The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism

The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism

Helen J. Baroni, Ph.D.

The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.New York

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To my students at the University of Hawai’i, past, present, and future.

Published in 2002 by The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010

Copyright © 2002 by Helen J. Baroni

First Edition

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Baroni, Helen Josephine.The illustrated encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism / Helen J. Baroni.

p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-8239-2240-51. Zen Buddhism––Dictionaries––English. I. Title.

BQ9259 .B37 2002294.3’927’03––dc21 99-053421

CIP

Manufactured in the United States of America

Staff CreditsEditors: Michael Isaac, Christine SloveyEditorial Assistant: Rob KirkpatrickBook Design: Olga M. VegaCover Design: MaryJane WojciechowskiProduction Design: Erica Clendening, MaryJane Wojciechowski

v

Table of Contents

Introduction vi

How to Use This Book xi

Contents by Subject xii

Entries 1–390

Bibliography 391–396

Index 397–425

Photo Credits 426

About the Author 426

In the one hundred years since Zen Buddhism was introduced to the West, manyof its traditions have become a part of our culture. When I tell people that I studyZen, they often tell me about their familiarity with Zen arts such as haiku poetry,martial arts, or flower arranging. At the same time, many people also learn aboutBuddhism by experiencing meditation. Yet despite the growing popularity of Zenarts and practices, the ancient religious beliefs that formed them remain largelyunfamiliar to those in the West.

In the Western vocabulary, the word zen has taken on a broad array of meanings.The philosophy of Zen is often recast to Westerners as a freedom from social normsand ordinary religious restrictions. It may be suggested, for example, that Zen prac-titioners do not need to concern themselves with good and bad behavior becausethey have risen above distinctions such as right and wrong. In East Asia, the impres-sion of Zen could not be more different. Zen Buddhism is regarded as a religion ofstrict religious practice because there it is concentrated in monasteries wheremonks and nuns live their lives guided by a special code of conduct. This under-standing of Zen is based on its tradition of scholarship and religious discipline.

In Japanese, the term zen means “meditation.” Zen is an abbreviation of theword zenna, which is derived from a Chinese term for meditation, ch’anna. TheChinese term is a translation of the Sanskrit word dhyana, a term for meditationthat is found in Buddhist texts. The introspective and contemplative practice ofmeditation is a part of many religious traditions and is a fundamental element ofall schools of Buddhism. In both the Chinese and Japanese languages, one mayuse the words ch’anna or zen to refer to any form of meditation, whetherBuddhist, Confucian, or even Christian. Most often the terms refer to the styles ofseated meditation (zazen) practiced in Zen Buddhist monasteries. Zazen speci-fies the way a person should sit and includes techniques to allow one to releasecontrol of his or her thoughts. When a new East Asian form of Buddhist monasticpractice centered on seated meditation took shape in China during the T’angDynasty (618–907) and then spread to Korea and Japan, it became known as theMeditation School of Buddhism (the Ch’an school in Chinese, the Son school inKorean, and the Zen school in Japanese). The term zen, therefore, refers not onlyto the practice of meditation but also refers to the many schools of Buddhism thatpractice seated meditation.

The History of ZenTraditional AccountBuddhism first arose in India, based on the teachings of Siddharta Gautama(566–486 B.C.E.), the Buddha. Born as a prince, Siddharta abandoned his regal lifeand began a lifelong search for religious insight. After a period of intense medita-tion, he arrived at the core beliefs and practices of Buddhism and established acommunity of followers and disciples, including pre-Hindu monks and nuns, aswell as laypeople. This community was responsible for propagating Siddharta’steachings after his death. In the centuries that followed, several forms ofBuddhism took shape in India. The two largest of these schools of Buddhism areknown today as Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism. As Buddhistmissionaries traveled east, they spread the teachings throughout the rest of Asia.The style of Buddhism that became dominant in East Asia is Mahayana, and Zenis one of the many forms of Mahayana Buddhism that developed there.

According to traditional Zen accounts, the teachings of Zen are said to dateback to this historical Buddha, who wordlessly transmitted them toMahakashyapa, one of his most talented disciples. The tradition names a series of

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Introduction

twenty-eight Indian patriarchs who passed the teachings on, beginning with thehistorical Buddha and Mahakashyapa and culminating with the patriarchBodhidharma. In the fifth century, Bodhidharma traveled to China, where he tookon Chinese disciples. From among these, Bodhidharma is said to have selectedHui-k’o to be his official successor. The tradition then traces its lineage throughsix generations of Chinese patriarchs, concluding with Sixth Patriarch Hui-neng.After the sixth generation, the lineage of patriarchs branches into a large andever-expanding family tree of teachers and disciples. All forms of Zen Buddhismexisting today trace their origins back to the sixth patriarch, Bodhidharma, andthe historical Buddha.

Historical AccountScholars have come to realize that the history of Zen is much more complicatedthan the story related in these traditional accounts. For example, we now knowthat Zen actually first developed in China as a distinctly Chinese form ofBuddhism. The basic teachings of Zen Buddhism emerged in China during thesixth and seventh centuries as Chinese scholars translated Buddhist texts andbegan to fuse Buddhist practices with indigenous Chinese beliefs. By the eighthand ninth centuries, Zen had taken on a distinctive identity, with numerousmonastic communities developing the teachings we now know as Zen Buddhism.Specifically, the emphasis in Zen is more on meditation and less on the study oftexts, philosophical discussion, and other practices such as chanting texts.

From China, Buddhist monks transmitted Zen teachings and practicesthroughout East Asia to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Today it is among the largestschools of Buddhism in Japan and one of the most popular forms of Buddhism inWestern countries.

In Japan today, there are three large denominations of Zen Buddhism: theSôtô, Rinzai, and Obaku sects. There are also several other smaller groups.

• Sôtô Zen is the largest of the three denominations. The Japanese monk DôgenKigen (1200–1253) founded the Sôtô sect in the thirteenth century. He traveled toChina, where he practiced with a Chinese Zen master from the Sôtô lineage,known as Ts’ao-tung.

• The founding of Rinzai Zen, known in Chinese as the Lin-chi lineage, involved theefforts of several Chinese and Japanese monks over many decades. Traditionalaccounts usually simplify matters by saying that the Rinzai sect was founded by asingle person, the monk Eisai, who was Dôgen’s teacher.

• Obaku Zen is the smallest and most recent of the larger denominations. TheChinese monk Yin-yüan Lung-ch’i (1594–1673) founded the Obaku sect in the sev-enteenth century. Yin-yuan regarded himself as a descendent of the Rinzai lin-eage, and the two groups’ teachings and practices are closely related.

In the last century, numerous Sôtô and Rinzai teachers have traveled to theWest and introduced their teachings and practices to Western audiences. One ofthe most influential Zen movements in the West, Sanbô Kyôdan, originated inJapan as only one of many small modern groups. Harada Sogaku (1871–1961) andYasutani Hakuun (1885–1973) founded Sanbô Kyôdan in 1954 to encourage thepractice of seated meditation among laypeople outside of the monastic setting.Sanbô Kyôdan combines some aspects of both the Sôtô and Rinzai practices.While the movement remains very small in Japan, it has greatly influenced the

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development of Zen in the West through the efforts of such teachers as RobertAitken, Philip Kapleau, Bernard Glassman, Maureen Stuart, and Richard Baker,who have written, and are discussed in, books about American Zen and AmericanBuddhism. A large percentage of Zen teachers in the United States were affiliatedwith Sanbô Kyôdan at one time or studied with its teachers.

Zen TeachingsZen, along with all other forms of Buddhism, is fundamentally concerned withthe problem of human suffering. The Buddha determined that the root of our suf-fering is our desire for and attachment to things, people, ideas, and experiences.These needs are problematic because in the Buddhist view of the world, nothingremains stable—all things constantly change and will eventually pass away. Wecannot possess those things to which we have formed attachments; thus all of ourdesires will inevitably lead to frustration and suffering.

Aside from the daily frustrations that our attachments cause, Buddhismasserts that human suffering also occurs on a cosmic level. Buddhists believe thatafter death each being will be reincarnated into a new life, the quality of whichdepends on the religious merit (karma) earned in the last life. Despite the rewardsone may acquire through rebirth, the unending cycle of death and reincarnationon Earth is seen as a burden and another form of suffering. This suffering will endonly when a person is able to break from the cycle of reincarnation.

The Buddhist solution to the problem of suffering requires a shift in our per-ception of the world. By understanding the impermanence of all things and elim-inating all desires, we can break our attachments. This means that one sees theworld as a buddha, or enlightened person, would. In fact, Zen masters are fond ofreminding us that we are all actually buddhas, even though most of us do not yetsee ourselves or reality in that way. The ultimate goal is to attain enlightenment,or satori. This is described as a blissful state of awareness in which one has relin-quished all attachments and recognizes the underlying unity of all things. As anenlightened being, one exists in a state of nirvana, in which one is liberated fromthe cycle of death and rebirth.

Zen PracticeZen masters say that Zen practitioners do not depend on written words to teachor grasp the Zen teachings. This means that reading and interpreting theBuddhist scriptures will not lead to enlightenment. As one Chinese master said,the scriptures are like a road map—while the map can show you where you wouldlike to go and even set out the quickest route, you still must travel the road foryourself. Not depending on written words requires that students learn throughpractice and experience, with the aid of a qualified teacher. Zen Buddhism placesgreat emphasis on the religious rituals and practices a student must perform togain proper insight into Zen teachings.

According to Zen, meditation is one of the most effective practices for attain-ing a proper understanding of reality. Meditation allows a person to experiencethe self as interconnected with all other things. One realizes that distinctionsbetween one’s self and other people are not absolute and that every action onetakes affects everyone else. In Zen meditation, the practitioner sits in the lotusposition—cross-legged with each foot placed on the opposing thigh. Beginnersgenerally learn to concentrate the mind by focusing on their breathing, noticingthe intake and exhalation of the breath. Other meditation techniques mayinclude focusing on a single syllable of sound assigned to them by their teacher.

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In Zen meditation, students may also concentrate on a kôan, a cryptic sayingor story from Zen literature that is intended to focus one’s mind and challengeordinary ways of thinking. Kôan often take the form of puzzles that defy logicalsolution, such as “What is the sound of one hand clapping?” Students meditatewith their assigned kôan in mind; they are said to “work on the kôan.” When theyhave questions about the kôan or feel that they have mastered it, they approachtheir teacher in a private interview. In these face-to-face encounters, Zen teach-ers evaluate the students’ understanding.

The Zen MonasteryThe Zen monasteries I have visited in Japan are all places that engage the senses.The smell of incense pervades many halls, since incense is regularly offered to theimages of the Buddha and bodhisattvas. Outside, one often encounters the scent ofburning leaves as the novices clean the grounds in the afternoon. Colorful silk ban-ners stream down pillars within graceful wooden structures with smooth polishedfloors and ornately carved rafters. One may glimpse the flashing eyes of a painteddragon on the ceiling. Some of the most treasured examples of Asian painting,sculpture, and calligraphy may be viewed within temple walls, rather than in secu-lar museums. During the morning and evening services, a monk beats a hollowdrum carved in the shape of a fish in time with the novices chanting verses fromBuddhist scripture; hand chimes punctuate breaks during the service.

Many rules govern the appropriate conduct of life within the monastery com-munity. Life in the monastery may be described as a series of ritual acts, frombathing oneself in the morning to laying out one’s bedding in the evening. Newmonks and nuns must learn to behave properly, to chant the Buddhist scriptures,to offer incense, and to bow. There is a proper manner of walking into the medi-tation hall, a proper way to eat one’s food, and even a proper way to take a bathand use the toilet. There are also set manners for drinking tea, meeting with one’steacher, and requesting entry into the monastery.

The typical daily routine at a Zen monastery is highly structured. The monksor nuns rise early and follow a regular schedule of eating, meditating, workingoutside, studying, and chanting scriptures. Much of the day is spent in silence.Ritual takes several forms in the monastery. Monks and nuns participate in morn-ing and evening services. They recite particular prayers and scriptures, makeofferings, and bow down before images of the Buddha and other religious figures.

Ritualizing all aspects of life serves several purposes. First of all, it allows themany people practicing within the monastery to live together harmoniouslybecause it is always clear what one should be doing and how one should behave.Second, the constant attention to detail transforms all the activities of the day,even mundane ones such as eating and bathing, into a kind of meditation.

Throughout the United States, Canada, and Europe, Zen is practiced predom-inantly by laypeople in Zen centers, but in East Asia the situation is quite differ-ent. In Japan, for example, Zen meditation is most often practiced by monks andnuns. Buddhist temples do not generally offer weekly services for laypeople, as iscommon at Christian churches, Jewish synagogues, and Muslim mosques.Laypeople may be members of a local Zen congregation, but they rarely practicemeditation in a temple or at home. In Japan, Zen monasteries provide for the reli-gious needs of laymembers. Most laypeople rely primarily on the Zen clergy toperform religious rituals such as funerals and memorial services for deceasedfamily members. They may also visit their local temple on special holidays, suchas the Buddha’s birthday or the Festival of the Dead.

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Encyclopedia EntriesThe majority of the Zen vocabulary in this book is rendered in both English andJapanese. However, some Buddhist terms also appear in Sanskrit, Pali, or Chinese,reflecting Buddhism’s influence across Asian cultures. Many terms, therefore, are listed in several languages. These alternative entries include cross-references to thebasic English and Japanese listings.

It should be noted that translations are not entirely standardized in the field ofBuddhist studies or Japanese religions. In each case, I have tried to select the mostcommon and accurate translations. I selected transliterations that reflect Englishpronunciation, avoiding extensive use of diacritical markings. In certain cases, morethan one transliteration is included.

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• The Contents by Subject lists related entries in the following categories: Art,Architecture, and Iconography; Biographical Entries; Buddhas and Bodhisattvas;Concepts; Geography; Monastic Life; Mythology and Cosmology; Rituals; Sects,Schools, and Groups; and Texts.

• Parenthetical citations are used to refer to selections from primary Buddhist texts.Citations preceded by (T.) denote the Taisho edition of the Daizôkyô, a Japanese ver-sion of the Buddhist scriptures used by most scholars for referencing texts. The firstnumber is the volume, and the second number is the document number (each docu-ment has a unique number).

• Abbreviated bibliographic citations appear at the end of some entries. The full cita-tions are grouped together in the bibliography.

• Cross-referenced terms within entries are in boldface type.

• Transliterated Chinese, Japanese, and Sanskrit terms are identified by (C.), (J.), and(Sk.), respectively.

• Words with distinctive pronunciations are identified by diacritical marks––symbolsabove the letters to indicate their proper pronunciations. They are pronounced as follows:

â fatherö sawô oldû putüe oo-eh (merged into one syllable)

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How to Use This Book

bokuseki 32 calligraphy 43chinsô 50chôka 52Dharma doll 67Diamond-Realm Mandala 71dora 74ensô 85gasô 107gâthâ 107gorin sotoba 113haiku 120Hou Hei 140Hou Po 140jûgyûzu 167kadô 170

kanshi 176kare sansui 179kendô 187konkô no cho 196mandala 214mokugyo 223mudra 228musical instruments 231Nembutsu kyôgen 238Nô drama 242oxherding pictures 251pagoda 252renga 264roku jizô 268sabi 271shakuhachi 289

shastra 292shiroku no bunshô 300shôkei 305shôrô 306Silver Pavilion 317stupa 324suibokuga 327tanka 335tatchû 336tera 344Tun-huang Caves 360wabi 371waka 371Womb-Realm Mandala 373yuige 382Zenga 388

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Art, Architecture, and Iconography

Biographical Entries

Ananda 7Anuruddha 10Arada Kalama 10Ashita 13Ashoka 13Ashvaghosha 14Baiyû Jikushin 17Bankei Yôtaku 17Bassui Tokushô 18Bodhidharma 26Buddha 34Cakravartin 43Chao-chou Ts’ung-shen 46Chien-chen 47Chi-fei Ju-i 48Chih-i 48Chih-wei 48Chih-yen 48Ching-shan Tao-ch’in 50Chü-chih 52Chu-hung 53Chung-feng Ming-pen 54Daigu Sôchiku 57Dainichi Nônin 59Daisetsu Sonô 60Devadatta 65Dôgen Kigen 72Dôkyô Etan 74Dôshô 74

Eisai 80Emperor Go-Daigo 81Emperor Hanazono 81Empress Wu 82Enni Ben’en 84Ennin 84Fa-ch’ih 88Fa-hai 88Fa-jung 88Fa-yen Wen-i 89Feng-hsueh Yen-chao 89Fen-yang Shan-chao 90Gasan Jitô 107Genshin 108Gesshû Shûko 109Gokei Sôton 111Gomizunoo 112Guchû Shûkyû 118Gudô Tôshoku 118Hakuin Ekaku 120Han-shan 124Han-shan Te-ch’ing 124Hôjô Sadatoki 133Hôjô Tokimune 134Hôjô Tokiyori 134Hônen 136Hotoke 139Ho-tse Shen-hui 139Hsiang-yen Chih-hsien 141

Hsing-hua Ts’ung-chiang 141Hsüan-tsang 141Hsüeh-feng I-ts’un 142Hsüeh-tou Ch’ung-hsien 142Hsü-t’ang Chih-yü 142Hsü-t’ang lu tai-pieh 142Huang-po Hsi-yün 143Hui-k’o 145Hui-neng 145Hung-chih Cheng-chüeh 146Hung-jen 146Ikkyû Sôjun 151Inzan Ien 155Ippen 155I-shan I-ning 156Jakushitsu Genkô 158Jinshi Eison 162Ju-ching 166Jûdai Deshi 166Kakua 173Kakuan 173Kakushin 173Kanzan Egen 178Katyayana 182Keisen Sôryû 184Keizan Jôkin 185Kohô Kakumyô 194Kôsen Sôon 196Koshushaku 197

Contents by Subject

Kuei-shan Ling-yu 199Kûkai 200Kumarajiva 200Lan-ch’i Tao-lung 204Layman P’ang 206Lin-chi I-hsuan 206Manzan Dôhaku 216Matsuo Bashô 218Ma-tsu Tao-i 218Maudgalyayana 219Menzan Zuihô 221Mu-an Hsing-t’ao 227Mujaku Dôchû 229Mujû Dôgyô 229Mumon Gensen 230Musô Soseki 232Nagarjuna 234Nampô Jômyô 234Nan-yüan Hui-yung 235Nichiren 239Ogino Dokuon 248Pai-chang Huai-hai 252Pindola 256Prajapati 257P’u-chi 259P’u-hua 259Purna 260Pu-tai 261Rahula 262Ryôkan 270Ryônen Myôzen 270

Saichô 271Sasaki Shigetsu 281Sekkô Sôshin 283Seng-chao 284Seng-ts’an 284Se no Rikyu 284Senzaki Nyogen 285Shakuen Eichô 289Shaku Sôen 290Shaku Sôkatsu 290Shariputra 291Shen-hsiu 292Shidô Bu’nan 294Shinran 299Shôtoku Taishi 307Shûhô Myôchô 309Shun’ô Reizan 312Siddharta Gautama 314Sôkei-an 321Subhuti 325Suddhodana 326Sung-yüan Chung-yueh 327Sung Yun 327Suzuki, Daisetsu Teitaro 328Suzuki Shôsan 328Suzuki, Shunryû 329Ta-hsiu Cheng-nien 330Ta-hui Tsung-kao 330Taikô Gyôyû 330Takuan Sôhô 332Takujû Kosen 333

Tao-che Ch’ao-yüan 335Tao-hsin 335ten great disciples

of the Buddha 340Tenkei Denson 341Te-shan Hsuan-chien 344Tetsugen Dôkô 344Tettô Gikô 345Tokuhô Zenketsu 353Tôrei Enji 354Tôyô Eichô 355Ts’ao-shan Pen-chi 358Tsung-mi 359Tung-ming Hui-jih 359Tung-shan Liang-chieh 359Udraka Ramaputra 363Umpo Zenjô 364Upali 365Vimalakirti 368Wu-an P’u-ning 374Wu-chun Shih-fan 374Wu-hsüeh Tsu-yüan 374Wu-men Hui-k’ai 375Wu-tsu Fa-yen 375Yang-shan Hui-chi 379Yashodhara 379Yin-yüan Lung-ch’i 380Yüan-wu K’o-ch’in 381Yung-ming Yen-shou 382Yun-men Wen-yen 382

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Buddhas and Bodhisattvas

Amida buddha 5Arhat 10Avalokiteshvara 14bodhisattva 27Buddha 34busshi 39Dainichi Nyorai 59daishi 60Dharma King 69eighty minor marks

of a buddha 79enlightened one 83field of merit 90four encounters 96Fugen 102great renunciation 118Hôô 138

hotoke 139Jizô 163jûgô 167Kanakamuni buddha 174Kannon 176Kashyapa buddha 180Krakucchanda buddha 197Kuan-yin 198Laughing buddha 205Mahakashyapa 210Mahavairochana buddha 210Maitreya 212Monju 225Pindola 256pratyeka buddha 258sambhogakaya 272seven buddhas of the past 286

Shikhin buddha 297shravaka 309Siddharta Gautama 314sobutsu 319soshi 322Sunface buddha,

Moonface buddha 327Tathagata 337ten epithets for

the Buddha 339true person of no rank 356two vehicles 362Vipashyin buddha 370Vishvabhu buddha 370World-Honored One 374Yakushi butsu 376

afflictions 2ahimsa 3alaya consciousness 4anatman 7anuttara samyak

sambodhi 10atman 14attachment 14ball of doubt 17black mountains 24bodhi 26bodhichitta 26bongyô 32bonnô 33bonpu 33boxwood Zen 33buddhahood 36Buddha Land 36Buddha Nature 37Buddhist path 38Buppô 38burning house 39butsudô 40causality 43cave of the dharma 43chûin 53codependent origination 54cold ashes and dead trees 54compassion 55Consciousness Only 55Daifunshi 56Daigi 56Daiji 57Daishinkon 60dead ashes 63dead sitting 63defilements 63delusion 64Dharma 66dharmadhatu 67Dharma eye 68Dharma gate 68Dharmakaya 69dust 75eight consciousnesses 77Eightfold Path 77emptiness 82enlightenment 84equality 86expedient means 87face-to-face transmission 88

filial piety 90five dusts 91five eyes 92five ranks 93five skandhas 93five wrong views 94formless precepts 94four discernments 95four fruits 96four great elements 96four noble truths 98four obligations 98four realms of reality 99four wisdoms 100furyû monji 104fushô fumetsu 105gedatsu 108genkan 108genze riyaku 108goga 109gogyakuzai 110gomi zen 112gradual enlightenment 117gradual teaching 117gyô-jû-za-ga 119gyônyû 119handaikan 124hannya zanmai 124heaven 127higan 129hô 131honji suijaku 136Honshin 137honshô 137honshôkai 137icchantika 149ichidaiji innen 149ichimi zen 150ichinen fushô 150ikko hanko 151impermanence 152inga 153interrelatedness 155ishin denshin 156isshi inshô 156Isshin 157jakumetsu 158jihi 159Jikai Zen 160jikishi ninshin 161Jikishi ninshin kenshô 161

jiri 162jishô 163jishô butsu 163jishô kai 163Jishô Shôjô 163karma 179kattô 182kenshô 188Kenshô jôbutsu 188kikutsuri 190kôjô 194konkô 195koshin mida 196Latter Age of the Dharma 204Law of Causation 206lion’s roar 208lump of red flesh 209merit 222mind ground 222moji Zen 223mu 227mujô 229muni 230Musô shinji kai 232naikan 234namu 235nen 238ninyû 239nirmanakaya 241nirvana 240non-duality 243No-thought 244ojô 248One mind 249one vehicle 249original enlightenment 249Original Face 249Original Mind 250Other Power 251ox cart 251parinirvana 254prajna 257prajna samadhi 258Pure Land 259Pure Land of

the Mind Only 259reincarnation 264Relative Truth 264Richi 264rinyû 265sangha 276

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Concepts

Sankyô itchi 278Sanmi 278satori 281Self Power 283sentient beings 285shaba 288shinjin datsuraku 298Shinshin 299shisô 301Shôbôgenzô 301Shôhô 304sila 316Silver mountain,

iron wall 316sin 317six dusts 318six paths 318

six sense organs 319steep path 324sudden enlightenment 326suffering 326tanden 334Tao 335Tathagata Garbha 337ten stages of

a bodhisattva 343ten thousand dharmas 343thirty-two marks

of a buddha 345Three Ages of

the Dharma 346three bodies of

the Buddha 347three essentials of Zen 347

Threefold Truth 348three marks 348three poisons 348three samadhi 349three sufferings 350three vehicles 351True Mind 356true person of no rank 356True Thusness 358turning word 360two entrances 361Twofold Truth 361two vehicles 362Ultimate Truth 363unborn 365vajra 367Vessel of the Dharma 367

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Monastic Life

abbot 1agyo 3ajari 4ango 8anja 9anjadô 10Avici hell 16A-yu-wang-shan 16banka 17begging alms 19begging bowl 20bhikkhu 22bhikkhuni 22Bishamon 24bodhisattva precepts 29bodhisattva vows 30bôkatsu 31bôzu 33branch temple 34butsudan 40Butsuden 40Buttsû-ji 41

byakutsui 42cave of the dharma 43Ch’an-shih 45chiden 47Ching-te-ssu 50Ching-tzu-ssu 50chishiki 51chiyoku 51chizô 51chôka 52daie 56daigo 57Daijô-ji 58daisan 59Daisetsu Sonô 60Daitoku-ji 61danna 62defrocking 64denshô 65deshi 65devas 65Dharma heir 68

Dharma robe 69Dharma transmission 71dôban 72dojidô 73dôjô 73dokusan 73dônai 74donkatsukan 74Eigen-ji 76eight precepts 78Eihei-ji 79Engaku-ji 82enju 83enjudô 83Enni Ben’en 84Enryaku-ji 84field of merit 90formless repentance 94founder’s hall 95four assemblies 95four grave offenses 96 four offerings 99

A-yu-wang-shan 16Baranashi 18Benares 20Ching-shan 49Hiei-zan 129Huang-mei shan 143

Huang-po-shan 143Kapilavastu 178Mount Gridhrakuta 226Mount Sumeru 227Nan-shan 235Pei-shan 254

Sung-shan 327T’ai-p’o-shan 330Tung-shan 359Tun-huang Caves 360Vulture Peak 370

Geography

four periods of meditation 99

fucha ryôri 100funzôe 104fûsu 105gakuji 106garanbô 106gasô 107gogo 110gojôe 110goka 111Golden Pavilion 112gosan jôdô 114Gozan system 115Gozan temples 116han 122hanazonokai 123hara 125hashin kyûji 125hatsu 126hattô 126hinpotsu 130hô 131hoi 131hôjô 132hôki 134Hôkô-ji 135honzan 137honzon 138hosshi 138hossu 139Hsi-shan 141Hsüan-tsang 141 hyôshigi 148in’in ekishi 153inka 154inkin 154ino 154jiin hattô 159jikai 160Jikai Zen 160jikidô 160jikijitsu 161jinjû 162jisha 162jissatsu temples 163Jôchi-ji 165jôdô 165jôjû 166Jômyô-ji 166Jufuku-ji 167jukai 168jukaie 168

jûrokujôkai 169kaichin 170kaidan 170kaidan seki 170kaigen 170kaihan 171kaiki 171kaimyô 171kaisan 171kaiyoku 172kaji ichige 172kana hôgo 174kanben 175kanchô 175kanshô 176kansu 178kashaku 180kasshiki 180kata 181keisaku 184kekkaiji 185Kenchô-ji 187Kennin-ji 187kesa 188kesa bukuro 188kesa kudoku 188kikan 190Kôgaku-ji 193kokushi 194Kokutai-ji 195Konshô 196Koromo 196Kôshô-ji 197kotsu 197kotsu jiki 197Kuan-li-ssu 198ku’in 200kujôe 200kuri 201Ling-yin-ssu 207main temple 211Mampuku-ji 214Manju-ji 214manual labor 215married clergy 217matsuji 217meditation hall 220monastic celibacy 224monastic code 224monastic training 225monk 226Myôshin-ji 233Nanzen-ji 236

nijûgoten 239Nirvana Festival 241nirvana hall 241nitten sôjo 242niwa zume 242novice 244nun 244Obon 246ogane 247oshiku 250oshô 250Pai-chang Ch’ing-kuei 252parajika 252postulant 257precepts 258purple robe 260rainy-season retreat 262rakusu 262rantô 263reitaku 264restricted area 264rinka 265rinsen kakun 265ritsu 266rokumotsu 268Ryôan-ji 269ryôgen 269saba 271sai 271saku 272sangha 276sanjujôkai 277sanmon 278sanpai 280seidô 282seihan 282sekkan 283sembutsujô 283semmon dôjô 283sermons 285setsuban 286shami 291shamini 291shao-lin-ssu 291shashu 292shaven-headed layman 292shichidô garan 294shichijôe 294shidô 294shiji zazen 295shika 296shikunichi 297shingi 297

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Rituals

shinji ike 298shinsanshiki 299shissui 301shogo kôten 303shôkei 304shoki 304Shôkoku-ji 305shôsô 307shôsô jisha 307shozan 308shramana 309shukke 310shuku 310shukuha fugin 310shukushin 310shumidan 311shuryô 312shuso 313sôan 319

sôdô 320Sôji-ji 321sômon 322sôrin 322soshidô 322takuhatsu 332tan 333tanbutsu 333tan-i 334tanpyô 335tassu 335tatami 336tatchû 336temple positions 338temple regulations 338ten precepts 342Tenryû-ji 343tenzo 344three robes, one bowl 349

tôhan 352tôsu 355tsûbun 358tsûsu 359umpan 364vinaya 369walking staff 371wan-shou-ssu 371yakuseki 376Yôkô-ji 381yokushitsu 381Zen cuisine 387Zenji 388zenjô 388zenshitsu 389Zensô 390zôsu 390

Mythology and Cosmology

ashura 13Benzaiten 20devas 65Diamond-Realm

Mandala 71 eight cold hells 78eight hot hells 80Emma 86evil paths 86 four guardian kings 97four kinds of birth 98Fudô Myôô 100gaki 106Hachiman 120

hell 128hungry ghost 147Indra 152Indra’s jewel net 153jigoku 159kalpa 174kami 174Kokusan 194mani 214Mara 216myôô 233naga 234nettetsugan 238papiyas 252

seven lucky gods 286shala trees 290Sôkô Shinsai 321Tanjôge 334ten directions 339Tengu 340ten realms 342three realms 348Tushita heaven 360wandering spirits 371Western Pure Land 372Womb-Realm Mandala 373Yama 378

ako 4ango 8angya 8ascetic practices 12baitô 17banka 17begging alms 19Bodhi Day 26bodhisattva precepts 29bodhisattva vows 30

bodhi tree 30bôkatsu 31bonbai 32Buddha Day 36byakutsui 42chanoyû 44chanting 45chôka 52Daibutchô-ju 56dharani 66

Dharma combat 66dora 74dual practice 75eight precepts 78five types of zen 94formless repentance 94four kinds of birth 98four shouts 99funeral Zen 103gasshô 107

xviii

goma 112gotai tôchi 114goya zazen 115gyôdô 119gyôja 119half-lotus position 122Hana Matsuri 123hekikan 128Hekizen 128higan-e 129hôji 132hokkai jôin 135hokku 135hossu 139ichiji kan 149igan butsuji 150ihai 150incense 152inka 154isshu 157ittengo 157jakugo 158jukaie 168kaigen 170kaimyô 170kaiyoku 172kanbutsu 175kanki issoku 175kanna Zen 176kashin 180katsu! 181keisaku 184keisu 185kekka fuza 185kendô 187kie 189kie sambô 189kigan 189kikai 189kikan 190kin 191kinhin 191kitô 191kôden 193kôkon zazen 194Konshô 196kotsu 197kubutsuji 199kufû 199kuyô 201kyûdô 203lotus position 208Makuragymô 213

mantra 214Masangin 217Masen 217meditation 219 memorial service 220menju shihô 221metsujinjô 222mokushô Zen 224mondô 225monna 226moxa 227Mu kôan 229Namu amida butsu 235Namu myôhô rengekyô 235Nantô kôan 235nembutsu 237Nembutsu kôan 237nen 238nenki 238Niô Zen 240nyûgan 245nyusshitsu 245Obon 246offerings 247Old-woman Zen 248One-finger Zen 248one-hand kôan 249ordination 249pilgrimage 255posthumous name 257relics 264rin’i monjin 265ro 266Rôba Zen 266robe of transmission 266Rôhatsu 267Rôhatsu sesshin 267roshi 268sagan butsuji 271samadhi 271sanbukki 274sanbutsuji 274Sandai Sôron 275sanjujôkai 277sankikai 277Sankyû Nembutsu 278sanzen 280sarei 281seiza 282sekkai 282senge 284Senju darani 284sermons 285

sesshin 285sexuality 288shichibutsuji 293shigu seigan 295shiji zazen 295shikan 296shikan taza 296shinsanshiki 299shippei 300shogo kôten 303shôkei 304shôken 305shômyô 305shonan 306shôsan 306shukuha fugin 310shukushin 310shukuyûjûri 310shumoku 311shussan 313shuya 314six perfections 319sôshin zazen 322susoku-kan 327taiya 331taiza monjin 331takuhatsu 332tanbutsu 333tanden 334tanga zume 334tassu 335tatami 336tencha butsuji 339tendoku 339ten evil acts 340ten good acts 340tentô butsuji 343three essentials of Zen 347threefold training 347three gates

to emancipation 348three phrases 348ton 353tonsure 353tortoise hair 355ullambana 363umpan 364unsui 365uposatha 366vegetarian feasts 367vegetarianism 367vows 370walking staff 371

xix

watô 372wheel of the dharma 372Wheel of Life 372whisk 373yakuseki 376

zafu 384zagu 384zaniku 384zazen 385Zen 385

Zen cuisine 387Zenkiku 388Zennasu 389zenpan 389Zen sickness 390

Buddhism 37Buttsû-ji Ha 41Daikaku Ha 58Daitoku-ji Ha 62Daruma sect 63Daruma-shû 63East Mountain School 76easy path 76Eigen-ji Ha 76Engaku-ji Ha 83enshû 85esoteric Buddhism 86Fa-hsien school 88Fa-yen school 89five houses 92five houses and

seven schools 92Fuke sect 103Hijiri 129Hinayana Buddhism 130Hôjô regents 133Hôkô-ji Ha 135Hossô School 138Ho-tse school 139Hottô Ha 140householder 140Huang-lung school 143Hua-yen school 145Hung-chou school 146Inzan school 155Ji sect 162Jizô 163

kechimyaku 182Kegon school 182Kenchô-ji Ha 187Kennin-ji Ha 188Kôgaku-ji Ha 193koji 194Kokutai-ji Ha 195komusô 195kuge 199lay believer 206Lin-chi school 207lineage 207lineage chart 207Mâdhyamaka 210Mahayana Buddhism 211moji Zen 223Myôshin-ji Ha 233Nanzen-ji Ha 236Nichiren sect 239Niô 240Northern school 243Obaku sect 246Oryô school 250Otôkan school 251Oxhead school 251Pure Land school 260Pure Land sect 260Rinzai sect 265samurai 272Sanbô Kyôdan 274San-lun school 278Sanron school 280

senju 284seven schools 288Shingon sect 298shôgun 303Shôichi Ha 304Shôkoku-ji Ha 305shugendô 309shûtô fukkô 313sôhei 320Sôtô sect 323Southern school 323Takujû school 333Tendai sect 339Tenryû-ji Ha 343Theravada Buddhism 345three teachings 350T’ien-t’ai school 351Tôfuku-ji 352Tôfuku-ji Ha 352True Pure Land sect 357Ts’ao-tung school 358upâsaka 365upâsikâ 365Yamabushi 378Yang-ch’i school 378Yogachara school 380Yôgi school 380Yun-men school 382zaike 384

Sects, Schools, and Groups

xx

Abhidharma 2Agama Sutras 3agyo 3Amida’s vows 5anroku 10Avalokiteshvara Sutra 15Avatamsaka Sutra 15Awakening of Faith 16Bendôwa 20betsugo 20biography 24bodhisattva precepts 29bodhisattva vows 30Brahma Net Sutra 33Buddhacharita 35Buddhist scriptures 38burning house 39Ch’an-kuan Ts’e-chin 44Chan-men Kuei-shih 44Ch’an-yuan Ch’ing-Kuei 46Ch’an-yuan Chu-

ch’uan-chi Tu-hsu 46Chao-lun 46Cheng-fa Yen-tsang 47Chia-t’ai P’u-teng Lu 47Chien-chung Ching-kuo

Hsu-teng Lu 47Ch’ih-hsiu Pai-chang

Ching-kuei 48Chinese Tripitaka 49Chingo Kokka No

Sambukyô 49Ching-te Ch’üan-teng Lu 50Ch’uan Fa-pao Chi 52Ch’uan-hsin Fa-yao 52Chung-feng Ho-shang

Kuang-lu 54Daibontennô Monbutsu

Ketsugikyô 56Daigo 57Daihannya Haramitsukyô 57Daizôkyô 62Denkôroku 64Diamond Sutra 72eight precepts 78Eihei Shingi 79Emmei Jikku Kannonkyô 81Emmei Jikku Kannonkyô

Reigenki 81Feng-yang Wu-te

ch’an-shih Yu-lu 89

five precepts 93forty-eight light precepts 95four great vows 96Fukan Zazengi 102Genjô kôan 108Goi kôan 110Goke Sanshô Yôro Mon 111Gonsen kôan 112Gotôroku 115Gozan literature 115Han-shan Shih 124Heart Sutra 126Hebiichigo 127Hekiganroku 127Hekigo 127hôgo 131Hosshin kôan 138Hsin-hsin-ming 141Hsüeh-mo Lun 142Hsü-t’ang Lu Tai-pieh 142Huang-lung Hui-nan 143Inga Monogatari 153issaikyô 156jataka tales 159Jôdo No Sanbukyô 165Kaisan Shidô Bu’nan

Anju Zenji Anroku 172Kannonkyô 176Keizan Shingi 185Kikan kôan 190kôan 191kôan collections 193Konkômyôkyô 196Kôzen Gokokuron 197Kuan-yin Ching 199Ku Zôshi 201Kyôun-shû 203Lankavatara Sutra 204Lotus Sutra 208Mahaprajna Paramita 210mind ground 222Mumonkan 230Nempu 238Nenge Mishô 238Nirvana Sutra 242Obaku-ban 246Obaku Shingi 246Ojôyôshû 248Orategama 249Pai-chang Ch’ing-kuei 252Pao-lin Chuan 252

Pei-yung Ch’ing-kuei 254Perfection of

Wisdom Sutra 255pien-wen 255Platform Sutra 256Pure Land Sutra 260recorded sayings 263rinsen kakun 265ron 268Ryôkan 270 Ryûtaku Kaiso Jinki

Dokumyô Zenji Nemp 270Sanbôe 274Sanbyakusoku 275Sangemon 276sankan 277sanne-in yuikai 278Sanzô 280Sayings of Lin-chi 281sekiri daruma 282setsuwa 286Shasekishû 291shastra 292shijûhachikyôkai 296shingi 297Shôbôgenzô 302Shôbôgenzô Benchû 302Shôbôgenzô Zuimonki 302Shojû Dôkyô Etan

Anju Anroku 304Shôjurin Shingi 304shokan 304Shôshitsu Rokumon 306Shôyôroku 308Shûmon Kattôshû 311Shûmon Mujintô Ron 311Shuramgama Sutra 312Sokkô Roku Kaien

Fusetsu 321Ssu-chia Yu Lu 323Ssu-fen Lu 324Straw Sandal

Bodhidharma 324Sunface buddha,

Moonface buddha 324sutras 327Taireishôsan 331Taishô Daizôkyô 331Tanjôge 334teishô 334ten heavy precepts 341

Texts

xxi

Tenjô tenge yuiga dokuson 341

Tenzo Kyôkun 344T’ien-sheng Kuang-

teng Lu 351Tripitaka 356Tsung-ching Lu 358

Tsung-men Lien-teng Hui-yao 359

Tun-huang manuscripts 360Vimalakirti Sutra 369vinaya 369wasan 371Yabukôji 376

Yasen Kanna 379Zazengi 385Zazen wasan 385Zazen yôjinki 385Zenkai Ichiran 388Zenrin Kushû 389

AAbbotThe chief administrative officer within amonastery or large temple. The mostcommon Japanese terms for the post arejûji and chôrô. The English term “abbot”is appropriately applied to head monksor nuns at training monasteries and largetemples, where the monastic communitypractices Zen meditation. In the case ofsmall local temples where there is onlyone monk in residence, the term “headmonk” would be more appropriate.

The abbot’s duties include manage-ment of the monastery as a whole, han-dling both the administrative work andthe spiritual direction of the community.He or she oversees the work done by theother administrative officers (seihan andtôhan). Since the abbot’s primary respon-sibility is to ensure the smooth operationof the monastery, he or she may pass on alarge portion of the spiritual guidance ofthe resident novices and monks toanother Zen master. In addition, theabbot represents the monastery in alldealings with the outside world, includingrelations with the government and withother monasteries or religious bodies.

The abbot serves as the primaryteacher of the Dharma at the monastery.On several occasions each month, theabbot lectures on the Dharma to the entiremonastic community. For these “greatassemblies” (daisan), the abbot mountsthe podium in the Dharma hall (hattô),takes his or her place in the Dharma chair(hôza), and speaks to the community. Atthe end of the lecture, the abbot typicallyinvites members of the community toengage in a question-and-answer session(mondô). At the great assemblies, theabbot is said to teach in the place of thebuddhas and Zen patriarchs.

Abbots of major monasteries are usu-ally selected from among a group ofqualified Zen masters. The selectionprocess and exact qualifications differthroughout the world, but in general, thequalified candidate has practiced for atleast ten years and has held other high-ranking administrative positions. In theGozan temples of medieval Japan(1185–1600), for example, candidateswere required to have served as the chiefseat (shuso) of a monastery and to havepassed a qualifying exam (hinpotsu). InJapan, the abbot of a major Zenmonastery was traditionally appointedby either the emperor or the militarygovernment (bakufu). In Koreantemples today, the abbot is elected by theassembly of monks at the monastery.

The abbot formally assumes his postwith an installation service (shinsan-shiki). In some cases, an abbot servesfor a specified term of office. Since theresponsibilities of the post are quiteheavy, many Zen monasteries prefer to

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Abbot

An abbot is the primary teacher andmanager of a Buddhist monastery.

rotate qualified candidates to reducethe strain on any one individual. This isthe norm in Korean temples today. Inother cases, the length of time an abbotserves is left to his or her own discre-tion. The abbot at Mampuku-ji, themain monastery for the Obaku sect inJapan, usually assumes the post perma-nently, stepping down only if he or shecan no longer fulfill his or her duties.

Buswell, Robert E., Jr. The Zen MonasticExperience: Buddhist Practice inContemporary Korea. Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 1992.

Collcutt, Martin. Five Mountains: TheRinzai Zen Monastic Institution in Medieval Japan. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press, 1981.

AbhidharmaThe abbreviated name for theAbhidharma Pitika, one of the threesections of the Buddhist scriptures.“The Basket of Scholasticism” (anothername for the Abhidharma) is the thirdand latest section of the Tripitaka, rep-resenting commentaries on theBuddha’s teachings written by laterBuddhist scholars. The Abhidharmatexts were written over a period of sev-eral centuries, between 350 B.C.E. and450 C.E. The Abhidharma texts deal withteachings from the earlier sermons ofthe Buddha, written in a scholastic andsystematic manner. This means that thetexts do not provide the teaching aidsemployed in the discourses (or sutras),such as images, parables, and stories,which help to make the concepts moreunderstandable.

The Pali Abhidharma, one version ofthe Abhidharma that represents theteachings of Theravada Buddhism, iscomprised of seven texts related toBuddhist psychology and philosophy.They include: 1) Dhamma-sangani(Enumeration of Dharmas), which ana-lyzes things into categories of mentaland physical factors; 2) Vibhanga(Divisions), a discussion of the skandhas(five skandhas); 3) Dhatu-katha

(Discussion of Elements), which classi-fies elements of reality; 4) Puggala-pan-natti (Designation of Persons), whichclassifies various types of individuals; 5)Katha-vatthu (Subjects of Discussion), adiscussion of various controversies inearly Buddhist philosophical teachings;6) Yamaka (The Pairs), which deals withissues in a dual fashion—positive andnegative; and 7) Patthana (Activations)dealing with causal relations.

Other schools of Buddhism alsocomposed their own Abhidharma litera-ture in Sanskrit, but most have been lost.Some have been preserved in Chinesetranslations and are included as a sepa-rate section of the Chinese Tripitaka.The Abhidharma of the Sarvastivada tra-dition, for example, survives in Chinese.It contains seven works: “Jnana-prasthana” (“Method of Knowledge”);“Sangitiparayaya”, a summary of theBuddha’s teachings; “Dhatukaya” (“Bookof Elements”); “Vijnanakaya” (“Synopsisof Consciousness”); “Prakaranapada”, acollection of verses; “Dharmaskandha”(“Book of Things”); and “PrajnaptiSastra” (“Treatise on Communication”).

Abhidharma literature is known inJapanese as the Taihôzô or the Ronzô, ortransliterated as Abidatsumazô.

Acts of the BuddhaThe Buddhacharita of Ashvaghosha, theearliest formal biography of Shakya-muni Buddha (Siddharta Gautama).See Buddhacharita.

