of hazardous chemicals and waste. NGOs could also fulfil functions of public awareness raising on matters of risks associated with heavy metals and conduct independent expert assessments of environmental pollution.

Many NGOs of Russia and Ukraine signed the Global Joint Statement of NGOs/CSOs on the Strategic Approach to International Chemical Management. They agreed with key provisions of SAICM, namely:

• on the need to take actions for "reduction of risks to prevent adverse health impacts of chemicals on children, pregnant women, people of reproductive age,

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elderly persons, the poor, workers and other vulnerable population groups and sensitive environment."

• on the need to "apply the precautionary principle" and "pay particular attention to precautionary measures such as pollution prevention."

• on the need to address the problem of "lack of chemical regulation capacity in developing countries and economies in transition, dependence on pesticides in agriculture, impacts of hazardous chemicals on workers and the problem associated with long-term health and environmental impacts of chemicals."

• on commitments to "promote and support development, use and further improvement of environmentally safer alternatives, including cleaner production, informed replacement of chemicals that cause serious concerns and non-chemical alternatives."

• on the need to ensure "adequate transfer of cleaner and safer technologies" with a call for making both "existing and new sources of finance support" available.

• on the need to ensure "capacity building, professional education and training, as well as information exchange on sound chemical management for all stakeholders."

• that "rational management of chemicals is absolutely necessary for achievement of sustainable development goals, including eradication of poverty and diseases, improvement of human health and environment, enhancement and maintenance of living standards in countries at all levels of development."

• on commitments to "promotion and support of constructive and active participation of all sectors of civil society, in particular women, workers and indigenous communities in regulatory and other decision-making processes pertaining to matters of ensuring chemical security."

• on commitments to ensure access to "information and knowledge, related to chemicals at all stages of their life cycle, including associated health and environmental risks".

We commit ourselves and call all stakeholders, including governments, non-governmental organisations, the private sector, intergovernmental organisations and others to work jointly for implementation of SAICM policies, reforming national legislations, policies and practices of assessment and regulation of chemicals in order to attain the target of 2020 in all countires.