PAPER 255

THE INFLUENCE OF THE TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION AND TM-SIDID PROGRAM ON FIELD INDEPENDENCE: THE GROWTH OF A STABLE INTERNAL FRAME OF REFERENCE

DAVID W. 0RME-JOHNSON, DENNIS RAIMONDI, BILL VESELEY, MICHAEL C. DILLBECK, and R. KEITH WALLACE

Maharishi International University, Fairfield, Iowa, U.S.A.

Research completed 1981.

Students who practised the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme were found to have a higher degree of field independence when compared with undergraduate test norms. The authors propose that this more stable internal frame of reference results from the growing stability of experience of pure consciousness gained through the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme.-EDITOR~

r-

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ORME-fOHNSON ET AL . MOTOR AND PERCEPTUAL ABILITY: STABLE INTERNAL FRAME OF REFERENCE -PAPER 255

The effects of the Maharishi International University (M/U) undergraduate curriculum on field independence was studied with 98 male students, mean age 24. MIU students scored higher on the GEFT than undergraduates reported in the testnorms (p< .001). There was a significant increase infield independence as a function of length of time spent at M/U, controlling for age, attrition and entering SAT scores (p=.046).

The results are interpreted to indicate that the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program pro_duces a more stable internal frame of r.eference.

INTRODUCTION

Field independence is a theoretical construct posited by Witkin and his colleagues to explain a trait that appeared to be common to a variety of perceptual tests and germaine to a wide range of cognitive, social and cultural behavior (Goodenough, 1976; Witkin, 1979; Witkin and Goodenough, 1977; Witkin, Dyk, Faterson, Goodenough, and Karp, 1974; Witkin, Lewis, Hertzman, Machover, Meiss­ner and Wapner, 1954). This trait can be described as the ability to make perceptual judgements in­dependently of a distracting field or context, as measured by various perceptual tests. The rod and frame test, for example, measures the accuracy of vertically aligning a luminous rod in a darkened room when the only external reference to the ver­tical is a luminous frame around the rod which is set askew (the distracting field) . The embedded figures test measures the rate of finding (disembed­ding) a simple geometric form hidden in a complex visual pattern (the field). The commonality between high performance on these two different tasks ap­pears to be the ability to make accurate perceptual judgements independently of distracting informa­tion from the field. Field independence can thus be said to be the subjects' ability to enhance the signal to noise ratio.

Thurstone's flexibility of closure, Guilford's adap­tive flexibility, Phillip's spatial decontextualization, Duncker's functional fixedness, Wechsler's percep­tual organization (Pelletier, 1976; Werner, 1957), psychological differentiation (Witkin et al., 1974) and perceptual-cognitive style (Goodenough, 1976; Witkin and Goodenough, 1977) are all different con­ceptualizations of this ability, with different evalu­ations of the significance of the trait.

The cognitive style concept, for example, holds that. field independence (FI) is an analytic cognitive style, a preference for attending to internal sources of information, while field dependence (FD) is a global cognitive style, a preference for external

sources of information. This orientation is value neutral, regarding FI-FD as neither good nor bad (e.g. Witkin, 1979; Witkin and Goodenough, 1977; Witkin, Oltman, Raskin and Karp, 1971). However, there is considerable evidence that supports the view that FI increased developmentally and represents a more mature style of CNS integration (e.g. Silver­man, McGough, and Bogdonoff, 1967). For exam­ple, FI has been shown to increase developmentally in all individuals (Witkin, Goodenough and Karp, 1967). It is also positively correlated with de­velopmental measures such as Piaget's formal operations stage (Rubinstein, 1980) and Piaget's and Kohlberg's moral reasoning stages (Arbuthnot, 1971; Caring, 1971; Schleifer, 1971). At the upper end of the age scale, FI tends to decrease with advancing age (Lee and Pollack, 1978; Markus, 1971; Schwartz and Karp, 1967), while those who are more active and successful during advancing age remain more FI (Karp, 1967).

Of particular interest is the concept of a stable in­ternal frame of re£erence (Witkin et al., 197 4; Witkin and Goodenough, 1977) which appears to explain a broad range of experimental data on FI

and may help to explain why FI may be correlated with a more mature style of CNS integration.