AfflictionsAny working of the mind, such as adelusion or an evil passion, or an actionresulting from such thoughts, thatinterferes with the attainment ofenlightenment. Affliction is a transla-tion for the terms klesha in Sanskrit andbonnô in Japanese. The Buddhist tradi-tion identifies the afflictions as the rootcause of human suffering. The six fun-damental afflictions are greed, anger,ignorance, arrogance, doubt, and falseviews. Greed and anger are two oppositeforms of craving; greed is an attachment

2

Abhidharma

to something pleasurable, while angeris an aversion to something unpleas-ant. Ignorance is lack of understandingof Buddhist teachings and the waythings are. The first three fundamentalafflictions—greed, anger and igno-rance—are called the three poisons.Arrogance refers to a self-centered viewof the world based on a false sense ofself. Doubt means to be uncertainabout the validity of Buddhist teach-ings. The tradition identifies five spe-cific false views, including belief in afalse self and rejection of the workingsof cause and effect.

Agama SutrasDiscourses of the historical Buddhapreserved in Buddhist scripture. In thetradition of Mahayana Buddhism, theterm Agama Sutras is used to distin-guish the ancient sutras of TheravadaBuddhism from the later Mahayanasutras. The word Agama literally means“tradition” in Sanskrit. Other Indianreligious traditions, includingHinduism and Jainism, also refer totheir teachings and sacred texts asAgama. In Buddhist tradition, theAgama Sutras (J. Agongyô) are the fourcollections of discourses attributed tothe Buddha, which were originally com-posed in Sanskrit. These sutras are nowpreserved in Chinese translation as thefirst segment of the Chinese Tripitaka.The four collections include the LongAgama Sutras, the Middle LengthAgama Sutras, the Item-More AgamaSutras and the Miscellaneous AgamaSutras. The four Agama collections cor-respond to four of the five Nikayas, thecollections of discourses preserved inthe Pali Canon (Tripitaka).

Age of the Degenerate Dharma See Latter Age of the Dharma.

AgyoWords spoken about the Dharma(Buddhist teachings) by a Zen masterwhen teaching his or her students. The

term also refers to a student’s expres-sion in understanding the teachings inresponse to a question by the master.The term originally referred to theimmediate and spontaneous exchangesbetween master and disciple during lec-tures or question-and-answer sessions(mondô). In the broadest sense, theterm may be used as a generic referenceof various responses to a kôan that stu-dents of Zen are called upon to make,such as capping verses (jakugo) orturning words (ittengo). Theseresponses were originally intended tobe spontaneous expressions of a Zenpractitioner’s understanding of a kôan;masters would determine the disciples’progress based on their responses.Later, agyo became stylized responses,memorized by the students for the vari-ous kôan they studied.

Ahimsa(J. fugai) Non-injury of living beings.The concept of ahimsa prohibits killing,injuring, or wishing to harm sentientbeings (those capable of thought orfeeling). Ahimsa is the primary virtue inseveral Indian religious traditions,including Buddhism, Jainism, andHinduism. The importance of ahimsa inBuddhist morality is seen in the pre-cepts taken by lay people and themonastic community against killing. Itis, in fact, the first precept of the fivetaken by lay practitioners and the firstof ten taken by novices.

Buddhism interprets the practice ofahimsa as the active expression of com-passion for other sentient beings.According to the Buddhist understand-ing of ahimsa, intent is the crucial ele-ment; accidentally injuring or causingdeath would not be seen as a violationof the precept against killing.

In Jainism, any taking of life or injury,even unintentional or accidental, isthought to incur karmic repercussions.

Lay Buddhists and the monasticcommunity approach the practice ofahimsa somewhat differently. While layBuddhists refrain from causing inten-tional injury to other sentient beings,

3

Ahimsa

monks and nuns seek to reduce inad-vertent injury. Lay Buddhists oftenchoose a vegetarian diet so as not toparticipate in the killing of animal life,but they nevertheless farm the land.Buddhist monks and nuns traditionallyrefrained from farming because itinevitably caused injury to small crea-tures living in the soil. See also lay believer.

AikuôJapanese for King Ashoka. See Ashoka.

AjariA senior monk who teaches students;often abbreviated to jari. The term is aJapanese rendering of the Chinesetransliteration for the Sanskrit “âcârya,”one who knows and teaches the rules.In ancient Buddhism, novices had twomasters, one who taught them theDharma, and one who taught them therules of conduct (vinaya). The termdoes not retain this connotation in theJapanese context: it is used in manysects to indicate seniority or high rankamong monks who instruct disciples. Itis most often associated with mastersfrom the esoteric schools, Tendai andShingon Buddhism.

In Sôtô Zen, the term is used as atitle of respect for any senior monk. It isnot limited to teachers, but applies toany monk who has practiced Zen formore than five years. Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253) composed a text, the TaiTaikogoge Jarihô, in which he delineatesthe proper behavior of junior monks inthe presence of their seniors, the ajariwho had passed at least five summerretreats. See also Shingon sect, Sôtôsect, and Tendai sect.

Shohei, Ichimura. Zen Master EiheiDôgen’s Monastic Regulations.Washington, DC: North AmericanInstitute of Zen and BuddhistStudies, 1993.

Ako“Lowering the flame,” the ritual actionof starting the cremation fire at afuneral service. Today, the ako is a sym-bolic gesture performed by theBuddhist monk leading the funeralservice. The officiant symbolicallylights the cremation fire with a torch.Ako is performed as one of the nine rit-ual actions (kubutsuji) comprising thefuneral services for an abbot oranother prominent member of themonastic community. It is also one ofthree ritual actions characterizingBuddhist funerals for ordinary monksand lay believers. Also known as hinko.See also sanbutsuji.

AkudôJapanese for evil paths. The term refersto the lower three of the six realms ofexistence, those of hell (jigoku), hungryghosts (gaki), and animals (chikushô).See evil paths.

Alaya Consciousness( J. Arayashiki) The storehouse con-sciousness, the eighth and deepest levelof consciousness in the Yogachara(Hossô) schema of human psychology.The term can also be used in referenceto the schema as a whole. TheYogachara school’s psychology analyzes human perception of theworld at eight levels: sight conscious-ness, sound consciousness, smell con-sciousness, taste consciousness, tactileconsciousness, mind consciousness,ego consciousness, and the storehouseconsciousness. The first five levels cor-respond to five senses. Mind conscious-ness corresponds to the Western idea ofconsciousness; at this level, the infor-mation gathered from the previous fivelevels is coordinated. Ego conscious-ness is the level at which personalattachments are formed, either positiveor negative. For example, the ego con-sciousness determines if an object ofsight is pleasant to behold, and beginsto crave possession of the object; on the

4

Aikuô

other hand, it may find an object repul-sive and seek to avoid contact with it. The eighth level of consciousnessstores all previous experiences andimpressions as seeds, which are thebasis for evaluating all present andfuture experience.

Ordinary human beings create theirsubjective perception of the worldthrough the workings of the alaya con-sciousness. Although human conscious-ness may not create the external objects,the process does create the image thatan individual perceives. For this reason,different individuals will not necessarilyexperience the same external object inthe same manner. For example, an indi-vidual learns to associate a certainaroma with burning incense; the experi-ence is stored as a seed in the store-house consciousness. In some cultures,incense may be associated with funeralservices; a person raised in such a cul-ture, may associate the smell of incensewith the sorrow of personal loss. Thescent of incense burning may then elicitfeelings of melancholy, thus he or shemay find the aroma unpleasant, even

repulsive. Another person, without acomparable previous experience, mayfind the aroma of incense pleasant orsoothing. See also Fa-hsien school andHossô school.

Ama No HakkikaiThe eight parajika offenses of aBuddhist nun. Parajika offenses, themost serious in the monastic code, arepunished with expulsion from themonastic order.

Amida BuddhaThe Buddha of “Infinite Light.” TheJapanese rendering of the Sanskrit“Amitabha” and the Chinese “Amita”,the name is also translated as Muryôkô.Amida buddha is one of the most popu-lar celestial buddhas in MahayanaBuddhism. Amida buddha resides inthe Western Pure Land (Sk. Sukhâvtî), awondrous world and an ideal locationfor Buddhist practitioners to attainenlightenment. Veneration for Amidadates back to the first century C.E. inIndia, although Amida attained more

5

Amida Buddha

Amida buddha, the Buddha of “Infinite Light,” is closely associated with the Pure Land Sutras. This statuewas built in Kamakura, Japan in 1252 and stands more than eleven meters high.

popularity in East Asia. Buddhiststhroughout East Asia, regardless of theirschools, consider Amida a primaryobject of veneration. Amida is creditedwith infinite compassion for sufferingsentient beings, even the worst offend-ers of Buddhist ethical norms. For manyBuddhists, faith in Amida and his savingpowers are the crucial elements in thepractice of Buddhism.

Amida’s story begins when he was aking, long before he became a buddha.Having heard the Dharma preached bythe buddha Lokeshvara, the kingdesired to attain enlightenment (bodhi-chitta). He left behind his secular lifeand became a monk, taking the nameDharmakara. Dharmakara practiced thebodhisattva way for ten million yearsunder the guidance of Lokeshvara. Hevisited innumerable Buddha Lands(similar to heavens) and took note ofthe good qualities of each. Finally, he decided to concentrate all of hisaccumulated merit to produce aBuddha Land which possessed all of thepositive qualities he had observed inthe others. He then took bodhisattvavows promising that he would notattain buddhahood unless his BuddhaLand had the desired qualities and wasaccessible to all sentient beings. SinceDharmakara became the buddhaAmida, his vows guarantee that hisWestern Pure Land exists.

Amida’s Western Pure Land isdescribed in great detail in Buddhist lit-erature. The birds sing the Dharma; eventhe sounds of running streams proclaimthe Dharma. Everything about the landis conducive to enlightenment. Thereare no evil destinies in the Pure Land,no hungry ghosts or hell dwellers. Anyperson born into the Pure Land isassured that they will not regress in thepath toward enlightenment.

The primary scriptural accounts ofAmida and his Western Pure Land arefound in three so-called Pure LandSutras: the larger Pure Land Sutra, theSmaller Pure Land Sutra (also known asthe Amida Sutra), and the Sutra of theBuddha of Infinite Light (also called the

Contemplation Sutra). The Larger PureLand Sutra recounts the story of thebodhisattva Dharmakara, and spells outthe forty-eight vows that he took,explaining the means for attainingrebirth in his Pure Land. These vowshave come to be called the Original Vowof Amida. The Smaller Pure Land Sutraexplains the simplest form of practice toassure rebirth in the Pure Land—therecitation of the name of Amida. In theSutra of the Buddha of Infinite Light,Sakyamuni Buddha appears to a humanqueen imprisoned by her wicked son;the text teaches her several methods ofmeditation on Amida buddha and thePure Land.

There are various opinions of what isnecessary to assure rebirth in his PureLand. The scriptural accounts suggestthat a combination of faith in Amidaand the practice of good works lead torebirth. Interpretations of the scripturesby East Asian Pure Land believers, espe-cially by the Japanese schools, reject thenotion that good works are necessary.They stress faith in Amida buddha andthe power of his Original Vow to saveordinary sentient beings. See also dualpractice and koshin mida.

Cowell, E. B. et al., eds. BuddhistMahayana Texts. New York: DoverPublications, 1969.

Matsunaga, Daigan, and AliciaMatsunaga. Foundation of JapaneseBuddhism. 2 vols. Los Angeles, CA:Buddhist Books International, 1976.

Ueda, Yoshifumi and Dennis Hirota.Shinran: An Introduction to HisThought. Tokyo: Hongwanji Inter-national Center, 1989.

Amida’s VowsVows taken by the Amida buddha whilehe was still a bodhisattva namedDharmakara. This is also known as theOriginal Vow. Dharmakara took forty-eight great bodhisattva vows in an effortto save sentient beings and create aPure Land, ideal for practicingBuddhism. The vows are elaborated in

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Amida’s Vows

the Larger Pure Land Sutra. The vowsare interpreted somewhat differently byvarious sects of Pure Land Buddhism; inparticular, the requirements for attain-ing rebirth into the Pure Land stated inthe vows have been an object of contro-versy. See also Amida buddha.

AmitayusThe buddha of “Infinite Life.” AnotherSanskrit name for Amida buddha,translated as Muryôju in Japanese. SeeAmida buddha.

Ananda(J. Anan) One of the ten distinguisheddisciples of Shakyamuni Buddha(Siddharta Gautama). Ananda was ayounger cousin of the Buddha andbecame his favorite disciple in the laterpart of the Buddha’s life. Ananda servedas the Buddha’s personal attendant forthe last twenty years of his life and waspresent at the Buddha’s death. Anandais renowned for his exceptional mem-ory; he is said to have memorized everysermon that he heard the Buddhadeliver. For this reason, he is known asthe Foremost in Hearing the Dharma.Ananda is also known as a strong advo-cate for female disciples: He helpedconvince the Buddha to establish thefemale order of nuns.

Ananda was the only one of the greatdisciples who did not attain arhat beforethe Buddha passed away. (Arhatship isusually confirmed by another enlight-ened master.) He still had not done sowhen Mahakashyapa convened the FirstCouncil, and therefore was not initiallyallowed to attend. Ananda meditatedthrough the night and by morning wasadmitted to the council. According totradition, he contributed to the assemblyby reciting several sermons of theBuddha. This collection of sermonsbecame the Sutra Pitaka, one of the threeportions of the Tripitaka.

The Zen tradition reveres Ananda as the second of the twenty-eight Indianpatriarchs. Ananda is said to haveinherited the Dharma from

Mahakashapa. The story of his enlightenment is recorded as a kôanin Case 22, of the Mumonkân: “Ananda asked Mahakashyapa, ‘Did the World-Honored One transmit anything to you other than the goldenmonastic robe?’ Mahakashyapashouted in reply, ‘Ananda!’ Anandaresponded. Mahakashyapa said, ‘Knockdown the flagpole in front of the gate!’”See also arhat.

Ishigami, Zenno. Disciples of theBuddha. Trans. Richard L. Gage andPaul McCarthy. Tokyo: KoseiPublishing Co., 1989.

Anatman(J. Muga) The teaching of No-Self, themost basic and distinctive teaching ofTheravada Buddhism. According totradition, the historical Buddha discov-ered the truth of Anatman during med-itation and taught it to others, begin-ning with his first sermon. The teachingdenies the existence of atman, or soul,which is eternal, abiding, and unchang-ing. Attachment to the concept of sucha false self is the fundamental cause ofhuman suffering. Realization that nosuch self exists is the basis for theattainment of nirvana, or release.

According to the Buddhist under-standing of Anatman, the true self canbe understood as the ever-changingconfiguration of five elements, knownas the five skandhas. Rather than pos-sessing an eternal and unchanging soul,the individual is actually an on-goingprocess of transformation. The classicaltext explaining the concept of Anatmanis the Questions of King Milinda. In thetext, Nagasena, the Buddhist monk,uses the image of a chariot made from aconfiguration of interdependent partsto express this concept.

Anatman is a basic concept inMahayana Buddhism, although in analtered form. The Mahayana traditionextends the analysis of an individual’sNo-Self applying it to all things(Dharmas). This led to the Mahayanateaching of shunyata, or emptiness.

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Conze, Edward. Buddhist Scriptures:A Bibliography. Ed. Lewis Lancaster.New York: Garland, 1982.

AndaeThe five-strip inner garment worn byBuddhist monks and nuns. Andae is theJapanese transliteration of the Sanskritterm antarvasa. See gojôe.

AndôAttendants hall—the living quarters fornovices at Zen monasteries of the Sungdynasty (960–1279). Used as an alterna-tive term for the anjadô. See anjadô.

AngoThe rainy-season retreat. A three-month period during the summerwhen monks and nuns stay at a templeor monastery for an intensive practicesession. Traditionally the summerretreat was observed from the middleof the fourth lunar month through themiddle of the seventh lunar month(roughly April through July). The termliterally means “peaceful dwelling” andis the Japanese rendering of theSanskrit “vârsika.” The custom datesback to the time of the historicalBuddha, before the establishment ofpermanent monastic dwellings.During the Buddha’s lifetime, he andhis disciples traveled throughout theyear, teaching and lecturing in the vil-lages they visited along the way. Theysettled down temporarily during theannual rainy season when travel wasinconvenient and sometimes unsafe.Eventually, the Buddhist monasticcode (vinaya) forbade travel during therainy season, a period of ninety days.

Today, the Zen community in Japanobserves the summer retreat as one oftwo annual retreats. Major monasterieshold the summer retreat from April 16through July 15 and a winter retreatfrom November through January.During the retreat, monks and nunsstrictly observe the Zen monastic rules

(shingi), concentrating their efforts onmeditation. In many cases, up to four-teen hours of each day are dedicated toseated meditation. Travel outside thetemple is strictly limited for the dura-tion of the retreat; even word of a par-ent’s death will not be passed alonguntil the end of the retreat.

The rainy-season retreat is com-monly called “ge-ango” (summerretreat), or “u-ango” (rainy retreat) inJapanese. Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253)discusses the Sôtô customs for the angoin the seventy-ninth chapter of theShôbôgenzô, called “Ango.” See alsoSôtô sect.

Buswell, Robert E., Jr. The Zen MonasticExperience: Buddhist Practice inContemporary Korea. Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 1992.

AngyaLiterally meaning “to go on foot;” theZen practice of pilgrimage. Pilgrimageis a traditional aspect of the Zenlifestyle. Historically, angya referred tothe common practice of Zen monksand nuns travelling from master tomaster, or monastery to monastery.Pilgrimage served a number of pur-poses. Initially, a monk or nun traveledin search of a comparable master withwhom to begin the practice of Zen.Student and teacher alike needed toevaluate the other. Masters often testeda potential disciple’s resolve beforeadmitting him or her to the assembly. Inearlier centuries, pilgrimage was notlimited to beginners; advanced practi-tioners also traveled. Masters oftenencouraged disciples who had attainedsome level of maturity to experience theZen styles of other teachers as a meansto further their practice. Monks andnuns sometimes spent years travelling,becoming familiar with the styles of var-ious Zen masters of the day. In this case,pilgrimage played an essential role in preparing a Zen practitioner tobecome a master who would guide thepractice of others.

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In modern Japan, however, angyausually applies to the initial journeymade by a new trainee (unsui) seekingadmission to a main monastery for for-mal training. The experience has nowbeen ritualized and follows a set pat-tern. The trainee, already ordained, willapproach the monastery dressed as apilgrim monk and formally ask foradmission. The traditional dress for apilgrim includes a bamboo hat (kasa),straw sandals, and cotton leggings. Thepilgrim carries all necessary items,including a full set of monastic robes(kesa), begging bowls, a razor to shavethe head, and a straw raincoat (mino).Inevitably, the monastery refuses theinitial request for entry with a set expla-nation. The monastery officer usuallyexplains that the monastery has nospace to accommodate a new trainee oris too poor to support one. The traineemust then wait patiently outside theentrance gate (niwa zume) until he isfinally admitted on a probationary basis(tanga zume) after a number of days.

AnjaAn attendant or lay novice. Historically,anja were lay people who lived ontemple grounds before being ordained.In China, it was quite common for laynovices to live and work on templegrounds for extended periods of timewithout ever seeking ordination. InJapan, that practice was less common; inmost cases, Japanese anja were youngmen or boys who had not yet completedtheir training for ordination. At a Zentemple, novices serve a variety of func-tions and perform most of the manuallabor for the monastic community—tending fields, assisting with preparationand serving of meals, cleaning templebuildings (shichidô garan) and grounds.Traditionally anja had their own quarterswithin the temple grounds (anjadô),separate from those of the ordainedmonks. Today, younger monks in train-ing at Zen monasteries (also called anja)serve the same functions.

The same Chinese characters whichspell the word anja are also pronouncedgyôja when used in an unrelated con-text. See also lay believer.

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Angya, the Zen practice of pilgrimage, requires a traditional dress that includes robes and a straw hat.

AnjadôAssistants’ hall. A separate residence ontemple grounds for anja, the unor-dained novices who traditionally servedin a variety of roles in Chinese Zenmonasteries. In temples, the anjadôwere often quite large and elaborate,since it was common practice for largenumbers of lay novices to reside andwork at the monastery for many yearswithout seeking ordination. In additionto sleeping quarters, the complexincluded a meditation hall, readingroom, latrine, and wash stand. Onlyvestiges of the anjadô survived in theJapanese Zen context, since Japanesemonasteries did not perpetuate thepractice of having lay novices in resi-dence for extended periods of time. Seealso lay believer.

AnrokuBrief biographical account of any Zenmaster’s pilgrimages and enlighten-ment experience. Anroku is theJapanese rendering of the Chinese termhsing-lu. Also pronounced gyôroku orkôroku.

AnuruddhaOne of the ten distinguished disciples ofShakyamuni Buddha (SiddhartaGautama), Anuruddha is renowned forhis divine insight. Anuruddha (J.Anaritsu) came from the Shakya familyand was a cousin of Shakyamuni. LikeShakyamuni, he had been raised in greatluxury and found the monastic life diffi-cult. Although he persevered in his prac-tice, on one occasion he fell asleep whilethe Buddha was preaching. Ashamed ofhis weakness, Anuruddha took a vow ofsleeplessness. As a result of his intensepractice and lack of sleep, Anuruddhaeventually lost his eyesight. The loss of hisphysical vision led to his attainment ofspiritual insight. According to some tradi-tions, Anuruddha recited theAbhidharma Pitaka, one of the three sec-tions of the Tripitaka, at the First Council.

Ishigami, Zenno. Disciples of theBuddha. Trans. Richard L. Gage andPaul McCarthy. Tokyo: KoseiPublishing Co., 1989.

Anuttara Samyak SambodhiSupreme perfect enlightenment. This isthe Sanskrit term for the perfect, unsur-passed enlightenment experienced bythe buddhas. The term is often leftuntranslated in Buddhist texts. TheJapanese transliteration is “anokutarasammyaku sambodai.”

Arada KalamaOne of two Indian meditation masterswith whom Siddharta Gautama studiedbefore he attained enlightenment.Kalama taught a form of yogic medita-tion leading to a state of deep concen-tration beyond sensory perception.According to traditional accounts,Siddharta mastered Kalama’s teachingseasily, and Kalama was prepared to accept him as his equal and co-teacher. Feeling that the meditativestates that he had attained were not yetthe enlightenment he sought, Siddhartaleft Kalama.

ArayashikiJapanese transliteration for the Sanskrit term Alaya vijnana. See alaya consciousness.

ArcheryKnown in Japanese as kyûdô, archery isone of the traditional East Asian martialarts most closely associated with theZen sect of Buddhism. See kyûdô.

Arhat“Holy one worthy of veneration”; onewho has attained release (nirvana)from the cycle of suffering by followingthe Eightfold Path of Buddhism.According to the tradition ofTheravada Buddhism, the arhat is theideal practitioner of Buddhism—onewho has attained the same level of

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enlightenment as the historical Buddha,Siddharta Gautama. Theravada Buddhismrecognizes four stages along the path toenlightenment; the arhat has attainedthe highest stage. Like the Buddha, thearhat has nothing left to learn and isworthy of veneration by others. Atdeath, the arhat achieves ultimaterelease (parinirvana) from samsara,the ongoing cycle of birth, death, andrebirth. The term is also one of the tenepithets of respect used for the Buddha.

The tradition of MahayanaBuddhism generally regards the arhatas inferior to the bodhisattva, theMahayana ideal of a Buddhist practi-tioner. According to Mahayana, arhatsselfishly aspire to their own enlighten-ment, without compassionate concernfor others. In contrast to this, bod-hisattvas are presented as compassion-ate beings who simultaneously seekenlightenment for themselves and allother sentient beings.

During the T’ang dynasty (618–907),Chinese artists depicted the arhat asgrotesque figures, often with exaggeratedfeatures. Chinese Buddhists came to favora group of sixteen disciples of the histori-cal Buddha who attained enlightenmentas a subject of their art. The Sixteen Arhatsbecame a common theme in East AsiaBuddhist painting, sculpture, and otherstyles of sacred imagery. In some cases,the group depicted was the Five HundredArhats mentioned in the Lotus Sutra.Although the arhats were not originallyintended as positive images within theiconography of Mahayana art, in popularunderstanding they were regarded asguardian figures who protect the Buddhaand the Dharma from evil forces.

Like the early tradition, the Zenschool tends to regard the arhat as a fig-ure worthy of respect and admiration.Indeed, Zen masters extol the arhat asan ideal worthy of emulation. Like thearhat, the Zen practitioner must relyupon the self alone, struggling towardthe attainment of enlightenment with-out reliance on any external assistance.Portrayals of the Sixteen Arhats aredepicted in Zen art. Many Zen temples

even have a separate hall in which theirimages are enshrined.

The Chinese and Japanese termsLohan and Rakan became a title ofrespect used in reference to enlightenedZen masters.

Kent, Richard K. “Depictions of theGuardians of the Law: LohanPainting in China.” In Latter Days ofthe Law: Images of ChineseBuddhism, 850–1850. Ed. MarshaWeidner. Honolulu, HI: Universityof Hawaii Press, 1994.

de Visser, Marinus Willem. The Arhats inChina and Japan. Berlin:Oesterheld and Co., 1923.

Ascetic PracticesAscetic practices are forms of self-denialundertaken for religious purposes. Themost common forms of religious asceti-cism include fasting, celibacy, and sleepdeprivation. Extreme forms of asceticisminclude self-mutilation (especially castra-tion), and fasting to the point of starva-tion. While Buddhist monastic life can becharacterized as a modified form ofascetic practice, the tradition rejectsextreme forms. This rejection can betraced to the teachings of the historicalBuddha. After six years of harsh asceticpractice, which brought him to the brinkof death, Siddharta Gautama concludedthat the extreme path of self-denial wasnot helpful in attaining enlightenment.He devised a path balancing extremeasceticism and hedonism (the quest for complete self-gratification). TheBuddha called his path the middle way,the traditional name for what is nowknown as Buddhism.

The Zen tradition maintains many ofthe modified forms of ascetic practiceobserved by other forms of Buddhism,especially within the monastic setting.Like other Buddhist monks and nuns,Zen monastics traditionally remain celi-bate, consume food only before the noonhour, limit their diet to exclude liquor,intoxicants, some spices and meats, andmaintain a strict schedule of early rising

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and relatively short periods of sleep.These practices are intended to promoteconcentration during meditation and toreduce attachment to worldly values. Atthe same time, they are designed to main-tain the physical health of the body,which the Buddha felt contributed posi-tively to the meditative life.

Nevertheless, there are a number ofnotable examples in the Zen literatureof practitioners who displayed extraor-dinary levels of ascetic practice in theirsingle-minded quest for enlightenment.Bodhidharma, the First Patriarch, issaid to have spent nine years facing awall in meditation; he was so intent onattaining his goal that he lost the use ofhis arms and legs. Hui-k’o (487–593),the Second Patriarch, is said to have cutoff his own arm in order to demonstrateto Bodhidharma his absolute dedica-tion to pursuing the Dharma. OtherZen monks, such as the Japanese monkBankei Yôtaku, followed the Buddha’sexample and practiced forms ofextreme asceticism until it threatenedtheir lives. Like the Buddha, Bankeifound that the answer was not achievedthrough self-punishment.

Ashita(J. Ashida) An Indian holy man and seerwho visited the newborn SiddhartaGautama. Ashita examined the childand found marks of greatness. He told Suddhodana, the child’s father,that his son would become either agreat religious leader (buddha) or agreat king (Cakravarti).

Ashoka(J. Aikuô) The Indian king who ruled theMaurya empire in the third centuryB.C.E. Ashoka inherited the throne circa269 B.C.E. from his father, Bindusara,and extended the empire to encompassmost of the Indian subcontinent.According to Buddhist legend, Ashokadefeated the Kalingas in a bloody war.After witnessing the suffering heinflicted on the Kalingas, he chose toforsake violence and devote himself to

the peaceful study and teachings of theDharma. He became a devout Buddhistand spent the rest of his life promotingBuddhism throughout India. Ashokahad several stone pillars engraved withedicts declaring the Dharma.Additionally, he is believed to haveerected 84,000 stupas and templesthroughout India, many of them mark-ing religiously significant sites from theBuddha’s life. Ashoka promoted reli-gious tolerance, denounced both hunt-ing for sport and the sacrifice of ani-mals, and commanded his administra-tors to protect the welfare of the people.He supported the Buddhist sangha andpublic welfare projects such as sponsor-ing hospitals, building rest houses alongmajor roads, and digging wells.

Ashoka is also credited with conven-ing the Third Buddhist Council, held inthe Mauryan capital of Pataliputra.Ashoka sent out emissaries to spread theteachings of Buddhism to other lands,including Egypt, Syria, and Sri Lanka. Heis sometimes regarded as the secondfounder of Buddhism, one who embodiesthe qualities of the ideal lay devotee, andserves as the model for the perfectBuddhist ruler. See also lay believer.

Strong, John S. The Legend of KingAshoka: A Study and Translation ofthe Asokavadana. Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 1983.

AshuraFierce, pugnacious supernatural beings,or demi-gods; often translated as “titan.”According to the Hindu tradition, ashuraare evil spirits who continually engage in warfare with the gods, especially Indra.In this context, they are regarded asdemons or anti-gods. The Buddhist tradition has reinterpreted the concept,transforming ashura into protective spirits who guard the Buddhist Dharma.While they remain fond of fighting, theyare no longer seen as evil.

In Buddhism, existence as an ashurais considered one of the six realms(rokudô) into which an individual maybe reincarnated. The level of the ashura

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in the hierarchy of beings is generallyregarded as a higher realm than that ofhuman because they are supernaturalin power and activity. In other contexts,the ashura are interpreted as one of theevil paths (akudô) in which one sufferspunishment for past misdeeds.

AshvaghoshaIndian monk who lived during the latefirst and early second centuries C.E.Ashvaghosha was a poet, Buddhistphilosopher, and proponent ofMahayana teachings. He is best knownas the author of the Buddhacharita(Acts of the Buddha), one of the firstbiographies of Shakyamuni Buddha(Siddharta Gautama). He is known tohave composed a number of treatiseson Mahayana thought; several more areattributed to him.

The Zen school reveres Ashvaghoshaas one of the twenty-eight Indian patri-archs of Zen. In the Ching-te Ch’üan-teng Lu, for example, he is included asthe twelfth Indian patriarch.

Atman(J. ga) The Hindu concept of a soul ortrue self within a human being.According to Hindu philosophy, theatman is the eternal and non-physicalaspect of a person, identified with thecosmic soul, or Brahman. In the classi-cal philosophical tradition, release(moksha) is attained by contemplatingthe nature of the atman and realizing itsidentification with Brahman.

Buddhism denies the existence ofthe atman, rejecting the concept thatany eternal, abiding, and unchangingaspect exists (Anatman). According totradition, the Buddha sought an atman,as the Hindu tradition suggests, but dis-covered that it did not actually exist. InBuddhism, the atman is a false sense ofself to which human beings becomeattached. This attachment leadsinevitably to suffering. Release fromsuffering is attained with the realizationthat there is no atman.

AttachmentBuddhism regards attachment—thedesire for things or pleasure, or obses-sion with ideas and concepts—as one ofthe basic afflictions (bonnô) that causehuman suffering and hinder progresstoward enlightenment. The traditionrecognizes various kinds of attach-ments, from very coarse to very subtle.The crudest forms of attachment are tosensual pleasures, including cravingsfor sex, food, and wealth. The basicBuddhist precepts, including the fiveprecepts of lay believers and the tenprecepts of novices, are designed toreduce these coarser attachments.People also form more subtle attach-ments, however, to intangible thingslike ideas. One of the most persistentattachments, for example, is the humantendency to cling to a false concept ofthe self (atman). To overcome this sortof attachment, one must learn medita-tive techniques, which help to exposethe emptiness of the concept. Advancedpractitioners of Buddhism sometimesbecome attached to the Buddhist teach-ings themselves. In this case, the veryDharma can become a hindrance toenlightenment, since it is a means to anend and not enlightenment itself. Thetraditional image describing attach-ment to the teachings compares themto a raft, carrying the believer from thisshore of samsara to the other shore ofnirvana. Upon reaching the far shore,however, the raft becomes useless andcan be abandoned. Clinging to theteachings is the same as insisting oncarrying the raft on one’s back.

AvalokiteshvaraThe bodhisattva of infinite compassionand mercy; one of the most importantbodhisattvas, or beings seeking enlight-enment, in the pantheon of MahayanaBuddhism. Avalokiteshvara is reveredthroughout the Mahayana world byBuddhists of all schools. The exactmeaning of the Sanskrit name is some-what obscure and is debated by schol-ars. It may mean “one who looks upon

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the suffering of the world,” or “one whohears the cries of those suffering in theworld.” The bodhisattva appears in sev-eral Mahayana sutras, including theHeart Sutra and the Lotus Sutra, inwhich one chapter is devoted toAvalokiteshvara’s special powers to res-cue those in need.

In China, Avalokiteshvara is knownas Kuan-yin, “one who observes the sounds.” In Japan, the bodhisattva iscalled Kannon, the Japanese pronuncia-tion of the Chinese characters. Changesoccurred in the presentation anddescription of Avalokiteshvara as devo-tion to the bodhisattva spread through-out East Asia. Although Avalokiteshvarawas portrayed as masculine in Indianimages and texts, female imagesemerged in China and Japan.

Avalokiteshvara SutraA brief Buddhist text dedicated to adescription of the power of the bod-hisattva named Avalokiteshvara (Ch.Kuan-yin; J. Kannon). Although the texthas circulated as a single work, itappears in the original Sanskrit versionof the Lotus Sutra (Saddharma-pun-darika-sutra) as Chapter 24. In theChinese translation of the Lotus Sutraprepared by Kumarajiva, the most pop-ular version used in East Asia, theAvalokiteshvara Sutra is Chapter 25. It isknown as the Kuan-yin Ching inChinese and the Kannonkyô inJapanese. The text is commonlychanted at Zen temples throughoutEast Asia, especially at ceremonieswhere lay practitioners are present.There have been many English transla-tions based on the Chinese, includingthose by Hurvitz and Watson.

The text begins with a bodhisattvaasking Shakyamuni Buddha (SiddhartaGautama), why Avalokiteshvara, liter-ally called “One Who Perceives theSounds of the World,” is so named.Shakyamuni responds by recounting allcalamities from which Avalokiteshvarawill save a believer who calls out to himfor help. The bodhisattva then asks inwhat form Avalokiteshvara appears to

perform these acts of compassion. TheBuddha explains that Avalokiteshvaraassumes any form that is appropriate tothe situation of the person in need, list-ing thirty-three different manifestation.See also lay believer.

Hurvitz, Leon, trans. Scripture of theLotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma.New York: Columbia UniversityPress, 1982.

Watson, Burton, trans. The Lotus Sutra.New York: Columbia UniversityPress, 1993.

Avatamsaka SutraThe “Flower Garland Sutra;” a Mahayanasutra originally composed in Sanskrit butnow preserved in the Chinese translationknown as the Hua-yen Sutra. It becamethe central text of the Chinese Hua-yenschool (J. Kegon school) and had wide-spread influence and popularity in variousother schools of East Asian Buddhism.There are three Chinese translations ofthe text: Buddhabhadra in 418–421 (T. 9,no. 278), Shiksananda in 695–699 (T. 10,no. 279), and Prajna in 759–762 (T. 10, no.293). According to tradition, the Avatam-saka Sutra represents the Buddha’s firstsermon, given almost immediately afterhe attained enlightenment. His audiencefound the concepts so difficult to graspthat the Buddha decided to alter histeaching strategy and begin with the sim-pler Theravada concepts.

The sutra contains a number ofchapters that once circulated as inde-pendent texts, including a chapterdescribing the ten stages of a bod-hisattva. Another major segment ofthe text, known in Sanskrit as the“Gandavyuha,” describes the travels ofa pilgrim, Sudhana, who seeks guid-ance from numerous teachers in hisquest to learn the way of the bod-hisattva. The Gandavyuha has beentranslated into English by ThomasCleary under the title Entry into theRealm of Reality.

The Avatamsaka Sutra presents theteachings of the Mâdhyamaka andYogachara schools of Mahayana

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Buddhism, as well as important newconcepts. Its prominent teachingsinclude the notion that all sentientbeings possess Buddha Nature, thatAbsolute Truth and Relative Truth arenot mutually exclusive or mutuallydenying, and that all phenomena areinterdependent and interpenetrating.

The Zen tradition makes extensiveuse of teachings and images drawnfrom the Avatamsaka Sutra. From thebeginning, Zen teachings were heavilyinfluenced by Hua-yen thought—somuch so, that the modern Zen scholar,D. T. Suzuki (1689–1966), maintainedthat Zen emerged from the philosophi-cal basis of Hua-yen thought.

Avici HellThe lowest and harshest region of hell,where the suffering is interminable.Avici is the worst of the eight hot hells(hachinetsu jigoku) reserved for thosewho have committed one of the fivedeadly acts (gogyakuzai) or slanderedthe Dharma. The inhabitants of Avicihell constantly cry out in pain. InJapanese, the Avici hell is called Mukenjigoku, the Hell of Incessant Suffering.

Awakening of FaithKnown in Chinese as the Ta-ch’eng Ch’i-hsin lun, and in Japanese as the DaijôKishinron, a comprehensive summaryof Mahayana teachings traditionallyattributed to Ashvaghosha, an IndianZen patriarch. Modern scholars haveconcluded that Ashvaghosha probablydid not compose the original Sanskrittexts, as none survive. Scholars believe

it was composed originally in Chinese.There are two Chinese versions believedto be translations completed byParamartha (T. 32, no. 1666) around 550C.E. and by Shiksananada (T. 32, no.1667) around 700 C.E. Despite its brevity,the treatise is among the most influen-tial texts in all of East Asian Buddhism.Approximately 170 commentaries werewritten to explicate its tersely arguedcontents. The most important of the traditional commentaries was written by Fa-tsang (643–712), patriarch of the Hua-yen school. Otherschools, including Shingon, Zen, andPure Land, hold the text in high regard.See also Shingon sect.

Hakeda, Yoshito S., trans. TheAwakening of Faith. New York:Columbia University Press, 1967.

A-yu-wang-shan(J. Aikuô-zan) Mount A-yu-wang, animportant religious site for Zen, locatedin present-day Chekiang, China. A-yu-wang is the Chinese name for theIndian Buddhist monarch, Ashoka.According to tradition, the Buddhistmonk Hui-tah discovered an old stupaon the mountain in 281 C.E. Believing itto be one of the 84,000 stupas erectedby Ashoka centuries earlier, Hui-tahnamed the mountain for King Ashoka.Centuries later, the mountain becamethe site of the Zen monastery Kuan-li-ssu; A-yu-wang-shan became known asone of the Five Mountains (Ch. wu-shan; J. Gozan temples), the most pres-tigious Zen monasteries in China.

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BBaitôPlum tea, a sweet beverage made bysteeping plums and sugar. At some Zen temples in Japan, it is served dailyto the resident monks or nuns after themorning service.

Baiyû Jikushin(1633–1707) A Japanese Sôtô monk ofthe Tokugawa period (1600–1867), whoparticipated in reform movementswithin the Sôtô sect. Baiyû was born inOsaka, Japan and became a Buddhistmonk at age eleven. He became theDharma heir of Ryûban Shôun ofKôshô-ji and joined with ManzanDôhaku, the reformer, to petition theJapanese government for permission torestore the original system of Dharmasuccession within the Sôtô sect. Theywere successful in their efforts, andisshi inshô became the norm onceagain.

BakufuA military government in Japan under theleadership of a shôgun. The term literallymeans “tent government,” referring to thefield headquarters of a military leader dur-ing wartime. Later, the term referred to apermanent military government head-quarters. Gradually it became the com-mon term for the military governmentitself. There have been several bakufu inJapanese history, established under suc-cessive lineages of shôgun. Bakufu existedduring the Kamakura (1185–1333),Ashikaga (1392–1568), and Tokugawa(1600–1867) periods. The bakufu is alsocalled shogunate in English.

During each period, the bakufumaintained close relations with the Zen

school, acting as supporters for variousZen masters and monasteries. It is com-monly noted that during the Kamakuraperiod, the bakufu sponsored the newlyimported Zen school because Zen wasbetter suited to military culture thanolder, more established forms ofBuddhism. The Ashikaga ordered theconstruction of an extensive network ofZen temples throughout the country,which served as state temples(kokubunji). See also samurai.

Ball of Doubt(J. gidan) A Zen expression for the ten-sion that builds up in a Zen practitioner,especially when teaching or working ona kôan. According to Hakuin Ekaku(1685–1768) the formation of this ball ofdoubt is one of the essential elements ofZen practice. When the ball of doubtfinally shatters, the practitioner has anexperience of satori, or enlightenment.Zen texts sometimes use the phrase “tosmash the ball of doubt” as an expres-sion for attaining enlightenment.

Yampolsky, Philip B., trans. The ZenMaster Hakuin: Selected Writings.New York: Columbia UniversityPress, 1971.

Miura, Isshû, and Ruth Fuller Sasaki.Zen Dust: The History of the Kôanand Kôan Study in Rinzai (Lin-chi)Zen. New York: Harcourt, Brace &World, 1967.

BankaEvening services; one of three periodsof ritual chanting, along with morningand midday services, held daily in a Zenmonastery. The evening service is heldbefore dusk in the main hall (Butsuden).It includes the chanting of varioussutras and other prayers. It is knownmore fully as banka fugin.

Bankei Yôtaku(1622–1693) Japanese Rinzai monk fromthe early Tokugawa period (1600–1867),officially recognized as a member of the

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Bankei Yôtaku

lineage of Myôshin-ji. Bankei was born toa samurai family of Confucian scholars.He rebelled against the Confucian education that his family expected of him,turning instead to the Zen sect ofBuddhism to answer his religious doubts.He practiced under several importantmasters of the day, including Umpo Zenjô(1572–1653) and the Chinese monk Tao-che Ch’ao-yüan (d. 1660). Nevertheless,he regarded himself as self-taught, refus-ing to accept official sanction (J. inka)from Tao-che. He became Umpo’sDharma heir fulfilling Umpo’s dyingwish. Although Bankei established severaltemples and accepted disciples, he didnot officially transmit the Dharma to anysuccessor and establish a lineage.Nevertheless, Bankei had a deep influ-ence on the Zen Buddhism of his day, pri-marily through his public sermons,which were later published.

Later in life, Bankei became a popularpreacher, opening his Dharma talks tothe general public and attracting largecrowds. Thus, he promoted his uniquestyle of Zen to Buddhist monks and nunsfrom other sects and to all social classes.In his sermons, Bankei explained theUnborn Buddha Mind as innate withinevery individual. Human beings have noneed to struggle to become buddhas;they need only trust in the unborn.Instead of recommending seated medi-tation (zazen) or contemplation basedon a kôan as is the norm in Rinzai prac-tice, Bankei encouraged his audience tosimply abide in the Unborn BuddhaMind. See also Rinzai sect.

Haskell, Peter. Bankei Zen: Translationsfrom the Record of Bankei. NewYork: Grove Press, 1984.

Waddell, Norman. The Unborn: The Lifeand Teaching of Zen Master Bankei,1622–1693. New York: North PointPress, 2000.

BaranashiA kingdom in central India at the timeof the historical Buddha. The capitalcity, also called Baranashi, was the site

of the Deer Park, where the Buddhagave his first sermon to the five mendi-cants. The Deer Park is near the pre-sent-day city of Benares.

Barbarian(J. koshu) In Chinese texts, the termmay apply to any foreigner. In Zenmaterials, the expression refers almostexclusively to Bodhidharma, the tradi-tional founder of Zen in China. He isoften called the Barbarian with a RedBeard (J. Shaku Koshu), since it wascommonly believed that all foreignershad red hair.

BashôSee Matsuo Bashô.

Basô DôitsuJapanese transliteration of Ma-tsu Tao-i(709–788), one of the most influentialChinese Zen masters of the T’angdynasty (618–907). See Ma-tsu Tao-i.

Bassui Tokushô(1327–1387) Japanese Rinzai monk of thethird generation of the Hottô-Ha, wholived during the Kamakura period(1185–1333). Bassui was born in Sagami,in present-day Kanagawa Prefecture. Hewas plagued by religious doubts in hisearly years, and did not take the tonsureuntil he was twenty-eight years old. Later,he regarded doubt as the crucial factor inthe struggle for enlightenment. Afterbecoming a monk, he set out on a pil-grimage seeking a master. He met KohôKakumyô and almost immediatelybecame his Dharma heir, although heonly remained with the master for twomonths. Bassui then continued on his pil-grimage until 1380, when patrons con-structed a monastery for him in Enzan,present-day Yamanashi Prefecture. Henamed the temple Kôgoku-ji and estab-lished a community of disciples. He isregarded as the founder of the Kôgoku-jibranch of Rinzai Zen. He received theposthumous title Ekô Daien Zenji, which

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Begging Alms

means Zen Master Great Perfection of theLight of Wisdom. See also Rinzai sect.

Begging AlmsThe practice of making begging rounds,during which Buddhist monks and nunsaccept donations of food, clothing, andother necessities from lay supporters.Begging alms, or mendicancy, dates backto the lifetime of the historical Buddhain ancient India, but the Buddha was notthe first or only religious leader toencourage the practice as a regular partof monastic life. At the time, many reli-gious groups embraced mendicancy as aform of ascetic practice. For Buddhistmonks and nuns, mendicancy was tradi-tionally a regulated part of the monasticlife. It is required by the vinaya, theTheravadan monastic code which gov-erns life within Buddhist monasteries.The vinaya explicitly forbids monks andnuns to earn a living through meansother than begging. It defines begging asthe “right livelihood” for monks andnuns. Although the Buddhist monasticcommunity continues to rely on lay sup-port, begging rounds remain an activepart of monastic life in only a few parts ofthe Buddhist world.

According to the vinaya, monks andnuns should beg for alms each morning,silently visiting the houses of lay people.The rules require them to keep their eyescast downward and to make no specialrequests. They are not allowed to refuseany offering, regardless of the food’squality. Even meat is to be accepted, pro-vided the animal was not slaughteredspecifically for the monk or nun. Aftermaking the begging rounds, they returnto the monastery before the noon hourto eat whatever was offered to them. Thevinaya regulates the types of offeringslay people may make. For example,monks and nuns traditionally could notaccept cash donations, since they wereforbidden to handle money. However,modern cash economies have forced themonastic community to develop variousmeans to accept monetary donations inorder to purchase goods and services.

Within the Buddhist monastic con-text, begging for alms serves a number ofrelated purposes. It is one of the asceticpractices that the vinaya imposes onmonks and nuns to reduce their attach-ment to wealth and material things.Buddhism regards attachment to mater-ial possessions as one of the basic obsta-cles to enlightenment. In addition, beg-ging is often a humbling experience thatcan help to reduce one’s attachment tothe false self (atman). Also of great impor-tance is the opportunity which mendi-cancy provides for lay people to buildmerit. Begging allows for a mutually ben-eficial relationship to develop betweenthe ordained and lay portions of theBuddhist sangha. While lay people pro-vide for the physical necessities of monksand nuns, the monastic community pro-vides lay people with spiritual benefits.

In East Asian Buddhism, begging for alms has never been common practice except in the case of the Zenschool. The reasons for this are not com-pletely clear, but they probably includedifferences in culture and climate. First,the practice of monks and nuns livingfrom the labor of lay supporters conflictswith the dominant Confucian principle ofproductive labor by all members of soci-ety. In addition, unlike India, the weatherin many parts of East Asia makes mendi-cancy a severe hardship. Throughout theregion, Buddhist monasteries andtemples relied on two basic sources ofincome: land ownership and financialassistance from government sponsorshipand wealthy lay patrons.

In the Zen sects of East Asia today,begging for alms is not practiced univer-sally as a regular part of the monastic life.When it does occur, monks and nuns donot follow the ancient pattern of dailyrounds to receive prepared food for theday’s sustenance. Japanese Zen monksand nuns go out on begging rounds sev-eral days each month. They typically begin small groups, walking through thestreets single file, calling out the wordHô, meaning Dharma. Lay believersoffer them donations, usually money oruncooked rice. The exchange is marked

by mutual respect and gratitude, withboth parties bowing to each other. Thepractice is known as jihatsu in Japanese.

Wijayaratna, Mohan. Buddhist MonasticLife: According to the Texts of theTheravada Tradition. Trans. ClaudeGrangier and Steven Collins. NewYork: Cambridge University Press,1990.

Begging BowlThe bowl that Buddhist monks andnuns traditionally used to collectdonations of food from lay people. Thebegging bowl is one of the few basicpossessions allowed to monks andnuns. Traditionally they used the samebowl for begging and for eating thefood. According to the early monasticcode (vinaya), the bowl should be madeof iron or clay; materials such as gold,silver, bronze, glass, and wood were for-bidden. Each morning, monks andnuns went out to beg food (jihatsu)from lay people living in the vicinity.Monks and nuns were required toaccept whatever type of food lay peopleput into their bowls; they were strictlyforbidden to request special foods. Theyreturned to the monastery before thenoon hour to consume the food theyhad collected.

In Zen monasteries, monks andnuns generally own a set of nestedbowls which they receive at ordinationas a part of their personal possessions.They use this set of bowls for all mealseaten at the monastery. The largest ofthe set, also called jihatsu or ôryôki, iscomparable to the historical beggingbowl used in India. Although techni-cally forbidden by the vinaya, mostbowls used by Zen monks and nunstoday are made from red or black lac-quered wood. See also begging almsand lay believer.

Wijayaratna, Mohan. Buddhist MonasticLife: According to the Texts of theTheravada Tradition. Trans. ClaudeGrangier and Steven Collins. New York:Cambridge University Press, 1990.

BenaresPresent-day city in India, which is thesite of the Deer Park, where the Buddhagave his first sermon after attainingenlightenment. During the time of theBuddha, the city was known asBaranashi, the capital city of the king-dom bearing the same name.

Bendôwa“Discourse on the Practice of the Way,”the first chapter of Dôgen Kigen’sShôbôgenzô. Dôgen composed his firstmajor composition in 1231, while livingin Fukukusa. Dôgen employs a questionand answer format to structure the text,answering the doubts and queries of afictitious beginner. He includes anautobiographical account of his ownsearch for enlightenment. He alsoexplains his style of zazen, distinguish-ing it from other forms of meditation,and invites serious practice by laypeople, monks, and nuns alike. Dôgenargues that zazen is not just anotherstyle of meditation, but enlightenmentitself. He presents zazen as the originalway of the Buddha and all the patri-archs. See also lay believer.

The Bendôwa has been translatedinto English by Abe and Waddell, inEastern Buddhist, Vol. 4, No. 1 (1971),pp. 124–157.

BenzaitenA river goddess from Hindu andBuddhist mythology, known asSarashvati in Sanskrit. Benzaiten(often shortened to Benten) is associ-ated with eloquence, learning, andmusic. She is depicted playing a lute(biwa), or carrying the sword of wis-dom and a wish-granting jewel (mani).In Mahayana Buddhism, she isregarded as the female counterpart ofManjusri, the bodhisattva of wisdom.In Japan, she is worshipped as one ofthe seven lucky gods (shichifukujin),and regarded as a patron deity of theperforming arts.

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Benzaiten

The begging bowl, one of the few basic possessions allowed to Buddhist monks, is traditionally used to collect donations of food.

BetsugoAn alternative answer that a master pro-vides for a kôan, one which differs fromthe answer given in the original exchange.Literally, the word means “to offer a differ-ent response.” When Zen masters com-piled collections of historical kôan cases,they often appended different types ofanswers of their own devising. (The otherbasic type of answer is the daigo.) Thebetsugo was one such type, given whenthe master disagreed with the originalanswer. The practice of adding on alter-native answers is said to have originatedin Yunmen’s school during the Sungdynasty (960–1279) in China.

Miura, Isshû, and Ruth Fuller Sasaki.Zen Dust: The History of the Kôanand Kôan Study in Rinzai (Lin-chi)Zen. New York: Harcourt, Brace &World, 1967.

BhikkhuA wandering monk or mendicant; onewho has renounced home life and livesas a wandering holy man, begging foralms. Bhikkhu is the Pali term, related tothe Sanskrit “bhiksu” ( J. Biku). InBuddhism, the term refers to a malemember of the sangha, the communityof Buddhist believers who haveaccepted the approximately 250 precepts of the monastic code andreceived full ordination.

In most schools of MahayanaBuddhism, bhikkhu applies to any malewho has received full ordination, usuallybased on the vinaya—the same monasticcode used in the tradition of TheravadaBuddhism. In the Zen school, this is trueof Zen monks in China and Korea, as wellas for Obaku Zen monks in Japan, all ofwhom are fully ordained when theyreceive the 250 precepts. Sôtô and Rinzaimonks in Japan are not ordained usingthe Theravada precepts. Nevertheless, theterm is used in reference to them. See alsoObaku sect, Rinzai sect, and Sôtô sect.

Wijayaratna, Mohan. Buddhist MonasticLife: According to the Texts of the

Theravada Tradition. Trans. ClaudeGrangier and Steven Collins. New York:Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Bhikkhuni(J. bikuni) A wandering nun or mendi-cant; one who has renounced home lifeand lives as a wandering holy woman,begging for alms. Bhikkhuni is the Paliterm, related to the Sanskrit “bhiksuni.” InBuddhism, it applies to a female memberof the sangha, the community ofBuddhist believers who have received fullordination. Following the Theravadamonastic code (vinaya), full ordinationfor women involves accepting some 500precepts. According to traditionalaccounts, the first Buddhist nun was theBuddha’s foster mother and maternalaunt, Maha Prajapati. When she askedthe Buddha to accept her as an ordainedmember of the sangha, he refused. Hefinally conceded to admitting women tothe ordained orders of the sangha afterone of his principal disciples, Ananda,intervened on his foster mother’s behalf.The Buddha accepted the admission ofnuns, provided that they undertake a setof precepts in addition to those taken bymonks. These precepts require that nunsremain subservient to monks.

In many parts of the Buddhist world,the order of nuns died out sometime afterthe tenth century C.E. In some areas,women continued to wear robes and livethe life of ordained members of thesangha without having access to ordina-tion. The vinaya requires that a minimumcommunity of at least ten fully ordained,senior nuns be present to perform ordi-nations. In areas lacking that number, theformal ordination became an impossi-bility. For this reason, surviving communities of bhikkuni in East Asiatoday are sometimes called upon to rein-troduce women’s monastic orders inSoutheast Asian Buddhist communities.

Barnes, Nancy J., “Women inBuddhism.” In Today’s Woman inWorld Religions. Ed. Arvind Sharma.Albany, NY: State University of NewYork Press, 1994.

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Bhikkhuni

The bhikku, or wandering monk, is a traveling Buddhist holy man.

Paul, Diane Y. Women in Buddhism:Images of the Feminine inMahayana Tradition. Berkeley, CA:University of California Press, 1985.

Bien-li WenSee Pien-wen.

BikuA Buddhist monk; the Japanese translit-eration for bhikkhu. See bhikkhu.

BikuniA Buddhist nun; the Japanese transliter-ation for bhikkhuni. See bhikkhuni.

BinzuruThe Japanese name for Pindola, thefirst of the Sixteen Arhats venerated inEast Asian Buddhism. Binzuru has beenpopular in Japan for centuries becauseof his healing powers. See Pindola.

BiographyThe life stories of the historical Buddhaand other famous Buddhists are a stan-dard genre in Buddhist literature. Suchstories are used to instruct Buddhists inthe basic beliefs of the tradition and theprinciples of Buddhist morality. Inaddition to biographies of the historicalBuddha such as the Buddhacharita,there are also stories of the Buddha’sprevious lifetimes, known as Jatakatales. Biographies of enlightened mas-ters play an especially important role inZen literature. Traditionally, the earlyhistory of the Zen school is taughtthrough collections of biographies ofprominent masters. This form of Zenliterature is sometimes known as“transmission of the lamp literature,”since it relates the passing of theDharma through generations of Zenleaders. It is a common practice in theZen world for a disciple to record thelife story of his or her teacher after theteacher’s death.

BirushanaJapanese transliteration of VairochanaBuddha, the primary object of venera-tion in the Shingon sect of JapaneseBuddhism. Also known as DainichiNyorai, the Great Sun Buddha. SeeMahavairochana Buddha.

Bishamon(Sk. Vaishravana) One of the fourguardian kings (J.shitennô) of the fourdirections, Bishamon is associatedwith the north. He is also calledTamonten in Japanese, meaning “theKing who hears much,” because heenjoys listening to the Buddha preachthe Dharma. The four guardian kingslive on Mount Sumeru and protectpeople living in the four quarters; inparticular, they guard places whereBuddhism is taught. Images of the fourguardians kings, dressed in full armorand having fierce expressions, appearin almost every Buddhist temple inEast Asia. Bishamon is traditionallypictured as having green skin. Hewears jeweled armor and often carriesa three-tined fork in his left hand; inother images, he carries a smallpagoda in his left hand and a halbert (a combination spear and battle-axe) in his right hand. In Japan he is vener-ated apart from the other threeguardian kings as one of the sevenlucky gods (shichifukujin) and isregarded as the patron of doctors, travelers, and missionaries.

Black Mountains(J. kokusan) An expression used in Zenfor attachment to discriminating think-ing, which hinders practice. A mastermight say, for example, that a student iscaught in the black mountains, if thestudent seems determined to resolve akôan with reason. The phrase is an allu-sion to a legendary region of the worldinhabited by demons. According toIndian mythology, there are blackmountains to the north of the conti-nent. The area within the mountains is

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Bien-li Wen

completely black and infested with evildemons. In many cases, masters use alonger version of the phrase, “living in ademon’s cave in the black mountain.”

Blue Cliff Record(J. Hekiganroku) Pi-yen Lu, a classic Zentext comprised of one hundred tradi-tional kôan, or teachings, with verse andcommentary, compiled by the Rinzaimaster Yüan-wu K’o-ch’in (1063–1135).See Hekiganroku.

BodaiEnlightenment, wisdom. The Japanesetranslation for the Sanskrit term bodhi.See bodhi.

BodaidarumaThe Japanese pronunciation ofBodhidharma, the Indian Buddhistmonk traditionally regarded as thefounder of Zen in China. The name ismore often abbreviated in Japanese toDaruma. See Bodhidharma.

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Bodaidaruma

Bishamon, one of the four guardian kings, is traditionally depicted with green skin and jeweled armor.

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Bodaiju

BodaijuBodhi tree, in Japanese. See bodhi tree.

BodaishinThe mind of enlightenment, sometimestranslated as bodhi-mind. Japanese forbodhichitta. See bodhichitta.

Bodhi( J. bodai) Commonly translated asenlightenment or wisdom, this Sanskritterm refers to the ultimate goal ofBuddhist practice. The historicalBuddha attained bodhi while meditat-ing under the bodhi tree. In theTheravada tradition, practitioners striveto emulate that experience by followingthe Eightfold Path. TheravadaBuddhism describes bodhi as the pointat which one has cut off all afflictionsand illusory misconceptions realizingthe four noble truths. The Mahayanatradition describes the BodhisattvaPath as the way to attain bodhi. Whilethe various schools of MahayanaBuddhism describe the content ofbodhi wisdom in various ways, one ofthe most common is to identify it as therealization of emptiness, which leads toa recognition of the unity of samsaraand nirvana.

Bodhichitta(J. bodaishin) The thought of enlighten-ment or the aspiration to attain bud-dhahood, sometimes translated asbodhi-mind. In Mahayana Buddhism,acquiring bodhichitta is a crucial firststep on the Bodhisattva Path. It involvesa twofold resolve: the desire to attainenlightenment oneself and the desire toassist all other sentient beings in escap-ing the suffering of samsara (the cycleof birth, death, and rebirth). Arousingbodhichitta is a meritorious act—onewhich builds good karma and destroyspreviously accumulated bad karma.

Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253) wroteextensively on the concept of bodhi-chitta and its relationship to Zen prac-tice, dedicated one essay in the

Shôbôgenzô, “Hotsu mujô shin,” to thesubject. He identifies the mind thatgives rise to bodhichitta with theenlightenment mind: “Within this kindof life just as it is the act of sitting like abuddha and making an effort like a buddha, which is called ‘arouses the thought of enlightenment.’ The conditions for arousing the thought ofenlightenment do not come from any-where else. It is the enlightened mindwhich arouses the thought of enlighten-ment.” (Cook, p. 116)

Cook, Francis Harold. How to Raise anOx: Zen Practice as Taught in ZenMaster Dôgen’s Shobogenzo. LosAngeles, CA: Center Publications,1978.

Robinson, Richard H. and William L.Johnson. The Buddhist Religion:A Historical Introduction. Belmont,CA: Wadsworth Publishing. Co.,1996.

Williams, Paul. Mahâyâna Buddhism:The Doctrinal Foundations. NewYork: Routledge, 1989.

Bodhi DayThe East Asian festival commemorat-ing the day on which the historicalBuddha, Siddharta Gautama,attained enlightenment. Traditionallyobserved on the eighth day of thetwelfth lunar month, it is now com-monly observed on December 8. InEast Asia, Buddhists celebrate thebirth (hanamatsuri), death, andenlightenment of the Buddha on sepa-rate days. In the Theravadan traditionof South and Southeast Asia, the threeevents are commemorated on a singleday, called Visakha, observed on thefull moon in May.

Bodhidharma(d. 532; J. Bodaidaruma) An IndianBuddhist monk traditionally regardedas the founder of the Zen sect ofBuddhism in China. He is consideredthe Twenty-eigth Indian Patriarch in adirect lineage from Shakyamuni

Buddha (Siddharta Gautama) and isalso counted as the first of the sixChinese Zen Patriarchs. Scholars canconfirm few details about his biogra-phy, many doubting that the historicalBodhidharma had any connection withthe Zen school. Nevertheless, he is acentral figure in the traditional Zenaccounts of the school.

According to Zen biographies,Bodhidharma was born to a Brahmin-class family in southern India; somealternative accounts say that he was thethird son of a king. He studiedBuddhism under Prajnatara, theTwenty-seventh Patriarch of Zen, fromwhom he received Dharma transmis-sion. In 520, he made his way east toChina where he attended an interviewwith Emperor Wu (502–550), founder ofthe Liang dynasty. The emperor askedBodhidharma what merit he hadaccrued from his many donations to theBuddhist order, including the construc-tion of numerous temples. Bodhi-dharma replied that there was no meritin these external activities; the only use-ful practice was meditation. Theemperor did not understand Bodhi-dharma’s teachings and banished him.Bodhidharma then took up residence atShao-lin-ssu, where he sat continuouslyin meditation facing a wall for nine yearsuntil his legs withered away. He eventu-ally accepted the Chinese monk Hui-k’oas his disciple and recognized him as theSecond Patriarch of Zen in China.Bodhidharma miraculously survivedmany attempts to poison him in China.When he had completed his mission, heallowed the sixth attempt on his life tosucceed and passed away while sittingin meditation. He was granted theposthumous title Yüan-shüeh Ta-shih,or Great Master of PerfectEnlightenment (J. Engaku Daishi), byEmperor Tai-tsung.

Bodhidharma’s Six GatesA collection of six Zen essays in Chinese,traditionally attributed to Bodhidharma.See Shôshitsu Rokumon.

Bodhisattva(J. bosatsu) The term literally means “abeing (striving for) enlightenment.” Inthe tradition of Theravada Buddhism,it is used exclusively in reference toSiddharta Gautama, the historicalBuddha, before he attained enlighten-ment. In the later Mahayana tradition, itcame to mean anyone striving forenlightenment who works tirelessly forthe sake of other sentient beings.

The bodhisattva became theMahayana ideal for the Buddhist practi-tioner. A bodhisattva’s goal is twofold: tobecome a Buddha and to lead all sen-tient beings to buddhahood. Accordingto tradition, the bodhisattva may becapable of attaining nirvana, but willrefuse to leave the realm of samsara—the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth—in order to help others. Mahayana pro-poses this view of the bodhisattva insharp contrast to its rendering of theTheravada ideal of the arhat.Mahayana Buddhism generally por-trays Theravadan arhats as selfishbeings, single-mindedly seeking theirown enlightenment without a trace ofconcern for other sentient beings.Although the Mahayana version of thearhat is unfair, it serves to highlight theguiding principle for the bodhisattva’spractice of Buddhism—compassion forthe suffering of other sentient beings.

According to Mahayana teaching,the Bodhisattva Path is accessible to all,including lay believers. Again, this issaid to differ sharply from the way of thearhat which is accessible only to monksand nuns who devote their lives to themonastic life. Bodhisattvas build meritthrough their compassionate activities,which they share with others. The bodhisattva does not selfishly retain the benefits of good karma but transfers the benefits to all other beings.Thus, beginners on the BodhisattvaPath can rely on more advanced practitioners for assistance.

The path of the bodhisattva beginswhen an individual hears the Dharmafrom a good spiritual friend(Zenchishiki). After pondering the

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Bodhisattva

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Bodhisattva

This bronze Bodhisattva head and torso is from the Kamakura period, 1185–1336.

Dharma, the new bodhisattva gives riseto the thought of enlightenment (bod-hichitta). This thought is twofold: thedesire to attain enlightenment for one-self and the desire to help others.Bodhisattvas then take the bodhisattvavows expressing their intention.Bodhisattva practice is described interms of the six perfections, whichinclude the virtues of generosity, moral-ity, patience, vigor, meditation, andwisdom. The bodhisattva continues topractice the virtues until attaining thestage of perfection, when the virtuesbecome spontaneous. The tradition hasalso described the path of the bod-hisattva in terms of stages of develop-ment. The standard list includes tenstages, which are said to take three greateons to complete. Names for the stagesdiffer somewhat in various sources, buta typical listing of the ten stages wouldbe: joyous, immaculate, luminous, radi-ant, hard-to-conquer, face-to-face, far-going, immovable, sagely, and the cloudof the Dharma.

The concept that bodhisattvas cantransfer merit to others provides apromise of relief and assistance for ordi-nary people who feel they lack capabili-ties of their own. Ordinary individualscan rely on the merit accumulated bybuddhas and advanced bodhisattvas.Mahayana developed a pantheon of cos-mic bodhisattvas, including figures likeKannon and Jizô, with stores of meritsufficient to assist any living being whocalled upon them for help. Thus, there isa distinction to be made when using theterm bodhisattva as it applies to ordinaryMahayana Buddhists and to the greatcosmic figures.

Strong, John S. The Experience ofBuddhism: Sources and Inter-pretations. Belmont, CA: WadsworthPublishing Co., 1995.

Bodhisattva Precepts(J. bosatsukai) A set of precepts orrules derived from the Bonmôkyô(Brahma Net Sutra), a Mahayana

sutra. They are used exclusively withinthe tradition of Mahayana Buddhismas the guiding principles for a bod-hisattva. The sutra details “ten heavy”precepts (jûjûkinkai) and “forty-eightlight” precepts (shijûhachikyôkai). AllMahayana Buddhists are required tofollow the ten heavy precepts, whichinclude prohibitions against killing,stealing, sexual misconduct, lying,using intoxicants, finding fault in others, boasting about oneself, envy, anger and ill will, and slanderingthe three treasures. The so-called lightprecepts involve a longer list of less serious offenses.

Most Mahayana monks and nuns inEast Asia continue to be ordainedaccording to the full set of Theravadamonastic precepts found in the vinaya.While the Theravada precepts weredesigned to regulate the details ofmonastic life in practical terms, the bod-hisattva precepts establish the mindsetof Mahayana practice. The focus of thebodhisattva precepts is compassion,which is the guiding principle of thebodhisattva path. The concern in fulfill-ing these precepts rests in one’s strivingto help other sentient beings. Both laypeople and monks receive the bod-hisattva precepts at ordination cere-monies and other special events.Receiving the bodhisattva precepts reaf-firms one’s commitment to Buddhism;people can participate in bodhisattvaordination ceremonies on more thanone occasion.

Some changes in the use of thebodhisattva precepts occur inJapanese Buddhism. First, Saichô(767–822), the founder of the Tendaisect of Japanese Buddhism, intro-duced a new ordination practice forhis sect—the final ordination of Tendaimonks was based on the bodhisattvaprecepts from the Bonmôkyô. Monksin the Tendai sect take the bodhisattvaprecepts at ordination, but not usingvinaya precepts, and so they are with-out recourse to the Theravada vinayacode. Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253) like-wise rejected the use of the Theravada

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Bodhisattva Precepts

precepts for his Sôtô sect. However,Sôtô Zen has its own set of bodhisattvaprecepts used at ordinations includinga set of sixteen articles (jûrokujôkai):the three refuges (sankikai), the threepure precepts (sanshujôkai), and theten heavy precepts from theBonmôkyô. See also lay believer.

Bodiford, William M. Sôtô Zen in MedievalJapan. Honolulu, HI: University ofHawaii Press, 1993.

Stevens, John. The Marathon Monks ofMount Hiei. Boston, MA:Shambhala, 1988.

Groner, Paul. Saichô: The Establishmentof the Japanese Tendai School.Honolulu, HI: University of HawaiiPress, 2000.

Bodhisattva VowsIn the Mahayana tradition, each practi-tioner embarks upon the Buddhist pathby taking certain vows which guide hisor her practice. The most important ofthese is the vow to attain enlighten-ment. The desire or thought of attainingenlightenment (bodhichitta) is a logicalfirst step in becoming a Buddhist. Thebodhisattva does not think selfishly,however, so the vow expresses a dualintention: not only to strive for oneself,but at the same time, to aid all othersentient beings toward enlightenment.The two parts of the vow are heldtogether inseparably by the guidingprinciple of compassion.

All practitioners of MahayanaBuddhism, recite the bodhisattva vows.They do this first as a symbol of theirinitial commitment to Buddhism, butcontinue to recite the vows many timesthroughout their lives. In Zen monas-teries, monks and nuns recite a versionof the bodhisattva vows every day as apart of the regular daily rituals. For laypeople, reciting the vows is often doneon special occasions; this is understoodas an opportunity to reaffirm their com-mitment to Buddhism.

The following is a translation of thestandard set of bodhisattva vows usedin Zen monasteries:

1. Sentient beings are beyond num-ber; I vow to save them all.2. The passions (afflictions) areinexhaustible; I vow to extinguishthem all.3. The Buddhist Dharmas (teach-ings) are infinite; I vow to masterthem all.4. The Buddhist Way is unsur-passed; I vow to attain it.

In addition to the vows recited by ordi-nary Mahayana Buddhists, certain celestial buddhas and bodhisattvas areknown for the extraordinary vows theyhave taken for the sake of other sentientbeings. For example, while Amidabuddha was still a bodhisattva namedDharmakara, he took a series of forty-eight vows, among which was the estab-lishment of a Pure Land (Jôdo) in theWest. Since he stipulated that he wouldonly attain enlightenment if his vowswere fulfilled, his vows are understood bymany Mahayana Buddhists, especiallythose in the Pure Land schools, as a guarantee that his Pure Land exists. Seealso lay believer.

Bodhi Tree(Ficus religiosa; J. bodaiju) The fig tree inBodhgaya under which SiddhartaGautama sat and meditated until he hadattained enlightenment. Literally “the treeof enlightenment,” the tree is commonlycalled the bo-tree or pipal tree. Early inBuddhist history, the bodhi tree became apopular pilgrimage site and the object ofdevotion by lay believers. Believersoffered flowers, then bowed and walkedclockwise around the tree. Cuttings fromthe bodhi tree were distributed widely byearly Buddhist missionaries. A descendantof the original tree, planted by the daugh-ter of King Ashoka, still stands inAnuradhapura in Sri Lanka. Shashanka, aseventh-century Indian king devoted tothe god Shiva, destroyed the original treein Bodhgaya during a violent persecutionof Buddhism. The tree that stands inBodhgaya today descends from a cuttingbrought back from the tree in Sri Lanka.30

Bodhisattva Vows

Basham, A. L. The Wonder That WasIndia: A Survey of the History andCulture of the Indian Sub-ContinentBefore the Coming of the Muslims.New York: Taplinger Publishing Co.,1968.

BôkatsuLiterally, a stick and a shout. An expres-sion used to describe a particular styleof Zen characterized by the use of sticksand shouts. This style of Zen practicedates back to the classical period of

Zen, during the T’ang dynasty in China(618–907). At that time, Zen mastersintroduced such devices as hitting dis-ciples with a stick (kyoshaku) or staff(shippei), or answering them with aloud shout (katsu). The purpose ofthese actions was to shock disciples outof the ordinary, analytical style of think-ing and push them toward an enlight-enment experience (satori). In particu-lar, Te-shan Hsuan-chien (782–685)and Huang-po Hsi-Yün (d. 850) werefamous for their use of the stick, andLin-chi I-hsüan (d. 867) perfected theuse of the shout.

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Bôkatsu

The Bodhi tree is the type of tree under which Siddharta Gautama, who became known as the Buddha, is believed to have gained enlightenment.

Bokuseki“Ink trace,” a piece of calligraphy or anink drawing executed by a Zen master.Bokuseki are said to be expressions ofthe artist’s understanding of theDharma. They are often mounted onbrocade and hung as art.

BonbaiTo chant verses or hymns. The termusually refers to the highly melodicchanting of sacred texts accompaniedby music, which monks perform infront of an image of the Buddha as apart of a ritual service. Bonbai is gener-ally performed in a stylized fashion,with the voice rising and falling. Thechanting is alternatively known asshômyô. In the Zen school, there are anumber of bonbai chanting styles,including Obaku bonbai. Obaku bon-bai, or Obaku shômyô, is unique inJapanese Zen because the monks chantthe verses in an approximation of the

Fukien dialect of Chinese, the languageused by the Obaku founders in the 17thcentury. See also Obaku sect.

BongyôMorally pure actions. Literally, the wordmeans the acts of the god Brahma, oneof the Hindu deities. Bongyô is theJapanese term that comes from theSanskrit brahma-caryâ, which was firstused in India in reference to the reli-gious practices of the Brahmin, orpriestly class. It later came to mean reli-giously motivated action in keepingwith religious precepts, especiallychastity or sexual purity. In Buddhism,bongyô refers specifically to thoseactions which are conducive to attain-ing enlightenment. Most especially, inMahayana Buddhism, it is used to con-vey the actions taken by a bodhisattvaout of compassion to save other sentient beings.

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Bokuseki

Bokuseki is the calligraphy art of Zen masters.

BonmôkyôThe Brahma Net Sutra, the Japanesetitle for the Brahmajala Sutra. The sutrapresents ten major and forty-eightminor precepts, commonly known asthe bodhisattva precepts, that governthe life and practice of a bodhisattva.See Brahma Net Sutra.

BonnôAfflictions or delusions. A Japanesetranslation of the Sanskrit term klesha.The term is commonly translated aspassions, although the English word isnot broad enough in its general usage toencompass the various types of delu-sions denoted by the original. Bonnôrefers to any passion, attachment,working of the mind, or subsequentaction that hinders the attainment ofenlightenment. The afflictions causesuffering and traditionally are thoughtof as impurities. These impurities areeliminated by the practice ofBuddhism. Nirvana can be understoodas the extinction of all klesha.

The Buddhist tradition identifies sixstates of mind as the fundamentalafflictions (konpon bonnô). Theseinclude greed, anger, ignorance, arro-gance, doubt, and false views. The firstthree are known collectively as thethree poisons. A large number of minorafflictions, such as laziness, shameless-ness, and deceit, arise in conjunctionwith the basic forms.

BonpuAn ordinary or foolish person. Theexpression is used to contrast an unen-lightened individual with an enlight-ened one. The Japanese characters mayalso be pronounced “bonbu.”According to Zen teaching, the differ-ence between an ordinary or foolishperson and an enlightened buddha is ashift in perception, since all sentientbeings possess the Buddha Nature andare originally enlightened. In thePlatform Sutra, the Sixth PatriarchHui-neng (638–713) said, “If you cling

to your previous thoughts and aredeluded, then you are ordinary. But ifthe next thought is enlightened, thenyou are a buddha.”

BosatsuJapanese for bodhisattva. See bod-hisattva.

BosatsukaiJapanese for the bodhisattva precepts.See bodhisattva precepts.

Boxwood Zen(J. Kôyôboku no Zen) The boxwood tree is said to grow an inch a year, but to shrink an inch in leap years. Theexpression “boxwood Zen” is used inreference to students’ progressing errat-ically in their practice of Zen. A masterwill use the expression to reproach adisciple who is overly attached to thenotion of enlightenment.

BôzuThe head monk or resident monk of aJapanese Buddhist temple. The term mayapply to the resident monk at a smalltemple, most of which have only onemonk in residence. In a larger temple,with several monks in residence, the termtechnically applies only to the head monkor abbot. In common usage today, how-ever, people use the term for anyBuddhist monk or priest, regardless ofstatus. The term is often rendered inEnglish as bonze.

Brahma Net SutraThe Brahmajâla Sutra (J. Bonmôkyô), aMahayana sutra that sets out the moralcode for the bodhisattva, consisting often major and forty-eight minor pre-cepts. Kumarajiva translated the textinto Chinese (T. 24, no. 1484) in 406 C.E.The precepts described by the text areintended for all Buddhist practitioners,lay people and monastics alike. Unlikethe vinaya, which presents a monasticcode designed to govern all aspects of life

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Brahma Net Sutra

in a monastic setting, the Brahma NetSutra emphasizes the quality of compas-sion that governs the actions of a bod-hisattva. Throughout East Asia, laypeople, monks, and nuns participate inprecept ceremonies in which they receivethe bodhisattva precepts based on theBrahma Net Sutra. In Japan, following theexample set by the Tendai school, severalschools of Buddhism ordain monks andnuns using the bodhisattva precepts inplace of the vinaya code. See also laybeliever and Tendai sect.

Branch TempleA Buddhist temple that has institutionalties to a larger main temple or mainmonastery. The pattern of affiliationbetween main and branch temples (J.honji matsuji) emerged in Japan duringthe medieval period (1185–1600) andwas later systematized in the early mod-ern (1600–1867) and modern(1868–present) periods. During theTokugawa period (1600–1867), the gov-ernment required all Buddhist templesthroughout the country to be organizedin a hierarchy, limiting the number ofmain monasteries. The practice contin-ues today; most Buddhist temples inJapan are branches under the adminis-trative leadership of a main monastery.

Buddha(J. butsu or butsuda) A title that means“enlightened one.” In its broadestsense, the title can refer to any fullyenlightened being. It most often refersspecifically to Siddharta Gautama, alsocalled Shakyamuni Buddha, thefounder of Buddhism. Although it wasrecognized early on that many ofShakyamuni’s disciples also attainedenlightenment, he was still consideredthe only one worthy of the title becausehe had fashioned the path that the others merely followed.

Shakyamuni is believed to be theonly buddha of the present epoch, butthe idea that other historical buddhasexisted before him emerged early in

Buddhist history. The most commonlisting of historical buddhas of past agesincludes seven, with Shakyamuni listedlast. In many cases, a future buddha(Maitreya), who will appear in the nextage, is also mentioned. Other historicalbuddhas played the same role in previ-ous ages as Shakyamuni does duringthe present age: teaching the Dharma.It is believed that only one buddhaexists in the world in any given age andthat his teachings live on far beyond thetime of his death. Gradually, however,the Dharma is forgotten. When it hascompletely disappeared, the nextbuddha appears to reintroduce theDharma into the world. One traditionsays at least 12,000 years span the timebetween the appearances of buddhas.

Mahayana Buddhism expanded thegeneral concept of the buddha beyondthe notion of historical buddhas, encom-passing many eternal and cosmic bud-dhas. First, ideas about ShakyamuniBuddha underwent change. Traditionally,the Buddha had not been worshipped asa deity but was regarded as an enlight-ened human being who could serve as aguide and inspiration for other humanbeings. Over time, however, veneration ofthe Buddha as a human being becamemore and more like worship of a god.Early schools of Mahayana began teach-ing that the historical Buddha was not justan ordinary person but the human mani-festation of an eternal Buddha; the eter-nal Buddha did not pass into extinctionwhen Shakyamuni died but remainedeternally active in the world.

Next, concepts of celestial buddhas(buddhas living in the Pure Lands)operating in other worlds developed.Just as the earlier tradition suggestedthat historical buddhas emerged in thisworld to teach in different ages,Mahayana taught that other buddhasexisted to serve the beings in the innu-merable other worlds in the cosmos.Like Shakyamuni, these celestial bud-dhas were manifestations of the eternalBuddha. More important, many of themwere powerful enough to offer assis-tance to sentient beings in this world.

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Branch Temple

Belief in powerful celestial buddhas ledto the worship and veneration of anumber of noted buddhas, includingAmida buddha and Vairocana.

The Mahayana tradition developedthe idea of the three bodies of theBuddha to clarify the various types ofbuddhas. First, the Dharma, or TruthBody, is the eternal Buddha from whichall other buddhas are created. TheDharma Body is closely identified withthe Mahayana concept of emptiness(shunyata). Second, the Bliss Body ofthe Buddha is associated with the celes-tial buddhas who dwell in BuddhaLands. Amida is an example of this typeof buddha. Third, the transformationbody (nirmanakaya) represents thehistorical appearances of the Buddha inthis world. Siddharta Gautama was oneinstance of the transformation body.

Reynolds, Frank E., and CharlesHallisey. “The Buddha.” InBuddhism and Asian History. Ed.Joseph M. Kitagawa and Mark D.Cummings. New York: Macmillan,1987.

Robinson, Richard H. and William L.Johnson. The Buddhist Religion: AHistorical Introduction. Belmont,CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co.,1996.

Buddhacharita( J. Busshogyôsan) The Acts of theBuddha, the earliest formal biographyof Shakyamuni Buddha (SiddhartaGautama). The Buddhist poetAshvaghosha composed the text inSanskrit verse around 100 C.E. Although

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Buddhacharita

Buddha, or “enlightened one,” most often refers to Siddharta Gautama, the founder of Buddhism. The Great Buddha shown above is located at the Todai-ji Temple in Nara, Japan.

Ashvaghosha was a supporter ofMahayana teachings, he stresses thebasic teachings of the historicalBuddha, such as the four noble truthsand the Eightfold Path. A completeSanskrit version of the Buddhacharitadoes not survive today; however, it is preserved in full in Tibetan andChinese translations.

Buddha DayIn East Asian Buddhism, the day com-memorating the birth of ShakyamuniBuddha (Siddharta Gautama). EastAsian Buddhists traditionally observeBuddha Day on the eighth day of thefourth lunar month. Some communitiesnow celebrate it on April 4th, accordingto the Western calendar. Buddhists inSouth Asia and Southeast Asia celebrateBuddha Day somewhat differently,combining the Buddha’s birth, enlight-enment, and death in a one-day cele-bration; they believe that ShakyamuniBuddha miraculously experiencedthese events on the same day of theyear. Their observance of Buddha Day isnow usually held in May, shortly beforethe beginning of the rainy-seasonretreats. East Asian Buddhists, on theother hand, observe the three events asthree separate holidays, with theBuddha’s enlightenment celebrated onDecember 8 and Death on February 15.See also Hana Matsuri and kanbutsu.

Buddha DharmaThe teachings of the Buddha. Some-times referred to as the Law of theBuddha. See Buppô.

Buddha HallOne of the seven primary buildings of a Zen temple or monastery, known as a Butsuden in Japanese. It is called the Buddha hall because it contains a shrine housing the primary Buddhaimage (honzon) of the temple. SeeButsuden.

BuddhahoodAn expression used within MahayanaBuddhism that means the attainmentof perfect enlightenment—a character-istic of all buddhas. Unlike TheravadaBuddhism, Mahayana Buddhism doesnot reserve the title buddha forShakyamuni Buddha (SiddhartaGautama) alone. Mahayana teachesthat all believers as bodhisattvas arestriving to become buddhas.

Mahayana Buddhism uses the con-cept of buddhahood to indicate thehighest goal of Buddhist practice. InMahayana scriptures such as the LotusSutra, buddhahood is portrayed as thesupreme goal, one that surpassesHinayana Buddhism’s goal of nirvana.According to the Mahayana view, the struggle to attain nirvana andbecome an arhat is an inherently selfish endeavor in contrast to the path of the bodhisattva who seeks buddhahood for the self and for allother sentient beings.

Buddha LandA world in which a buddha is living andteaching the Dharma. The traditionbelieves that hearing the Dharma directlyfrom a buddha greatly enhances one’sability to progress toward enlightenment.Although the present world currently hasno buddha preaching the Dharma, it willsomeday become the Buddha Land of the bodhisattva named Maitreya, trad-itionally believed to be the next buddha ofour world.

In addition to our world, MahayanaBuddhism asserts that there are tens ofthousands of other worlds, many ofwhich have buddhas. These cosmicBuddha Lands share many characteris-tics with the heavens in which godsreside, since they are places of ease andcomfort. The primary distinctionbetween a Buddha Land and a heaven isthat, unlike heaven dwellers, individualsborn in Buddha Lands can practiceBuddhism and make progress towardenlightenment. Many Buddhist believershope to be reborn into a Buddha Land in

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Buddha Day

order to enjoy the benefits of practicingBuddhism directly under a buddha’sguidance. The tradition commonly refersto these cosmic Buddha Lands as PureLands (J. Jôdo). The most famousBuddha Land is the Western Pure Landof Amida buddha. Buddhas reigning in the Pure Lands usually took vows asbodhisattvas to create a Pure Landspecifically for the sake of their devotees.

Buddha NatureAn expression of the MahayanaBuddhist teaching that all sentientbeings innately possess the potential toattain perfect enlightenment andbecome buddhas. (Some schools ofMahayana Buddhism extend the con-cept to include non-sentient objects.)Buddha Nature (J. Busshô) is some-times referred to as intrinsic enlighten-ment or original enlightenment: thebasic quality within the individual thatmakes the practice of Buddhism pos-sible. Buddha Nature can be under-stood as a seed, which if cultivated byBuddhist practice, will eventually bearthe fruit of acquired enlightenment.

The Mahayana teaching that all sen-tient beings possess the Buddha Naturefound early expression in the NirvanaSutra, which rejected the notion thatsome sentient beings, known as icchan-tika, lack the potential to becomeenlightened. The concept of BuddhaNature became one of the most basicteachings within the Zen school. Zenmasters and texts commonly refer toseeing one’s innate Buddha Nature, orkenshô, to describe the experience ofenlightenment. Buddha Nature, in theZen context, is seen not so much as aseed that holds potential, but an exist-ing reality. Seeing one’s nature orenlightenment is not so much becom-ing a buddha, but the realization thatone already is a buddha.

It should be noted that BuddhaNature is not the same as an eternal,abiding, and unchanging self, like theHindu understanding of the soul oratman. The Zen master Dôgen Kigen

(1200–1253) warned against the dangers of misinterpreting BuddhaNature as an essential core that underlies all things. To avoid this trap,Dôgen stressed that Buddha Nature beidentified with impermanence, thecharacteristic of emptiness that typifies all phenomena.

Buddha PatriarchA term applied to any buddha or patri-arch of Zen who transmits the Dharma.It applies especially to the lineageextending from Shakyamuni Buddha(Siddharta Gautama) to Bodhidharma,the traditional founder of Zen in China,and on to Hui-neng (638–713), theChinese Sixth Patriarch. See busso.

BuddhismGeneral name for the religious tradi-tions (J. Bukkyô) that developed fromthe teachings of Siddharta Gautama,the original Buddha, or EnlightenedOne. Siddharta (circa 566–486) lived inthe northeast region of the Indian sub-continent, teaching in the area alongthe Ganges River and establishing acommunity of followers (sangha) com-prised of both ascetics and lay people.After the Buddha’s death, his teachingswere drawn together in the early scrip-tures known as the Tripitaka. Buddhistteachings eventually spread from Indiathroughout Asia.

Today, there are many schools andforms of Buddhism throughout the world,and therefore no single, unified tradition.The Buddhist world is most commonlydivided into three schools: TheravadaBuddhism, Mahayana Buddhism, andVajrayana Buddhism (esotericBuddhism). Two of these divisions flour-ish in distinct geographical areas of theworld: Theravada Buddhism predomi-nates in South and Southeast Asia, whileMahayana predominates in East Asia.While Theravada preserves the teachingsof the historical Buddha and the earlyBuddhist community, Mahayana aroseseveral centuries later and upholds somemodifications and innovations on the

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Buddhism

earlier tradition. Mahayana Buddhismcan be further subdivided into severaldistinctive schools of thought and stylesof practice, including Zen, Pure Land,Hua-yen, and Tendai. In addition, somescholars regard the Vajrayana tradition asa distinct and separate division; othersclassify it as a form of MahayanaBuddhism. Vajrayana represents thetantric or esoteric portion of the Buddhisttradition, and flourishes today in Tibetand in certain schools of JapaneseBuddhism. See also Hua-yen school, laybeliever, and Tendai sect

Buddhist NameBuddhist practitioners traditionallyaccept a new Buddhist name when theyare ordained as a monk or a nun. Thenew name replaces the person’s secularname, serving as a symbol that the indi-vidual has departed from the life of a layperson. In Japan, Buddhist names areconferred posthumously on lay peopleas a part of the Buddhist funeral andmemorial services. See kaimyô.

Buddhist Path(J. butsudô) The way set out by theBuddha leading to enlightenment. Theterm may refer to the teachings and thepractice of Buddhism which lead toenlightenment, or to enlightenmentitself. According to the tradition ofTheravada Buddhism, the path set outby the Buddha is summarized by thefour noble truths and the EightfoldPath. Mahayana Buddhism describesthe path in terms of the career of a bod-hisattva, who seeks enlightenment for him- or herself and for all other sentient beings.

Buddhist ScripturesThe Buddhist scriptures include a widevariety of related collections of texts pre-served in several languages, includingSanskrit, Pali, Tibetan, and Chinese.Buddhist scripture collections are distin-guished by the portion of the religioustradition they discuss or the cultural area

in which they are recognized. The mostbasic division in the Buddhist scripturesis that between the ancient, or Theravadascriptures, and the later scriptures ofMahayana Buddhism. The canon ofTheravada Buddhism, commonlyknown as the Tripitaka, represents theoldest collection of Buddhist scriptures,portions of which date back to the sec-ond century B.C.E. The Tripitaka is dividedinto three segments, representing threedistinct types of writing. The first portionis the vinaya, which provides the monas-tic code governing the lives of Buddhistmonks and nuns. The second portion,known as the sutras, preserves the ser-mons attributed to the historicalBuddha. Third, the Abhidharma portionincludes commentaries on the Buddha’steachings written by later Buddhistscholars. The Tripitaka is preserved inboth Sanskrit and Pali, with relatedTibetan and Chinese translations. Since itwas originally recorded in Pali, it is some-times known as the Pali Canon.

The Mahayana scriptures includethe original Tripitaka as well as a largenumber of later texts composed byMahayana thinkers. The Mahayanatexts include sutras, commentaries, andphilosophical treatises composed overmany centuries beginning around theyear 100 B.C.E. The early Mahayana textswere composed in Sanskrit and latertranslated into Tibetan and Chinese. AsBuddhism spread throughout the cul-tures of North and East Asia, additionaltexts composed in Tibetan, Chinese,and other local languages were added tothe collection. For this reason, there isvariation among the Tibetan, Chinese,Japanese, and Korean versions of theMahayana scriptures. See also ChineseTripitaka and Daizôkyô.

BuppôThe Japanese translation of BuddhaDharma. The term is translated intoEnglish as the Buddha’s Law or theBuddhist Teachings. Buppô isShakyamuni’s (Siddharta Gautama)understanding of reality or truth, which

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Buddhist Name

he realized for himself when he becameenlightened. The term also signifies theteachings of Shakyamuni throughwhich he conveyed to others the path toenlightenment; in this sense, theBuddha’s Dharma is preserved in theBuddhist scriptures, which present theteachings of the historical Buddha andhis disciples. According to the Zenunderstanding, Buppô cannot beexpressed in ordinary human language,but must be realized for oneself througha first-hand experience. Zen maintainsthat the Buddha Dharma is transmittedfrom mind to mind, master to disciple.