In the case of the rod and frame test, the stable internal frame of reference can be specified as a clear internal sense of the vertical originating from semicircular canals. In the case of the embedded figures test, the stable internal frame of reference may be identified with a stable memory of the sim­ple geometric form. In social experiments on percep­tual judgements, field independent subjects are less affected by social pressure from confederates than are field dependent subjects (e.g. Linton, 1955; also see Weissenberg, 1978; Weiss and Shaw, 1979; and see Witkin and Goodenough, 1977 for review). Presumably, the stable internal frame in this case is a stable set of values.

FI is also apparently associated with a stable sense of well-being or self-concept that operates as an in-

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SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ON THE TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION AND TM·SIDHI PROGRAMME , VOL. 3

ternal frame of reference. For example, FI subjects are less int;Iuenced by noncontingent aversion than FD subjects (see Goodenough, 1976 for a review), they are less anxious in ambiguous situations (Culver, Cohen, Silverman and Shmavonian, 1964), and they show less test anxiety (Lau, 1977). Psychophysiological studies show a positive correla­tion between FI and physiological stability; FI is associated with lower GSR lability (Block, 1957; Hustmyer and Karnes, 1964) and greater stability of a variety of physiological and personality para­meters (Silverman et al., 1967).

The wide range of perceptual, social and physiological contexts in which the concept of a stable internal frame of reference applies leads to the conclusion that it may be a very abstract, general trait reflecting a high level of integration of the cen­tral nervous system at a deep structural level. A high degree of communication between various aspects of the nervous system with a low degree of internal noise could be expected to give greater access to in­ternal sources of information, such as information about immediate and recent experience, as in the case of current information from the vestibular organs or recent memory of a simple geometric form, as well as encoded information acquired during the life­span pertaining to stable values and a stable sense of self and well-being. This interpretation of a stable internal frame of reference as a low-noise/high­communication system is consistent with numerous findings, such as those associating FI with greater performance effectiveness under conditions of in­trinsic motivation (see Goodenough, 1976 for review), more rapid adaptation and greater differen­tiation of physiological responses (McGough, Silver­man, and Bogdonoff, 1965; Silverman, Cohen, Shmavonian and Greenberg, 1961), well differen­tiated classical conditioning of autonomic responses (Courter, Wattenmaker and Ax, 1965), greater dif­ferentiation of the visual evoked response to parametrically varied stimuli (Buchsbaum and Silver­man, 1970), greater interhemispheric lateralization of both EEG alpha (Oltman, Semple and Goldstein, 1979) and verbal and configurallearning (Zoccolotti and Oltman, 1978), etc.

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1969) has discussed the acquisition of a stable internal frame of reference and its broad range of benefits for psychophysio­logical development in terms of stabilization of "pure consciousness" in the development of enlightenment. He predicts that the regular experience of turning

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the attention inward through the Transcendental Meditation technique will develop a stable state of silent inner awareness (pure consciousness) through­out the cycle of waking, dreaming and sleeping. This stable internal frame of reference would function as an anchor to life so that it is no longer blown about by the winds of circumstance, to use his metaphor.

Pelletier (1974, 1976) predicted that the regular experience of turning the attention inward through the Transcendental Meditation (TM) program would increase field independence. In a random-assign­ment-to-groups study of 40 subjects, mean age 24.7 years, he found that over a three-month period of the TM program field independence increased on three different measures, the rod and frame test, the embedded figures test and the autokinetic percep­tion test.

Whereas Pelletier studied new meditators, the pre­sent study attempts to replicate his results using students in the undergraduate program at Maharishi International University who participate in the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program as part of their regular daily routine.

METHOD

SUBJECTS AND APPARATUS-A random sample of 120 male MIU undergraduates were tested on Witkin's Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT, Witkin et al., 1971). Data were collected on age, time practicing the TM program, time practicing the TM­Sidhi program, entering SAT scores, time at MIU at the time of testing, attrition from MIU over the next two years (obtained from registrar's office) and whether the subject previously had taken the GEFT. All subjects (N = 6) who had previously taken the GEFT before were eliminated from the sample. Also eliminated from the sample were subjects with missing data. This left a sample of 98 subjects, with mean age 24.17 years, mean time participating in the TM program 64.29 months, mean time par­ticipating in the TM-Sidhi program 7.32 months and mean time at MIU 17.95 months.

The measure of field independence used was the Group Embedded Figures Test (Witkin et al., 1971) administered according to standard instructions. Standard time instructions were adhered to in this experiment so that the results could be compared

ORME-JOHNSON ET AL.

MOTOR AND PERCEPTUAL ABILITY: STABLE INTERNAL FRAME OF REFERENCE -PAPER 255

with the undergraduate norms published in the test manual.