Burning HouseA reference to a parable found in the thirdchapter of the Lotus Sutra, explainingthe use of expedient means (Sk. upaya, J.hôben) in Buddhist teachings. In thesutra, the Buddha tells his disciplesabout a father’s efforts to get his childrensafely out of their burning house. At first,the children are so engrossed in playingwith their toys that they ignore theirfather’s pleas. Having failed with a directapproach, the father devises anotherplan of action. The father resorts to anexpedient means to save their lives,promising them more wondrous toys ifthey will only go outside to collect them.The children race outside to receive thepromised carriages, each drawn by agoat, a deer, or an ox. The Buddha thenexplains that ordinary people, like chil-dren, cannot always hear and under-stand the teachings of the Buddha, whichare designed to save them from the suf-fering of samsara (the cycle of birth,death, and rebirth). Therefore, theBuddha sometimes resorts to expedientmeans, such as teaching devices that takeinto account what people can under-stand and that shock them out of every-day existence. When using expedientmeans, the Buddhist tradition does notintend to mislead believers with partialtruths. Like the father in the parable, thepurpose is to help them: in this case toassist them in their progress along theBuddhist path.

Hurvitz, Leon, trans. Scripture of theLotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma.New York: Columbia UniversityPress, 1982.

Watson, Burton, trans. The Lotus Sutra.New York: Columbia UniversityPress, 1993.

BushiJapanese warrior; samurai. See samurai.

BusshiA disciple of the Buddha; a Buddhist.The Japanese term literally means“child of the Buddha.” In someMahayana contexts, it refers specificallyto bodhisattvas. It is said that all sen-tient beings are busshi, since they allpossess the Buddha Nature.

Busshin’inSeal of the Buddha Mind. A symbolindicating that authentic transmissionof the Dharma has taken place: Theseal, sometimes represented by anobject such as a certificate, is conferredby a master upon a disciple. See inka.

BusshôBuddha Nature, in Japanese. TheMahayana teaching that all sentientbeings innately possess the potential tobecome a buddha. See Buddha Nature.

BusshogyôsanJapanese title for the Buddhacharita.See Buddhacharita.

BussoThe Buddha and the patriarchs, thefounding masters who transmitted theDharma from generation to generation.The term may refer specifically to the lin-eage within the Zen sect that begins withShakyamuni (Siddharta Gautama), thehistorical Buddha, and includestwenty-eight Indian patriarchs and sixChinese patriarchs. It may also refer

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Busso

more generally to any and all masterswho perpetuate a Zen lineage, especiallythose designated as founders of specificlines. In some contexts, the term busso ismore accurately translated as Buddha-Patriarch, since there is no real distinc-tion between buddhas, patriarchs, andother enlightened masters, all of whomtransmit the same Dharma.

ButsuJapanese for Buddha. The same charac-ter may also be transliterated hotoke.See Buddha.

ButsudaFull Japanese transliteration of Buddha.More commonly abbreviated to Butsu.See Buddha.

ButsudanA Buddhist altar. A platform or altar onwhich a Buddhist image, usually depict-ing a buddha or bodhisattva, isenshrined. Incense, flowers, and otherofferings may be made before theimage. The term is most commonlyapplied to family altars kept in Japanesehomes, on which the memorial tablets(ihai) of deceased family members areenshrined. In many cases, lay people areencouraged to include a Buddist imageon their family butsudans. The familybutsudan is typically a cabinet madefrom lacquered wood; sizes vary fromlarge pieces of furniture to small itemswhich fit into the limited space of mod-ern apartments.

Family members may pay theirrespects daily to both ancestors and thebuddhas; it is traditional to offer rice,water, incense, or flowers. Many fami-lies announce to the butsudan impor-tant events, including graduations,marriages, and the birth of a child. Inthis way, the family symbolicallyincludes deceased relatives in the life ofthe surviving family. Memorial servicesfor the deceased are generally held infront of the butsudan, with the ihai asthe central focus. The altar also receives

special attention during the Obon sea-son. See also lay believer.

Smith, Robert. Ancestor Worship inContemporary Japan. Stanford, CA:Stanford University Press, 1974.

ButsudenThe Buddha hall, where the Zen templeor monastery’s primary image of theBuddha is enshrined, along with otherimages of the buddhas and bod-hisattvas. The Butsuden is one of theseven monastic halls (shichidô garan)that form the core of a Zen monastery.The Buddha hall corresponds to goldenhall (kondô) found in the temples ofother Buddhist schools. Traditionally, itis located at the center of themonastery grounds. The style of theZen Buddha hall was developed inChina, probably during the Sungdynasty (960–1279), and transmitted toJapan where it is still preserved.

The main image (honzon) in mostZen temples is Shakyamuni Buddha(Siddharta Gautama), the historicalBuddha. The main image is usuallyflanked by two other statues, forming atriad. The other figures are either bud-dhas from the past and future, or twoattendants from the historical Buddha’slifetime. The images are placed on apedestal representing Mount Sumeru,the sacred mountain at the center of theBuddhist cosmos. The main image is setoff by a large tapestry in gold or purplebrocade. Three lacquered woodentablets, with inscriptions dedicating thetemple to its patrons and to theemperor, are place in front of the hon-zon. Daily chanting services are held inthe Buddha hall.

Collcutt, Martin. Five Mountains:The Rinzai Zen Monastic Institution in Medieval Japan. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press, 1981.

ButsudôThe Way of the Buddha; the Japaneseterm for Buddhism, or the teachings of

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Butsu

Buddhism. The expression may refer tothe path leading to enlightenment astaught by the Buddha; it may also referto enlightenment itself. According tothe tradition of Theravada Buddhism,the way set out by the Buddha is sum-marized by the four noble truths andthe Eightfold Path. The tradition ofMahayana Buddhism describes theway in terms of the career of a bod-hisattva, who seeks enlightenment forhim- or herself and for all other sen-tient beings. In some contexts, the termButsudô is used as an alternative termfor Buppô, or the Buddha Dharma.

Buttsû-jiA rural Rinzai temple in Aki, HiroshimaPrefecture. It was founded by GuchûShûkyû (1323–1409) in 1399. It serves asthe main monastery for the Buttsû-jiHa, the Buttsû-ji branch of Rinzai. Seealso Rinzai sect.

Buttsû-ji HaThe Buttsû-ji branch of Rinzai, one ofthe fourteen contemporary branches ofthe Japanese Rinzai sect. The mainmonastery for the branch is Buttsû-ji,located in Aki, Hiroshima Prefecture.Guchû Shûkyû (1323–1409) is regarded

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In the Butsuden, or Buddha hall, the main image of the historical Buddha is surrounded either by imagesof Buddhas of the past and future, or two attendants from the historical Buddha’s lifetime.

as the founder. The branch has fifty-onetemples throughout Japan and claimsapproximately 98,500 followers.

Byakushi ButsuPratyeka buddha, the Japanese renderingof a Chinese transliteration of the originalSanskrit term. See pratyeka buddha.

Byakutsui“White mallet;” the religious implementused to call an assembly of monks ornuns to order while making a special

announcement. The term may alsorefer to the high-ranking monk or nunwho wields the mallet and officiates atimportant ritual occasions.

ByôdôThe Japanese expression meaning“equality.” The term refers to the non-duality and non-differentiation of allthings as seen from the perspective ofenlightenment. The teaching of equal-ity is based upon the realization that allphenomena are essentially the same.See equality.

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CCakravartin( J. Tenrinô) “The Wheel-TurningKing,” the ideal universal monarchaccording to Indian mythology. Themyth of the Cakravartin existed inIndia before the formation ofBuddhism. The Cakravartin reigns byturning a wheel, which was presentedto him by the gods at his enthrone-ment. As he turns the wheel, all lesserkings accept his authority. He is saidto possess the thirty-two marks of abuddha—the marks of greatness char-acterizing all buddhas. In Buddhist tra-dition, if a Cakravartin were to leave hishome life to become a holy man, hewould become a buddha.

According to the Cakravartin myth,there are four types of universal mon-archs, distinguished by the type of wheeleach turns: gold, silver, copper, or iron.The king with a golden wheel rules allfour of the continents (understood bythe ancient Indians to be the entireworld). The king with a silver wheel rulesonly three continents, the king with acopper wheel rules two, and the onewith an iron wheel rules one continent.Only one type of king rules at any onegiven time.

According to the Buddhist interpre-tation of the Cakravartin myth, themonarch rules by virtue of turning theWheel of the Dharma—his rule isbenevolent because it is based onBuddhist teachings and precepts. IfSiddharta Gautama, the historicalBuddha, had chosen to remain in thesecular life, he would have become aCakravartin. The historical figure KingAshoka, a Buddhist monarch, is some-times interpreted as a Cakravartin.

Strong, John S. The Legend of KingAshoka: A Study and Translation ofthe Asokavadana. Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 1983.

CalligraphyThe art of writing is among the mosthighly developed artistic forms in EastAsia, valued in both the secular and thereligious realms. Calligraphy is associ-ated with the Zen sect of Buddhism,although it predates the development ofBuddhism in China and Japan.Calligraphy executed by Zen masters is said to reveal their understanding ofthe Dharma. It is common practice forZen monks and nuns to learn the art of calligraphy as a part of their monastic training. Calligraphy isknown in Japanese as either shodô (the Way of Writing), or shojutsu (the Artof Writing).

Capping VerseA verse offered by a Zen practitioner tohis master as a response to a kôan. Theverse expresses the practitioner’sunderstanding of the kôan, and henceof the Dharma. See jakugo.

CausalityIn Buddhism every action has conse-quences, and everything that happensis caused by something. Cause andeffect functions like an impersonalmoral law, without dependence on theworkings of a personal god. Actions canbe likened to seeds, which an individualsows. The seeds eventually mature andproduce a related fruit: Good actionsproduce good effects and bad actionsproduce bad effects. Punishment forevil actions and reward for good actionsare the natural consequence of theaction itself. See also codependentorigination, inga, and karma.

Cave of the Dharma(J. kokkutsu no sôge) A place whereBuddhism is practiced, especially a med-itation hall at a Zen monastery. Hakuin

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Ekaku (1685–1768), the Zen Master of theTokugawa period (1600–1867), used theexpression “talons and teeth of the Caveof the Dharma” to describe the powersacquired through Zen meditation, whichcould then be used to aid others.

ChadôThe Way of Tea, a Japanese art formclosely associated with the Zen sect ofBuddhism. See chanoyû.

Ch’an-kuan Ts’e-chin(J. Zenkan Sakushin) To EncourageZealous Study of the Zen Barriers, a com-pilation put together by the ChineseBuddhist monk Yun-chi Chu-hung(1535–1615; J. Renchi Shukô), during theMing dynasty (1368–1644). Chu-hungcollected sermons and talks from Zenmonks, stories about enlightenmentexperiences, and quotations from varioussutras. He intended the work to encour-age the practice of Zen meditation, espe-cially the use of kôan; the “barriers”referred to in the title are kôan. Chu-hungnot only promoted the practice of ZenBuddhism in the text, but also encour-aged the combined practice of Zen medi-

tation and Pure Land devotion. The textwas first published in China in 1600. Itprompted the Japanese Rinzai masterHakuin Ekaku (1685–1768) to become aZen monk. The text was published inJapan in 1762 by Tôrei Enji (1721–1792),Hakuin’s disciple, who added an epilogue.See also Rinzai sect.

Ch’an-men Kuei-shih( J. Zenmon Kishiki) “Zen monasticcode,” an early Zen monastic code writ-ten during the Sung dynasty (960–1279)in China, circa 1004. The text is verybrief and appears as an addendum tothe biography of Pai-chang Huai-hai(720–814) in the Transmission of theLamp (Ch. Ching-te Ch’üan-teng-Lu).The text explains the reasons for theproduction of the first distinctively Zenmonastic code, traditionally attributedto Pai-chang, and briefly describes lifein an early Zen monastery.

ChanoyûThe tea ceremony, a Japanese art formassociated with the Zen sect ofBuddhism since it originally devel-oped from the practice of serving tea44

Chadô

Chanoyû, or Zen tea ceremony, is associated with many art forms, including ceramics. The tea ceremony bowls shown here are from the Middle Edo period of eighteenth-century Japan.

within Zen monasteries. The term lit-erally means “boiling water for tea.”The tea ceremony involves a smallgathering of guests for whom the hostcarefully prepares and serves green tea( J. matcha). The entire process isclosely choreographed and performedwith simple grace. In many cases, thetea ceremony is carried out in a spe-cially designed tea room or hut ( J.sukiya), with specially selected uten-sils. Chanoyû is associated with manyart forms, including ceramics, tea gar-dens, painting, calligraphy, andflower arranging.

Tea was introduced to Japan byEisai, the Rinzai Zen monk, after histravels to China during the twelfth cen-tury. In China, Zen monks used tea as apart of their monastic practice becauseof its medicinal value and its effects asa stimulant, aiding them to stay awakeduring meditation sessions. In Japan,the practice of serving tea spreadquickly throughout the populace. Bythe fourteenth century, tea gatheringswere held among the social elite. Thispractice eventually gave rise to a cul-ture of tea, with tea masters and dis-tinct schools of practice. See alsoRinzai sect.

Varley, Paul, and Kumakura Isao. Tea in Japan: Essays on the History ofChanoyu. Honolulu, HI: Universityof Hawaii Press, 1989.

Ch’an-shih“Zen master” or “meditation master,”a Chinese title of respect used toaddress accomplished monks andnuns who practice Zen. The Japanesepronunciation of the same charactersis “Zenji.” Originally, the term distin-guished masters who instructed othersin meditation from Dharma masters,or Fa-shih. Historically, Ch’an-shih wasalso a formal honorific title bestowedon outstanding Zen monks by theimperial courts in China and Japan.

ChantingThe ritual recitation of the sutras orother Buddhist texts, names for theBuddha, and other religious state-ments. Chanting forms a regular partof Buddhist practice in all schools ofBuddhism throughout the world.Monks, nuns and lay people may par-ticipate in chanting as a part of theirdaily devotions or for special inten-tions. In Zen monasteries, for example,monks and nuns regularly chant sutrasas a part of morning and evening ser-vices and recite prayers before or aftereach daily meal. Learning to chant thedaily services, funeral and memorialrituals, and other ritual services formsa major portion of the monastic train-ing received by novices at Zen monas-teries. Lay believers often learn tochant specific sutras, such as the HeartSutra, the Avalokiteshvara Sutra, orZen prayers, such as the Zazen wasanwritten by Hakuin Ekaku (1685–1768).

Buddhist religious chanting takesmany forms. In some cases, lay peopleand monastics may use the chantingof religious formulae, such asmantras or dharani, as a part of theirmeditative practice. The rhythmicrepetition of sounds has long beenknown to induce meditative statessimilar to those achieved throughother forms of meditation. In othercases, chanting a religious formula isregarded as beneficial because itbuilds merit for the practitioner.Devotees of Pure Land Buddhism, forexample, may chant the name of theAmida buddha ( J. nembutsu; Ch.nien-fo), in order to achieve rebirth inthe Pure Land. Buddhist clerics maychant dharani in order to bring rain,prevent the spread of disease, or wardoff other natural calamities.

Ch’an-tsung Wu-mên-kuanThe Gateless Barrier of the Zen School,the full Chinese title for the Wu-mên-kuan. See Mumonkan.

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Ch’an-yuan Ch’ing-kuei(J. Zen’on Shingi or Zen’en Shingi) “TheZen monastic code of the Yüandynasty,” a code composed in ten sec-tions by Zen Chinese monk Chang-luTsung-i in 1103. The Ch’an-yuanCh’ing-kuei is the oldest Zen code inexistence. The code is quite lengthyand discusses almost every aspect oflife and practice in a Zen monastery. Itwas used as the basis for subsequentversions of the Zen monastic code pro-duced in China. The text was transmit-ted to Japan in about 1200 and becamevery influential there. Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253) used it as the basis for hisEihei Shingi.

Ch’an-yuan Chu-ch’uan-chi Tu-hsu(J. Zengen Shosenshû Tojo) Zen textcomposed by Tsung-mi (780–840) as apreface to a much larger work, which isno longer in existence. In the preface,Tsung-mi distinguishes five types ofmeditation and characterizes threeschools of early Chinese Zen. The fivetypes of meditation include non-Buddhist meditation, ordinary medita-tion, Hinayana meditation, Mahayanameditation, and the ultimate form ofmeditation associated with the Zenschool. The three schools of ChineseZen he describes are the Northernschool of Shen-hsiu (606?–706), theSouthern school represented by Ma-tsu Tao-i (709–788) and his disciples,and the Ho-tse school to which Tsung-mi claimed to belong.

Chao-chou Ts’ung-shen(778–897; J. Jôshû Jûshin) A T’ang dynastyZen master from the lineage of Nan-chüan known for his paradoxical state-ments and strange actions. Chao-chouwas one of the outstanding masters of hisday and became the subject of numerouskôan from the classical collections,including five in the Mumonkan andtwelve in the Hekiganroku. The mostfamous is the Mu kôan, the first case in theMumonkan, commonly used as the firstdevice for beginning students of Zen.

Chao-chou entered the monastery atan early age and became Nan-chüan’sdisciple at age eighteen. It is said that heattained his first enlightenment experi-ence that year. He remained with Nan-chüan for many years, continuallydeepening his understanding. After hismaster’s death, when he was in hisfifties, Chao-chou set out on a pilgrim-age to visit other Zen masters. At the ageof eighty, he was invited to take up resi-dence at the Kuan-yin temple in thecity of Chao-chou (from which he tookhis Buddhist name). There he accepteddisciples and taught until he died at theage of 120. He did not use harsh teach-ing devices, such as the stick or theshout (bôkatsu), typical of his day tochallenge his disciples; instead heemployed quiet, simple words whichwere, nonetheless, powerful.

Chao-lun( J. Jôron) “The Treatises by Seng-chao,” a commentary onMâdhyamaka teaching written bySeng-chao (374–414). Seng-chao was adisciple of Kumarajiva, the CentralAsian translator and scholar-monk. Hewas the first native Chinese to discussthe middle way of Madhyamikathought, and he effectively expressedthese sophisticated concepts ofBuddhist philosophy in a Chinesemanner. The Chao-lun comprises fouressays, “Things are Without Change,”“The Emptiness of the Unreal,” “Prajnais Without Knowledge,” and “TheNamelessness of Nirvana.” The essayswere probably composed between 404and 414, although it is unknown whenthe compilation was first completed.The Chao-lun served as one of thefoundational texts of the San-lunschool of Chinese Buddhism. It wasalso highly valued by the Hua-yen andZen schools. The entire text appears asone section of the Transmission of theLamp (Ch. Ching-te Ch’üan-teng Lu; J.Keitoku Dentô Roku). A completeEnglish translation was prepared byWalter Liebenthal in his Book of Chao.See also Hua-yen school.46

Ch’an-yuan Ch’ing-kuei

Cheng-fa Yen-tsang“Treasury of the True Dharma Eye,” acollection of traditional kôan compiledby Ta-hui Tsung-kao (1089–1163), aChinese Rinzai master of the Sungdynasty (960–1279) between 1141 and1150. The title is pronouncedShôbôgenzô in Japanese, but the work isunrelated to the more famousShôbôgenzô written by Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253). See also Rinzai sect.

Chen-jen(J. shinnin) A Chinese term usuallytranslated as True Person. Chen-jen is a Taoist term used by the philosopherChuang-tzu to indicate an ideal Taoist adept who understands the Tao. The expression was later adoptedby Chinese Buddhists to translate the Sanskrit word “arhat,” the ideal Buddhist practitioner who has realized nirvana. See true person of no rank.

Chia-t’ai P’u-teng Lu“The Chia-t’ai Comprehensive Recordof the Lamp” (J. Katai Futô Roku), asupplement to earlier historicalchronicles of the Zen school. It wascompiled by Lei-an Cheng-shou(1146–1208) in 1204. The text includesbiographies and writings of Zen mas-ters and prominent Buddhist mastersfrom other schools of Buddhism, aswell as biographies of emperors andgovernment officials who favored Zen.Its primary focus is on the NorthernSung and Southern Sung dynasties.The text is the fifth and final of the fiveZen chronicles known collectively asthe Five Records of the Lamp(J.Gotôroku).

ChidenPrefect of the Buddha hall, one of thesix offices (chôsu) related to the medi-tation and training aspects of life in aZen monastery. The chiden is a seniormonk responsible for cleaning and

preparing the various halls; in particular,he sees that the Buddha hall (Butsuden)is ready for all ritual functions.

ChieWisdom; Japanese term used as atranslation for the Sanskrit term pra-jna. See prajna.

Chief CookOne of the highest and most importantofficers in a Zen monastery, the chiefcook is one of six administrative officeswhich oversee the practical adminis-tration of the monastery. See tenzo.

Chien-chen(687–763; J. Ganjin) Chinese Buddhistmonk who founded the ritsu (vinaya)school of Buddhism in Japan. Japanesemonks studying in China during theearly eighth century invited thefamous vinaya master Chien-chen tovisit Japan, since Japan still lacked for-mal ordination procedures. Chien-chen made five unsuccessful attemptsto reach Japan over a period of elevenyears but finally succeeded in 754; bythen he was blind. He took up resi-dence at Tôdai-ji in Nara, where hesupervised the construction of the firstordination platform (J. kaidan) in thecountry. At the first formal ordinationceremony, Chien-chen bestowed theprecepts on more than 400 lay people,including Emperor Shômu, and some80 monks. See also lay believer.

Chien-chung Ching-kuo Hsu-teng Lu(J. Kenchû Seikoku Zokutô Roku) TheChien-chung Ching-kuo SupplementaryRecord of the Lamp, a thirty-sectionchronicle of early Zen history, presentedin the biographies, sermons, and anec-dotes of prominent Zen masters. It wascompiled by Fo-kuo Wei-po in 1101 andpublished in 1103. Fo-kuo was ascholar-monk of the Yun-men school ofZen. He intended the work to be a

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continuation of the Ching-te Ch’üan-teng Lu, therefore concentrating themajority of the chapters on Zen mastersfrom the five houses (J. goke) of Zenactive during the Northern Sung dynasty(960–1279). The text is the third of the fiveZen chronicles known collectively as theFive Records of the Lamp (J. Gotôroku).

Chi-fei Ju-i(1616–1671; J. Sokuhi Nyoichi) AnObaku monk from Fukien provincewho emigrated from Ming China andarrived in Japan in 1657. Chi-fei wasone of the leading disciples andDharma heirs of Yin-yüan Lung-ch’i(1594–1673), the founder of Obaku Zenin Japan. Chi-fei is known for hispoetry and masterful calligraphy.Along with Obaku masters Yin-yüanand Mu-an, Chi-fei is known as one ofthe “Three Brushes of Obaku” (san-hitsu), monks who were regarded asgreat artists for their calligraphy. Seealso Obaku sect.

Ch’ih-hsiu Pai-chang Ch’ing-kuei( J. Chokushû Hyakujô Shingi) “TheImperial Compilation of the Pai-changMonastic Code,” a Yüan dynasty(1260–1368) collection of monasticcodes prepared for Zen monasteries in1336. Although the title contains thename Pai-chang and it is often abbrevi-ated as the “Pai-chang Code,” Pai-chang himself did not compose anypart of the text. The text was transmit-ted to Japan in about 1350 and servedas the basis for governing life at Gozanmonasteries.

Chih-i(538–597; J. Chigi) Chinese Buddhistmaster who founded the T’ien-t’aischool of Chinese Buddhism; heresided on Mount T’ien-t’ai, for whichthe school is named. Chih-i is recog-nized within the T’ien-t’ai tradition asthe fourth patriarch of the schoolbecause he based his work on the teach-ings of earlier masters. In particular, he

systematized the teachings of Hui-wenand Hui-ssu (515–577). Chih-i basedhis work on the Lotus Sutra, which heregarded as the final, perfect teachingof the historical Buddha. He developeda system classifying all of the knownBuddhist sutras into five periods of theBuddha’s life and eight styles of teach-ing. Texts derived from the ancientBuddhist tradition, the Theravadaschool, and many of the earlyMahayana schools of thought hadbeen introduced simultaneously inChina without any clear sense of theirrelative position in the historical devel-opment of Buddhism. Chih-i’s classifi-cation system helped clarify the con-fusing array of Buddhist teachingsencountered by Chinese Buddhists ofhis time. Chih-i also spelled out theT’ien-t’ai concept of the ThreefoldTruth, based on Nagarjuna’s under-standing of two levels of truth. In addi-tion, he developed chih-kuan, theT’ien-t’ai method of meditation.

Chih-wei(646–722; J. Chii) Zen Chinese monk ofthe T’ang period (618–907), regardedas the Fifth Patriarch of the Oxheadschool of early Zen. Along with hismaster, Fa-ch’ih, Chih-wei practicedunder the Fifth Patriarch of Zen, Hung-jen (601–674), for a time and receivedhis Dharma transmission. He and hismaster then returned to Niu-t’ouwhere they led a brief revival of theOxhead school.

Chih-yen(600–677; J. Chigan) Zen Chinesemonk of the T’ang period (618–907),regarded as the Second Patriarch ofthe Oxhead school of early Zen. Hewas the Dharma heir of founder Fa-yung (594–657).

Chii(646–722) Japanese transliteration ofChih-wei, Fifth Patriarch of theOxhead school. See Chih-wei.

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ChijiStewards; the six senior monks at aZen monastery who assist the abbot inmanaging the administrative aspectsof the community, particularly eco-nomic matters. As a group they are alsoknown as the Eastern rank (tôhan),since their duties keep them in theeastern portion of the temple groundsmost of the time. The stewards includethe offices of prior (tsûsu), supervisor(kansu), assistant supervisor (fûsu),chief cook (tenzo), labor steward(shissui), and supervisor of trainees(ino). The Japanese later added a sev-enth office, that of bursar (tsûbun).Their counterparts in the Westernranks (seihan) are known as the pre-fects (chôshu), and assist the abbot inthe spiritual aspects of the community.See tôhan.

Chinese Tripitaka( J. Daizôkyô) The collection ofBuddhist texts, written in Chinese,which is regarded as the canon or offi-cial scriptures of the Buddhist traditionthroughout East Asia. The ChineseTripitaka incorporates several types oftexts: translations from the early tradi-tion of Theravada Buddhism, whichformed the original Sanskrit Tripitaka;translations of Mahayana sutras origi-nally composed in Sanskrit; apoc-ryphal texts composed in Chinese butpresented as translations; and textscomposed by and attributed toChinese authors.

Before the development of printingtechnology—when Buddhist texts stillhad to be copied by hand—the Chinesedevised catalogs listing existingBuddhist texts. The catalogs wereexpanded over time to include newertranslations and texts originally com-posed in Chinese. Beginning with theT’ang dynasty (618–907), Chineseimperial courts sometimes issuedorders that a collection of all textsmentioned in a given catalog be com-piled. These collections of hand-writ-ten texts were referred to as Ta-tsang-

ching ( J. Daizôkyô), or GreatStorehouse Scriptures, and laterbecame the basis for printed editionsof the Chinese Tripitaka.

There have been a number of com-plete printed editions of the ChineseTripitaka produced in China, Korea, andJapan. The first complete wood-blockedition, known as the Szechuan edition,was begun during the reign of the firstSung emperor. It was completed in 983.The standard edition currently used bymost scholars is the Taishô ShinshûDaizôkyô, a modern Japanese edition,which adds several volumes of textscomposed by Japanese authors to theChinese Tripitaka.

Chên, Kenneth Kuan Shêng. Buddhismin China: A Historical Survey.Princeton, NJ: Princeton UniversityPress, 1964.

Ching-kuei“Pure regulations,” the Chinese form ofmonastic codes used in the practice ofZen, which set out the proper conductfor life and practice within the Zenmonastic community. See shingi.

Chingo Kokka No Sambukyô“Three sutras for the protection of thecountry,” three Buddhist scripturesrevered in Japan as beneficial for thewelfare of the ruler, the nation, and thepeople. The three sutras are theKonkômyôkyô (Golden Light Sutra), theHokkekyô (Lotus Sutra) and theNinnôkyô (Benevolent Kings Sutra).Japanese emperors ordered these sutrasdistributed to temples throughout thecountry, where they were recited andcopied for the sake of the nation.

Ching-shan(J. Kinzan) Mount Ching, a mountainin modern-day Che-chiang province,China, which was traditionally animportant religious site for Zen. Themountain was the site of the Zenmonastery Wan-shou-ssu, home to

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such famous Zen masters as Ta-huiTsung-kao (1089–1163). Ching-shanbecame known as one of the FiveMountains (Ch. wu-shan; J. Gozantemples), the most prestigious Zenmonasteries in China.

Ching-shan Tao-ch’in(714–792; J. Kinzan Dôkin) ChineseZen monk of the T’ang dynasty(618–907), the final master of theOxhead school. He was the Dharmaheir of Hsüan-su.

Ching-te Ch’üan-teng Lu(J. Keitoku Dentô Roku) The Ching-teEra Record of the Transmission of theLamp, a thirty-section collection ofbiographies of Indian and Chinese Zenmasters. It was compiled by Tao-yuanand edited by Yang I (968–1024) in1004, during the Ching-te era of theSung dynasty (960–1279). The collec-tion contains the biographies of Zenpatriarchs, monks, nuns, and impor-tant lay disciples, arranged chronolog-ically. The title is commonly abbrevi-ated to Ch’üan-teng Lu (J. Dentô Roku).The text begins with the seven bud-dhas of the past, the last of whom isShakyamuni Buddha (SiddhartaGautama), and continues to the timeof Tao-yuan at the end of the tenthcentury. The chronology presents a tra-ditional Zen history of the authentictransmission of the Dharma throughthe generations. Tao-yuan based hisversion of the Zen lineage on the Pao-lin Chuan, an earlier compilation. TheTransmission of the Lamp is the firstand earliest of the five texts known col-lectively as the Five Records of theLamp (J. Gotôroku).

The Transmission of the Lampincludes a total of 1,701 biographies—960 biographical sketches and a listingof another 740 names. In addition tobiographical details such as place ofbirth and family name, it also includespoetry attributed to the various mas-ters, stories of encounters between

masters and disciples, and storiesabout enlightenment experiencesdrawn from recorded sayings andother sources. Later Zen masters usedthe text as a resource for training stu-dents. Many of the kôan traditionallyused within the Zen school were drawnfrom its pages.

Scholars no longer regard the lin-eage presented in the Transmission ofthe Lamp as historically accurate, butthe text remains a basic resource forearly Zen history. Only portions of thetext have been translated into English.See also lay believer.

Sohaku, Ogata, trans. The Transmissionof the Lamp: Early Masters.Wolfeboro, NH: LongwoodAcademic, 1989.

Ching-te-ssu(J. Keitoku-ji) An important ChineseZen monastery on T’ai-po-shan(Mount T’ai-po), located in modern-day Chekiang. The monastery’s fullname was T’ien-t’ung Ching-te-ch’an-ssu; it became known as one of the FiveMountains (Ch. wu-shan; J. Gozantemples), the most prestigious Zenmonasteries in China.

Ching-tzu-ssu(Jinzu-ji) An important Chinese SôtôZen monastery on Nan-shan (MountNan) in Che-chiang. The monastery’sfull name was Ching-tzu Pao-en-kuang-hsiao-ssu; it became known asone of the Five Mountains (Ch. wu-shan; J. Gozan temples), the mostprestigious Zen monasteries in China.See also Sôtô sect.

ChinsôThe portrait of a Zen master, a tradi-tional form of Zen art, alternatively pro-nounced Chinzô. Chinsô include realis-tic portraits of prominent Zen abbotspainted during the subject’s life orshortly after death, as well as traditionaldepictions of famous Zen patriarchs

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from the past, especially Bodhidharma.Formal portraits typically present themaster in formal ceremonial dress,seated in a chair. It has long been held that Zen masters bestowed chinsôonto their disciples as a symbol ofDharma transmission. Scholars also believe that chinsô were used inmany different ritual contexts, especially to represent the deceasedduring memorial services.

ChishikiA good friend. Literally, the term meansknowledge or wisdom. It is often used as a polite form of address for worthy or prominent monks who practice Zen. Sometimes used synony-mously with Zenchishiki.

ChiyokuThe bathkeeper at a Zen monastery.One of six offices of the monastery ofthe Western rank (seihan), held by a

senior monk. In a traditionalmonastery, the bathkeeper is responsi-ble for preparing the bath and supervis-ing conduct within the bathhouse.(Some members of the communitywere children.) Bathing days, the onlytime hot water is available in largequantities, are scheduled every twoweeks. The bathkeeper heats the waterover a fire, traditionally using leaves and other refuse from cleaning thegrounds as fuel.

ChizôChief librarian at a Zen monastery, oneof the six senior officers from theWestern rank (seihan) of the monastery.Also known as the sutra prefect, or zôsu,the librarian is responsible for theproper care of the monastery’s collec-tion of books and scrolls, including thepreservation of texts and the acquisition of new materials. The chizô is usually a monk educated inBuddhist literature, especially Zen. In a

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Chinsô, a traditional form of Zen art, includes realistic portraits of Buddhist abbots and Zen masters. Thisis a painting of Bodhidharma, the legendary founder of Zen Buddhism.

contemporary Zen monastery, the position is often held by a highly trained scholar-monk.

ChôkaMorning services, one of three periodsof ritual chanting held daily in a Zenmonastery. The morning service is heldbefore sunrise in the main hall(Butsuden). It includes the chanting ofvarious sutras and other prayers. It isknown more fully as Chôka fugin.

Chôka(2) “Long verse,” a genre of Japanesepoetry; one of two standard forms ofwaka, or poetry. Chôka may be anylength and are composed of alternatinglines of five and seven syllables, con-cluding with a couplet of 7-7.

Chokushû Hyakujô ShingiJapanese title for the Ch’ih-hsiu Pai-chang Ch’ing-kuei. See Ch’ih-hsiu Pai-chang Ch’ing-kuei.

ChôrôAn alternative Japanese term for jûji,the abbot or chief monk at a monasteryor temple. See jûji.

ChôshuThe prefects of a Zen monastery. Theprefects include a group of six seniormonks who assist the abbot in the spiri-tual aspects of the monastic community.Prefects participate in training membersof the community in meditation,monastic discipline, ritual procedures,and the study of religious texts. The pre-fects include the offices of chief seat(shuso), scribe (shoki), sutra prefect(zôsu), guest prefect (shika), bathkeeper(chiyoku), and prefect of the Buddhahall (chiden). They are also referred to asthe Western rank (seihan), because theirduties keep them in the westernprecincts of the monastery. Their coun-terparts on the administrative side arecalled the stewards (tôhan). See seihan.

Ch’uan Fa-pao Chi(J. Den Hôbôki) “The Annals of theTransmission of the Dharma Treasure,” acompilation of the biographies of sevenChinese Zen masters. These includeBodhidharma, Hui-k’o (487–593), Seng-ts’an (d. 606), Tao-hsin (580–651), Hung-jen (601–674), Fa-ju, and Shen-hsiu(606?–706), who are considered theChinese patriarchs of the Northernschool of Zen. The text was written by a laypractitioner, Tu Fei. See also lay believer.

McRae, John R. The Northern Schooland the Formation of Early Ch’anBuddhism. Honolulu, HI: Universityof Hawaii Press, 1986. (McRaeincludes a complete English trans-lation of the text as an appendix.)

Ch’uan-hsin Fa-yao( J. Inshû Obaku-zan Dansai ZenjiDenshin Hôyô) “The Principles of theTransmission of Mind,” a collection inone section of Huang-po Hsi-yün’s (d.850) recorded sayings which was com-piled by P’ei-hsiu in 857. The text’s fulltitle is Yun-chou Huang-po-shan Tuan-chi Ch’an-shih Ch’uan-hsin Fa-yao. Itappears as a part of the Ssu-chia Yu-lu,the Record of the Four Houses. See alsoHuang-po-shan and Zenji.

Ch’uan-teng Lu(J. Keitoku Dentô Roku) A commonabbreviation for the Ching-te Ch’üan-teng Lu, the Transmission of the Lamp.See Ching-te Ch’üan-teng Lu.

Chü-chih(J. Gutei) A T’ang dynasty Zen monkfrom Ma-tsu Tao-i’s (709–788) lineage,who lived during the ninth century.Chü-chih was known for his “One-fin-ger Zen.” When asked by disciples forinstruction, Chü-chih would reply bysilently raising a single finger. Little elseis known about Chü-chih, except thathe made use of unusual and shockingbehavior to push disciples towardenlightenment. According to a classical

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kôan preserved in the Mumonkan andHekiganroku, when a young attendantonce imitated the master’s teachingtechnique without yet grasping its importance, Chü-chih cut off theyoung man’s finger. In the shock andpain of the experience, the attendantattained enlightenment.

ChûganhaJapanese name for the Mâdhyamakaschool. See Mâdhyamaka.

Chûhô MyôhonThe Japanese pronunciation for Chung-feng Ming-pen (1263–1323), a Yüan dynasty Rinzai monk. SeeChung-feng Ming-pen.

Chu-hungYün-ch’i Chu-hung (1535–1615; J. UnseiShukô), also known as Lien-ch’i Chu-hung (J. Renchi Shukô), was a leadingChinese Buddhist monk of the Mingdynasty (1368–1644). Chu-hung did notbecome a monk until he was thirty-twoyears old. Before that time, he lived as ahouseholder, marrying twice. He is calledYûn-ch’i after the temple of that name,which he founded in Hang-chou. Heresided for most of his monastic life atYün-ch’i-ssu. Within the monastery, hestudied Zen, Hua-yen, and T’ien-t’aithought, but he took the tonsure at a Zenmonastery and is therefore generallyregarded as a Zen monk. Since he regu-larly chanted the nembutsu (Ch. nien-fo)and wrote many texts recommendingthat practice, he is sometimes alsoregarded as a Pure Land master. He leftbehind numerous important treatisesand was the founder of a popular lay Buddhist movement based on the concept of meritorious and demeritorious behavior.

Like other Buddhist masters of histime, Chu-hung combined various reli-gious teachings, arguing that Buddhism,Taoism, and Confucianism were all com-patible. He also advocated a combinedpractice of Zen meditation and Pure Land

devotion, a trend in Chinese Buddhism atthe time. Chu-hung not only advocatedthe simple recitation of the nembutsu, butrecommended that practitioners contem-plate the nembutsu in a kôan-like fashion,concentrating on the Amida buddhawithin the self and the Pure Land of theMind. Chu-hung is also known for hisresponse to the teachings of Jesuit mis-sionaries in China. He composed theessay “T’ien-shuo ssu-p’ien,” in which hegave a Buddhist refutation of Christianbeliefs. See also dual practice, Hua-yenschool, T’ien-t’ai school, and lay believer.

ChûinThe interim period between death andthe next rebirth, usually believed to last49 days. During this period of time, thekarmic energy or residue from the pre-vious life is believed to exist in a sus-pended state before taking on its nextform. In more popular terms, thekarmic residue is thought of as the spiritor soul of the deceased, which escapesfrom the body at death but retains somesemblance of the individual’s personal-ity. At the end of the interim period, thekarmic residue or spirit takes onanother form, being reborn into one ofthe six realms of existence. Rebirth isbased upon the accumulated karmaand merit from the previous existence,so that goodness is rewarded and evilactions punished.

In East Asian cultures, the chûin isobserved as the initial period of mourn-ing after the death of a loved one. Sincethe exact outcome of the next rebirth isnot yet determined, it is commonlybelieved that the chûin period providesa final opportunity to improve the per-son’s prospects. Specifically, meritori-ous actions undertaken by the livingduring this time can benefit thedeceased. In Japanese Buddhism, forexample, the mourning period ismarked by a series of memorial ser-vices conducted every seven days.Traditionally, the merit accumulatedfrom these services is believed to betransferred to the deceased in the hopeof insuring a better rebirth.

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Chung-feng Ho-shang Kuang-Lu(J. Tenmoku Chûhû Osho Kôroku)TheComprehensive Record of Master Chung-feng, a text of thirty sections, including therecorded sayings (goroku) and writings ofChung-feng Ming-pen, a Yüan dynasty(1260–1368) Chinese Rinzai master. Thework was compiled by Po-t’ing Tz’u-chiand other disciples. The full title for thetext is T’ien-mu Chung-feng Ho-shangKuang-lu, which is sometimes abbrevi-ated to Chung-feng Kuang-Lu. In 1334,the completed work was presented to thelast Yüan emperor, Shun-ti (r. 1333–1368),who ordered it included in the ChineseTripitaka. See also Rinzai sect.

Chung-feng Ming-pen(1263–1323; J. Chûhô Myôhon) A Yüandynasty (1260–1368) monk who prac-ticed Zen and worked to restore a vigor-ous form of Rinzai practice in China. Hewas called “the old buddha south of thesea” by his contemporaries because heonce fled the monastery by boat whenhe was appointed to serve as abbot: Hepreferred a solitary life of meditation tothe busy life of a senior monk at anestablished monastery, and he wasrespected for his act because it indicateda dedication to practice rather than alust for power. For most of his career helived without a permanent residence,taking up temporary lodging in varioushuts on Mount T’ien-mu. Although herefused an invitation from Emperor Jen-tsung to become a court monk, hereceived from the emperor an honorificrobe and the title Fo-tz’u Yüan-chaoKuang-hui Ch’an-shih.

Chung-feng exerted considerableinfluence on Japanese Rinzai of theKamakura period (1185–1333), despitethe fact that he never left China. SeveralJapanese monks traveled to China tostudy with him. His Japanese Dharmaheirs then established his lineage inJapan, where it was known as the Genjûline of Rinzai Zen. Chung-feng’s style wasdistinctive in Japan because he allowedsome blending of Pure Land practiceinto his Zen style. See also Rinzai sect.

Codependent Origination(J. engi) The Buddhist teaching that allmental and physical things come intobeing a result of causes and condi-tions—none are self-existent. A thingpasses out of existence when its causesand conditions cease to exist. Thismeans that all things lack an essentialself-nature, such as an eternal soul, andare thus impermanent. All things arecharacterized by perpetual change.

Traditionally a Twelve Link Chain ofCausation illustrated how human suf-fering arises from a series of interre-lated conditions. A standard renderingof the Twelve-Link Chain begins withignorance. Ignorance leads to disposi-tions, consciousness, name and form,six senses (the five senses plus themind), sensory stimulation, feeling,desire, attachment to things and per-sons, becoming, birth, and finally aging,dying, and sorrow.

In Theravada Buddhism, the teach-ing of codependent origination isclosely related to the four noble truths,especially the second and third truths,which explain the cause and relief ofsuffering. When the chain is explainedas above, it describes the causes of suf-fering. When the chain is reversed, itillustrates how eliminating spiritualignorance will alleviate suffering.

In Mahayana Buddhism, the teachingof codependent origination is closelyrelated to the teaching of emptiness. Theconcept of emptiness recognizes that allthings are mutually interdependent.

Harvey, Peter. An Introduction toBuddhism: Teachings, History andPractices. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1990.

Cold Ashes and Dead TreesZen masters sometimes use expressionssuch as cold ashes and dead trees asmetaphors for the Zen practice ofseated meditation (zazen), in whichone transcends the hindrances of ordi-nary passions and desires.

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CompassionPrimary virtue of Buddhist practition-ers, especially bodhisattvas.Compassion (J. jihi) is the motivation tohelp other sentient beings to alleviatetheir suffering and lead them towardenlightenment. Within the Buddhisttradition, compassion is always pairedwith wisdom. Compassion is said toarise from wisdom because it is basedon one’s awareness of the interdepen-dence and interconnectedness of allthings. Conversely, wisdom is demon-strated in compassion. Compassionrequires taking action that will alleviatesuffering and lead other sentient beingstoward enlightenment. It can bedemonstrated in many ways, especiallythrough teaching and transferringmerit to others.

According to the tradition ofMahayana Buddhism, there are threedegrees of compassion. First, there isthe “small compassion” in which ordi-nary individuals, pratyeka buddhas,and shravakas display upon observingthe suffering of other sentient beings.Second, arhats and bodhisattvas in theearly stages of the Buddhist path pro-duce the “middle compassion,” which isbased on their awareness of the teach-ing of No-Self (Sk. Anatman). Finally,advanced “bodhisattvas and buddhasgive rise to great compassion” as a resultof their thorough grasp of emptiness.

Consciousness OnlyThe Mahayana teaching that all phe-nomena that one experiences as exter-nal realities are manifestations of one’sconsciousness or mind (J. yuishiki).

This teaching, which became a greatinfluence on Zen thought and practice,constituted the basic doctrine for theYogachara school of MahayanaBuddhism which arose in India, as wellas the later Ti-lun (J. Jiron), She-lun (J.Shôron), and Fa-hsiang (J. Hossô)schools in China and Japan. The teach-ing was developed and set out in theAvatamsaka Sutra, Lankavatara Sutra,and treatises attributed to the Indianscholar monks Maitreyanatha, Asanga,and Vasubandu.

According to the Yogachara school’spsychology of the human mind, eachindividual has eight levels of conscious-ness. The first five are related to the fivesenses and the sixth to the ordinarymind, which processes the sensory per-ceptions. The seventh level of con-sciousness is the ego, the source ofdesire and other emotional responses.At the deepest level, there is the uncon-scious mind, known in Yogacharathought as the storehouse conscious-ness (alaya consciousness), in which allprevious experiences and impressionsare stored as seeds. These seeds becomethe basis for evaluating all present andfuture experience and are projectedoutward, creating the false impressionof an external reality outside the mind.The “Consciousness Only” teaching isnot intended to function simply as aphilosophical position that denies theexistence of any external reality. Rather,its understanding of human perceptionand the workings of the mind areintended to serve as a meditative deviceto promote the experience of enlight-enment. See also eight conciousnesses,Fa-hsien school, and Hossô school.