The test was given to the subjects in groups of ap­proximately 30. After eliminating any subjects who had taken the test before, the results were compared to published norms for the test. A correlation be­tween GEFf scores and time at MIU was calculated.

- Since the test was given two years prior to the pre­sent data analysis, it was possible to control for the effects of attrition of students who left MIU for reasons other than graduation during the two years following testing on the GEFf. Students who left for reasons other than graduation (N = 23) were com­pared on the GEFf with students who stayed (N = 75). In addition, for the subjects who stayed, the relationship of GEFf with length of time at MIU was studied covarying for age and length of TM­Sidhi practice. Percentile on the SAT test at time of entry at MIU was used as a covariant for a subsam­ple of subjects (N =52) for whom the data were available.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The mean score on the GEFf for MIU students was 14.72, which was significantly higher than the published test norms of 12.0 for undergraduates in an eastern liberal arts college (p < .001, see table I).

The simple correlation of GEFf scores and time at MIU was significant: r= .29, p< .01, N = 98. One possible explanation of the significant positive cor­relation between time at MIU and field independence is that people with lower scores tended to drop out of school. In order to study this possibility, all students who had left MIU (for reasons other than graduation) for one year or more in a two year period after the time of testing on the GEFf were

TABLE I

COMPARISON OF GROUP EMBEDDED F IGURES TEST SCORES FOR MIU STUDENTS WITH T EST NORMS FOR AN EASTERN

LIBERAL ARTS C OLLEGE

Mean

S.D .

N

MIU STUDENTS (MALES)

14.72 40.8 sec/ problem

4.01

98

f; 10.49 d/; 251 p < .001

• Witkin et al. , 1971.

UNDERGRADUATE NORMS (MALES)*

12.0 50 sec/ problem

4.10

155

identified. Table 2 shows that the 23 students who left MIU were similar on all variables to the 75 who stayed, including entering SAT scores. Although the GEFf scores for the group that left (Mean= 13.39) were somewhat lower than for the group that stayed (Mean= 14.98}, they were not significantly different (t= 1.48, p= .150). Hence, the hypothesis that at­trition due to low aptitude might account for the results can be discounted.

Table 3 shows an analysis of covariance on GEFf

scores for the 87 students known to have stayed or graduated over the next two years. The subjects were divided into four groups according to how long they had been at MIU. Age was used as a covariate. The mean GEFf score consistently increases as a func­tion of time at MIU (p = .046) covarying for age. The adjusted cell mean for new students was 13.09 (45.8 seconds per problem), _similar to the score of 12.0 or 50 seconds per problem, for undergraduates published in the test manual. The score increased to 16.78 (37.8 seconds per problem) for students who had been at MIU for 30 or more months. The change from new students to 30-or-more-month students represents a 300Jo increase in the rate of disembed­ding the hidden figures.

It can be seen in table 3 that the age covariate did not account for a significant amount of GEFT

variance. This was expected from developmental studies showing that the growth on the GEFf reaches a plateau at approximately 17 years of age (Witkin et al. , 1967}, since the present subjects were in their early and mid-20's.

TABLE 2

COMPARISON OF SUBJECTS WHO STAYED AT MIU WITH THOSE WHO L EFT*

STAYED LEFT VARIABLE N;75 N; 2J

Age Mean 24.19 24.26 S.D . 3.64 2.75

TM (mos) Mean 65 .28 61.48 S .D . 23.68 22.69

TM-Sidhis (mos) Mean 7.92 5.08 S .D . 7.64 7.78

GEFT M ean 14.98 13 .39 40 sec/ probl. 44.8 ~ec/probl.

S.D . 3.89 4.72

Entering SAT Mean 68.61 68.70 Percentile (Math S.D . 17.80 20.40 and Verbal N 52 16 combined)

• None of the mean differences between groups were statistically significant.

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SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ON THE TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION AND TM-SIDHI PROGRAMME, VOL. 3

TABLE 3

MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS AND ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF THE GROUP EMBEDDED FIGURES TEST (GEFT) AS A FUNCTION OF

\ MONTHS AT MIU, COVARYING FOR TIME PARTICIPATING IN THE TM-SIDHI PROGRAM, AND AGE.

MONTHS AT MIU

GEFT

Covariate: Age

GEFT Adjusted Cell means

Mean

S .D.

N

Mean S .D .

Mean

10 months or less

13.13 45 .7 sec/ problem 5.18

16

25 .5 5.85

13 .09 45 .8 sec/ problem

10 to 20 months

14.03 42.8 sec/ problem 4.60

32

24.31 4.58

14.03 42.8 sec/ problem

20 to 30 months

15.56 38.6 sec/ problem

3.07

25

23.48 2.04

15.58 38 .5 sec/ problem

30 months or more

16.79 35 .7 sec/ problem

1.67

14

24.43 3.67

16.78 37.8 sec/ problem

ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE

Source

AtMIU COVAR ERROR

Sum of Squares

134.32 1.13

1318.11

Degrees of Freedom

3

It can also be seen in table 3 that the standard deviations of the GEFf decreased as a function of months at MIU. This is probably due to the ceiling effect on the test. The maximum score on the GEFf

is 18, so the mean score of 16.79 (unadjusted cell means) of the group that had been at MIU 30 or more months is near the test maximum. As a greater proportion of the students score near the test max­imum, the standard deviation will decrease.

The four groups by length of time at MIU were also found to be equivalent when they entered MIU. SAT percentile scores (Math and Verbal combined) were available for only 52 of the 75 subjects. A separate analysis of covariance using entering SAT scores as a covariate for this subsample of 52 showed that SAT scores did not account for a significant amount of variance between groups on GEFT scores.

Thus, it appears that upper classmen did not score higher on the GEFT because they came to MIU at a higher level ability. In addition, percentile scores on the entering SATs (Math and Verbal combined) for the group that stayed at MIU and the group that left were similar (68.61, S.D. = 17 .8, percentile for those who stayed at MIU, 68.7, S.D.=20.4, for those who left). Thus, it does not appear that the observed increase in GEFT scores as a function of time at MIU can be accounted for by attrition of students with low aptitude.

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Mean Square

44.77 1.13

16.07

DISCUSSION

p

.046

.792

The results replicate Pelletier's (1974, 1976) findings that the TM program increases field independence.

In this experiment, neither the students nor testers knew that the results would be analyzed according to time spent at MIU. The GEFT was given in the context of a routine program of yearly psychophysio­logical testing of the students. Thus, all students could be expected to be motivated to do well to ob­tain a ,high score for their records. Therefore it seems unlikely that the results of the experiment were due to motivation. Thus, the results support the inter­pretation that the TM and TM-Sidhi program which was part of the MIU students' regular daily routine, increases field independence.

The theoretical context within which the present experiment was conducted predicted that an increase in field independence would result from the develop­ment of a stable, abstract, generalized, internal frame of reference experienced by the subject as a growing stability of pure consciousness gained through Maharishi's Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program. An example of a subjective ex­perience of pure consciousness is: "The predominant experience in meditation was a deep, expansive silence, stable and immovable in its character, with

ORME-JOHNSON ET AL . MOTOR AND PERCEPTUAL ABILITY: STABLE INTERNAL FRAME OF REFERENCE -PAPER 255

thoughts proceeding on the surface" (Orme-Johnson and Haynes, 1981, p. 213). Construct validity for a generalized stable, internal frame of reference is provided by other research showing that participants in the Transcendental Meditation program have the characteristic correlates of field independence that bear upon the construct of a low-noise/high­communication system. Examples of correlates of fiet d independence found in TM participants are autonomic stability (Orme-Johnson, 1973), greater lateralization of the EEG during tasks (Bennett and Trinder, 1977), increased ability of concept forma­tion (Dillbeck et al. , 1981), and increased creativity (Travis, 1979).

For each of these variables, TM participants are similar to relatively field independent subjects as reported in the literature (e.g. Witkin, Oltman, Cox, Ehrlichman, Hamm and Ringler, 1973). Taken together, these data suggest that field independence is a part of, if not central to, a global construct which Witkin et al. (1974) have named a "stable internal frame of reference" , and which Maharishi identifies in its ultimate form as pure consciousness, the state of least excitation of consciousness, the simplest form of human awareness. The present results, taken together with previous research showing increases in the various psychophysiological correlates of field independence demonstrate that an holistic stable in­ternal frame of reference is increased through the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program. These results indicate greater integration, adapta­bility and stability among the psychophysiological and homeostatic systems of the body resulting from the regular experience of pure consciousness, the state of maximum physiological coherence and stability. Thus, the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program is found to add an important new dimension to the undergraduate curriculum-psycho­physiological development of the student.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank Suzanne Araas for her help with the experiment, and Rhoda Orme-Johnson for her editorial suggestions.

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