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DDaibontennô Monbutsu Ketsugikyô“The Sutra of King Mahabrahman’sQuestions to the Buddha andResolution of Doubts,” a sutra in one ortwo sections purported to be the wordsof Shakyamuni Buddha (SiddhartaGautama), at the time of the first trans-mission of the Zen Dharma. Accordingto tradition the Buddha raised a flowerinstead of preaching, andMahakashyapa responded with a smile.The title is commonly abbreviated to“Monbutsu Ketsugikyô.” The text’sauthenticity is now doubted; based onits contents, it was probably composedin China. The Chinese title is “Ta-fan-t’ien-wang Wen-fo Chuen-i-ching.” Thetwo existing versions are different inlength and content; the one-section textwas probably composed later than thetwo-section version.

Daibutchô-juThe Shuramgama dharani, a spellderived from the seventh section of theShuramgama Sutra, was used to exor-cise evil spirits and ward off calamities.The full title of the spell in Japanese isDaibutchô Mangyô Shuryôgon Darani;it is sometimes abbreviated as theRyôgon-ju. The Shuramgama Dharani isone of the most commonly used dha-rani in the Zen school. It often appearsas a part of Zen rituals, includingmemorial services and funerals. SeeShuramgama dharani.

Daie“Great robe,” the formal outer garmentwhich monks and nuns wear over theirother monastic robes. The daie is the

largest of the three monastic robes, or kesa. It was originally donned whenever a monk or nun needed toleave the monastic community to begor teach. Daie are constructed of stripsof cloth, numbering from nine totwenty-five, which are sewn together. Itis alternatively known as the sôgyari(kujôe) in Japanese.

Daie SôkôThe Japanese pronunciation for Ta-huiTsung-Kao (1089–1163), a ChineseRinzai monk. See Ta-hui Tsung-Kao.

DaifunshiGreat resolve or determination.According to Zen teachings, GreatResolve is one of the three essentialtraits necessary for Zen practice, alongwith Great Doubt (Daigi) and GreatTrust (Daishinkon). The Zen practi-tioner must produce deep and abidingresolve to persevere in the practice ofZen, to overcome the doubts that arise,and to attain enlightenment. The termis discussed in Zen Essentials (Kao-fengHo-shang Ch’an-yao; J. Kôhô ÔshôZen’yô), a text composed by the Yüandynasty (1260–1368) Rinzai master Kao-feng Yüan-miao (1238–1295). See alsoRinzai sect.

DaigiGreat doubt or great questioning.According to Zen teachings, GreatDoubt is one of three necessary traitsfor the practice of Zen. Great Resolve(Daifunshi), Great Trust (Daishinkon),and Great Doubt motivate the practitioner. The term is discussed inZen Essentials (Kao-feng Ho-shangCh’an-yao; J. Kôhô Ôshô Zen’yô), a textcomposed by the Yüan dynasty(1260–1368) Rinzai master Kao-fengYüan-miao (1238–1295). Like othersbefore him, the Rinzai master, HakuinEkaku (1685–1768), believed that everypractitioner must produce great doubt,sometimes called “the ball of doubt,” asthe first step toward attaining

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enlightenment. He and other mastersformulated kôan and other Zen devicesto elicit great doubt in their disciples.See also Rinzai sect.

DaigoAn alternative saying or answer that acommentator appends to a kôan tocomplete the case. The term literallymeans “words offered in place ofanother” and refers specifically to casesin which the commentator provides ananswer of his own devising when thedisciple in the original exchange(mondô) was unable to reply. The termis used for one of two basic kinds ofanswers that masters would tradition-ally provide for kôan in compilations ofhistorical cases. The other major style ofappended answer is the betsugo, a say-ing with a different opinion.

The term daigo originally referred tothe spontaneous comments that mas-ters made during actual question-and-answer sessions with their disciples. Ifthe students failed to respond to a ques-tion, the master would make a com-ment in their stead. In theHekiganroku, Case 86, for example,Yunmen answered his own question inplace of his students. When he asked,“Each person possesses their own light,but if one tries to search for it, all isdarkness. What is this light?” hereceived no response. He then gave twoanswers, “The monastery halls andgate;” and “Even something one enjoysis not better than nothing.”

Daigu Sôchiku(1584–1669) A Japanese Rinzai monkfrom the Myôshin-ji lineage. Daigu wasborn in Mino to a samurai-class family.He is one of the Zen reformers who triedto revitalize Rinzai Zen during the earlyTokugawa period (1600–1867). Afterachieving considerable success withinthe Rinzai institutional hierarchy, Daiguset out to attain enlightenmentthrough the practice of meditation.Believing that there were no qualified

masters in Japan to confirm his experience, Daigu regarded himself as a“self-confirmed” master. He is bestknown for his efforts in restoring ruinedtemples. See also Rinzai sect.

Daihannya HaramitsukyôMahaprajna Paramita, “The GreatPerfection of Wisdom Sutra,” the mas-sive Chinese translation (T. 4–7, no. 220)in 600 sections of the entire collectionof the Perfection of Wisdom literature.Hsuan-tsang (600–664), the ChineseBuddhist monk, completed the originaltranslation between 661 and 663 C.E.The sutra, which includes such texts asthe Heart Sutra and the DiamondSutra, is extremely important to manyEast Asian schools of Buddhism,including Zen. At many Zen monaster-ies, monks and nuns read the entiresutra at ceremonies for the New Year.They also read it to acquire merit forspecial intentions, using the tendokumethod, a form of speed-reading.

Daihatsu Nehangyô ShugeJapanese title for the Parinirvana Sutra,a sutra which explains itself to be thefinal sermon given by the Buddhabefore his death. See Nirvana Sutra.

DaijiThe “Great Matter,” a common Zenexpression. It is often used to indicate theUltimate Truth of Buddhism, which isrealized when one attains enlighten-ment. Also, it may refer specifically to theexperience of enlightenment (J. satori),when one sees one’s own BuddhaNature, or to the practice of meditationthat leads to enlightenment. A Zen master may tell his disciples to attend to the Great Matter, in which case any orall the above meanings may apply. The term is actually the common abbreviation for the Japanese expressionichidaiji innen, “the most importantcause.” The most important cause for theBuddha to appear in the world was tolead others to enlightenment.

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Daiji-jiAn important Sôtô Zen monastery,located in Kumamoto Prefecture on theisland of Kyûshû, Japan. The temple wasfounded in 1282 by Kangan Giin(1217–1300), a leading disciple ofDôgen Kigen (1200–1253). It was con-structed with financial assistance fromKawajiri Yasuaki, a samurai warriorfrom Kyûshû. Daiji-ji became the head-quarters of the Higo branch of Sôtô. Seealso Sôtô sect.

Daijô“Great vehicle,” the Japanese transla-tion of Mahayana, one of the two majordivisions within Buddhism. MahayanaBuddhism proliferates throughout EastAsia and includes many distinctiveschools and styles of practice, includingZen. See Mahayana Buddhism.

Daijô-jiAn important Sôtô Zen monastery,located in Kanazawa, IshikawaPrefecture, Japan. The temple wasfounded in 1263 by Togashi Iehisa (d.1329), as his family temple (J. ujidera).It was originally a Shingon temple, and

its first abbot was the Shingon monkChôkai. Tettsû Gikai (1219–1309), adirect disciple of Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253), converted the temple to aZen monastery in 1293. See alsoShingon sect and Sôtô sect.

Daijô KishinronThe Awakening of Faith in Mahayana, aMahayana treatise traditionally attrib-uted to Ashvaghosha. There are twoChinese versions of the text preservedin the Chinese Tripitaka. The firsttranslation is believed to have beencompleted by Paramartha (T. 32, no.1666) around 550 C.E.; the second trans-lation was done by Shiksananada (T. 32,no. 1667) around 700 C.E. SeeAwakening of Faith.

Daikaku HaAn alternative name for the Kenchô-jibranch of Japanese Rinzai, headquar-tered at Kenchô-ji in Kamakura.Daikaku Zenji was the honorific titleconferred posthumously on Chinesemaster Lan-ch’i Tao-lung (1213–1278; J.Rankei Dôryû), who founded the lin-eage. See also Rinzai sect.

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Founded in 1282, the monastery Daiji-ji was the headquarters of the Higo branch of Sôtô.

Daikyû ShônenThe Japanese pronunciation for Ta-hsiu Cheng-nien (1215–1289), aChinese Rinzai monk. See Ta-hsiuCheng-nien.

Dainichi NôninA twelfth-century Japanese monk whofounded the Daruma sect, the earliestschool of Zen in Japan. Little can beconfirmed about Nônin’s life andteachings. Originally, he was a Tendaimonk who practiced Zen meditationon his own before Zen was establishedin Japan as an independent school.Nônin apparently attained somedegree of proficiency and proclaimedhimself a self-enlightened teacher. Inthat capacity, he established thetemple of Sambô-ji in Osaka. There heaccepted disciples and trained themaccording to his own system ofthought. Nônin did not adhere to thetypical style of either the Rinzai or theSôtô schools of Zen, but followedmeditation practices compatible withthe Tendai tradition he had studied atMount Hiei. Although he eventuallyreceived recognition as a Rinzai lin-eage master, he did not make use ofkôan in training his disciples. Basedon criticism of his teachings fromother Zen masters, it appears thatNônin believed that keeping themonastic precepts was not a neces-sary part of Zen practice.

Nônin eventually sought confirma-tion of his enlightenment experiencefrom a qualified master in order toestablish his credibility as a Zenteacher. He dispatched two disciplesto China in 1189, with gifts and a letteraddressed to the Chinese Rinzai mas-ter Cho-an Te-kuang (1121–1203). Inresponse, Te-kuang sent to Nônin acertificate of enlightenment, aDharma robe, and other gifts. Thisform of indirect Dharma transmis-sion was not universally accepted inJapan, and Nônin became the targetof severe criticism from otherJapanese Zen leaders. The Daruma

sect did not survive long after Nônin’sdeath (circa 1195). Several of Nônin’sdisciples later joined Dôgen Kigen’sSôtô Zen community. See also Rinzaisect, Sôtô sect, and Tendai sect.

Dainichi NyoraiJapanese for the Great Sun Buddha, atranslation of the Sanskrit nameMahavairochana Tathagata. DainichiNyorai, also known as Birushana(Mahavairochana Buddha), is the pri-mary object of veneration in theShingon sect of Japanese Buddhism.Early in its history, JapaneseBuddhism came to associate DainichiNyorai with Amaterasu, the SunGoddess and the central deity withinthe Shinto tradition. For this reason,large images of Dainichi, such as themagnificent example at Tôdai-ji inNara, were enshrined at nationaltemples (kokubunji) in Japan.

Daiô KokushiThe posthumous honorific title bywhich Nampô Jômyô (1235–1309), aJapanese Rinzai monk of theKamakura period (1185–1333), is com-monly known. The full title is actuallyEnzû Daiô Kokushi. See NampôJômyô.

Daisan“Great assemblies;” the formalDharma lectures and subsequent dis-cussion sessions held in the Dharmahall (hattô), of a Zen monastery withthe entire monastic community inattendance. At the great assembly, theabbot “ascends the hall” (jôdô), mean-ing that he mounts the central dais inthe Dharma hall and speaks to thecommunity from his Dharma chair(hôza). At this time, the abbot repre-sents the buddhas and Zen patriarchswho taught the Dharma before him.Most Dharma halls have no Buddhistimages, since the abbot serves thesame role at a great assembly.

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The abbot typically gives a formallecture, known in Japanese as a teishô.The sermon is usually a commentaryon a few passages from one of the Zenclassics, such as the Lin-chi Lu(Sayings of Lin-chi). After the formalportion of the lecture, the abbot invitesquestions from the assembly; the audi-ence then has an opportunity toengage in mondô with the master. Inrare cases, a member of the assemblywill challenge the abbot to debate.According to the monastic codes, greatassemblies should be scheduled everyfive days. In most modern monaster-ies, however, they are held during thesummer and winter retreats.

Daisetsu Sonô(1313–1377) Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe Kamakura period (1185–1333) whotraveled to China to study Zen. Sonôwas a member of the Fujiwara familyand was born and raised in Kamakura,Japan. When he was fourteen he tookthe tonsure as a Tendai monk onMount Hiei. At seventeen he joined theZen assembly at Tôfuku-ji in Kyoto,where he studied with several leadingZen masters before leaving for China in1344. He went to Sheng-shou-ssu andbecame the disciple of Ch’ien-yenYüan-ch’ang, a Dharma heir ofChung-feng Ming-pen (1263–1323) ofthe Yang-ch’i ( J. Yôgi) lineage. Hereceived inka in 1346, and was given aDharma robe belonging to Chung-feng as a symbol of Dharma transmis-sion. He traveled in China for ten yearsreturning home to Japan in 1358,where he founded several temples andserved as abbot. It is said that as manyas 3,000 disciples joined his assemblyat Ryôgon-ji in Ibaraki. Sonô alsoserved as the abbot of two prestigiousZen temples, Kenchô-ji and Engaku-ji.Because of his experience in China andimpressive lineage, he was in demandfrom the Ashikaga government.Although he could not refuse a directsummons from the shogun, it is saidthat on one occasion he served as

abbot of Kenchô-ji for only ten daysbefore resigning. Sonô was the last ofthe Japanese monks who studied inChina, and his transmission repre-sented the final influx of Chineseteachings for several hundred years.His posthumous title is Kôen MyôkanZenji. See also Rinzai sect, Tendaisect, and Yang-ch’i school.

DaishiA great master. An honorific title whichrefers primarily to Shakyamuni(Siddharta Gautama), the historicalBuddha. By extension it is often usedas a title of respect for a bodhisattva ora Buddhist patriarch, the founder of aschool of Buddhism. It may also beused more generally for any extraordi-narily talented Buddhist teacher.

In China and Japan, it became thecustom for emperors to confer the title“great master” on outstandingBuddhist monks, usually as a posthu-mous honor. The first Buddhist monkto be so honored in Japan was Saichô(767–822), the founder of the Tendaisect, in 856. In some instances,Japanese make use of the expression asan abbreviation for Kôbô Daishi, thehonorific title conferred on the monkKûkai (774–835), founder of theShingon sect in Japan.

DaishinkonGreat trust or great belief. According toZen teachings, Great Trust is one of thethree essential traits necessary for Zenpractice, along with Great Doubt(Daigi), and Great Resolve (Daifunshi).The Zen practitioner must have a deepfaith in Buddhist teachings and in thehistorical Buddha. In addition, the individual must place a great deal oftrust in his or her own teacher. Theterm is discussed in Zen Essentials(Kao-feng Ho-shang Ch’an-yao; J. KôhôÔshô Zen’yô), a text composed by theYüan dynasty (1260–1368) Rinzai mas-ter Kao-feng Yüan-miao (1238–1295).See also Rinzai sect.

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Daitô KokushiThe posthumous honorific title bywhich Shûhô Myôchô (1282–1337), aJapanese Rinzai monk of the Kamakuraperiod (1185–1333), is commonlyknown. See Shûhô Myôchô.

Daitoku-jiA major Zen monastery in Kyoto, Japan,which serves as the main monastery forthe Daitoku-ji branch of the JapaneseRinzai sect. The temple’s formal nameis Ryûhô-zan Daitoku-ji, “Dragon’sTreasure Mountain, Great VirtueTemple.” It was founded by the Zenmaster Shûhô Myôchô (1282–1337)

with the patronage of the retiredEmperor Hanazono and the reigningEmperor Go-Daigo. Shûhô first built asmall hermitage for himself in the areaof Kyoto, known as Mushashino, in1315. In 1324, Go-Daigo granted himland to build a large monastery. Agroup of patrons raised the necessaryfunds, and the temple was consecratedin 1327. Daitoku-ji was designated asone of the highest-ranking temples inthe Gozan system for a period of time,but voluntarily withdrew from the sys-tem in 1431.

The temple was destroyed by fireand war during the fifteenth century,and was rebuilt later in that century.

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Daitoku-ji, the main monastery for the Daitoku-ji branch of the Japanese Rinzai sect.

Many of the present buildings date tothat period. Daitoku-ji has strong asso-ciations with the tea ceremony(chanoyû) and other artistic forms;famous tea masters including Sen noRikyû took up residence at the temple.The temple houses magnificent worksof religious art, donated by wealthypatrons during the Ashikaga(1392–1568) and Tokugawa (1600–1867)periods. Although the temple sufferedsome damage during the persecution ofBuddhism in the Meiji period(1868–1912), it remains a vital monasticcommunity for Rinzai practice.

Daitoku-ji HaThe Daitoku-ji branch of Rinzai, one ofthe fourteen contemporary branches ofthe Japanese Rinzai sect. The mainmonastery for the branch is Daitoku-ji,located in Kyoto. Shûhô Myôchô(1282–1337) is regarded as the founder.The branch has 198 temples throughoutJapan and claims approximately 15,000adherents.

DaizôkyôThe most commonly used Japanesename for the entirety of the Buddhistscriptures. The word is derived fromthe Chinese expression “Ta-ts’ang-ching,” which literally means “the GreatStorehouse of Sutras,” and is synony-mous with issaikyô; it is used some-what loosely, and may refer to theancient Sanskrit or Pali Tripitaka, themore extensive Chinese Tripitaka, orJapanese editions which include addi-tional materials. There are many com-plete editions of the Buddhist scrip-tures, including the most recentJapanese edition, the Taishô Daizôkyô.

Danka SeidoThe Parishioner System, a policy ofsocial control devised by the Japanesemilitary government during theTokugawa period (1600–1867). Under aseries of regulations introduced in theearly seventeenth century, all Japanese

families were required to register asmembers of a local Buddhist temple. Inthis way, Buddhism became an unoffi-cial state religion; Buddhist monksserved as quasi-civil servants. Monksissued certificates (terauke), verifyingthat the temple’s parishioners were notmembers of any illegal organization,particularly Christianity or the FujuFuse sect of Nichiren Buddhism. Insome respects, the system benefittedBuddhism, since it guaranteedBuddhist temples large memberships,which in turn provided a stable eco-nomic base. On the other hand,enforced membership did not encour-age personal commitment on the partof individual Japanese. The regulationswere abolished in the Meiji period(1868–1912).

Dankyô“The Platform Sutra,” the abbreviatedJapanese title for the Rokuso Dankyô,the Platform Sutra of the Sixth PatriarchHui-neng. See Platform Sutra.

DannaA donation, or a donor who makes anoffering to the Buddha, a monk, a nun,or a temple. In some cases, the term isused for a person who sponsors a reli-gious ritual or service. The Japaneseword comes from the Sanskrit dâna.The offerings may be material gifts,such as food, clothing, and shelter forthe monastic community, or spiritualgifts, such as instruction in the Dharmaprovided by monks and nuns. The termalso has come to be used in variousBuddhist cultures as a respectful formof address for lay Buddhists.

Danna, understood as generosity, isthe first of the six perfections practicedby a bodhisattva. Bodhisattvas offermaterial and spiritual gifts, even theirlives, to other sentient beings. In thisway, bodhisattvas accrue merit, whichthey likewise confer on others ratherthan retaining the spiritual benefits forthemselves. Many jataka stories (talesrecounting the previous lives of the

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historical Buddha) offer examples of this form of compassion. See also lay believer.

DaraniJapanese transliteration of the Sanskritterm dharani. See dharani.

DarumaJapanese term for Bodhidharma, theFirst Patriarch of Zen. The Zen schooltraditionally regards Bodhidharma asthe founder of Zen in China. The termdaruma may also refer to small dolls ortumblers called Dharma dolls made toresemble Bodhidharma. SeeBodhidharma and Dharma doll.

Daruma SectThe earliest independent sect of Zenestablished in Japan during the latetwelfth century by Dainichi Nônin, theBuddhist monk. The sect takes its namefrom Bodhidharma, traditionallyregarded as the founder of Zen inChina. Dainichi practiced Zen medita-tion on his own, becoming a self-enlightened master. He establishedSambô-ji temple in the Settsu region asthe headquarters for his movement. Heeventually sent two disciples to Chinato request formal recognition for hisenlightenment experience from Cho-an Te-kuang (1121–1203), and becamean indirect Dharma heir within a recog-nized Chinese Rinzai lineage. TheDaruma school did not survive longafter the death of its founder; many ofhis leading disciples joined DôgenKigen’s Sôtô Zen community.

Until recently, the teachings of theDaruma school were known onlythrough the writings of its critics,including Myôan Eisai (1141–1215) andDôgen, Japanese founders of the Rinzaiand Sôtô sects respectively. From thesetexts, it seems that the Daruma schoolrejected the need to follow any externalpractice or monastic code. However,scholars have recently identified threetexts that were authored by members of

the Daruma school indicating its teach-ings had more in common with the Zenof T’ang dynasty China (618–907) thanwith the Sung dynasty style character-ized in Japanese Rinzai and Sôtô.Dainichi practiced a form of meditationsimilar to that found in the Tendaischool, rather than a style typical of theRinzai lineage to which he formallybelonged. He did not, for example,make use of kôan. See also Rinzai sectand Tendai sect.

Daruma-shûLiterally, “the school or lineage ofBodhidharma,” the Indian monk whois said to have brought Zen from Indiato China in the sixth century. The namemay be used to designate the Zenschool in general, or the teachings ofZen Buddhism. In other contexts, itrefers to a short-lived sect of Zenfounded in Japan by the monk DainichiNônin in the late twelfth century. Seealso Daruma sect.

Dead Ashes( J. shikai) A Zen expression usedmetaphorically to describe the mindpurified of all the harmful passions andattachments of ordinary thought. Theterm applies especially to practitionersof Theravada Buddhism who attain themeditative level of extinction (J. met-sujinjô), a desirable state.

Dead Sitting(J. shiza) A derogatory expression usedby Zen teachers to describe incorrect orineffective forms of seated meditation.Hakuin Ekaku (1685–1768), for example, criticized silent illuminationZen, or mokushô Zen, as a form of dead sitting.

DefilementsMental activities such as attachmentthat obstruct the path to enlighten-ment. Also referred to as “outflows” or“binding influences” (J. ro). For ordinary

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people, defilements arise constantly as aresult of the workings of the senses andthe mind. Buddhist practice, especiallywithin the tradition of TheravadaBuddhism, can be thought of as aprocess of extinguishing defilements.Once all defilements are extinguished,one has attained the level of an arhatand the state of nirvana.

DefrockingTo be formally expelled from a monasticcommunity. When a monk or nun com-mits certain offenses, the religious com-munity may take action to expel theindividual. The community will oftenrequest that items such as monasticrobes, certificates of ordination, or lin-eage charts be returned to themonastery, symbolizing that it hasrevoked membership privileges. In theancient Buddhist tradition, there werefour offenses that called for permanentexpulsion from the sangha. Theseactions were engaging in sexual inter-course, stealing, killing a human being,and making false claims about one’sspiritual attainments. These offensescorrespond to precepts accepted bynovices at their initial ordination; anexplanation concerning the punish-ment for breaking them was a regularpart of the ordination process. In theZen school, various sects and monaster-ies have devised monastic codes(shingi) to govern the behavior of Zenmonks and nuns. In some cases, otheroffenses have been deemed seriousenough to warrant defrocking.

DelusionAttachment to false views of reality.Delusions are very much like ignoranceand are a cause of suffering for sen-tient beings. The most basic delusion is the attachment to a false sense of self—the belief that one possesses some eternal and unchanging soul or identity (atman).

Dembôin“Seal of Dharma Transmission,” analternative expression for inka shômei.The dembôin is an official certificationfrom a Zen master that a disciple hasattained the same enlightenment asthe master and is qualified to functionas a Zen master. See inka.

Dengyô DaishiThe posthumous title for Saichô(767–822), the Japanese monk andfounder of the Tendai sect in Japan. In866, Saichô became the first Japanesemonk to receive the title “daishi”(Great Teacher), an honor bestowed onhim by Emperor Seiwa. See Saichô.

Denkôroku“The Record of the Transmission of theLight,” a two-section text written byKeizan Jôkin (1425–1500), the SecondPatriarch of Sôtô in Japan. Keizan patterned the text on the KeitokuDentô Roku (Ch. Ching-te Ch’üan-tengLu), the eleventh-century collection ofearly Zen biographies. The Denkôroku,first published in 1857, recounts thelineage of Zen patriarchs of the Sôtôschool, beginning with ShakyamuniBuddha (Siddharta Gautama). Thetext concludes with the biographies ofDôgen Kigen (1200–1253) and KounEjô (1198–1309), the 51st and 52ndgeneration patriarchs. A recent Englishtranslation was published by Nearman.See also Sôtô sect.

Nearman, Rev. Hubert, O.B.C. TheDenkôroku or The Record of theTransmission of the Light by KeizanZenji. Mount Shasta, CA: ShastaAbbey, 1993.

Denshin HôyôThe Japanese title for the Ch’uan-hsinFa-yao, or “The Principles of theTransmission of Mind.” See Ch’uan-hsin Fa-yao.

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DenshôA medium-sized temple bell that hangsfrom the eaves of the Buddha hall (Butsuden). The Denshô is used to callthe monks to services in the hall. It is similar in design to the ogane, or large monastic bell, although significantly smaller in size. It is rung by striking the side of the bellwith a hand mallet or a small swingingmallet (shumoku).

DentôrokuThe common Japanese abbreviation for the Keitoku Dentô Roku (Ch. Ching-te ch’üan-teng Lu). See Ching-teCh’üan-teng Lu.

DeshiA disciple or follower of the Buddha; a student who receives instructionfrom a Buddhist teacher. In somecases, the Japanese term deshi is usedas a translation for the Sanskrit termsravaka, meaning those disciples of the historical Buddha who heardhim preach in person. The term hascommon usage in secular contexts in Japan, indicating a student of some sort. While the term may be usedfor any student in school, it connotes aclose bond between student andteacher; for this reason, it applies most aptly to a teacher’s proteges.Students of the fine arts and martialarts who train under a master are alsoknown as deshi.

Devadatta( J. Daibadatta) A cousin ofShakyamuni (Siddharta Gautama),who initially became one of his disciples, but later turned against him.Devadatta hoped to be the leader ofthe Buddhist sangha, or community,but the Buddha rejected his request for that position. Devadatta became so resentful that he attempted to killthe Buddha and take the leadership of the sangha by force. According tolegend, he attacked the Buddha three

times. First, Devadatta sent assassins,but they became so impressed with the Buddha that they refused to com-plete their assignment. Next, he triedto crush the Buddha with a boulder,but the boulder stopped before it could harm the Buddha. Finally, heattacked the Buddha with an enragedelephant, but the Buddha pacified the beast with his great love and wasonce again unharmed. Althoughunsuccessful in his attempts to destroythe Buddha, Devadatta’s hostilityresulted in the first schism within theBuddhist order.

DevasThe deities. The Sanskrit word deva lit-erally means “a shining being.” In itsplural form, the term originally appliedto all Hindu deities. Buddhism adoptedthe basic Indian cosmology, but rein-terpreted the existence of the devas. InBuddhism, devas are heaven dwellersand represent one of the six realms ofexistence in samsara (rokudô)—theongoing cycle of birth and death. Likeother sentient beings, devas are sub-ject to the workings of karma; theyhave been born into a heavenly realmbecause of good merit accumulated inprevious lifetimes. When the store ofmerit is exhausted, however, they fadeand die like other sentient beings, usu-ally falling into one of the lower realms.Devas have the advantage of living inpleasurable circumstances, but unlikehuman beings, they are unable to make progress toward release fromsamsara. It is said that, untouched bythe suffering that characterizes humanlife, devas have no incentive to progresson the path to enlightenment. See also six paths.

Devil’s CaveA dark place in which one cannot seeanything at all. Zen texts use theexpression as a metaphor for anattachment to false views of reality,especially nihilism. See Kikutsuri.

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DharaniSacred formulas found in the Buddhistscriptures. Dharani are chanted in a man-ner similar to chanting mantras. Dharaniand mantras differ only in length; dharanigenerally refers to longer formulas. Likemantras, dharani often make little senseliterally, but the syllables are believed tocontain inherent power. Chinese andJapanese versions of dharani are oftentransliterations of the Sanskrit sounds,sometimes made without any attempt atliteral accuracy. Like mantras, dharanimay be chanted repeatedly as a way tofocus concentration in certain styles ofmeditation. They may also be used asmagic spells to ward off various calamitiessuch as disease, dangerous animals, anddrought. Although dharani are associatedmost commonly with tantric and esotericBuddhism, schools also make some use ofdharani in daily ritual and for extraordi-nary circumstances.

Dharma(J. hô) A Sanskrit term used in all of themajor religious and philosophical systems originating in India, includingHinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. Thevarious traditions apply the term some-what differently. There is no singleEnglish term that adequately translatesthe full range of meanings and implica-tions of the original Sanskrit; the word isvariously translated as Truth, Law, Duty,Teaching, Religion, and Norm. The termmay appear in secular contexts and referto secular laws or a secular sense of jus-tice. In Buddhist contexts, it may be usedsynonymously with the word Buddhism.

Buddhist texts use the term Dharma torefer to several different but related con-cepts. The most common usage referencesthe teachings of Buddhism or the teach-ings of the Buddha, including the sermonsthat the Buddha gave during his lifetime aswell as the scriptures recorded later, whichare said to reflect the original sermons.When used in this sense, the expressionBuddha-Dharma is often employed. Theterm Dharma may also refer to the moral-ity associated with the Buddhist path.

Traditional Buddhist teachings main-tained that morality is necessary for thepractice of Buddhism and the eventualattainment of enlightenment.Buddhistpractitioners are required to live accordingto the Dharma, abiding by the Buddha’sprohibitions against killing, stealing, lying,and other offenses. For monks and nunsthis may be interpreted to mean livingaccording to the entire vinaya, or monas-tic code. Within the tradition of MahayanaBuddhism, living according to theDharma would involve abiding by the bod-hisattva precepts. Finally, the termDharma in its deepest sense refers to real-ity itself and the awareness of things asthey are, characterizing the enlightenmentof the Buddha and other perfectly enlight-ened beings. In this final sense, theDharma may be understood as the ulti-mate goal of the Buddhist path.

In contrast to the above usages, whichare generally denoted in English with theupper-case “Dharma,” the Sanskrit wordmay also refer to elements of the world:things, mental constructions, and events.In this case, the term means “thing.”When referring to all things that exist inthe phenomenal world, Buddhist textswill speak of all dharmas. Used in thismanner, “dharma” is typically left in thelower case to distinguish it from otheruses. See also lay believer.

Dharma CombatAn expression used to describe certainintense exchanges between Zen mastersand disciples, using verbal and nonverbalforms of communication. A typicalexchange is initiated when the masterissues a challenge to members of theassembly, individually or as a group, toexpress their understanding of theDharma. Although Dharma combat takeson the general appearance of a debate,usually including a question-and-answerperiod, accounts of these exchangesrarely make much logical sense to thereader. In most cases, the exchangebetween the combatants amounts to littlemore than a few disjointed remarks, orshouts and slaps. The goal of theexchange, however, is not to provide an

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analytical expression of the Zen teach-ings. Rather, the master uses the emotion-ally charged moment of confrontation asan opportunity to push students towardan immediate realization.

Examples of Dharma combat aboundin the classical Zen literature, especially inthe genre of the recorded sayings (goroku)of the masters. Perhaps the most illustra-tive cases are seen in the Lin-chi Lu, theSayings of Lin-chi. In the first discourserecounted in the text, Lin-chi I-hsüan (d.867) explicitly employs the language ofbattle in his challenge to the assembly:“‘Now is there any adept warrior whoforthwith can array his battle-line andunfurl his banners here before me? Let himtry proving himself before the assembly!’ Amonk asked, ‘What about the cardinalprinciple of the Buddha-Dharma?’ Themaster gave a shout. The monk bowed low.‘As an opponent in argument this youngreverend is rather good,’ said the master.”

Sasaki, Ruth Fuller. The Record of Lin-chi. Kyoto, Japan: The Institute forZen Studies, 1975.

Dharmadhatu(J. hokkai; “The Realm of the Dharma”).The Sanskrit term is used in the Buddhisttradition to mean a variety of things.Dharmadhatu refers to the realm orsphere of ultimate reality. It may be usedalso to indicate the entire universe andeverything in existence. The two senses ofthe word are related philosophically. Fromone perspective, the realm of UltimateTruth is clearly distinct from the realm ofordinary existence. Within the realm ofordinary existence, the various things(dharmas) that exist are differentiatedfrom one another, while the realm of ulti-mate reality transcends all distinctions.Viewed from another perspective, how-ever, the realm of ultimate reality is identi-cal to the realm of ordinary existence.Indeed, ultimate reality is made manifestin everything that exists.

Dharma DollA papier-mâché doll or tumbler repre-senting Bodhidharma, the first patri-arch of Zen. A popular item in Japanese

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Designed without arms or legs, Dharma dolls represent the founder of Zen, Bodhidharma, who according to legend lost use of his appendages in meditation.

culture today, the Dharma doll is knownsimply in Japanese as Daruma anddraws loosely upon the Zen legend ofBodhidharma. The dolls are eitherround or pear-shaped, without any sug-gestion of arms or legs. This shape sym-bolizes Bodhidharma’s perseverance inmeditation. According to popular ver-sions of the legend, Bodhidharma satfacing a wall meditating for nine yearswithout pause. During that time, it issaid, he lost the use of his arms and hislegs, so determined was he to sit untilhe attained his goal of enlightenment.Since the dolls can tumble withoutfalling over, they represent the proverb,“If you fall down seven times, get upeight times (Nana korobi yaoki).” Mostoften, the proverb is painted on the dollas a reminder to persevere. The body ofthe doll is usually painted bright red. Inmost cases, the face does not have eyes.The person who purchases the dollpaints in the first eye when starting outon a major endeavor or making a vow toachieve a specific goal. The second eyeis painted in only when the goal hasbeen attained. People often buy daru-mas at the New Year in a custom com-parable to the Western practice of mak-ing New Year’s resolutions.

Dharma EyeThe insight or wisdom to see the truenature of reality; the eye of enlighten-ment that understands the Buddhistteachings. In the ancient Buddhist tradi-tion, those individuals who had gaineddirect insight into the Buddha’s teach-ings were said to possess the Dharma eye(J. hôgen) and to have achieved the stageof stream-winner (one of the four fruits).In T’ien-t’ai thought, the Dharma eye isregarded as one of the five eyes associ-ated with five kinds of beings.Bodhisattvas are said to possess Dharmaeyes, which represent the wisdom to seethe differentiation among all things thatexist. This wisdom enables bodhisattvasto see the suffering of all sentient beingsand to create expedient means to allevi-ate the suffering.

Zen masters may use the termDharma eye in a manner comparable tothose mentioned above, or they may useit more broadly to refer to enlightenment.For example, Zen texts use expressionssuch as “opening the Dharma eye” in ref-erence to enlightenment experiences. Inparticular, the Zen tradition uses therelated expression True Dharma Eye, orthe Treasury of the True Dharma Eye (J. Shôbôgenzô), as an expression for thefundamental Buddhist understandingthat is transmitted from generation togeneration within the Zen school. Seealso T’ien-t’ai school.

Dharma Gate(J. hômon) The Buddhist teachings arecompared to a gate that provides entranceto a deeper understanding of life and toenlightenment. The expression Dharmagate sometimes refers to the Buddhistteachings as a whole; it may also be usedin reference to a particular school or sectof Buddhism or to a specific type of prac-tice. For example, one Buddhist text maycall the Zen and the Pure Land schools ofBuddhism “Dharma gates,” while anothermay refer to the associated practices ofzazen and nembutsu as the respectiveDharma gates. Hui-neng (638–713), theSixth Patriarch of the Zen school, com-monly used the expression Dharma gatewhen discussing his own teachings andthe teachings of Zen.

Dharma HallThe main assembly and lecture hall at aZen monastery; known as hattô inJapanese. The Dharma hall is one of the seven buildings (shichidô garan)that form the core of any Zen monastery.See hattô.

Dharma Heir(J. hassu) A Zen practitioner who suc-ceeds his or her teacher as a recognizedmaster of Zen and has been deemedcompetent to take on and train disciples.In most cases, recognition as a Dharmaheir implies official recognition of one’s

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enlightenment experience through acertificate of inka or inshô. Such recogni-tion qualifies the student to continue theteacher’s lineage and transmit theDharma to a future generation of stu-dents. Males and females may be desig-nated as Dharma heirs. The names ofDharma heirs are recorded in the officiallineage chart of the sect or temple.

In theory, only those students whohave attained the same level of under-standing of the Dharma as the mastermay qualify as Dharma heirs. In actualpractice, however, the designation ofDharma heir may serve as an institu-tional device to establish legitimatelyordained individuals who serve localtemples within a given Zen sect. Since themodern period in Japan (1868–present),when marriage for Buddhist priests hasbecome the norm, for example, youngSôtô priests are usually designated asDharma heirs early in their careers, thusqualifying them to succeed their fathersas head of the local home temple.

A master might have more than oneDharma heir, but tradition maintainsthat from the Buddha down through thesixth patriarch, only one heir may bedesignated as patriarch. See also Sôtôsect and lay believer.

Dharmakaya“Dharma body,” a term used in the tradi-tion of Mahayana Buddhism to denotethe ultimate nature of the Buddha and ofreality. It may be rendered in English asTruth-Body or Law-Body. The term refersto the perfectly realized wisdom of allbuddhas. In this sense all buddhas areone. It may refer also to the ultimate real-ity of existence, or things as they reallyare. In this latter sense, the Dharmakaya(J. hosshin) is synonymous with empti-ness. Within the Mahayana doctrine ofthe three bodies of the Buddha, theDharmakaya is the highest aspect of theBuddha—the absolute or eternal Buddha.

Dharma King(J. Hôô) A name for the Buddha, from theSanskrit “Dharma Raja.” The expression

recognizes that the Buddha fully mas-tered the Dharma and was the preemi-nent teacher of the Dharma. It contraststhe authority of the Buddha as a religiousleader with the secular authority of king.In some contexts, the term may refer to asecular king who guards the BuddhistDharma through his secular authority.

Dharma RobeWithin the Zen tradition, monastic robes(J. hôe) are sometimes used as outwardsymbols that Dharma transmission hastaken place between a master and disci-ple. According to traditional accounts, theconveying of Dharma robes began withBodhidharma. After he had confirmedHui-k’o (487–593) as his Dharma heir,Bodhidharma bestowed his robe and bowlto him as a sign of Dharma transmission.With this gift, he officially confirmed thatHui-k’o was his legitimate heir and theSecond Chinese Patriarch of Zen. In turn,Hui-k’o transmitted the robe to his heir,Seng-ts’an (d. 606), and so on through thefirst six generations of Chinese patriarchs.In the Platform Sutra, the Fifth Patriarchbestowed the robe of transmission for thefinal time to Hui-neng (638–713), thusdesignating him as the Sixth Patriarch.There are contradictory passages in thePlatform Sutra concerning the originalrobe of transmission. In the biographicalportion of the text, Hung-jen (601–674)indicates that the robe will be a symbolthroughout the generations (Yampolsky,p. 133). In a later passage describing thepreparations for his own death, Hui-nengexplains that there is no longer any needto transmit the robe (Yampolsky, p. 176).

Yampolsky, Philip B. The Platform Sutraof the Sixth Patriarch. New York:Columbia University Press, 1967.

Dharma SealThe formal certification within the Zenschool that Dharma transmission hasoccurred between master and disciple.The English expression may serve as atranslation for a variety of Chinese andJapanese terms, most commonly inka,

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The Diamond-Realm Mandala bears over 1,400 buddhas, bodhisattvas, and other deities.

inka shômei, or denbôin. Receiving theDharma seal of a Zen master implies thatthe disciple has attained a mature under-standing of the Dharma and is qualified toserve as a Zen master to others. See inka.

Dharma SeatThe abbot’s formal lecture chair, or hôza,located on the raised platform in thehattô, or Dharma hall of the monastery.See hôza.

Dharma TransmissionTransmission of the Dharma from mas-ter to disciple. Although the languagesuggests that something is passed fromone person to another, the Dharma is nota thing that can be physically or literally passed on from one generationto the next. Dharma transmission is actu-ally the acknowledgment by a masterthat a disciple has attained an experienceof enlightenment equal to his or herown. Related traditional expressionssuch as “mind to mind transmission” and“transmission without reliance onwords” attempt to make this clear.

According to the Zen tradition, thefirst example of Dharma transmissionoccurred on Vulture Peak betweenShakyamuni Buddha (SiddhartaGautama), and Mahakashyapa. On thatoccasion, when the Buddha was asked topreach the Dharma to an assembly ofdisciples, he silently held up a flower. Noone in the audience understood hismeaning, and none could reply. OnlyMahakashyapa grasped the Buddha’smeaning and responded with a smile.The Buddha then said, “I have the TrueDharma Eye, the wondrous mind of nir-vana. I entrust it to Mahakashyapa.” Thisstory is the subject of several kôan,including Case 6 of the Mumonkan andCase 253 of the Sanbyakusoku.

Traditional renderings of Zen historyare often referred to as “transmissions ofthe lamp.” These maintain that theDharma was transmitted fromShakyamuni through twenty-eight gen-erations of Indian patriarchs, the last ofwhom was Bodhidharma, who carried

the teaching to China. The Dharma wasthen transmitted through five genera-tions of Chinese Zen patriarchs to theSixth Patriarch, Hui-neng (638–713).Since then, the Dharma has been transmitted by masters throughout thegenerations of the Zen lineage; all surviving Zen lineages trace themselvesback to Dharma transmission from the Sixth Patriarch.

The most common expression indi-cating that an authentic transmission hasoccurred is for a master to confer inka, ora “seal of approval,” onto a disciple. Thereare also a variety of outward symbolsused within the Zen tradition to certify atransmission of the Dharma. In somecases, official certificates of transmissionare prepared; in other cases, a Dharmarobe, a portrait of the master, a copy of atext, or a religious implement belongingto the master may serve the same pur-pose. Only those masters who receive aseal of transmission are eligible to take ondisciples, passing on the Dharma to thenext generation. In addition the expres-sion is employed as an institutionalrecognition of office. The Sôtô school inJapan today uses the ritual form ofDharma transmission to indicate validordinations within the sect. Almost everySôtô monk receives Dharma transmis-sion when he is ordained in order toqualify as the head priest of a localtemple. See also Sôtô sect.

Dharma WheelSee Wheel of the Dharma.

DhyanaThe Sanskrit word for meditation fromwhich the Chinese term ch’an and therelated Japanese term Zen are derived.See meditation.

Diamond-Realm MandalaOne of two primary mandala used inesoteric Buddhism, especially theShingon sect. The Diamond-RealmMandala represents the power of the dia-mond (or vajra) of wisdom to overcome

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all ignorance. The textual base for theDiamond-Realm Mandala (J. kongôchômandara) is the Vajrashekhara Sutra (J.Kongôchôkyô). The mandala graphicconsists of nine rectangular assembliesarranged in three rows of three. Morethan 1,400 buddhas, bodhisattvas, andother deities appear on the Diamond-Realm Mandala. MahavairochanaBuddha appears more than 400 times invarious manifestations throughout thegraphic, and appears directly as the cen-tral image in two assemblies. In the cen-tral rectangle, Mahavairochana is sur-rounded by four other buddhas, repre-senting the Five Wisdoms of esotericthought. In the upper central rectangle,Mahavairochana appears as the lone fig-ure in the assembly. The mandala is inter-preted in two basic ways: clockwise orcounterclockwise. When reading clock-wise (begining at the center and spiraloutward), the mandala represents themovement of Mahavairochana’s enlight-enment into all aspects of the cosmos.Moving counterclockwise (begining atthe outside and spiraling inward), themandala represents the progress of a sen-tient being toward the attainment ofenlightenment. Another primary man-dala used in esoteric Buddhism is theWomb-Realm Mandala.

Yamasaki, Taiko. Shingon: JapaneseEsoteric Buddhism. Trans. Richardand Cynthia Peterson. Ed. YasuyoshiMorimoto and David Kidd. Boston,MA: Shambhala, 1988.

Ishida, Hisatoyo. Esoteric BuddhistPainting. Trans. E. Dale Saunders.New York: Harper & Row, 1987.

Diamond SutraThe Vajra Sutra, a one-section sutra fromMahayana Buddhism composed aroundthe fourth century C.E. The DiamondSutra is one of the later Perfection ofWisdom Sutras (Sk. Prajna-paramita). Itsfull Sanskrit name is Vajra-cchedika-pra-jna-paramita-sutra (J. Kongô HannyaHaramitsu Kyô); it is known in English asthe Diamond-Cutter Sutra. The text

explains the Mahayana teachings ofemptiness (shunyata) and wisdom (pra-jna). It is one of the most importantsutras for the Zen school, perhapsbecause it employs negation, a teachingdevice much in keeping with Zen. It issaid that Hui-neng (638–713), the SixthPatriarch, first attained enlightenmentwhen he heard a man reciting versesfrom the Diamond Sutra.

Dô“Way” or “path,” the Japanese renderingof the Chinese word Tao. Sometimes pro-nounced “Tô,” as in Shintô, “the Way ofthe kami.” See Tao.

DôbanA hanging banner used as ornamenta-tion for a temple building or at a memo-rial service. The central support is a ver-tical pole with an ornate top piece, deco-rated with a dragon pattern and jewels. Intraditional dôban, long strips of clothhang down from the top piece of the pole.Today, strips of gold-colored metal orwooden strips are used instead of cloth. Apictorial description is provided by theObaku Shingi.

Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253) Zen monk who founded theSôtô sect in Japan. Dôgen was the son ofa noble family and received a classicaleducation. He was orphaned as a youngchild, losing his father at age two and hismother at about age seven. He enteredmonastic life at thirteen, becoming aTendai monk on Mount Hiei. A few yearslater, he left Mount Hiei to study Zen withMyôan Eisai (1141–1215), founder of theRinzai sect, at Kennin-ji. It is not knownif the two ever met, since Eisai died atabout that time. Dôgen became RyônenMyôzen’s (1184–1225) disciple andremained at Kennin-ji from 1217 to 1223.In 1223, he and Myôzen traveled togetherto China. While in China, Dôgen becamethe disciple and Dharma heir of the Sôtômaster Ju-ching (1163–1228). He returnedto Japan in 1227 and spent several years in

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the Kyoto area, establishing his firstmonastery in 1233, called Kôshô-ji. In1244 he and his community of monksmoved to Echizen where he establishedEihei-ji, the main monastery for the Sôtôsect. He died while traveling to Kyoto in1253. His major literary works include theShôbôgenzô and the Eihei Shingi. Seealso Tendai sect.

DojidôHall of the Guardian Deity. A smalltemple building traditionally positionedto one side of the Buddha hall (butsudô)of a Zen monastery. A Buddhist protec-tive deity is enshrined inside the dojidô.Doji, or Dojijin, is the Japanese term forguardian deities, including bothBuddhist deities and certain Shintôkami. In most cases, the image in a Zendojidô would be a Buddhist deity such asDaigon Shuri Bosatsu, Bonten, or GohôMyôô. Traditionally, services were held atthe hall twice a month, on the secondand sixteenth days. Offerings were alsomade to the guardian deity on otheroccasions. For example, a new abbotoffered incense before the image of theDojijin as a part of the installation ser-vice. More recently in Zen monasteries inJapan, the dojidô has been replaced by analtar within the Buddha hall, called theDojidan. It serves the same purpose asthe separate hall.

Dôjô“A place of the way.” The term dôjô haswide and varied usage. It may mean theplace under the bodhi tree in Bodhgaya,India, where the Buddha, Shakyamuni(Siddharta Gautama), attained enlight-enment; any place where Buddhism ispracticed; a Buddhist temple ormonastery as a whole; or a single hall at aBuddhist temple. In popular usage it mayalso refer to schools or buildings unre-lated to Buddhism where martial arts aretaught and practiced.

In the Zen school, dôjô usually refersto the training or the meditation hall at amonastery where monks receive instruc-tion in meditation. In the Rinzai and

Obaku sects, it is called the zendô, ormeditation hall; in the Sôtô sect, it refersto the sôdô, or monks’ hall. The term dôjômay also be used as an abbreviation forsemmon dôjô, meaning a trainingmonastery for the Rinzai sect.

Dokkaku“Self-enlightened one.” A Japanese trans-lation for the Sanskrit term pratyekabuddha. Hsüan-tsang (ca. 600–664), theChinese scholar-monk, derived theChinese word tu-chüeh, on which theJapanese is based. See pratyeka buddha.

Miura, Isshû, and Ruth Fuller Sasaki. TheZen Kôan. New York: Harcourt, Brace& World, 1967.

DokusanThe private interview between a Zenmaster and a disciple; the commonlyused abbreviation for nyûshitsu doku-san. The term literally means “goingalone” to visit the master. During thecourse of the morning and evening med-itation session at a Zen monastery, stu-dents have the opportunity to enter themaster’s quarters and consult with himprivately in matters related to their prac-tice. The master may use the meeting asan opportunity to evaluate a disciple’sprogress in meditation, especially whenthe disciple is working on a kôan.Dokusan is typically practiced in Rinzaiand Obaku Zen, since it is associatedwith the guidance related to kôan con-templation. It is in the context of dokusanthat a master assigns a kôan, tests a stu-dent’s understanding, and offers encour-agement to persevere. When a studentexperiences a breakthrough, the mastermay test and perhaps affirm the experi-ence during dokusan.

Monasteries observe traditional pat-terns of etiquette for dokusan. During theperiod when the master is receiving stu-dents for dokusan, disciples wait outsidethe master’s room for their turn to enter.Before going into the master’s quarters,the student rings a bell, announcing hisor her presence. Once inside, the student

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bows to pay respect to the master. Whenthe master determines that the interviewis over, he signals dismissal with a handbell. The student bows and departs, mak-ing way for the next person. See alsoRinzai sect and Obaku sect.

Kapleau, Philip. “The Private Encounterwith the Master.” In Zen, Traditionand Transition. Ed. Kenneth Kraft.New York: Grove Press, 1988.

Dôkyô Etan(1642–1721) Japanese Rinzai monk fromthe Myôshin-ji lineage, best known asthe master of Hakuin Ekaku(1768–1768), the great Rinzai sectreformer. Etan was the son of a samuraiand his concubine. He was raised in thehousehold of Lord Matsudaira Tadatomo,where he was first introduced to Zen. Ona trip to Edo in 1660, Etan became thedisciple of Shidô Bu’nan (1603–1676),having already attained an experience ofenlightenment. He received the master’scertificate (J. inka) after only one year ofpractice. He then returned to his nativeIiyama in Shinano, where he lived asimple life in a small hermitage calledShôju-an. From the hermitage Etanreceived his nickname, Shôju Rôji, “theold man of the Shôju hermitage.” None ofEtan’s writings were published, althoughsome of his teachings are scatteredwithin Hakuin’s work.

DônaiThe areas within a Zen monastery inwhich the monks or nuns live and prac-tice, especially the zendô or meditationhall. The term literally means “inside thehall.” The dônai is distinguished from theadministrative areas of the monastery,known as jôjû.

Donkatsukan“Stupid blind oaf,” an expression used bythe Japanese Rinzai master HakuinEkaku (1685–1768). There are a numberof related terms used in a similar mannerthroughout Zen literature such as

Donkonnin (“Dimwit”) and Danrusei(“Damn fool!”). Zen masters oftenaddressed disciples with such derogatoryterms in order to push them beyondwhatever hindrances they had encoun-tered. For example, if a student persistedin analyzing a kôan in purely intellectualterms, the master might rebuke him forbeing a fool. Alternatively, masters some-times used the term in a positive manner to indicate a splendid disciple. See also Rinzai sect.

DoraA musical instrument used in Buddhistritual services. The dora is a gong, typi-cally made of bronze. It is shaped like around dish and attached with a cord to awooden frame. It is sounded by striking itin the center with a mallet. The dora isused during memorial services and tan-butsu services.

Dôsha ChôgenThe Japanese pronunciation for Tao-cheCh’ao-yüan (d. 1660), a Chinese Rinzaimonk. See Tao-che Ch’ao-yüan.

DôshinThe Japanese pronunciation for Tao-hsin(580–651), the Fourth Chinese Patriarchof Zen. See Tao-hsin.

DôshôOne of the early Buddhist monks inJapan, Dôshô (628–670) founded theHossô school of Nara Buddhism. Dôshôis said to have been the first Japanesemonk to study Zen. While visiting Chinain 653, he studied Yogachara philosophywith the Chinese scholar monk Hsüan-tsang (ca. 600–664), who also intro-duced him to Zen thought. He thenstudied meditation with Hui-man, adisciple of Hui-k’o (487–593), the sec-ond Chinese Patriarch. When hereturned to Japan, Dôshô built the firstZen meditation hall at Gangô-ji in Nara.See also Yogachara school.

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DôshuThe monk in charge of the sick room or infirmary (enjudô) at a Zenmonastery. The term is sometimes usedsynonymously with the offices of dôsu orino. See ino.

DôsuThe supervisor of trainees at a Zenmonastery. One of the six stewards (chiji),who assist the abbot in overseeing theadministration of the monastery, Dôsu isanother term for ino. See ino.

Dropping Off Body and MindAn expression used in Sôtô Zen for theexperience of enlightenment, whichtranscends the mundane experience ofself. See shinjin datsuraku.

Dual PracticeThe combined practice of Zen medita-tion and Pure Land devotions. Dualpractice was first introduced to the Zenschool by disciples of Hung-jen(601–674), the Fifth Patriarch, although itdid not survive for long. Dual practicelater became extremely popular inChinese Buddhism beginning in the lateSung (960–1279) and early Yüan(1260–1368) dynasties; by the time of theMing dynasty (1368–1644), it was thenorm throughout the Chinese Buddhistworld, including the Zen school. ChineseZen monks regularly incorporatedchanting the name of Amida buddha(J. nembutsu; Ch. nien-fo) into theirdaily ritual services. In some cases,chanting the Buddha’s name was used asa meditative device to facilitate concen-tration, not unlike the use of mantra ordharani. In other cases, chanting thename was intended as a means to buildmerit in order to attain rebirth inAmida’s Western Pure Land.

While dual practice was introduced toJapan during the Kamakura period(1185–1333) by the Japanese and Chinesedisciples of Chung-feng Ming-pen andothers, it did not become the norm inJapan. Although Japanese Zen masterssometimes advocated forms of dualpractice, especially among lay believers,most remained hostile to the mingling ofPure Land elements with Zen practice.The Rinzai reformer Hakuin Ekaku(1685–1768), for example, regarded dualpractice as a serious threat to the ongoingsurvival of Zen. The Obaku sect in Japanis the primary example of practitionersusing dual practice methods. Establishedby Chinese Zen monks of the late Mingdynasty (1368–1644), Obaku follows theMing Chinese style of Zen practice.Obaku monks chant nembutsu at ritualservices, and Obaku masters have some-times made use of the so-calledNembutsu kôan. See also Rinzai sect.

DuhkhaSanskrit term for suffering, one of the basic teachings of Buddhism. See suffering.

Dust(J. jin) An expression used within theBuddhist tradition for objects of humanperception, including sights, sounds,tastes, textures, aromas, and mentalimages. The term has negative connota-tions suggesting contamination, sincesuch sensory perceptions may stimulatedesires leading to attachment, whichultimately result in suffering. Buddhisttexts may refer to entry into the Buddhistpath, especially becoming a monk ornun, as “shaking off the dust of theworld.” See also five dusts and six dusts.

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EEastern RankThe administrative officers at a Zenmonastery. See tôhan.

East Mountain SchoolThe teachings and practice of theChinese Zen masters Tao-hsin(580–651) and Hung-jen (601–674),acknowledged as the Fourth Patriarchand Fifth Patriarch. The school derivesits name from East Mountain, the pop-ular Zen name for Mount Feng-mu inpresent-day Hupeh, where Hung-jenestablished his monastery. It is knownin Chinese as Tung-shan-tsung (J. Tôzan-shû). In certain contexts, thephrase East Mountain school may applyto the Zen lineage of the Chinese mas-ter Shen-hsiu (606?–706), which is oth-erwise known as the Northern school.

Easy PathPure Land Buddhism. An expressionusually used to contrast the path of faithfollowed in Pure Land schoolsof Buddhism with the so-called holy or steep path of personal striving, characterized especially by Zen. PureLand Buddhism is regarded as the easy path, because ordinary individuals,even those with limited capabilities, canrely upon the assistance of Amidabuddha. Nagarjuna is said to have origi-nated the distinction between the easyand steep paths in a chapter on easypractice in the Shih-chu-p’i-p’o-sha-lun(J. Jûjûbibasharon). Zen masters gener-ally reject the easy path as incompatiblewith Zen, although they may recognizethat it has limited benefits for those indi-viduals unable to undertake the moredifficult practice of Zen. In the essay

“Gakudô Yôjin-shû” (“Points to Watch inBuddhist Training”), Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253) observed, “What is the eas-ily practiced and easily understoodteaching of which present-day man is sofond? It is neither a secular teaching nora Buddhist one. It is even inferior to thepractice of demons and evil spirits, aswell as that of non-Buddhist religionsand the two vehicles. It may be said to bethe great delusion of ordinary men andwomen.” (Yûhô Yôkoi, p. 53)

Yôkoi, Yûhô, and Daizen Victoria. ZenMaster Dôgen: An Introduction withSelected Writings. New York:Weatherhill, 1976.

Ehatsu“Robes and bowl,” an abbreviation for the Japanese term san’e ippatsu(three robes, one bowl). See threerobes, one bowl.

EichôSee Shakuen Eichô.

Eigen-jiA rural Rinzai temple located in ShigaPrefecture, near Kyoto. The temple’s for-mal name is Ryûseki-san Eigen-ji,“Dragon Stone mountain, EternalOrigin temple.” It was founded in 1361for the Zen master Jakushitsu Genkô(1290–1367) by his patron Sasaki Ujiyori(1326–1370). The temple serves as themain monastery and headquarters forthe Eigen-ji branch of Japanese Rinzai(Eigen-ji Ha). See also Rinzai sect.

Eigen-ji HaThe Eigen-ji branch of Rinzai, one ofthe fourteen contemporary branches ofthe Japanese Rinzai sect. The mainmonastery for the branch is Eigen-ji,located in Shiga Prefecture. JakushitsuGenkô (1290–1367) is regarded as thefounder. The branch has 121 templesthroughout Japan and claims approxi-mately 13,600 adherents.

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Eight Cold Hells( J. hachikan jigoku) According toBuddhist mythology, hell is divided intoa number of different regions, charac-terized by the type of punishmentinflicted. The regions in which theinhabitants suffer from severe cold areknown as the eight cold hells. Theyinclude Arbuda, the Hell of Swelling;Nirarbuda, the Hell of Tumors; Atata,Hahava, and Huhuva, each named forthe cries of their inhabitants; Utpala,the Hell of the Blue Lotus; Padma, theHell of the Red Lotus; and Mahapadma,the Hell of the Large Red Lotus. In thelatter three hells, the freezing condi-tions cause the skin to develop soresresembling blue or red lotus blossoms.

Eight Consciousnesses(J. hasshiki) The eight levels of humanconsciousness with which the Buddhistschool of Yogachara explains the work-ings of human psychology. They aresight consciousness, sound conscious-ness, smell consciousness, taste con-sciousness, tactile (touch) conscious-ness, mind consciousness, ego con-sciousness, and the storehouse con-sciousness (alaya consciousness). Thefirst five levels are interpreted as thefunctioning of the five senses. Themind consciousness is generallyregarded as ordinary consciousness; atthis level, the data gathered throughthe five senses are coordinated, so thatobjects of sight, sound, etc., areprocessed and identified. The seventhor ego consciousness is the level atwhich personal attachments, such aslikes and dislikes, are formed. Theeighth consciousness is the fundamen-tal level of consciousness, similar to thenotion of the subconscious minddeveloped by modern Western psychol-ogy. The storehouse consciousness isthat level at which all previous experi-ences and impressions are stored asseeds. These seeds form the basis forevaluating all present and future expe-rience. See also Consciousness Onlyand Yogachara school.

Eightfold Path(J. hasshôdô) The path of Buddhism astaught by the historical Buddha.According to the tradition, Shakyamuni(Siddharta Gautama), devised a path toenlightenment for himself, then taughtit to his disciples as the Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path is the basis ofthe fourth of the four noble truths,which identifies it as the path toenlightenment. The path includes right views, right intention, rightspeech, right action, right livelihood,right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

Right views, or an understanding ofthings as they really are, generallybegins with learning the basic Buddhistteachings. Right intention involves adual effort to keep one’s thoughts freefrom destructive emotions and to pro-mote positive states of mind. Oneavoids such emotions as desire, ill will,anger, jealousy, and hatred, whileencouraging thoughts of loving kind-ness, goodwill, and concern for others.Right speech means abstaining fromfour kinds of destructive speech: lying,slander, abuse, and idle talk. Rightaction refers to abstaining from wrong-doing, especially killing, stealing, andsexual misconduct. Right livelihoodinvolves avoiding certain occupationsthat inevitably cause harm to other sen-tient beings, such as military service,butchering, or fishing. Right effortmeans to avoid unwholesome actionsthat create bad karma and to encouragegood actions that create good karma.Right mindfulness is really a form ofmeditation in which one becomes pro-gressively mindful of the body, of therising and passing away of feelings, ofthe activity of the mind, and of mentalobjects. Right concentration refers to anintense form of mental concentrationcalled “one-pointedness.”

The path can be seen as a unifiedwhole, each step to be practiced simul-taneously with the others. Also, it can beunderstood as a progressive movement:One first learns about Buddhist teachings and then begins to practice

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Buddhist morality to gain control overone’s actions. Finally, the path culmi-nates with the practice of meditation,through which one gains control of themind. At this stage the path circles backon itself, since through meditation oneattains wisdom and comes to fully real-ize the teachings accepted on faith atthe beginning.

It is traditional to teach about theEightfold Path in terms of the threefoldtraining, arranging the steps under thecategories of wisdom (prajna), morality(sila), and concentration (samadhi).The practice of wisdom focuses on rightviews and intention; the practice ofmorality includes right speech, action,and livelihood; and the practice of con-centration covers right effort, mindful-ness, and concentration.

The Eightfold Path remains crucialin Theravada Buddhism as the basicformat of practice. While MahayanaBuddhism accepts the Eightfold Path asan important part of the early teachingsof the Buddha, it is not a focus of Mahayana teaching. Mahayana texts sometimes make reference to the threefold training, or more rarelythe Eightfold Path, but it is theBodhisattva Path which structuresMahayana practice.

Eight Hot HellsAccording to Buddhist mythology, hellis divided into a number of differentregions, characterized by the type ofpunishment inflicted. The regions inwhich the inhabitants suffer from heatare known as the eight hot hells (J. hachinetsu jigoku). They include theHell of Repeated Misery, where inhabi-tants are repeatedly put to death withiron bars or knives, and then revived tobe executed again; the Hell of BlackRopes, where sinners are bound withhot iron cords and cut to pieces with hotiron hatchets; the Hell of MassSuffering, where sinners are crushedbetween two iron mountains; the Hellof Wailing and the Hell of Great Wailing,where sinners cry out in pain as they are

boiled in a cauldron or roasted in aniron room; and the Hell of Searing Heat,the Hell of Great Searing Heat, and theHell of Incessant Suffering in which thesuffering from the intense heatbecomes progressively worse.

Eight Precepts(J. hakkai or hassaikai) The eight pre-cepts undertaken by lay people on cer-tain days of the month, known asuposatha days. On these occasions, laypeople abide by the same precepts asordained novices. The eight preceptsforbid killing living beings; stealing; sex-ual conduct; lying; consuming intoxi-cants; eating after noon; adorning thebody with perfume, flowers, or jewelry;participating in public entertainmentincluding dancing, plays, and singing;and sleeping in a luxurious bed. The listis very similar to the ten precepts of thenovice, with the exception that laypeople do not abstain from handlingmoney. Although the first five preceptsof the novice correspond to the five pre-cepts of lay people, they are not inter-preted in exactly the same way onuposatha days. On ordinary days, theprohibition against sexual misconductfor lay people implies abstaining frompremarital and extramarital relations.On uposatha days, lay people abstainfrom all sexual conduct, abiding by theprecept in the same manner as monksand nuns. See also lay believer.

Eighty Minor Marks of a Buddha(J. hachijûshûko) Eighty physical marksof perfection that are said to distinguishthe body of a buddha. The minor marksare so designated to distinguish themfrom the thirty-two major marks, butthere is some overlap between themajor and minor lists.

For a full listing of the Eighty MinorMarks in English, see Robert A.F.Thurman’s The Holy Teaching ofVimalakirti: A Mahayana Scripture(Pennsylvania State University Press,1976).

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Eihei-jiA major Sôtô Zen monastery in FukuiPrefecture in eastern Japan, whichserves as one of the two headquartersfor the Sôtô sect of Japanese Zen. Thetemple was founded by Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253) in 1243, with patronagefrom Hatano Yoshishige. It is a matter ofsome debate exactly what motivatedDôgen to leave the Kyoto area and reset-tle his monastic community in theremote region of Echizen province, butit is likely that he was responding topressure from the Tendai sect and otherestablished schools of Buddhism.Dôgen himself commented that he wasfollowing his master’s instruction thathe practice deep in the mountains andavoid cities. He initially named thetemple Daibutsu-ji, “Temple of theGreat Buddha” but later renamed itEihei-ji for the Chinese Yung-p’ing era

(58–75 C.E.) when Buddhism is said tohave been first introduced in China.The monastery is constructed accord-ing to Chinese models familiar toDôgen from his years of practice inChina. At Eihei-ji, Dôgen focused hisattention on training his disciples in themonastic practice of Zen. He composedthe Eihei Shingi to govern life at amonastery.

Eihei Shingi“Monastic Code for Eihei Monastery,” atext in two sections composed by DôgenKigen (1200–1253), the founder ofJapanese Sôtô Zen. The text is made upof six essays that originally circulatedindependently; they were first publishedtogether in a single volume by KôshôChidô in 1667. The six essays are TenzoKyôkun (“Instructions for the Cook”), adescription of the responsibilities of the

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The Eihei-ji monastery serves as a headquarters for the Sôtô sect of Zen Buddhists. It was founded in 1243.

head kitchen monk written in 1237;“Bendôhô” (“Method of Practicing theWay”), a description of daily conduct inthe monastery, written in 1246;“Fushuku Hanbô” (“Manners inEating”), a description of proper man-ners for serving and eating food in themonks’ hall (sôdô), written in 1246;“Shuryô Shingi” (“Code for the ReadingRoom”), a description of appropriatebehavior and interaction with fellowmonks, written in 1249; “TaitaikoGogejarihô” (“Rules for Meeting SeniorMonks”), a description of respectfulbehavior that junior monks should showtoward senior monks, written in 1244;and “Chiji Shingi” (“Code for SixStewards”), a description of the respon-sibilities of six senior administrativeofficers in the monastery, written in1246. See also Sôtô sect. There are tworecent translations of the entire EiheiShingi: Leighton, Taigen Daniel, andShohaku Okamura’s Dôgen’s PureStandards for the Zen Community (StateUniversity of New York Press, 1996) andIchimura Shohei’s Zen Master EiheiDôgen’s Monastic Regulations (NorthAmerican Institute of Zen and BuddhistStudies, 1993).

EisaiThe Japanese Zen master Myôan Eisai(1141–1215), traditionally credited withfounding the Rinzai sect in Japan. Hisname may be alternatively pronouncedYôsai. Eisai began his career as a Tendaimonk and trained in the teachings andpractices of esoteric Buddhism formany years on Mount Hiei. He jour-neyed to China twice; on the first trip, abrief visit in 1168, he brought back textsfrom China in which the Zen school andZen meditation were often mentioned.Eisai later decided to return to China tostudy Zen, and if possible, continue onto India. In 1187 he returned to Chinaand found that a journey to India wouldnot be possible. He studied under Hsü-an Huai-chang on Mount T’ien-t’ai.After receiving Dharma transmissionwithin the Rinzai lineage, he returned

to Japan in 1191. He founded Shôfuku-ji, the first Zen temple in the country,located in Hakata, Kyûshû. When hereturned to the Kyoto area, Eisaiencountered considerable resistancefrom the established schools ofBuddhism, especially the Tendai sectand Shingon sect. He wrote the KôzenGokokuron to defend himself and Zenpractice, responding to the accusationthat Zen represented a new school ofBuddhism. He gained the patronage ofthe shôgun in Kamakura, and foundedJufuku-ji there in 1200. In 1202, he wasinvited by the shôgun to serve as thefounding abbot of Kennin-ji in Kyoto.

The Buddhist practice characteristicof Eisai’s communities was not exclu-sively Zen. He continued to incorporateesoteric teachings and rituals whichappealed to his patrons. Eisai is remem-bered also as the person who intro-duced tea to Japan. He brought backseeds from China, and initiated the cus-tom of growing tea on temple grounds.He even wrote an essay extolling thevirtues of drinking tea. Eisai receivedthe posthumous title Senkô Kokushi.

Eka DaishiJapanese transliteration of Hui-k’o Ta-shih (487–593), the Second ChinesePatriarch of Zen. See Hui-k’o.

EmmaLord of the realm of the dead; theJapanese rendering of Yama in Sanskrit.In Buddhist mythology, Emma reignsover the various hells and judges thedead. He determines what misdeedseach individual has performed whilealive and assigns punishment accord-ingly. Yama originally appeared inancient Indian mythology and as theking of the dead in Hindu mythology.Yama was the first human being to die.He discovered the way to the under-world, where he assumed power. Hebecame a deity and is regarded as theguardian of the south, the region ofdeceased souls. Yama is depicted as aterrifying green figure, with red robes.

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He rides a buffalo and carries a club andnoose to capture souls when they die.

In China, Yama merged with indige-nous religious beliefs and emerged as ahigh-ranking underworld bureaucrat.Taoist mythology depicted hell as gov-erned by a lord named T’ai-shan-fu-chün, who was served by ten kings.Eventually, the figure of Yama becameassociated with T’ai-shan-fu-chün. InJapan, Yama underwent further trans-formation. He was often identified as aform of the bodhisattva named Jizô,who helps sentient beings who are suffering in hell. Based on that interpretation of Yama, Emma becamean object of devotion in Japan. InJapanese Buddhist iconography, Emmaappears on mandala used in esotericBuddhism; on the Womb-RealmMandala, he appears in the southernregion. There were also mandaladevoted specifically to King Emma inwhich he is the central figure. JapaneseBuddhists made Emma the primaryobject of worship at esoteric ritualsintended to ensure health and long life.

Emmei Jikku Kannonkyô“Kannon Sutra for Long Life in TenStatements,” an abridged version of the popular Kannon Sutra. The text isalso known as the Jikku Kannonkyô. It is extremely brief and easily memorized, easily lending itself to constant repetition. In the Hebiichigo,Zen master Hakuin Ekaku (1685–1768)recommended that ordinary Buddhistsrecite this text as they went about theirdaily work.

Emmei Jikku Kannonkyô Reigenki“The Wondrous Powers of the KannonSutra for Long Life in Ten Statements,” atext composed by Hakuin Ekaku(1685–1768) in 1759. The text recountsmiracles associated with believing inand reciting the Emmei JikkuKannonkyô and explains that one willexperience the power of the sutra afterreciting it several hundred times.

Yampolsky, Philip B., trans. The ZenMaster Hakuin: Selected Writings.New York: Columbia UniversityPress, 1971.

Emperor Go-Daigo(1287–1339) The ninety-sixth Japaneseemperor, a patron and student of theZen school of Buddhism. Go-Daigoreigned from 1319 to 1338; during thattime he extensively interacted with sev-eral important Zen masters of the day,including Shûhô Myôchô (1282–1337),and Musô Soseki (1275–1351). Hisattempt to regain political power fromthe military government in Kamakuraled to a brief period of direct imperialrule, known as the Kemmu Restoration(1334–1336). Ultimately, Go-Daigo’sefforts failed when Ashikaga Takauji(1305–1358) seized power in 1336.Takauji set in place a new puppetemperor in Kyoto, while Go-Daigo fledto Yoshino. This created a split in theruling family of Japan, the so-calledSouthern and Northern Courts, whichlasted until 1392. After Go-Daigo’sdeath, Musô Soseki convinced theAshikaga shôgun to dedicate a new Zen temple to Go-Daigo’s memory. It became the famous Tenryû-ji inwestern Kyoto.

Emperor Hanazono(1297–1348) The ninety-fifth Japaneseemperor and a patron and student ofthe Zen school of Buddhism. Hanazonoreigned from 1308 to 1318, thenresigned and became a cloisteredemperor, or an emperor who has takenBuddhist vows. In 1335, he took the ton-sure and became a monk. Hanazonopreferred a strict approach to the prac-tice of Zen. Although he was an accom-plished poet, he did not approve of theliterary excesses of the Gozan monas-teries. Hanazono practiced Zen underthe guidance of Shûhô Myôchô(1282–1337), for whom he builtDaitoku-ji, one of the most importantZen monasteries in Japan. When Shûhôdied, Hanazono turned to Shûhô’s

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Dharma heir, Kanzan Egen(1277–1369), the founder of theMyôshin-ji line, for instruction in Zen.Hanazono converted one of his imper-ial villas into a monastic retreat for hisown meditation and practice; heinvited Kanzan to serve as the foundingabbot. This served as the beginning ofthe extensive Myôshin-ji monastery.

Empress Wu(r. 685–704) The Chinese empress WuChao, who reigned during the T’angdynasty (618–907). Wu Chao was astrong proponent of Buddhism. Hermother was a devout Buddhist, and theempress was raised as a believer. Underher leadership, Buddhism enjoyed a risein fortunes and was favored overTaoism; she commissioned manyBuddhist works of art, including sculp-tures at the Lung-men caves. EmpressWu planned to establish a new dynastyto replace the T’ang; since theConfucian tradition disapproved ofwomen holding political power, sheturned to Buddhist sources to legitimizeher claims. Based on interpretations ofcertain Buddhist scriptures, it wasargued that Wu Chao was an incarna-tion of Maitreya, the future Buddha andtherefore qualified to reign. Theempress was forced to resign in 1705 byopponents in the T’ang dynasty, whichwas then restored.

Emptiness(J. kû) The fundamental concept ofMahayana Buddhism regarding ulti-mate reality, which asserts that all phe-nomena are empty of self-nature.Emptiness is an English translation ofthe Sanskrit term shunyata, also ren-dered as “void” or “nothingness” bysome authors. Shunyata is the denialthat things in the phenomenal world,including sentient beings, inanimateobjects, and ideas, have an indepen-dent, unchanging, and eternal essence.Emptiness is not a nihilistic denial ofreality or existence in absolute terms,but the recognition that all phenomena

are relative and dependent on causa-tion. To assert that all things are emptymeans that they are interdependent,arise out of causal factors, and are con-tinually susceptible to change.

The Mahayana concept of emptinessmay be seen as an extension of the earlyBuddhist concept of No-Self (Sk.Anatman), which denies the existenceof an eternal, abiding, and unchangingself or soul. The teaching of emptinesswas first developed by theShunyavadins. It is discussed through-out the Perfection of Wisdom literature,also known as the Prajna ParamitaSutras. The second-century Buddhistphilosopher Nagarjuna brought theconcept to its full flower in his system-ization of Mâdhyamika (Mâdhyamaka)thought. Nagarjuna clarified the pos-sible misunderstanding of emptiness asa substance that underlies reality. Heasserted that the concept of emptinessis itself empty. Rather than understand-ing emptiness as a thing, it is perhapsmore accurate to conceive of it as adescriptive characterization of things asthey really are.

EngakuThe Japanese term for pratyeka bud-dhas, or self-enlightened beings. Thecharacters literally mean “one who real-izes causation.” The name is derivedfrom the understanding that pratyekabuddhas attain enlightenment inde-pendently, recognizing on their own theworkings of the twelve-link chain ofcausation. Related Japanese terms aredokkaku (“self-enlightened”) andbyakushi butsu, based on the Chinesetransliteration of the original Sanskrit.See pratyeka buddha.

Engaku-jiA major Rinzai Zen temple inKamakura, Japan, which serves as themain headquarters for the Engaku-jibranch of Rinzai Zen. Its formal name isRyûroku-zan Engaku-ji. The temple was founded in 1282 by the Chinesemaster Wu-hsüeh Tsu-yüan (1226–1286;

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J. Mugaku Sogen), and constructedunder the patronage of the regent HôjôTokimune (1251–1284). The regentintended the monastery to serve as amemorial to the Japanese warriors whofell during the Mongol invasions of1281. It was one of the earliest monas-teries built according to the Zen styledeveloped during the Sung dynasty(960–1279) in China. At its peak in thefourteenth century, the monasteryhoused almost 2,000 monks andincluded twenty subtemples (tatchû). Itwas ranked among the Gozan temples(Five Mountains) of Kamakura. See alsoRinzai sect.

Engaku-ji HaThe Engaku-ji branch of Rinzai, one of the fourteen contemporary branchesof the Japanese Rinzai sect. The main monastery for the branch isEngaku-ji, located in Kamakura. Wu-hsüeh Tsu-yüan (1226–1286; J.Mugaku Sogen) is regarded as thefounder. The branch has 210 templesthroughout Japan and claims approxi-mately 178,000 adherents.

Engi“Arising from causation,” the Japanesetechnical term for codependent origi-nation. The concept explains that allphenomena result from causation, thatnone are self-existent in an absolutesense. Mental and physical things comeinto being as a result of causes and conditions. A thing inevitably passesout of existence when its causes andconditions cease to exist. This meansthat all phenomena lack an essentialself-nature, such as an eternal soul, and are thus impermanent. See code-pendent origination.

Engi(2) Legends and historical accountsassociated with a Japanese Buddhistmonastery or temple, a Shintô shrine,or a religious image.

Engo KokugonJapanese transliteration of Yüan-wuK’o-ch’in (1063–1135), a leadingChinese Zen master from the Sungdynasty (960–1279), best known as thecompiler of the Hekiganroku. SeeYüan-wu K’o-ch’in.

EnjuThe monks or nuns responsible fortending the monastery’s vegetable gar-den. According to the vinaya, themonastic code used in TheravadaBuddhism, monks and nuns are notallowed to till the soil and grow theirown food. Tradition requires them tobeg for their sustenance from lay believ-ers. In East Asia, where begging was notalways permitted, the Zen schooladopted the practice of raising food ontemple grounds. All members of thecommunity are expected to take turnstending the garden. Like other forms ofmanual labor (samu), this activity is aform of active meditation.

EnjudôThe sick hall or infirmary in a Zenmonastery. The term literally means the“Hall for the Prolongation of Life.”Monks and nuns who are too ill tomaintain the daily routine of monasticlife are cared for in the infirmary. Theinfirmary may also be called the nir-vana hall (nehandô), or the imperma-nence hall (mujôdô). When someone inthe community falls seriously ill, othermembers may hold prayer services forthe sake of the person’s recovery.

Enlightened OneA translation of the title Buddha, usually applied specifically toSiddharta Gautama, the historicalBuddha; one of the ten epithets used forthe Buddha. The epithet may also beapplied to any individual who hasattained enlightenment.

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EnlightenmentGeneral term used to express the ultimategoal in all schools of Buddhism.Enlightenment describes the state ofawakened awareness achieved by Shakya-muni (Siddharta Gautama), the historicalBuddha. By following the Buddhist path,whether the Eightfold Path of TheravadaBuddhism or the Bodhisattva Path ofMahayana Buddhism, practitioners seekto attain the same state of awareness. TheEnglish word “enlightenment” may beused to translate such technical terminol-ogy as the Sanskrit words nirvana andbodhi, or the Japanese word satori.

Enni Ben’en(1202–1280) Japanese Rinzai monk whohelped establish Rinzai Zen in Japan.Enni began his career in the Tendai tra-dition, where he learned the synchreticmixture of Zen and esoteric practicetaught by Eisai (1141–1215). Enni wasborn in Suruga (present-day Shizuoka).He received his early education atBuddhist temples and took the tonsureat Mii-dera, a major Tendai temple, atage 18. At Chôrakuji, he studied the Zenand esoteric mixture introduced byEisai under the instruction of ShakuenEichô (d.1247). In 1235, Enni went toChina, where he remained for sevenyears, studying at Mount Ching. Duringthat time, he became the Dharma heirof the Chinese Zen master Wu-shuhShin-fan (1177–1249) from the Yang-ch’i(J. Yôgi) lineage of Rinzai. When Ennireturned to Japan in 1241, he promotedZen practice, while still incorporatingaspects of esoteric ritual that appealedto wealthy patrons. He established astrong lineage, accepting many disci-ples and recognizing several as Dharmaheirs. Under the patronage of FijiwaraMichiie (1192–1252), Enni foundedTôfuku-ji, one of the most prominentZen monasteries in Kyoto. He alsoserved as abbot at Jufuku-ji andKennin-ji. Among his major writingsare the Jisshûyôdôki and the ShôichiGoroku. See also Rinzai sect, Tendaisect, and Yang-ch’i school.

Dumoulin, Heinrich. Zen Buddhism: AHistory. 2 vols. Trans. James W. Heisigand Paul Knitter. New York: MacmillanPublishing Company, 1994.

Ennin(793–864) Japanese Tendai monk whostudied under Saichô (767–822), theTendai founder, on Mount Hiei. Later,Ennin became head abbot of the Tendaisect. He is better known by his posthu-mous title, Jikaku Daishi. Ennin studiedT’ien-t’ai thought in China between 838and 847. Ennin was living in the city ofChang-an when Emperor Wu-tsungordered the persecution of Buddhism. Hekept a diary of his experiences while inChina. Later published as Nittô GuhôJunrei Gyôki, it provides crucial informa-tion about Buddhism in T’ang Chinabefore the persecutions of 845, as well asfirst-hand accounts of the persecutions.See also T’ien-t’ai school.

Reischauer, Edwin O., trans. Diary: TheRecord of a Pilgrimage to China inSearch of the Law. New York: RonaldPress Co., 1955.

———. Enniu’s Travels in T’ang China.New York: Ronald Press Company,1955.

EnôThe Japanese pronunciation for Hui-neng (638–713), the Sixth ChinesePatriarch of Zen. See Hui-neng.

Enryaku-jiThe main monastery and headquartersfor the Tendai school of JapaneseBuddhism, both founded by Saichô(767–822) in 788. The temple is locatedon Mount Hiei, to the east of Kyoto.Saichô originally named the templeHiei-ji for its mountain location, but thename was later changed to Enryaku-ji byimperial decree. For many centuries,Enryaku-ji was the major center forBuddhist studies in Japan. As many as3,000 temples comprised the monasterycomplex at one time. All of the founders

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of the Buddhist schools during theKamakura period (1185–1333) originallystudied at Enryaku-ji, including DôgenKigen (1200–1253) who founded theSôtô sect, and Eisai who founded theRinzai sect. The monastery of Enryaku-jiwas also a dominant force in the politicaland economic life in the Kyoto region forcenturies. The temple maintained anarmy of Warrior Monks (J. sôhei) todefend its interests. The monastery wascompletely destroyed by Oda Nobunagain 1571, in order to control the signifi-cant power accumulated by the Tendaischool. The temple complex wasrestored during the Tokugawa period(1600–1867). See also Tendai sect.

Enshû“Round teachings” or “Round school” ofBuddhism. In East Asian thought,

roundness implies perfection.Therefore, to designate a teaching orschool as “round” is to claim that it rep-resents Buddhist perfection. Theexpression most often applies to Tendaiteachings, although it may refer to Zenitself. See also Tendai sect.

EnsôCircle, especially an ink drawing of anempty circle. Ensô (also known as ichiensô) are common figures in Zen teach-ing and art. Zen masters use the imageof the circle to represent enlighten-ment, the concept of emptiness, or perfection. Ensô are usually executedwith a single brush stroke, and are saidto reveal the mind (or enlightenment)of the artist.

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Ensô means “circle,” and the image symbolizes enlightenment, emptiness, and perfection.

Equality(J. byôdô) The non-duality and non-differentiation of all things as seenfrom the perspective of enlight-enment. The teaching of equality arisesout of the realization that all phenom-ena are essentially the same—that is, allthings are characterized by emptiness.When the concept is applied to sen-tient beings, or more specifically tohuman beings, the Buddhist concept ofequality goes beyond the ordinarysocial distinctions of class, gender, andrace. This equality is often affirmedwithin Mahayana Buddhism by notingthat all sentient beings possess thesame Buddha Nature. Realizing thesameness or equality of all things hasimportant ethical implications forenlightened behavior. The understand-ing that “self” and “other” are ulti-mately the same, breaks down the bar-riers between the two, encouraging thecompassionate behavior characteristicof a buddha or bodhisattva. The real-ization of equality is regarded as one ofthe four wisdoms.

Esoteric BuddhismThe common term for East Asian formsof tantric Buddhism, known in Japaneseas Mikkyô. This form of Buddhismbecame known as secret or esotericbecause the teachings and practices arenot open to all. Practitioners arerequired to undergo initiation under aqualified teacher before they qualify forinstruction. Esoteric rituals make use ofspecial devices such as mantra (sacredsounds), mudra (sacred gestures), andmandala (cosmic diagrams).

Tantric Buddhism first arose in Indiain the sixth century, spreading to Tibetand China in the seventh and eighthcenturies. Esoteric Buddhism flour-ished in China for approximately onehundred years but did not survive thegreat persecution of 842. During theearly ninth century, Japanese monksstudying in China were introduced tothe esoteric teachings and broughtthem to Japan. The Shingon sect and

Tendai sect of Japanese Buddhism,founded in the ninth century, are eso-teric teachings that have survived to thepresent day.

Evil Paths( J. akudô) The lower three of the six realms of existence (rokudô) inwhich sentient beings experiencegreat suffering. In ascending order,the evil paths are hell, the realm ofhungry ghosts, and the realm of ani-mals. Hell dwellers and hungry ghostsendure a variety of punishments forcommitting the worst sorts of offensesin a previous life. Animals are regardedas evil because they are subjected toheavy burdens, the dangers of thewild, and cruelty from human beings.In some cases, a fourth realm is addedto the list of evil rebirths—that of theashura. Ashura are a class of demi-gods, who are fierce and pugnatious bynature and fight with other deities.Although the tradition most oftenregards the realm of the ashura asabove that of human beings, their con-tinual participation in violence hassometimes been interpreted as a per-petual form of suffering worse thanthat of human life.

Buddhism teaches that the three orfour evil realms are the worst possibleoutcomes for rebirth. Birth in any ofthese realms results from accumulat-ing bad karma in a previous lifetime.Individuals born into them mustendure the suffering entailed as a pun-ishment for their actions, but the pun-ishment is not eternal. Once the accu-mulated bad karma is exhausted, birthinto a better realm becomes possibleonce again. In practical terms, theBuddhist tradition makes use of thenotion of evil rebirths to encouragebelievers to keep the precepts and livea moral life. It should be noted, how-ever, that the Buddhist tradition rec-ognizes that suffering characterizes allsix realms of samsara, even the plea-surable realms. See also six paths.

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Expedient MeansTeaching devices employed by abuddha or another Buddhist teacher inorder to convey aspects of the Dharmato individuals. Expedient means (J. hôben) is a teaching style that is tai-lored to suit the specific learning andspiritual capacities of the audience. TheEnglish term is a translation of theSanskrit upaya-kaushalya, which maybe translated as “skillful means” or “skillin means.” Expedient means is animportant concept within MahayanaBuddhism, developing the compas-sionate skill to effectively use expedientmeans to lead other sentient beings toenlightenment is part of theBodhisattva Path. It is included as oneof the stages of the bodhisattva—as abodhisattva develops wisdom andinsight into the Dharma, he or shebecomes able to evaluate the capacitiesof others and to teach accordingly.

There are two basic ways to interpretthe use of expedient means, both ofwhich are regarded as valid within thetradition. It is believed that the histori-cal Buddha simplified his message tosuit his audience, especially at thebeginning of his teaching career. He didnot teach the Ultimate Truth of theDharma at the beginning because his

audience was not yet prepared to hearit. He began teaching them provisionalversions of the Dharma. He laterexposed the provisional nature of theseearly teachings as his disciples becamemore advanced and capable of under-standing the Dharma on a deeper level.The classical source in the Buddhistscriptures describing the Buddha’s useof expedient means in this sense is theLotus Sutra. This understanding ofexpedient means enabled MahayanaBuddhists, especially in East Asia, toexplain the changes in Buddhist teach-ing that occurred between the earlyscriptures of Theravada Buddhism andthe later Mahayana sutras.

Expedient means may also refer toany teaching device that a Buddhistmaster employs to assist others inunderstanding the Dharma; typicaldevices include parables, stories, andworks of art. Within the Zen tradition,the skillful use of kôan is a primeexample of expedient means. Other Zendevices include shouts, slaps, paradoxi-cal comments, unconventional behav-ior, and even poetry.

Pye, Michael. Skillful Means: A Conceptin Mahayana Buddhism. London:Duckworth, 1978.

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FFace-to-Face Transmission(J. menju shikô) Direct transmission ofthe Dharma from a Zen master to a disci-ple through one-on-one encountersbetween the two. The expression is basedupon the assumption that Zen enlighten-ment cannot be verified through indirectmeans, such as by letter.

Fa-ch’ih(635–702; J. Hôji) Zen Chinese monk ofthe T’ang dynasty (618–907), the fourthgeneration patriarch of the short-livedOxhead school. Fa-ch’ih practiced for atime under Hung-jen (601–674), theFifth Patriarch of the orthodox lineageand received his Dharma transmissionbefore returning to Niu-t’ou-shan (“OxHead Mountain”). Later in life, Fa-ch’ihbecame a Pure Land practitioner, andregularly chanted the nembutsu. This isone of the earliest examples of dualpractice in the Zen school.

Fa-hai(J. Kôhô) The Zen monk named in theTun-huang edition of the PlatformSutra as its compiler. The text identifiesFa-hai as a direct disciple of Hui-neng(638–713), the Sixth Patriarch. Also, thetext credits Fa-hai as the head monk ofthe temple, who recorded the master’ssermons for later editing and publica-tion. Scholars cannot validate that thetext represents the actual sermons ofHui-neng, and there is no corroboratingevidence that Hui-neng had a disciplenamed Fa-hai. Hence, Fa-hai’s identityhas fallen into doubt. Yanagida Seizan, aZen scholar, theorized that Fa-hai was amember of the Oxhead school of Zenand a disciple of Hsüan-su (668–752),

who recorded a text which later servedas a partial basis for what is now knownas the Platform Sutra.

Fa-hsien SchoolThe Chinese name for the Yogacharaschool of Buddhism. It was among thethirteen schools of Chinese Buddhismwhich developed during the T’angdynasty (618–907). The name Fa-hsienliterally means “characteristics of thedharmas,” indicating the philosophicalinterest of the school’s practitioners tounderstand the essential nature of allphenomena (dharmas). The primaryteachings of the school include thestorehouse consciousness (alaya con-sciousness) and the Three Natures ofreality. The school is also known as theWei-shih, or “Consciousness Only”school, because it teaches that the phe-nomenal world that we experience isactually a product of our consciousminds. Based on the writings of thescholar monks Asanga andVasubandhu, it is believed that theYogachara school developed in Indiaduring the fourth through the seventhcenturies. In the seventh century, theChinese monk Hsuan-tsang (600–664),traveled to India and studied Yogacharathought with Shilabhadra. He thentransmitted the teachings and texts toChina. The Fa-hsien school was system-atized by K’uei-chi (638–682).

Fa-jung(594–657; J. Hôyû) Zen Chinese monkof the early T’ang dynasty (618–907)regarded as the founder of the Oxheadschool (Ch. Niu-t’ou; J. Gozu) of earlyZen. The school is also known as Niu-t’ou, literally “Ox Head,” for the moun-tain in present-day Kiangsu, where Fa-jung resided. Traditional biographiesindicate that he was a Dharma heir ofthe Fourth Patriarch, Tao-hsin(580–651), although historians regardthis as doubtful. His Oxhead lineagerepresents the earliest branches of theZen school in China, as well as theSouthern school and Northern school.

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Fa-yen School(J. Hôgen-shû) A lineage of ChineseZen active during the T’ang dynasty(618–907) and known as one of the so-called five houses of Zen. The lineagewas founded by the Zen master Fa-yenWen-i (885–958), and only survived fora few generations. Fa-yen developed hisown distinctive style of Zen, which didnot include the harsh methodsemployed by some of his contempo-raries. Instead of striking or shouting(katsu!) at his disciples, he usuallyanswered their questions using a formof repetition, simply repeating theiroriginal question. The Fa-yen schoolstudied the texts and commentaries ofthe Hua-yen school (J. Kegon school).Although the lineage did not survive forlong, it left a lasting influence on thelater Zen tradition through its writings.Among the most important texts pro-duced within the school was theTransmission of the Lamp (Ch. Ching-teCh’üan-teng Lu, J. Keitoku Dentôroku),the chronicle of early Zen history, whichprovided much of the material laterused as kôan. The teachings of the Fa-yen school were absorbed into the Lin-chi school during the early Sungdynasty (960–1279).

Fa-yen Wen-i( J. Hôgen Bun’eki) A T’ang dynastyChinese master who founded the Fa-yen lineage, one of the five houses ofChinese Zen; also known as the Fa-yenschool. Fa-yen gathered disciples atCh’in-liang-ssu, his monastery in Nan-ching. He is known for his interest inHua-yen thought: He studied Hua-yentexts and had his students do the same.See also Hua-yen school.

Feng-hsueh Yen-chao(896–973; J. Fuketsu Enshô) A ChineseRinzai monk of the late T’ang (618–907)and early Five Dynasties (907–960)period. Feng-hsueh studied T’ien-t’aiBuddhism after he took the tonsure. Helater turned to Zen when he became the

disciple of Nan-yüan Hui-yung (d. 930).Feng-hsueh played a crucial role in thepreservation of the teachings and styleof the Rinzai school. As the soleDharma heir of Nan-yüan Hui-yung,Feng-hsueh was the only fourth-gener-ation master in Lin-chi I-hsüan’s(d. 867) Dharma lineage. Feng-hsuehnamed several heirs during his teachingcareer, allowing the school to continueand eventually thrive. His most impor-tant Dharma heir was Shou-shanSheng-nien. See also Rinzai sect andT’ien-t’ai school.

Feng-mu-shan( J. Tô-zan) Mount Feng-mu, a mountain in present-day Hupeh, where Hung-jen (601–674), the FifthPatriarch of Zen established hismonastery. The mountain is popularlyknown as Tung-shan, or East Mountain.See Tung-shan.

Feng-yang Wu-te Ch’an-shih Yü-luThe Recorded Sayings of Zen MasterWu-te of Feng-yang (J. Funyô MutokuZenji Goroku). The three-section text isalso known as the Feng-yang Lu andcontains sermons, talks, poetry andmiscellaneous writings of the ZenRinzai master Feng-yang Shan-chao. Itwas compiled by Shih-shuang Ch’u-yuan (986–1039), his Dharma heir,who completed the work in 1101. Thetext played a significant role in thedevelopment of kôan literature. Thefirst section includes Fen-yang Shan-chao’s commentary on the five ranks(goi) of Tung-shan. The second sectionis made up of three collections of onehundred kôan each. The first of thesecollections consists of old kôan towhich Feng-yang added a verse. Thesecond set is kôan of the master’s owndevising, including answers. The thirdset is old kôan to which he added hisown answers in place of those previ-ously provided. These collections laterserved as models for similar collec-tions. See also Rinzai sect.

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Fen-yang Shan-chaoChinese Rinzai Zen master (947–1024; J.Funyô Zenshô) of the T’ang dynasty(618–907). Fen-yang was the Dharmaheir of Shou-shan Sheng-nien(926–993). According to tradition, hevisited seventy-one masters beforepracticing with Shou-shan. After receiv-ing his master’s recognition, he taughtfor the rest of his life at T’ai-tzu-yüan.His most important disciple was Shih-shuang Ch’u-yüan (986–1039). Fen-yang introduced the use of the fiveranks into Rinzai teachings; his teach-ings are recorded in the Fen-yang Wu-teCh’an-shih Yü-lu. The work includes theearliest kôan collection, a series of threesets of one hundred kôan. Two hundredwere old cases that Fen-yang compiledand commented upon, adding his ownanswers; the other one hundred werecreated by the master himself. Fen-yangreceived the posthumous title of Wu-teCh’an-shih (J. Mutoku Zenji). See alsoRinzai sect.

Festival of the DeadA mid-summer Buddhist festival cele-brated throughout East Asia to benefitthe deceased. The festival, known inEnglish as the Feast of Lanterns or theFeast of All Souls, is popularly calledObon or Urabon-e in Japan, P’u-tu inChina, and Manghon-il in Korea. Allversions of the festival are said to bebased upon the ancient ullambanaceremony, but each one also representsa combination of regional Buddhist traditions with local religious beliefs.See Obon.

Field of Merit(J. fukuden) A term used for a buddha,bodhisattva, monk, or nun, in refer-ence to the benefits lay believers reapfrom them. This expression exemplifiesthe mutually beneficial relationship ofBuddhist clergy and lay followers.Monks and nuns instruct lay people inthe Buddhist teachings and also providethem with opportunities to “repay”

their teachers. Metaphorically, theclergy are the fields in which lay believ-ers plant the seeds of merit by provid-ing for the material needs of the monas-tic community and consequently reap-ing the spiritual benefits of their dona-tions. The term field of merit is some-times applied to the three treasures, towhich believers offer reverence.

Fifth PatriarchThe Chinese Zen master Hung-jen(601–674; J. Gunin) of the Sui dynasty.Hung-jen inherited the Dharma fromTao-hsin (580–651), the FourthPatriarch. He later acknowledged Hui-neng (638–713) as his rightful successor.See Hung-jen.

Filial Piety(J. kô) Respect for one’s parents. Filialpiety became a major theme ofBuddhism in East Asia in response toinfluence from existing religious tradi-tions, especially Confucianism. WhenBuddhism first entered China, forexample, monastic life was criticized byConfucians as a teaching that promotedunfilial behavior. In the Confucian view,leaving home to become a monk or nunwas unfilial, since it meant that basicacts of filial piety such as providingfinancial support for aging parents,marrying, and having children to carryon the family line would not occur. Evenshaving the head was regarded as anunfilial practice, since it was seen as aform of self-inflicted mutilation of thebody given by one’s parents. In responseto these attacks, East Asian Buddhismdeveloped teachings reinterpreting filialbehavior in terms of Buddhist practice,often arguing that the compassion ofthe bodhisattva constituted the highestform of filial piety. The Buddhist ullam-bana festival became extremely popularin East Asian cultures because of itsconnections with filial piety and ances-tor veneration. Chinese Buddhist apoc-ryphal works such as the Sutra of theFilial Child (Ch. Hsiao Tzu Ching, J.Kôshikyô) were composed, creating a

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body of Buddhist literature dedicated tothe theme of filial piety. While not adominant theme in Zen writings,biographies of Chinese and JapaneseZen monks and nuns generally empha-size the filial nature of their subjects.

Strong, John S. The Experience ofBuddhism: Sources and Inter-pretations. Belmont, CA: Wads-worth Publishing Co., 1995.

Tzu, Mou. “The Disposition of Error.” InSources of Chinese Tradition.Compiled by Wm. Theodore DeBary and Irene Bloom. New York:Columbia University Press, 1999.

First BarrierThe first of three sets of kôan used insome Zen monasteries in medievalJapan (1185–1600). See shokan.

Five Deadly Sins(J. gogyakuzai) Five of the most wickedactions, which result in rebirth formany eons in the lowest level of hell—Avici hell—where the suffering is inces-sant. The sins include killing one’sfather, killing one’s mother, killing anarhat, harming the body of a buddha,and causing schism within the sangha.See gogyakuzai.

Five DustsA Buddhist expression for the fiveobjects of perception (gojin), whichcorrespond to the five senses. Theseinclude: form (color and shape), sound,odor, taste, and texture. They arereferred to as the five dusts or defilements because sensory percep-tions are often distracting; attachment

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The Festival of the Dead, also known as the Feast of Lanterns or the Feast of All Souls, is a Buddhist festival that celebrates the deceased.

to sensory perceptions is said to conta-minate the originally pure mind. Seealso six dusts.

Five Eyes(J. gogen) Five kinds of eyes that are asso-ciated with five kinds of beings: the physi-cal eyes of ordinary sentient beings; theheavenly eyes of deities; the Wisdom Eyesof those in the two vehicles (shravakasand pratyeka buddhas); the Dharma eyesof Bodhisattvas; and the eyes of theBuddha. Within Mahayana Buddhism,the five eyes describe various levels ofspiritual development and are associatedwith the T’ien-t’ai school’s doctrine ofThreefold Truth.

Ordinary physical eyes perceive onlycolor and form within a limited range,while the heavenly eyes of deities cansee far and near without any obstruc-tion. In contrast, the latter three typesrepresent different levels of insight orwisdom. Wisdom Eyes represent theattainment of insight related to suchteachings as emptiness and codepen-dent origination. Those who haveattained this level of insight havegrasped the nature of ultimate reality.Dharma eyes represent the wisdom tosee the differentiation among all thingsthat exist in the provisional sphere.Bodhisattvas are said to possess thisDharma eye, which enables them to seethe suffering of all sentient beings andto devise expedient means to alleviatethe suffering. Buddhas possess all of thefirst four types of eyes. They are capableof maintaining the middle way, balanc-ing an awareness of ultimate realitywhile recognizing the relative reality ofthe phenomenal world.

Five False ViewsSee five wrong views.

Five Houses(Ch. wu-chia, J. goke) The five lineagesof the Southern school of Zen thatexisted during the T’ang dynasty (618–907). Each “house” had a distinctive

style of Zen practice, which was devel-oped by its founding patriarchs. TheT’ang Zen master Fa-yen Wen-i firstused the expression “house” to describethe Zen of his time. The five houses werethe Yun-men school (J. Ummon-shû),the Kuei-yang school (J. Igyô-shû), theTs’ao-tung school (J. Sôtô-shû), the Lin-chi school (J. Rinzai-shû) and the Fa-yen school (J. Hôgen-shû). The expres-sion was later expanded during theSung dynasty (960–1279) to the fivehouses and seven schools, whichincluded two additional branches of theLin-chi school—the Yang-ch’i (J. Yôgi-shû) and the Huang-lung (J. Oryô-shû).See also Huang-lung school and Yang-ch’i school.

Five Houses and Seven SchoolsAn expression used to describe the dis-tinctive styles of Zen practiced duringthe T’ang (618–907) and Sung (960–-1279) dynasties in China. During theT’ang dynasty, there were five separatelineages (Ch. wu-chia, J. goke) withinthe Southern school of Zen. Thesefive houses were the Yun-men school(J. Ummon-shû), the Kuei-yang school(J. Igyô-shû), the Tsao-tung school (J.Sôtô-shû), the Lin-chi school (J. Rinzai-shû) and the Fa-yen school(J. Hôgen-shû). By the end of the Sungdynasty, only the Lin-chi and Tsao-tunglineages survived. The Lin-chi lineagehad further developed into two strongsubdivisions, the Yang-ch’i line (J. Yôgi-shû) and the Huang-lung line (J. Oryô-shû). When these were added to the fivehouses, the name was changed to theseven schools. See also Huang-lungschool and Yang-ch’i school.

Five MountainsThe highest ranking among the mostprestigious Zen monasteries in Chinaand Japan. Five Mountains is a literaltranslation of the Chinese term Wu-shan, pronounced “Gozan” or “Gosan”in Japanese. See Gozan temples andGozan system.

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Five Precepts(J. gokai) The set of precepts tradition-ally taken by lay Buddhists which gov-ern moral conduct in everyday life. Theprecepts prohibit the killing of livingbeings, stealing another’s belongings,engaging in sexual misconduct, lying,and ingesting intoxicants. These arealso the first five of the ten preceptsundertaken by ordained novices.Although worded in the same way, theprecepts are understood differently forlay people than for monks and nuns. Inparticular, the third precept against sex-ual misconduct is interpreted to pro-hibit premarital and extramarital sexualcontact for lay people, but all sexualconduct for monks and nuns. Althoughthey are worded in the negative form,the five precepts are understood toinclude positive action as well. Forexample, the first precept not onlyadvocates not killing or injuring living beings, but also the active protec-tion and care of living beings. See alsolay believer.

Wijayaratna, Mohan. BuddhistMonastic Life: According to the Textsof the Theravada Tradition. Trans.Claude Grangier and Steven Collins.New York: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1990.

Five Ranks(J. goi) The five ranks or stages of prac-tice described by Zen master Tung-shan Liang-chieh (807–869). The fiveranks express the relationship betweenultimate reality and phenomenal exis-tence. The Zen tradition has used a vari-ety of means to express this teaching,including verse and symbolic ormetaphorical representation. The stan-dard version of the five ranks is derivedfrom Tung-shan’s original poem in fivestanzas. The first line of each stanzaserves as a title for one rank. The fiveverses may be translated as follows: thereal within the apparent (J. shô-chû-hen), the apparent within the real ( J. hen-chû-shô), the coming from

within the real ( J. shô-chû-rai), thearrival within the apparent (J. hen-chû-shi), and mutual interpenetration ofreal and apparent (J. ken-chû-tô).

Tung-shan Liang-chieh initiallydeveloped the teaching of the fiveranks, which he loosely based on theHua-yen doctrine of the four realms ofultimate reality and phenomena. Tung-shan eventually passed the teaching ofthe five ranks on to his leading disciple,Ts’ao-shan Pen-chi (840–901), whothen systematized the concepts. Theylater became a standard characteristicof the teachings of the Ts’ao-tung (J. Sôtô) lineage in China. The ChineseRinzai master Fen-yang Shen-chaointroduced the five ranks to members ofhis school in the eleventh century; theyhave since been used as a kôan withinthe Rinzai tradition. Numerous com-mentaries based on the five ranks werecomposed by masters of both majorschools of Zen. In Japan, the Rinzai secthas used the five ranks kôan as the finallevel of kôan training since the time ofHakuin Ekaku (1685–1768). See alsoHua-yen school and Ts’ao-tung school.

Chung-Yuan, Chang. Original Teachingsof Ch’an Buddhism: Selected fromthe Transmission of the Lamp. NewYork: Vintage Books, 1971.

Five Skandhas(J. goun) The five aggregates; the com-ponent parts that make up all existentthings (dharmas), including the humanself. While seeking enlightenment, theBuddha analyzed himself in search ofan intrinsic, permanent self (atman).He found only an ever-changing config-uration of component parts, or skand-has. The five skandhas are form, feel-ings, conceptions, dispositions, andconsciousness. Form refers to the physical properties of an individual. Inthis context, feelings include the rawsensory perceptions of external things,while conceptions are the mentalimages drawn from the sensory data. Dispositions are the likes and

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dislikes formed in relation to concep-tions and encompass the emotions.Consciousness means the mental workings commonly referred to as conscious thought.

The five skandhas are characterizedby impermanence and suffering.Although there is no permanent self orsoul that exists outside or beyond theongoing physical and mental processesreferred to as the five skandhas, humanbeings create the notion of such a self.The fundamental attachment to a falsesense of self is the basic cause of suffer-ing. The true self is nothing other than aconvenient label for the process ofchanging configurations.

Five Types of Zen(J. goshuzen) The five styles of medita-tion developed by Kuei-feng Tsung-mi(780–840). In this context, the term zen means meditation in general, notthe style of seated mediation (zazen),characteristic of the Zen school of Buddhism. In the treatise entitledCh’an-yüan Chu-ch’üan-chi Tu-hsü(General Preface to the CollectedWritings on the Sources of Zen), Tsung-mi identified differences in meditation based on the practitioner.The categories are non-Buddhist orunorthodox meditation, meditation by an ordinary person, Hinayana meditation, Mahayana meditation, andmeditation of the Supreme Vehicle—Zen meditation itself.

Broughton, Jeffrey. Kuei-feng Tsung-mi:The Convergence of Ch’an and theTeachings. New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1975.

Five Wrong Views(J. goken) The five types of mistakenviews that are contrary to the Buddhistteachings. First is the belief that a per-manent and abiding self exists—that is,denying that the self is a temporary andconstantly changing configuration ofthe five skandhas. Second is belief in

the extremes of naive positivism or inFihilism—the belief that the self andother things exist eternally in an ulti-mate sense, or that they have no realexistence at all. Third is rejection of thelaw of cause and effect—the denial ofthe workings of karma. Fourth isattachment to a false view as the truth.The fifth mistaken view is adherence toa false set of precepts as a means toattain enlightenment. The five wrongviews are included among the basic setof six afflictions (bonnô), which hinderan individual’s quest for enlightenment.

Flower Garland SutraThe Avatamsaka Sutra, a sutra ofMahayana Buddhism that serves as thescriptural basis for the Hua-yen school( J. Kegon school) of ChineseBuddhism. See Avatamsaka Sutra.

Formless Precepts(J. musô kai) An understanding of theBuddhist precepts, which sees them notas an external moral code, but rather asthe naturally pure behavior that arisesfrom the enlightened mind. The con-cept appears first in the Platform Sutraof the Sixth Patriarch.

Formless Repentance(J. musô zange) An interpretation of thepractice of repentance, which is intro-duced in the Platform Sutra of the SixthPatriarch. Buddhist monks and nunsregularly perform some form of repen-tance as a part of their monastic prac-tice. In Theravada Buddhism, monksand nuns traditionally had two oppor-tunities each month to reflect upontheir behavior and ritually repent forany wrong actions they performed.Mahayana Buddhism retained thepractice of repentance, and variousrepentance rituals developed inChinese schools of Buddhism. The Zenunderstanding of formless repentancecontrasts with the more typical understanding of repentance, since it is

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based upon an understanding that evildeeds, like all other phenomena, haveno ultimate reality.

Forty-Eight Light Precepts(J. shijûhachi kyôkai) A set of precepts,which make up the secondary portionof the bodhisattva precepts. The forty-eight light and ten heavy preceptstogether are the full bodhisattva pre-cepts as presented in the Bonmôkyô(Brahma Net Sutra). For a full listing,see John Stevens’ The Marathon Monksof Mount Hiei (Shambhala, 1988).

Founder’s Hall(J. kaisandô) The temple building at aZen monastery, which features animage of the founding abbot (kaisan)and a memorial tablet (ihai) inscribedwith his name. Memorial services forthe founding abbot are held in the hallon the anniversary of his death. Thefounder’s hall is sometimes called thepatriarch hall (soshidô) or the reflectionhall (Eishitsu).

Four AspectsThe four aspects of phenomenal exis-tence. The four aspects are called shisôin Japanese. See shisô.

Four Assemblies(Sk. sangha; J. shishu) The four parts ofthe Buddhist community, includingmonks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen.The four assemblies date back to thelifetime of the historical Buddha, whoaccepted disciples from all four cate-gories. The four assemblies take refuge(kie) in the three treasures—theBuddha, the Dharma, and the sangha—to establish their connection withBuddhism. Each assembly recognizesformal rites of entry. Monks and nunsparticipate in ordination ceremonies tobecome members of their respectivemonastic assemblies. They are ordainedas novices, accepting the ten precepts,and then as fully ordained bhikkhu

or bhikkhuni under the full monasticcode. Lay people also have a ritual of entry into the Buddhist community,based on their acceptance of the fiveprecepts.

The bond between the monasticcommunity and the lay community is areciprocal relationship. Monks andnuns provide for the spiritual needs ofthe lay community, teaching theDharma and offering opportunities tolay people to build merit. In return, laypeople provide for the material needs ofthe monastic community, supplyingdonations used for food, clothing, andshelter. See also lay believer.

Four Discernments(J. shiryôken) The four viewpoints usedby the Chinese master Lin-chi I-hsüan(d. 867), founder of Rinzai Buddhism,as a teaching device. In the Sayings ofLin-chi, Lin-chi said, “Sometimes I takeaway the person and do not take awaythe surroundings; sometimes I takeaway the surroundings and do not takeaway the person; sometimes I take awayboth the person and the surroundings;sometimes I take away neither the per-son nor the surroundings.” This passageis usually summarized as: the negationof subject and the affirmation of object(J. datsunin fudakkyô), the negation ofobject and the affirmation of subject (J. dakkyô fudatsunin), the negation ofboth subject and object ( J. ninkyôryôgudatsu), and the affirmation ofboth subject and object (J. ninkyô gufu-datsu). These became known as ssu-liao-chien in Chinese and shiryôken inJapanese. The later Rinzai traditionused the four discernments as a kôan.

The four discernments represent agradually deepening grasp of reality.They are based on the four propositionsof Buddhist logic: being, nonbeing, nei-ther being nor nonbeing, and bothbeing and nonbeing. They also corre-spond to the four realms of realitytaught by the Hua-yen schoolof Buddhism. The first realm is the realization that without an object, there

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is no subject. The second is the realiza-tion that all objects are the product ofone’s consciousness. The third realmtranscends the distinction betweensubject and object. The fourth is therealization that neither subject norobject have any ultimate reality, thatthey are ultimately identical. See alsoRinzai sect.

Four EncountersAccording to tradition, when SiddhartaGautama, the historical Buddha, wasstill living a secular life at home with awife and child, he had four encountersthat motivated him to abandon hishome life and seek enlightenment.Siddharta was sheltered in his youth byhis father, protected from any exposureto the ugliness and suffering of humanlife. On a series of outings to see andexperience the world, the youngSiddharta encountered first an old man,second a diseased individual, and thirda corpse. From the first three encoun-ters, the future Buddha learned aboutthe inevitability of old age, illness, anddeath, which afflict all human beings.He pondered the fleeting nature of sen-sual pleasures and meditated on thereality of suffering. Finally, he encoun-tered a religious mendicant who was insearch of enlightenment. This finalencounter convinced Siddharta to leavehis secular life and set out in search of aremedy for human suffering.

Four FruitsThe four stages of spiritual attainmentrecognized in the ancient Buddhist tra-dition and in Theravada Buddhism.They are stream winners, once returners,never returners, and arhats. Stream win-ners have destroyed wrong views. Oncereturners have destroyed the gross,harmful passions and will only be rebornonce more before attaining nirvana.Never returners are already in their finallife, having destroyed both gross andsubtle passions. Arhats are those whohave already attained nirvana.

Four Grave Offenses(J. shijû or shijûzai) The gravest offensesagainst the traditional Buddhist monas-tic code (vinaya) that a monk or nuncan commit. The offenses are: engagingin sexual intercourse, stealing anotherperson’s belongings, killing a humanbeing, and lying about one’s spiritualaccomplishments. Punishment for theseoffenses is the most severe possiblewithin the monastic community—expulsion from the sangha, although itis understood that the deed itself hasalready cut the person off from thesangha. The four offenses are thereforecalled parajika, a Sanskrit term mean-ing offenses entailing defeat.

Four Great Elements(J. shidai or shidaishu) Earth, water, fire,and wind; the four fundamental ele-ments from which all things are com-prised. The nature of earth is hardness,so its function is to support things.Water has the quality of moistness andcan contain things. The nature of fire isheat, so it can bring things to perfec-tion. Wind has the quality of motion, soit causes things to mature. The humanbody was traditionally understood to becomposed of the four elements, withsickness and death resulting from animproper balance of the four.Buddhism adopted this system of clas-sification from Indian thought.

Four Great Vows(J. Shigu seigan) The vows undertakenby a bodhisattva. The four great vowstaken by Zen practitioners are “Sentientbeings are innumerable, I vow to savethem all”; “The afflictions are inex-haustible, I vow to extinguish them all”;“The Gates of the Dharma are count-less, I vow to master them all”; and “TheBuddhist Way is unsurpassed, I vow toattain it.” Zen monks and nuns recitethese vows daily as a part of morningand evening services.

The vows have a long history in Buddhism. Originally, they wereassociated with the four noble truths.

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The practitioner vowed to lead allpeople unfamiliar with Buddhism to anunderstanding of the four noble truths,so they could attain enlightenment.The vows changed over time and havetaken on somewhat different forms indifferent schools of Buddhism. The ver-sion used within the Zen school is basedupon a passage from the Tun-huangedition of the Platform Sutra.

Four Guardian Kings(J. shitennô) Figures originally takenfrom Hindu mythology and adoptedinto Buddhist mythology. The four

guardian kings live near MountSumeru and are dedicated to servingIndra. They ward off evil and protectpeople living in the four quarters; inparticular, they guard places where theBuddhist Dharma is taught. Jikoku(Dhrtarastra) guards the east, Zôjô(Virudhaka) the south, Kômoku(Virupaksha) the west, and Tamon(Vaishravana) the north. Images of thefour guardians kings, dressed in fullarmor and depicted with fierce expres-sions, appear in almost every Buddhisttemple in East Asia. In many cases,their images are located in the fourcorners of the main hall of a temple

The four guardian kings ward off evil wherever the Buddhist Dharma is taught. Their images appear in almost every East Asian Buddhist temple.

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(the Buddha hall at a Zen temple), orarranged around the central image ofthe Buddha, symbolizing their role asguardians of the Dharma.

Four Kinds of Birth(J. shishô) Buddhism traditionally rec-ognized four modes of birth: from awomb, from an egg, from moisture,and from metamorphosis. In the pre-modern period, it was believed thatfish, worms, and some insects wereborn spontaneously from moisture.Certain other types of sentient beingswere thought to metamorphosethrough the workings of karma. Theseincluded the beings that dwell inheaven and hell, some hungry ghosts,and the ashuras.

Four Noble Truths(J. shishôtai) The most basic teachingsof Buddhism, which the Buddha is saidto have proclaimed in his very first ser-mon. They are: the truths of suffering(dukkha), the cause of suffering, thecessation of suffering, and the pathleading to the cessation of suffering.The Sanskrit word commonly trans-lated as “noble” is actually the termaryan, originally an ethnic identifica-tion given to people of high caste inIndian society. In Buddhist usage, how-ever, the expression is not related torace or social limitation; it means“holy” or “worthy of respect,” qualitieswhich Buddhism regards as indepen-dent of social class.

The truth of suffering teaches thathuman life is characterized by suffer-ing. The Buddha said that birth is suf-fering, old age is suffering, disease issuffering, and death is suffering.Contact with unpleasantness is suffer-ing, as is separation from the pleasant.This means that every aspect of humanexperience involves suffering, even theelements that one normally thinks ofas pleasurable, since separation isinevitable. The second truth identifiesdesire or craving as the root cause ofsuffering. The truth of cessation pro-

vides hope for release from suffering; itteaches that when desire ceases, thensuffering will also cease. Finally, thefourth truth explains that the EightfoldPath of Buddhism is the means tounderstanding the nature of humanexistence, and thus, cutting off thecauses of suffering.

The four noble truths are oftendescribed using a metaphor drawn frommedicine. The Buddha is seen as a greatphysician treating the disease of suffer-ing that plagues human existence. Thefirst truth is the symptom of the disease;the second truth, identifying the cause,is the diagnosis; third is the prognosisthat a cure is possible; and finally, theprescription leading to the cure.

It is important to understand thatan intellectual grasp of the four nobletruths is not considered sufficient; fol-lowing the Buddhist path requiresgreat effort on the part of the individ-ual, leading to a realization of thetruths for oneself. This realizationrequires the practice of meditation andis associated with Buddhist monasticpractice rather than lay Buddhism.Although Mahayana Buddhism acceptsthe four noble truths as the basic teach-ings of the Buddha, they are not gener-ally a primary topic for Mahayanateaching, nor are they typically the focusof Mahayana meditative practices.While lay followers of TheravadaBuddhism are familiar with the fournoble truths, most Mahayana Buddhistsare not. See also lay believer.

Four Obligations(J. shion) The East Asian concept thatevery individual receives four kinds ofblessings in this life, and therefore, owesa debt of gratitude for these blessings.This notion is referred to as the fourdebts of gratitude, emphasizing that theobligation is to express gratitude forreceived blessings. The concept of bless-ings and obligations is not exclusive toBuddhism, but is also taught by theother major East Asian religious andphilosophical systems, such asConfucianism and Shintô. There are

many Buddhist versions of the fourobligations, each incorporating minorvariations. Perhaps the most commonversion includes gratitude toward one’sparents, one’s country and its leaders, allother living beings, and the three trea-sures (the Buddha, the Dharma, andthe sangha). Another version of the fourobligations may include mother, father,the buddhas, and one’s Buddhist teach-ers. In Zen monasteries, monks andnuns fulfill the obligation to expressgratitude by remembering four types ofbenefactors at their daily meals: theircountry and its leaders, their parents,their teachers and friends, and the laypatrons who support their monastery.See also lay believer.

Four Offerings(J. Shiji no Kuyô) The four kinds ofofferings that are appropriate for abuddha, a monk, or a nun. There arevarious listings of the four kinds ofofferings. In the “Kuyô Shobutsu”chapter of the Shôbôgenzô, DôgenKigen (1200–1253) lists the offerings asfood and drink, clothing, bedding, andmedicine. This traditional list coin-cides with the four daily necessities ofmonks and nuns enumerated else-where. Other traditional lists includesuch items as shelter, scattered flow-ers, and burning incense.

Four Periods of Meditation(J. shiji zazen) Monks and nuns in aZen monastery participate in four dailysessions of seated meditation. Thistradition dates back to the Sungdynasty (960–1279) in China. The timesand duration differ from monastery tomonastery, but the sessions are gener-ally held before dawn, later in themorning (after breakfast), in the after-noon, and in the late evening.

Four Realms of Reality( J. shishu hokkai) Hua-yen conceptusing four levels of existence, orDharma realms, to describe reality.

The first is the realm of phenomena,which can be thought of as the mun-dane level of reality. At this level, oneexperiences things as existing in a tem-porary sense and as having clear dis-tinctions one from another. The sec-ond is the realm of reality. At this level,one realizes that all things are thesame, since all are characterized byemptiness. Third is the realm of inter-penetration of phenomena and reality.At this level, one understands that thetwo previous views of reality are notabsolutely opposed. In any individualphenomenon, one may perceive theultimate reality of emptiness. Thefourth and final realm is that of inter-penetration of phenomena and phe-nomena, which describes the com-plete interconnectedness and interde-pendence of all things. At this level,one understands that any action takenin relationship with any single phe-nomenon affects all other phenomena.That is, what affects any one thingaffects the whole. This realm is com-monly described using the image ofIndra’s Jewel Net.

The teaching of the four realms ofreality deeply influenced Zen thought. Itis expressed in such concepts as the fiveranks of Tung-shan Liang-chieh(807–869) and the four discernments ofLin-chi I-hsüan (d. 867). Mastery of theconcept of the four realms, in the formof the five ranks (J. Goi Kôan), serves asthe final stage of kôan practice in theJapanese Rinzai school today. See alsoRinzai sect and Hua-yen school.

Four Shouts(J. shikatsu) The four kinds of shouts thatthe Chinese master Lin-chi I-hsüan (d. 867), founder of RinzaiBuddhism, claimed to use with his disciples, based on the individual’sneeds. In the Rinzai-roku (Sayings of Lin-chi), Lin-chi compared the shoutsto a jeweled sword of a vajra king, capa-ble of cutting through any delusion; acrouching lion waiting to pounce; agrass-tipped pole used as a decoy forfishing; and finally a shout that does not

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function as a shout. This formula wassometimes used as a kôan in the laterRinzai tradition. See also Rinzai sect.

Fourth PatriarchThe title usually refers to Tao-hsin(580–651), the Fourth ChinesePatriarch of Zen. According to tradi-tion, Toa-hsin directly inherited theDharma from the Third Patriarch,Seng-ts’an (d. 606). See Tao-hsin.

Four Wisdoms(J. shichi) Within the tradition ofTheravada Buddhism, the four wis-doms refer to the realization of the fournoble truths that are said to character-ize an arhat. Within the Yogacharaschool of Mahayana Buddhism, analternative concept of the four wisdomsof the Buddha developed. Bodhisattvasstrive to attain the four wisdoms in orderto save sentient beings. The four wis-doms are: the Great Perfect MirrorWisdom (the ability to see all things asthey really are); the Universal NatureWisdom (the ability to see that all thingsare equal and undifferentiated, leadingto the compassion of a bodhisattva); theMarvelous Observing Wisdom (the abil-ity to evaluate the needs of all sentientbeings, which allows a buddha to preachthe Dharma in a way appropriate toeach individual); and the Perfecting ofAction Wisdom (the ability of a buddhato take on any physical form necessaryto instruct sentient beings).

Fucha RyôriVegetarian cuisine typical of theJapanese Obaku sect of the Zen schoolof Buddhism. The founding monks ofthe Obaku sect emigrated to Japan fromsouthern China in the mid- to late sev-enteenth century. They preserved themonastic cooking styles of their homeculture, including the more elaboratecooking used for vegetarian feasts.Fucha ryôri remains a distinctive featureat the main monastery of Mampuku-jiin the city of Uji; it is prepared for visi-

tors. Sometimes monks were allowed toenjoy this cuisine if wealthy patronspaid for it as a means to build merit.

Fudô MyôôThe “Immovable Shining King”; one ofthe fierce guardian deities (myôô) whodestroy demons, protecting Buddhismand human beings from evil. The myôôare regarded as manifestations ofDainichi Nyorai, the MahavairochanaBuddha; they are capable of teachingthe most stubborn sentient beings bymeans of sacred sounds (mantra orshingon). Like the other myôô, Fudô isdepicted as a fierce deity, with blazingeyes, surrounded by the fire of anger andwisdom. His skin is blue-black in color;he stands upon a rock, armed and readyfor battle. Fudô holds a rope in his lefthand to ensnare the wicked, with asword in his right hand to slay them.

Fudô is the most popular of the myôôclass of deities in Japanese Buddhism. Hisimage appears in numerous paintingsand mandala; statues of this fierceguardian often protect temple halls. Inthe esoteric traditions, Fudô is associatedwith the fire ritual, or goma, and is some-times used as the central deity for that rit-ual. Suzuki Shôsan (1579–1655), the Zenmaster of the Tokugawa period (1600–1867), favored Fudô not only as an imageto focus one’s attention when meditating,but as an ideal for the Zen practitioner toemulate. Shôsan recommended thatbeginners concentrate on the power andenergy of the Fudô image.

King, Winston L. Death Was His Kôan: The Samurai-Zen of SuzukiShosan. Berkeley, CA: AsianHumanities Press, 1986.

Tyler, Royall, trans. Selected Writings of Suzuki Shosan. Ithaca, NY:Chinese-Japanese Program, CornellUniversity, 1977.

Yamasaki, Taiko. Shingon: JapaneseEsoteric Buddhism. Trans. Richardand Cynthia Peterson. Ed. YasuyoshiMorimoto and David Kidd. Boston,MA: Shambhala, 1988.

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The Fudô Myôô, or “Immovable Shining King,” is one of the fierce guardian deities who protects human beings from evil.

FugenThe Japanese name for the bodhisattvaknown as Samantabhadra in Sanskrit.Fugen is considered the personificationof the mercy, meditation, and practiceof all the buddhas. Fugen is usuallydepicted riding a white elephant withsix tusks. He often appears as one of theattendants of either Shakyamuni(Siddharta Gautama) or Maha-vairochana Buddhas, standing at theBuddha’s right side in a triad of figures(Shaka triad). He is often paired withManjusri (Monju), the left-hand atten-dant, who represents wisdom andenlightenment. In the Hua-yen Sutra(Avatamsaka Sutra), Fugen takes tengreat bodhisattva vows, representingthe perfect practice of a bodhisattva.See also Hua-yen school.

FujakuThe Japanese pronunciation for P’u-chi(651–739), a Chinese Zen monk. See P’u-chi.

Fukan Zazengi“General recommendations for seatedmeditation,” a brief essay (T. 82, no.2580) composed by Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253), the founder of JapaneseSôtô Zen. The text describes the propermethod for seated meditation as well asDôgen’s understanding of meditation asenlightenment. The text is traditionallydated to 1227, immediately afterDôgen’s return from China, but scholarsnow question that date. Dôgen proba-bly wrote the first version of the text in1233 and revised it sometime later in his

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This anonymous painting of Fugen depicts him seated on an elephant, surrounded by acolytes and devotees.

life. It is the latter version that is bestknown today. The text sometimes circu-lates as a single work, but under the titleZazengi, it is also included as one chap-ter in the Shôbôgenzô, Dôgen’s mostimportant work. See also Sôtô sect.

Bielefeldt, Carl. Dôgen’s Manuals of ZenMeditation. Berkeley, CA: Universityof California Press, 1988.

Fuke SectA sect of Zen, traditionally said to haveoriginated during the T’ang dynasty(618–907) in China, which spread inearly modern Japan (1600–1867); alsocalled the Komu sect. The Fuke sect isknown for its use of the shakuhachi—along bamboo flute with five holes—as ameans of attaining enlightenment.Most of its members were lay peoplerather than monks and nuns. They werecommonly called komusô, or “monks ofnothingness.” The komusô lived a wan-dering life, traveling around theJapanese countryside. They played theshakuhachi, chanted the nembutsu,and collected alms.

Traditional accounts maintain thatthe Zen master P’u-hua ( J. Fuke)founded the sect and that his lay disci-ple, Chang Po, spread his teachings.There is no historical evidence, how-ever, that the Fuke sect ever existed inChina. It is believed that the JapaneseRinzai Zen master Kakushin(1207–1298) learned about the Fuketeachings from Chang Ts’an while hewas in China, and later transmittedthem to Japan during the Kamakuraperiod (1185–1333). The sect took ondefinite shape and became popularduring the Tokugawa period(1600–1867), when many rônin, or mas-terless samurai, became practitioners.They wore a distinctive costume,including a bamboo hat that coveredthe face. Because the Fuke hat effec-tively disguised the face, thieves andother outlaws sometimes adopted thedress of a Fuke monk to avoid detec-tion. For this reason, the sect was out-lawed by the Meiji government in 1871,

and it has not been revived since. Seealso lay believer and Rinzai sect.

Fuketsu EnshôJapanese transliteration for Feng-hsuehYen-chao, a Chinese Rinzai master. SeeFeng-hsueh Yen-chao.

Fuke ZenjiThe Japanese name for Zen Master P’u-hua, a Chinese monk from the T’angdynasty (618–907) who is rememberedas the founder of the Fuke sect of ZenBuddhism. See P’u-hua.

FukudenField of merit, in Japanese. The charac-ter, pronounced “den,” literally means arice paddy or another cultivated pieceof land. See field of merit.

Funeral ZenA popular expression used to describethe extent to which the Zen school ofBuddhism is practiced in Japan today,especially by lay practitioners. Althoughmost Japanese may be consideredmembers of one Buddhist sect oranother, most have contact withBuddhism only at funeral or memorialservices. This is equally true for laymembers of the three major Zen sects:Sôtô, Rinzai, and Obaku. Very fewJapanese Zen Buddhists receive instruc-tion in the teachings of Zen or in thepractice of seated meditation. Indeed,only a small minority of Buddhisttemples and monasteries in Japan offerto lay people the option of joining insessions of seated meditation. Few Zenclergy regularly practice meditationafter their initial monastic trainingwhich qualifies them for ordination.Most serve as local parish priests, offer-ing services such as funeral and memo-rial rites for their members.

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and early modern (1600–1867) periods.During the medieval period, Sôtô Zenleaders sought to popularize the sectamong the warrior and commonerclasses in Japan by offering funeral andmemorial services to lay members.Later, in the Tokugawa period(1600–1867), government policiesspread the use of Buddhist funeralsthroughout the entire populace. First,the government required that everyJapanese be registered as a member of aBuddhist temple. Second, the govern-ment required that, when a deathoccurred, a Buddhist monk examinethe body before filing a report and issu-ing a death certificate. Even today, thevast majority of Japanese make use ofBuddhist services to honor thedeceased. See also lay believer, Obakusect, Rinzai sect, and Sôtô sect.

Bodiford, William M. Sôtô Zen inMedieval Japan. Honolulu, HI:University of Hawaii Press, 1993.

Reader, Ian. “Zazenless Zen: ThePosition of Zazen in InstitutionalZen Buddhism.” Japanese Religion.Vol. 14, No. 3 (1986), pp. 7–27.

Funyô RokuThe Japanese abbreviated title for theFeng-yang Wu-te Ch’an-shi Yü-lu, “TheRecorded Sayings of Zen Master Wu-teof Feng-yang.” See Feng-yang Wu-teCh’an-shi Yü-lu.

Funyô ZenshôJapanese name for Fen-yang Shan-chao (947–1024), a Chinese Rinzai mas-ter of the T’ang period (618–907). He isalso known in Japanese by his posthu-mous name, Mutoku Zenji. See Fen-yang Shan-chao.

Funzôe(Sk. kashaya) A kesa or robe made bypatching together discarded rags.Funzôe is the Japanese translation forthe Sanskrit “pamsu-kula kesa,” whichmeans “a robe [made from] rags off a

dust heap.” The Japanese expression isactually somewhat stronger, literallymeaning “excrement wiping cloth.” Inthe “Shôbôgenzô Kesa Kudoku,” anessay about the religious significance ofmonastic robes, Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253) explains that buddhas havealways preferred to use rag robes ratherthan robes made from finer materials.In fact, the earliest Buddhist monks andnuns did originally wear funzôe. Thehistorical Buddha and his disciples ini-tially constructed their robes from dis-carded rags that they collected from thestreets or from cremation areas. Theywashed the rags and pieced themtogether to fashion monastic robes. Forhealth reasons, the Buddha laterallowed monks and nuns to acceptdonations of new clothes from laypeople. See also lay believer.

FurunaJapanese rendering of Purna. See Purna.

Furyû Monji“Without reliance on words or letters,” aJapanese expression used to character-ize Zen. The Zen tradition maintainsthat the Dharma cannot be adequatelyexpressed through human language.Therefore, transmission of the Dharmafrom a Zen master to a disciple is said tooccur from mind to mind, without anydependence upon the written scrip-tures of Buddhism. The phrase is actu-ally one line of a Chinese verse tradi-tionally attributed to Bodhidharma.

FusatsuJapanese rendering of the Sanskrit termuposatha, or poshadha, the traditionalmeeting of the Buddhist sangha, orcommunity, held twice a month for thepurpose of reflection and repentance.The fusatsushiki, or uposatha ceremony, is still observed as a part ofZen monastic practice. On the fifteenthday and last day of each month, Zen monks and nuns renew their commitment to the four bodhisattva

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vows (J. shiguseizan) and repent fromany offenses against the monastic code.See uposatha.

FusetsuZen sermon; a general lecture givenby a Zen master to the entire assemblyin a Zen monastery. The fusetsu is lessformal than the daisan.

FushinManual labor, a regular part of the Zenmonastic life. The Chinese charactersare pronounced “fushô” in Japanese.The word literally means “generaladmonition,” since manual labor wasrequired of the entire monastic com-munity. See manual labor.

Fushô Fumetsu“Unborn and undying,” or “not arisingand not passing into extinction,” theJapanese rendering of a commonMahayana Buddhism expression forabsolute reality. The classical scripturalsource for the expression is a passage

from the Chinese translation of theHeart Sutra which says, “O Shariputra,all things are characterized by empti-ness. They are not born and they do notpass into extinction. . .”

FûsuThe Assistant Supervisor of a Zenmonastery. One of the six offices held bysenior monks, whose role is to overseethe practical administration of themonastery. The fûsu works closely withthe Prior (tsûsu) and the Supervisor(kansu) in handling the economic man-agement of the temple. Along with theother two financial officers, the fûsu hashis living quarters within the kitchen-office (ku’in). From there it is possibleto observe and control the daily con-sumption of resources and assess theimmediate needs of the monastic com-munity. The fûsu’s particular responsi-bility lies in keeping accounts of theday-to-day expenditures of templeresources, both monetary and of othersupplies. See also temple positions.

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GGaJapanese translation of the Sanskritterm atman. See atman.

GakiJapanese for hungry ghost, one of thesix realms of existence through whichindividuals travel until they attainrelease (nirvana). Birth into the realmof hungry ghosts was one of the evil out-comes, seen as a form of punishmentfor wicked deeds performed in a previ-ous lifetime. Japanese and ChineseBuddhists focused on one of severalspecies of hungry ghosts described inearlier texts, a creature with a large bellyand a needle-thin neck. Although thesegaki have voracious appetites, they can-not fill their bellies due to the narrow-ness of their throats. Originally, eachdifferent species of hungry ghost wasassociated with specific behavior pat-terns for which they suffered an appro-priate form of retribution. In East Asianaccounts, a gaki was an individual wholacked charity and intentionally hin-dered others from practicing the virtueof giving.

In Zen monasteries, a number of rit-uals are performed to ease the sufferingof hungry ghosts. On an annual basis,monastic communities make specialofferings to hungry ghosts at the time ofthe ullambana ceremony in the sum-mer, a festival known in Japan as Obon.On a daily basis, Zen monks and nunsset aside a few grains of rice (saba) fromevery meal as an offering (suisan orshussan) to aid the gaki; they also recitea brief verse. In some monasteries,monks and nuns pour off the water leftover from rinsing the eating bowls as anadditional offering. It is said that the

tiny particles of food present in thewater are the easiest for the hungryghosts to swallow.

GakujiInscribed tablets used in Zen monaster-ies to indicate the names of monasterybuildings and offices; tablets alsoannounce upcoming or ongoing func-tions, such as sermons.

GanjinChien-chen (687–763), the ChineseBuddhist monk who founded the ritsu(vinaya) school of Buddhism in Japan.See Chien-chen.

GaranbôDharma lineages based upon thetemple of residence rather than one’sactual teacher. Although Dharma

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transmission in the Zen school is theo-retically based upon a face-to-faceencounter between a master and a dis-ciple, other forms of Dharma transmis-sion may occur. The practice of garanbôwas an institutional form of Dharmatransmission common within the Sôtôschool in Japan beginning in themedieval period (1185–1600). It waslater rejected during the reform move-ments of the Tokugawa period(1600–1867). Although less widespreadthan in the Sôtô school, the practicewas sometimes followed in Rinzaitemples during the medieval period.

According to the garanbô process, amonk would assume the Dharma lin-eage of the former abbots of the templeat which he served as abbot or headmonk. If a new head monk was fromoutside the temple in question, hewould change his lineage (in’in ekishi).His name would be added to theDharma lineage of the temple, and hewould receive a lineage chart of its line.This occurred regardless of his actualconnections with the previous abbots.The Dharma lineage of the templewould thus remain constant, while thelineage of an individual monk couldchange several times in a career. Seealso Rinzai sect and Sôtô sect.

Bodiford, William M. “DharmaTransmission in Sôtô Zen.” InMonumenta Nipponica. Vol. 46, No.4 (Winter 1991).

Gasan Jitô(1727–1797) Japanese Rinzai monk whotrained under Hakuin Ekaku(1685–1768) and is generally countedamong his Dharma heirs. Gasan wasborn in northeastern Japan in Oshû. Heoriginally practiced Zen under theRinzai master Gessen Zen’e(1702–1781); he came to Hakuin muchlater in his career. It is unclear whetherGasan actually received inka fromHakuin before the master died.Nevertheless, Gasan’s disciples consti-tute the most important lineage ofHakuin Zen. Along with his disciples,

Inzan Ien (1751–1814) and TakujûKosen (1760–1833), Gasan continuedthe reforms of the Rinzai system ofkôan study that were initiated byHakuin. Gasan is said to have taughtsome 500 disciples at Rinshô-in in Edoand did much to promote Hakuin Zen.See also Rinzai sect.

Gasô“Painter-monk;” Zen monks and nunstraditionally use the visual arts, includ-ing a variety of painting and calligraphystyles, to express their understanding ofthe Dharma.

GasshôA gesture of reverence, performed withthe hands held palm-to-palm at chestlevel. In India, the ancient gesture wasthought to symbolize sincerity. InBuddhist cultures, it is commonly usedas a respectful form of greeting, espe-cially between members of the monas-tic community. It is also commonlyemployed as a means to pay homage toan image of a buddha. In the Zen con-text, the gesture is understood as amudra which expresses nonduality;specifically, it is interpreted as a symbolof the unity between perception andreality, or “One mind.”

Saunders, E. Dale. Mudra: A Study of theSymbolic Gestures in JapaneseBuddhist Sculpture. Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 1985.

Gateless GateWu-men Kuan, known in Japanese asthe Mumonkan, a classic Zen text con-taining forty-eight traditional kôan withcommentary, compiled by the Rinzaimaster Wu-men Hui-k’ai (1183–1260).See Mumonkan.

Gâthâ(J. ge) A style of verse or song used toteach concepts from a religious tradi-tion or to praise a religious figure.Gâthâs are used in several Indian religious

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traditions, including Buddhism.Buddhist sutras often contain sectionsof gatha interspersed with prose, whilesome canonical texts are comprisedsolely of verse.

GeJapanese term for gâthâ. See gâthâ.

Gedatsu“Release” or “liberation,” a Japaneseword commonly used to indicateenlightenment, the goal of Buddhistpractice. It is sometimes used as thetechnical term for nirvana—the releasefrom ignorance and suffering. In othercontexts, gedatsu means meditation,since enlightenment is achievedthrough meditation.

Genjô Kôan“Manifesting Absolute Reality beforeOne’s Eyes,” an essay composed in 1233by Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253), thefounder of Japanese Sôtô Zen. The textsometimes circulates as a single work,but is also included as one chapter inthe Shôbôgenzô, Dôgen’s most important work. The term Genjô kôanexpresses the Mahayana Buddhismteaching that ordinary phenomenaexperienced in everyday life are them-selves expressions of absolute reality.Dôgen uses the expression to suggestthat Zen practice and Zen enlighten-ment are a part of ordinary life. See alsoSôtô sect.

GenkanLiterally meaning a dark or mysteriousgateway, the term is used metaphori-cally in Buddhism to denote entry by abeliever onto the Buddhist path, ormore specifically, entry into the realmof enlightenment. In more concreteterms, it refers simply to the entry gateof a Zen temple.

Traditionally, Zen monasteries inChina customarily inscribed the wordgenkan on their entryways, suggesting

that all who entered the gate wereembarking on the Buddhist path toenlightenment. Eventually, the wordcame to be used almost exclusively forthe visitor’s entrance to the guest hallof a Zen monastery, and thus associ-ated with the specific architecturalstyle of those entryways. The relatedcustoms were brought to Japan alongwith the transmission of Zen teachingsduring the Kamakura period(1185–1333). Eventually, the practice ofbuilding entry gates in the same stylebecame popular at other Buddhisttemples. The style then became wide-spread throughout the secular world.Almost all Japanese homes today havean entryway referred to as a genkan. Inmost cases, the genkan is a small areaseparating the interior living quartersfrom the outside door. On entering thegenkan, one removes one’s shoesbefore stepping up into the raised levelof the living quarters.

Genshin(942–1017) Japanese Tendai monkknown for his teaching of Pure Landdevotion. Genshin established a theoretical basis for devotion to Amidabuddha and the hope for rebirth in his Western Pure Land. He popular-ized Pure Land belief and the practiceof chanting the nembutsu through hispaintings and writings, especially the Essentials of Salvation(J. Ojôyôshû). Genshin is revered bythe True Pure Land sect ( JôdoShinshû) as the Sixth Pure LandPatriarch. See also Tendai sect.

Genze Riyaku“Worldly benefits” that may be gainedin this life through the practice ofBuddhism. These benefits includelong life, physical health, monetarywealth, safety in childbirth, and pro-tection from various calamities.Although Buddhist scholars oftenmaintain that worldly benefits are notan important part of the Buddhistfaith, promises of them abound in the

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Buddhist scriptures and other classi-cal texts. The appeal of worldly bene-fits has often been used by Buddhistteachers as an expedient means toattract lay people to the tradition. Seealso lay believer.

Gesshû ShûkoJapanese Sôtô master (1616–1696) ofthe Tokugawa period (1600–1867) whoinspired reform movements within theSôtô sect. Gesshû was initially aShingon monk, but soon began to study with Zen masters. He became the Dharma heir of Hakuhô Genteki,the abbot at Daijô-ji. He also studiedwith two Chinese Zen masters, Tao-che Ch’ao-yüan (d. 1660) and Yin-yüan Lung-ch’i (1594–1673), thefounder of Obaku Zen. In 1680, hebecame abbot at Daijô-ji. His primary disciple and Dharma heir, ManzanDôhaku (1636–1715), carried out themonastic reforms that Gesshû hopedto accomplish. See also Obaku sectand Shingon sect.

GetaWooden footwear traditionally worn inJapan. Geta are made from a platformof wood resting on two supportingcross bars which raise the foot off theground. Geta are held on the foot withcloth straps much like thongs.Although the word geta did not comeinto common usage until theTokugawa period (1600–1867), thestyle of footwear dates back to ancienttimes in Japan.

GidanThe ball of doubt. An expression usedby Zen masters for the tension thatbuilds up in an individual when he orshe practice Zen intensely, especiallywhen working on a kôan. The buildupof tension is a necessary precursor tothe initial experience of enlighten-ment (kenshô). Enlightenment is saidto occur when the ball of doubt shat-ters. See ball of doubt.

Ginkaku-jiThe Silver Pavilion, the popular namefor Jishô-ji, a Rinzai Zen temple ineastern Kyoto. See Silver Pavilion.

Ginzan Teppeki“Silver mountain, iron wall,” a Zenexpression for enlightenment. SeeSilver mountain, iron wall.

GôThe Japanese word for karma; actionsand the resulting consequences ofactions. See karma.

Goddess of MercyAvalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva ofinfinite compassion and mercy. Jesuitmissionaries to China in the sixteenthcentury coined the name for femaleimages of Kuan-yin. The missionariesnoted a striking resemblance betweenfemale figures of the bodhisattva, especially the white-robed Kuan-yin,and Catholic images of the Virgin Mary.See Kuan-yin.

Goga“False self,” the belief in and attach-ment to a false concept of the self orego. The Japanese term goga refers tothe common belief that each individ-ual possesses an eternal and unchang-ing self or soul. According to Buddhistteachings, there is nothing eternal,unchanging, or abiding within thehuman self. The historical Buddhataught that human beings suffer pri-marily because they become attachedto the false self. The term also refers toselfish attitudes and states of mind.See also Anatman.

Gogen“Five eyes,” the five kinds of percep-tion associated with ordinary sentientbeings, deities, shravakas andpratyeka buddhas, bodhisattvas, andbuddhas. See five eyes.

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GogoPractice after enlightenment (satori).Training within the Rinzai school ofZen can be divided into two parts, the practice leading to enlightenment,known in Japanese as kenshô, andsubsequent practice after the initialexperience, or gogo. During theTokugawa period (1600–1867), mastersin the Rinzai school developed a regu-lar system of Zen practice based on theuse of kôan as the central focus ofseated meditation. The reformerHakuin Ekaku (1685–1768) is creditedwith developing the system of kôanpractice still in use in the Rinzai schooltoday. According to this system, theinitial goal of the practitioner is to con-template on the first kôan until attain-ing an initial experience of enlighten-ment. Attaining the initial experienceof kenshô is not the end of practiceunder the master’s guidance, nor is itsufficient to qualify a practitioner as aZen master. After enlightenment, thepractitioner continues to practiceseated meditation, proceeding througha series of other kôan designed tomature the level of practice and pre-pare the individual to become ateacher. See also Rinzai sect.

GogyakuzaiThe five deadly actions of killing one’s father, killing one’s mother,killing an arhat, harming the body of a buddha, and causing dissention withinthe sangha. Committing one of thesefive acts results in rebirth for manyeons in the lowest level of hell, Avicihell, where the suffering from intenseheat is incessant.

GoiThe Japanese term for the “five ranks”developed by Zen master Tung-shanLiang-chieh (807–869). The standardJapanese version of the five ranks isalso known as “henshô goi,” the fiveranks of the Real and the Apparent.Based on Tung-shan’s original poem,

this abbreviated version is comprisedof five verses of three characters each:shô-chû-hen, the real within theapparent; hen-chû-shô, the apparentwithin the real; shô-chû-rai, the com-ing from within the real; hen-chû-shi,the arrival within the apparent; andken-chû-tô, mutual interpenetrationof real and apparent. See five ranks.

Goi KôanA kôan based on the “five ranks”developed by the Chinese masterTung-shan Liang-chieh (807–869). Thefive ranks is a formulaic expression ofthe degrees, or stages, of Zen realiza-tion. Tung-shan’s original statement ofthe five ranks is a poem in five stanzas.The Japanese Rinzai school uses theGoi kôan as the final stage of formalkôan practice. In the eighteenth cen-tury, Hakuin Ekaku (1685–1768) andhis disciples devised a process of kôanpractice to be undertaken after an ini-tial enlightenment experience. Theybased the system on five stages or cat-egories of kôan, designed to lead thepractitioner to deeper levels of under-standing. In this system, a considera-tion of the Goi kôan serves as the fifthand final barrier through which poten-tial Zen masters must pass before qual-ifying to take on disciples of their own.See also Rinzai sect.

Miura, Isshû, and Ruth Fuller Sasaki.The Zen Kôan. New York: Harcourt,Brace & World, 1967.

GojinThe “five dusts” or defilements. AJapanese Buddhist expression for thefive objects of perception related to thefive senses (J. gokon). See five dusts.

Gojôe“Five-strip robe,” one of three basictypes of kesa or monastic robes wornby Buddhist monks and nuns. Thefive-strip robe was originally called the antarvasa in Sanskrit. It is known

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in Japanese as the naie, literally “innerrobe,” or andae. The gojôe was origi-nally designed to be worn as an innergarment or undergarment. In the Zenschool it is sometimes known as thesamue, or work garment, becausemonks often strip down to the innerrobe when engaging in physical labor.In Japan, the gojôe is usually wornsymbolically on a strap placed aroundthe neck as a reminder of the Buddha’spatched robe. The strap and five-stripkesa worn together in this manner areknown as a rakusu. Today, lay practi-tioners sometimes receive this gar-ment when they take the precepts. Seealso lay believer.

GokaThe “rear stands.” A wash houselocated behind the monks’ hall (sôdô)of a traditional Zen monastery. Themonks used the goka for ordinary dailypurposes, such as washing their facesand brushing their teeth. Travelerswould also use this facility to wash thedirt from their feet before entering thehall. In most traditional monasteries,hot water for bathing was only pro-vided in the separate bath house(yokushitsu) once every two weeks.For daily purposes, the monks usedcold water at the goka.

GokaiJapanese for the five precepts under-taken by lay Buddhists. They arefusesshô, not to kill living beings;fuchûtô, not to steal; fujain, to abstainfrom sexual misconduct; fumôgo, notto lie; and fuonju, not to drink liquor.See five precepts.

Goke“Five houses” (Ch. wu-chia), aJapanese expression used to describethe five distinctive styles of Zen basedon the five different lineages whichdeveloped during the T’ang dynasty(618–907) in China. See five houses.

Gokei Sôton(1416–1500) Japanese Rinzai monk of theAshikaga period (1392–1568). He was aseventh-generation descendant of theMyôshin-ji line started by Kanzan Egen(1277–1369). He became the Dharma heirof Sekkô Sôshin (1408–1486) and was oneof his four principle disciples. Gokei servedas abbot at Daitoku-ji, Myôshin-ji, andother major Rinzai monasteries. Hefounded Zuiryû-ji in Mino, present-dayGifu Prefecture. See also Rinzai sect.

GokenThe five wrong views. The Japaneseterm literally means the five views.They are the mistaken belief that theself is permanent and abiding(shinken); the mistaken belief that theself exists eternally after death or thatit is annihilated (henken); mistakenrejection of the workings of cause andeffect (jaken); mistaken attachment toa false view (kenjuken); and adherenceto a false set of precepts as a means toattain enlightenment (kaigonjuken).See five wrong views.

Goke Sanshô Yôro Mon“A Detailed Study of the FundamentalPrinciples of the Five Houses,” a Zen textin five sections composed by Tôrei Enji(1721–1792). Using anecdotes, portionsof sermons, and other quotations fromclassical Zen literature, each sectionpresents the distinctive teachings of oneof the Five Schools of Chinese Zen. Twoessays by Tôrei, the “Rôhatsu jishû”(Instructions for Rôhatsu) and the“Kankin bô” (Sutra chanting announce-ment board) are attached as appen-dices. The work was completed in 1788and first published in 1827.

Goke Shichishû“Five houses and seven schools,” aJapanese expression used to describethe distinctive styles of Zen practice thatdeveloped during the T’ang (618–907)and Sung (960–1279) dynasties. See fivehouses and seven schools.

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Golden PavilionThe popular name for Rokuon-ji, a RinzaiZen temple in northwestern Kyoto in theKitayama area. The temple takes thename Golden Pavilion, a literal transla-tion of the Japanese Kinkaku-ji, from thethree-story gold-leaf pavilion, which isthe centerpiece of the monastery garden.The Golden Pavilion sits beside a smallpond, in which it is spectacularlyreflected. The temple was originally thesite of the retirement villa of the thirdAshikaga shôgun, Yoshimitsu (1358–1408), which was built in 1397. It was con-verted into a Zen temple afterYoshimitsu’s death. Musô Soseki(1275–1351) is regarded as the temple’sfounding abbot, although it was con-structed long after his death. With theexception of the Golden Pavilion itself,most of the temple buildings (shichidôgaran) were destroyed in the Onin War(1466–1477) and later restored. TheGolden Pavilion was burned to theground in 1950 by a resident cleric. It wasrebuilt to precisely match plans of theoriginal. Along with its sister structure,the Silver Pavilion, the Golden Pavilion isregarded as a fine example of Gozanarchitecture of the Ashikaga period(1392–1568). See also Rinzai sect.

GomaFire ritual performed by the esotericschools of Buddhism, including Tendaiand Shingon. The ritual comes fromIndian practices in which Brahminpriests offered sacrifices to the gods byburning food offerings in a specificallydesigned section of an altar. In theBuddhist ritual, the fire is said to sym-bolize the wisdom of enlightenment,which burns away any defilementsthat hinder enlightenment. Goma maybe offered to gain merit and diminishbad karma, to pray for a special inten-tion such as recovery from illness, or topray for the protection of family ornation. See also Shingon sect andTendai sect.

Gomi Zen“Five taste zen,” or the “five tastes ofzen.” An expression used for any formof zen regarded as impure or inconsis-tent with the zen of the patriarchs. Inthis sense, gomi zen is contrasted withsingle taste zen (ichimi zen), or purezen. In a more technical sense, theexpression refers to five basic varietiesof meditative practice identified byTsung-mi (780–840), a Chinese monk,who studied both Hua-yen and Ch’anBuddhism. According to Tsung-mi’sclassification, one can distinguish themeditative styles of non-Buddhists(gedô zen), ordinary people (bonpuzen), Hinayana Buddhists (shôjô zen),Mahayana Buddhists (daijô zen), andfollowers of the supreme teachings(saijôjô zen). The Zen tradition recog-nizes its own meditative style as thefifth and highest form. See also fivetypes of zen and Hua-yen school.

GomizunooThe 108th Japanese emperor(1596–1680) and a patron and devoteeof Zen Buddhism. Gomizunoo, thethird son of Emperor Go-Yôzei,reigned from 1611 to 1629, the periodwhen Tokugawa rule was firmly estab-lished. He was obliged to marryTokugawa Kazuko, the daughter of thesecond Tokugawa shogun, Hidetada.Gomizunoo’s displeasure led him to resign.

Gomizunoo studied Zen under aseries of masters. He eventually took the tonsure in 1651 under Ryôkei, aRinzai monk, who later became anObaku master. Gomizunoo assumedthe Dharma name Enjô Dôkaku; helater became Ryôkei’s Dharma heirand his name is still listed on Obaku lineage charts. See also Obaku sectand Rinzai sect.

Gonsen KôanOne type of Zen kôan based upon dif-ficult phrases and expressions from theclassical texts. The term gonsen literallymeans “the investigation of words.”

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The Zen practitioner contemplates anexpression originally uttered by one ofthe great historical Zen masters, seek-ing insight beyond the literal or techni-cal meaning of the words. The phrasescan be thought of as gates leading todeeper understanding of the Zenteachings. Examples of Gonsen kôaninclude Cases 24 and 27 from theMumonkan, and Cases 13 and 36 fromthe Hekiganroku.

Since the time of the eighteenth-century reformer Hakuin Ekaku(1685–1768), the Rinzai school ofJapanese Zen has employed a systemof kôan practice that sets out a regularpattern for approaching kôan after theinitial enlightenment experience(kenshô). The system is designed tolead practitioners to deeper levels ofunderstanding by moving through var-ious types of kôan. Within the confinesof this system, Gonsen kôan are the

third of five types. They follow theHosshin kôan and Kikan kôan, andprecede the Nantô kôan and Goi kôan.See also Rinzai sect.

Miura, Isshû, and Ruth Fuller Sasaki.The Zen Kôan. New York: Harcourt,Brace & World, 1967.

Shimano, Eido T. “Zen Kôans.” In Zen, Tradition and Transition.Edited by Kenneth Kraft. New York:Grove Press, 1988.

Gorin Sotoba“Five wheel stupa.” A stone or castmetal stupa made in five sections.Stupas are dome-shaped structuresused to enshrine relics or mark histori-cally important places. Each section ofthe Gorin sotoba forms a differentshape, which symbolizes one of the fivegreat elements: earth, water, fire, wind,and space (or emptiness). Originally

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Gorin Sobota is a five-piece statue that marks holy and historic sites.

the stupas were intended to houseBuddhist relics, but in later practicethey were used as gravestones. Gorinsotoba were first introduced in Japanduring the Heian period (794–1185) andare commonly associated with the eso-teric schools of Buddhism, the Tendaisect, and the Shingon sect.

Each section of the Gorin sotoba isinscribed with an associated Sanskritcharacter as well as the Chinese charac-ter for the related element. The bottomsection is a cube, representing theearth, inscribed with the Sanskrit letter“A.” Next is a sphere, representing water,inscribed with the Sanskrit letter “VA.”The third section is a triangular stone,representing fire, inscribed with theSanskrit letter “RA.” The fourth is a half-sphere, representing the wind,inscribed with the Sanskrit letter “HA.”The top section is in the shape of amani jewel, representing space oremptiness, inscribed with the Sanskritletter “KHA.”

In the esoteric schools of Buddhism,the five sections of the stupa are alsosaid to represent the Five Buddhas; thecube is associated with Ashuku(Akshobhya), the sphere with Amidabuddha (Amitabha), the triangle withHôdô (Ratnasambhava), the half-sphere with Fukûjôju (Amoghasiddhi),and the mani jewel with DainichiNônin (Mahavairochana Buddha).

GoriyakuWorldly benefits arising from the practice of Buddhism. The term is anabbreviation for genze riyaku. Seegenze riyaku.

GorokuThe Japanese term for recorded say-ings, one of the most important anddistinctive genres of Zen literature. Seerecorded sayings.

Gosan JôdôTo go to the lecture hall for the fifth-day sermon. According to monastic

codes used in the practive of Zen, theabbot is expected to give public lec-tures to the entire community everyfive days, on the 5th, 10th, 15th, 20th,and 25th of each lunar month. SinceZen monasteries hold services for thehealth of the emperor on the 1st and15th of the month, fifth-day sermonsare given only four times each lunarmonth.

Goshuzen“Five types of zen,” the classification offive styles of meditation developed byKuei-feng Tsung-mi (780–840). See fivetypes of zen.

Goso HoenJapanese pronunciation for Wu-tsu Fa-yen (d. 1104), Chinese Rinzai masterof the Sung (960–1279) dynasty. See Wu-tsu Fa-yen.

Gotai TôchiThe most formal bow performed withinthe Buddhist community. The word lit-erally means “to cast the five parts of thebody (gotai) upon the ground.” The fiveparts of the body are the elbows, theknees, and the forehead. Gotai tôchi isperformed as follows: beginning in astanding position, hands held palm-to-palm at chest level (gasshô), one makesa slight bow. Then, slowly bending theknees, one lowers the knees to the floor.Bending forward from the waist, onelowers the upper torso until one’s fore-head rests on the ground, resting thearms on the floor, with the palms facingup. One then raises the palms upward,maintaining the position for a moment.Reversing the process, one returns tothe standing position, hands held ingasshô, and concludes with anotherslight bow.

This bow is used at morning andevening services before the image of theBuddha; other occasions include ser-vices where an abbot presides.

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Gotôroku“The Five Records of the Lamp,” fivechronicles recounting the history of Zenand the authentic lineage of the school.Composed in China during the Sungdynasty (960–1279), all five texts explainthe transmission of the Dharma usingbiographical sketches of importantmasters. The five texts include Ching-teCh’üan-teng Lu (Ching-te Record of theTransmission of the Lamp), T’ien-shengKuang-teng Lu (T’ien-sheng Record ofthe Widely Extending Lamp), Chien-chung Ching-kuo Hsu-teng Lu (Chien-chung Ching-kuo SupplementaryRecord of the Lamp), Tsung-men Lien-teng Hui-yao (Collection of EssentialMaterial of the Zen Sect’s SuccessiveRecords of the Lamp) and Chia-t’ai p’u-teng Lu (Chia-t’ai ComprehensiveRecord of the Lamp).

Gottan FuneiJapanese pronunciation of Wu-an P’u-ning (1197–1276), a Chinese Rinzai Zenmonk, who also taught in Japan. SeeWu-an P’u-ning.

GounThe five aggregates, the componentparts that comprise all things. Japanesefor the five skandhas. See five skandhas.

Goya ZazenPre-dawn session of zazen, one of thefour periods of meditation (J. shijizazen) observed daily in Zen monaster-ies. Although the exact hours differ bymonastery, Goya zazen is held beforebreakfast, usually between 3 and 5 A.M.

See also shiji zazen.

Gozan Jissatsu“Five mountains and seven temples,”the common Japanese designation forthe Gozan ranking system for Zenmonasteries in China and Japan. SeeGozan system.

Gozan LiteratureA general term for the artistic and schol-arly writings produced by Zen monks inthe Gozan (Five Mountain) monasteriesin Kyoto and Kamakura during themedieval period (1185–1600). This classof literature is known in Japanese asGozan bungaku. Beginning in theKamakura period (1185–1333), Gozanmonasteries functioned as cultural andartistic centers in Japan, helping to foster several forms of Chinese art, literature, and philosophy. Gozan litera-ture includes poetry, literary prose,encyclopedias, dictionaries, and otherscholarly reference works. With theexception of some poetry composed inJapanese, Gozan literature is written inclassical Chinese. In addition toChinese Buddhist texts, Zen monks ofthe Japanese Gozan temples studiedChinese literature and philosophicalsystems, especially Confucianism andSung Confucianism. They often com-posed literary pieces that imitatedChinese styles. Leading figures in Gozanliterature include Musô Soseki(1275–1351), Ikkyû Sôjun (1394–1481),and Zekkai Chûshin.

Gozan SystemThe Five Mountain System, an officialsystem of ranking Zen monasteries,which originated in China and was lateradopted by the Japanese. The system isknown in Japanese as Gozan jissatsu,“The Five Mountains and TenDistinguished Temples.” The name isderived from the actual numbers of Zentemples within the two hierarchical lev-els that characterized the originalChinese system. In China, the FiveMountains referred to the five monas-teries (Gozan temples) officially recog-nized by the government as the highest-ranking Zen monasteries. The TenTemples were ten somewhat lower-ranking monasteries. All fifteen monas-teries within the Chinese Gozan systemreceived government patronage. Fewdetails are known of the Chinese sys-tem, which started during the late Sung

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dynasty (960–1279). It seems likely thatit was less structured than the laterJapanese development bearing thesame name.

In Japan, the Gozan system wasintroduced toward the end of theKamakura period (1185–1333), and fullydeveloped during the Ashikaga period(1392–1568). The Japanese governmenttreated all temples within the Gozansystem, said to number approximately300, as a single administrative unit. Allof the temples and monasteries in theGozan system shared things in com-mon. For example, they were governedby similar monastic codes and all weredesigned to have a similar physical lay-out and administrative organization. Asthe Japanese Gozan system took on def-inite shape, there were three tiers oftemples included in the system: thehighest ranking Gozan monasteries, themiddle ranking Jissatsu monasteries,and the lowest ranking shozan temples.

In the fully developed JapaneseGozan system, eleven monasteries werecounted among the Gozan, or “FiveMountain” tier of the system. Theseincluded five major monasteries inKamakura and five in Kyoto, all orga-nized under the administrative leader-ship of the eleventh monastery. The rel-ative ranking of the eleven temples atthe Gozan level shifted over time, as didthe actual list of Gozan monasteries.The Jissatsu, or “Ten Temples” tierincluded somewhat less prestigiousmonasteries in Kyoto and Kamakura aswell as important monasteries from theprovinces; the number was not strictlylimited to ten. The lowest ranking ofshozan temples, literally meaning “vari-ous temples,” was a looser category ofprovincial temples; the category had noformal numerical limit.

Over time, the Zen monasterieswithin the Gozan system becameclosely identified with cultural pursuits,especially in the areas of literature, teaceremony (chanoyû), Zen gardens, andthe fine arts. Indeed, it is not uncom-mon to speak of a distinctive Gozan cul-ture or Gozan literature. Throughout

the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,Gozan temples flourished as artisticand cultural centers for the nobility andsamurai classes. By this period, theyfunctioned less as religious institutionsdevoted to Zen practice than as literaryand artistic centers.

The Gozan system did not encom-pass all Japanese Zen monasteries andtemples. The vast majority of thetemples within the Gozan system wereaffiliated with a Rinzai lineage.Although a few Sôtô monasteries wereofficially designated as Gozan monas-teries for periods of time, the majoritywere never ranked within the system.Non-Gozan monasteries are commonlydesignated as rinka, or Ringe temples.See also Rinzai sect and Sôtô sect.

Collcutt, Martin. Five Mountains:The Rinzai Zen Monastic Institution in Medieval Japan. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press, 1981.

Gozan Temples“Five Mountains,” the highest-rankingZen temples according to the Chineseand Japanese hierarchical system. In theoriginal Chinese system, there wereexactly five Zen monasteries at the high-est rank. They were Wan-shou-ssu,Kuan-li-ssu, Ching-te-ssu, Ling-yin-ssu, and Ching-tzu-ssu. These fivebecame known collectively as Wu-shanin Chinese. When the Japanese adoptedthe system during the late Kamakura(1185–1333) and early Ashikaga(1392–1568) periods, the actual numberof Gozan temples varied. There weregenerally eleven Gozan monasteries,which included the five most influentialmonasteries located in Kamakura andfive in Kyoto, all organized under theeleventh head monastery. TheKamakura Gozan monasteries includedKenchô-ji, Engaku-ji, Jufuku-ji, Jôchi-ji, and Jômyô-ji. The Kyoto Gozanmonasteries included Tenryû-ji,Shôkoku-ji, Kennin-ji, Tôfuku-ji, andManju-ji. Nanzen-ji, also located inKyoto, served for many generations as

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the head monastery in the system. All ofthese monasteries were affiliated withthe Rinzai sect. Lower ranking Rinzaitemples that were part of the systemwere known as jissatsu temples. Insome cases, the term Gozan temple mayapply to any temple or monastery thatwas officially a part of the Gozan sys-tem, regardless of ranking.

Gozu SchoolThe Oxhead school, an important lin-eage of early Chinese Zen founded byFa-jung (594–657), a Dharma heir ofthe Fourth Patriarch Tao-hsin(580–651). Gozu is the Japanese translit-eration of the Chinese name Niu-t’ou.See Oxhead school.

Gradual Enlightenment(J. zengo) The concept that enlighten-ment may be attained gradually as aprocess of stages mastered over anextended period of time. Many schoolsof Buddhism teach a form of gradual

enlightenment, although the concept isgenerally rejected by Zen teachers. InZen texts, gradual enlightenment isregarded as an unorthodox concept; it iscontrasted with the orthodox under-standing of sudden enlightenment.Gradual enlightenment is most oftenassociated with the Northern school ofearly Chinese Zen.

Gradual Teaching(J. Zengyô) Teachings based on a beliefin gradual enlightenment, in whichenlightenment is seen as a progressionthrough several stages, or levels, ofattainment. Within Zen context, grad-ual teaching is generally associated withthe Northern school of early ChineseZen, which is contrasted with the sud-den enlightenment teaching (tongyô)of the orthodox Southern school.

Great AssembliesThe formal lectures and discussion ses-sions held by the abbot in the Dharma

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Tôfuku-ji, one of the Gozan temples in Kyoto.

hall (hattô) of a Zen monastery on spe-cific occasions. The great assemblies areso called because the entire monasticcommunity attends. See daisan.

Great DoubtOne of the three bases for the practiceof Zen, along with Great Trust(Daishinkon) and Great Resolve(Daifunshi). According to Zen teach-ings, a practitioner must break throughthe Great Doubt to attain enlighten-ment. See Daigi.

Great MatterA common Zen expression used to indi-cate the Ultimate Truth of Buddhism. Itis used in various ways throughout Zenliterature—it may mean the experienceof enlightenment in one context, andthe practice leading to that enlighten-ment in another. The English expres-sion is a translation of the Japaneseterm Daiji (Ch. Ta-shih). See Daiji.

Great RenunciationA term used in reference to an episodefrom the life of Siddharta Gautama, thehistorical Buddha. According to tradi-tional accounts of his life, Siddhartaexperienced four encounters when heleft his home and family to seek enlight-enment. He saw an old man, a diseasedperson, and a corpse, which led to hiscontemplation of the problem of humansuffering. Finally, his meeting with a reli-gious mendicant motivated him to beginhis own search for a solution to suffering.The episode is known as the great renun-ciation because Siddharta gave up a lux-urious life filled with sensual pleasures.Legends maintain that he was raised in apalace, the beloved and pampered son ofa ruling king, and was married to a lovelywife who had recently given birth to ason. The story highlights the contrastingvalues of duty to family and the religiousquest for enlightenment; it is intended tostress the permeation of suffering evenwithin the most pleasurable of humansituations.

Great ResolveOne of the three essential motivatingelements of Zen practice, along withGreat Doubt (Daigi) and Great Trust(Daishinkon). The practitioner musthave a deep determination to perseverein Zen practice. See Daifunshi.

Great TrustOne of the three essential bases of Zenpractice, along with Great Doubt(Daigi) and Great Resolve (Daifunshi).The Zen practitioner must place greattrust in the Buddhist teachings, the pathof Zen, and his or her own teacher. SeeDaishinkon.

Great Vehicle(J. daijô) Mahayana Buddhism. TheSanskrit term mahayana literally means“great vehicle.” The phrase was coinedwithin the tradition to distinguishnewer developments in the first centuryC.E. from older teachings. SeeMahayana Buddhism.

Guchû Shûkyû(1323–1409) Japanese Rinzai monk.Guchû studied Zen in China andreceived Dharma transmission fromChi-hsiu Chi-liao. When he returned toJapan, he served as founding abbot atButtsû-ji, an important independentRinzai temple in Aki. He received theposthumous title Daitsû Zenji. His writ-ings include the Sôyo Shû and theDaitsû Zenji Goroku. He is regarded asthe founder of Buttsû-ji Ha, the Buttsû-ji branch of the Rinzai sect.

Gudô Tôshoku(1579–1661) Japanese Rinzai Zen monkfrom the early Tokugawa period(1600–1867). Gudô was a leading figurewithin the lineage of the Myôshin-ji,where he led a reform movement torevitalize the practice of Rinzai. Heserved three times as abbot at Myôshin-ji and trained numerous disciples.Among his leading disciples was Shidô

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Bu’nan (1603–1676), from whose linecame the great Rinzai reformer HakuinEkaku (1685–1768). Gudô received theposthumous title Daien HôkanKokushi. He left behind no writtenworks. See also Rinzai sect.

Gunin(601–674) Japanese transliteration ofHung-jen, the Fifth Patriarch ofChinese Zen. See Hung-jen.

GuteiThe Japanese pronunciation for Chü-chih, a T’ang dynasty (618–907)master known for his “One-finger Zen.”See Chü-chih.

GyôdôA ritual circumambulation around, orin front of the main image of theBuddha within the main hall of a Zenmonastery. The members of the proces-sion chant a sutra. The practice isderived from the ancient custom ofwalking in a circle around an image toshow respect or pay homage. Typically,Zen monks and nuns no longer walkaround the image, but form a proces-sion walking in front of the image.

GyôjaA Buddhist practitioner, especiallyBuddhist monks in the ancient tradition. The Japanese and relatedChinese term was used to translate theSanskrit term âcârin. In Japan, the term

especially applies to ascetic practition-ers like the Yamabushi, who buildmerit and spiritual power by combiningstrenuous physical training with meditative practices. Although writtenwith the same characters as anja, anattendant novice at a Zen temple, theusage is completely different. See alsoascetic practices.

Gyô-jû-za-gaGoing, staying, sitting, lying down. Avery common Zen expression used toindicate all human action or the behav-ior of everyday life. Zen masters oftenuse the expression to suggest that thepractice of Zen is not limited to thehours spent in seated meditation, butthat all aspects of life, even mundaneactivities, comprise the Buddhist way.

Gyônyû“The entrance through practice,”Japanese term for one of the twoentrances (ninyû) to Buddhist enlight-enment. Practice is said to include fourbasic types: hôongyô (endurance ofhardships), zuiengyô (adapting to cir-cumstances), mushogugyô (seekingnothing), and shôbôgyô (practicing inconformity with the Dharma). Gyônyûis the opposite of rinyû, or the entrancethrough reason.

GyôyûSee Taikô Gyôyû.

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HHachikan JigokuAlso pronounced “Hakkan jigoku,” theJapanese term for the eight cold hells,where inhabitants suffer various punishments related to severe cold. The Japanese names for the eight hellsare 1) A’buda, 2) Nira’buda, 3) Aseta, 4) Kakaba, 5) Kokoba, 6) Upara, 7)Hadoma or Guren, and 8) Makahadomaor Daiguren. See eight cold hells.

HachimanThe Japanese Shintô kami (deity)associated with archery (kyûdô) andwar, who is revered as a bodhisattva,or enlightened one, in Japan.Hachiman is the deification of a his-torical figure, the Emperor Ojin(270–310 C.E.). During the Nara period(710–794), shrines to Hachiman wereconstructed beside national Buddhisttemples (kokubunji), symbolizingHachiman’s role as a special guardianof Buddhism in Japan. Hachiman wasone of the first Shintô kami to be iden-tified by Buddhism as a bodhisattva;he was also sometimes regarded as amanifestation of the Amida buddha.See also honji suijaku.

Hachinetsu JigokuThe eight hot hells, where inhabitantssuffer various punishments, includingsearing heat. The eight hells are 1) Repeated Misery (Tôkatsu), 2) BlackRopes (Kokujô), 3) Mass Suffering(shugô), 4) Wailing (Kyôkan), 5) GreatWailing (Daikyôkan), 6) Searing Heat(Shônetsu), 7) Great Searing Heat(Daishônetsu), and 8) IncessantSuffering (Muken).

In Japan, Genshin (942–1017)described in detail the sufferings of thevarious hells in his Ojôyôshû, (TheEssentials of Salvation). The hells arealso popular subjects for religious paint-ings, often used to teach ordinarypeople the consequences of theiractions (karma). See eight hot hells.

HaikuGenre of Japanese poetry indirectlyassociated with Zen, alternativelyknown as hokku. Haiku are composedof seventeen syllables arranged in threelines of five, seven, and five syllables.The most famous of the Japanese Haikupoets was Matsuo Bashô (1644–1694), alay practitioner of Zen whose poetry issaid to reflect Zen influences. See alsolay believer.

HajahadaiJapanese transliteration of Prajapati,the Buddha’s stepmother. See Prajapati.

HajunPapiyas, an evil heavenly king, alsoknown in Japanese as Mahajun (theDemon Papiyas) and Maô (the DemonKing). Hajun is the Japanese pronuncia-tion of the Chinese transliteration of theoriginal Sanskrit name. See Papiyas.

Hakkai“Eight precepts,” a Japanese abbrevia-tion for Hassaikai. See eight precepts.

Hakuin Ekaku(1685–1768) The great Japanese Zenreformer of the Tokugawa period(1600–1867) who revitalized the prac-tice of Rinzai, one of the three majorsects of Zen, in Japan. Hakuin’s influ-ence on early modern and modernRinzai is so strong that many refer to itas Hakuin Zen. Hakuin was born in thevillage of Hara at the foot of MountFuji. His secular name was SugiyamaIwajirô. Hakuin entered monastic life

at age fifteen, when he took the ton-sure at the local Zen temple, Shôin-ji.He spent many years on pilgrimage,beginning in 1705, seeking his waythrough his many doubts. According tohis own account, he determined hisfate one day in Gifu Prefecture wherehe was staying with his friend Baô, aRinzai monk, at Zuiun-ji. The abbotthere had a large library comprisingTaoist, Confucian, and Buddhist texts.On a day when the books were laid outin the sun, Hakuin picked one up with-out checking the title. He decided thatthis random choice would determinehis future. His selection was a collec-tion of biographies of Chinese Zenmasters, and he decided to pursue theZen path toward enlightenment.

Hakuin achieved his first enlighten-ment experience in 1708 at Eigan-ji inNiigata. Shôtetsu, the abbot there,refused to acknowledge the experi-ence, as did the other masters hesought out. Eventually, he made hisway to Nagano where he became thedisciple of Dôkyô Etan (1642–1721) atShôju-an, but he remained only eightmonths before he was called home bythe illness of a former teacher.Throughout his life, Hakuin regardedDôkyô as his master. It is unclearwhether or not he received Dôkyô’sformal sanction, but tradition regardsHakuin as Dôkyô’s Dharma heir, fullyqualified to take on Dôkyô’s teachingafter that master’s death. In 1710, heonce again took up residence at Shôin-ji in Hara. At that time, Hakuin waspracticing a regime so austere that hedrove himself to a nervous breakdown,which is often referred to as the “Zensickness” (J. Zenbyô). He sought thehelp of the Taoist hermit Hakuyûshiand cured himself.

Hakuin continued to travel, practic-ing in various places with differentmasters. He later wrote that through-out this period of his life he had manyenlightenment experiences, whichgrew more profound. He spent a shorttime at Myôshin-ji in 1718, where hewas appointed abbot. He then

returned to Hara and settled down per-manently at Shôin-ji. Hakuin had noneed to remain at a major monasterysince disciples came to him in greatnumbers. He taught for many years,often lecturing on the important kôancollections and recorded sayings ofearlier Zen masters. He also wroteextensively: a few of his writings havebeen translated into English byYampolsky and Waddell.

Hakuin trained his disciples usingstern methods. He is credited with for-mulating the systematic use of kôanstill in use within the Rinzai secttoday, although his immediate disci-ples no doubt completed the task.Hakuin required students to continuethe practice of zazen throughout theircareer, believing that not only shouldthey contemplate kôan in order toattain an initial experience of enlight-enment (J. kenshô), but use zazen as alifelong means of deepening thatexperience. He developed a number ofhis own kôan, including the famousSound of One Hand (J. Sekishû), whichhe used with beginners.

Hakuin did extensive work amongthe common people, writing severalpopular hymns, miracle stories, andother religious texts in the vernacularlanguage. He is known as an artist,especially his ink painting, calligraphy,and sculpture. His leading disciplesinclude Tôrei Enji (1721–1792) andGasan Jitô (1727–1797). He received the title Shinki Dokumyô Zenji after his death. His many written worksinclude Itsumadegusa, Orategama, and Yasen Kanna.

Waddell, Norman. The EssentialTeachings of Zen Master Hakuin: ATranslation of the Sokko-rokuKaien-fusetsu. Boston, MA:Shambhala, 1994.

Yampolsky, Philip B., trans. The ZenMaster Hakuin: Selected Writings.New York: Columbia UniversityPress, 1971.

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Half-Lotus Position(J. hanka fuza) An alternative postureused for seated meditation (zazen).When seated in the half-lotus position,the left foot usually rests on the rightthigh with both knees resting on thecushion (zaniku). Many people find thehalf-lotus position easier to maintainthan the full lotus position over longperiods of meditation. It is also possibleto alternate the position and rest theright foot on the left thigh. Classical Zentexts on seated meditation, includingthe Tso-ch’an I by Ch’ang-lu Tsung-tseand Dôgen Kigen’s (1200–1253) FukanZazengi mention this posture.

HanSounding boards used to signal variousevents throughout the monastery,including meal times and the end ofmeditation sessions. The term mostcommonly refers to rectangularwooden boards that hang outside cer-tain temple buildings (shichidô garan),including the abbot’s hall and themonks’ hall (sôdô), among others. Itmay also be used more generically tosignify the entire class of soundinginstruments, including both thewooden boards and the bronze gongscalled umpan.

Wooden han are all shaped identi-cally, although they may be distin-guished by specific names based on

The half-lotus position is a classic meditation posture where the one foot rests upon the other thigh.

their location. They are sounded simul-taneously at specified times to alert theentire monastic community of anupcoming transition or event. To strikethe han, one grasps it by an attachedhandle and uses a wooden mallet.Typically, the boards have versesinscribed on them, although these maydiffer by sect and monastery. Accordingto the Obaku Shingi, the han outsidethe meditation hall at Obaku templesshould read, “Say to the whole assemblythat life and death are the great matter.Impermanence is swift upon us. Leteach one awaken to this. Be reverent,and refrain from self-indulgence.” Seealso Obaku sect.

Hana Matsuri“Flower Festival,” the popular Japanesename for Buddha Day, the day com-memorating the birth of ShakyamuniBuddha (Siddharta Gautama). The

holiday is known more formally inJapanese as Gôtane. Throughout EastAsia, the eighth day of the fourth lunarmonth was traditionally observed asBuddha Day. Today, the Japanese cele-brate Hana Matsuri according to themodern calendar on April 8. Typically,images of the infant Siddharta Gautamaare placed within a small shrine drapedwith flowers. Believers then take turnsladling sweetened tea, known asamacha, or perfumed water over the image. This recalls the episode inthe birth accounts of the Buddha whenthe gods and other heavenly beingsbathed the newborn with pure water.See also kanbutsu.

HanazonokaiA Japanese lay association of RinzaiBuddhism, founded by the Myôshin-jibranch of the Rinzai sect in 1947. Thepurpose of the organization is to spread

The han is a rectangular wooden board used to signal various eventsin a monastery, such as meal times or meditation sessions.

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Zen Buddhism among the general pop-ulace. Branches of the association existin Korea, Mexico, the United States, andother countries. The organization isnamed for Emperor Hanazono(1297–1348), under whose patronagethe Myôshin-ji was originally con-structed. See also lay believer.

HandaikanThe monk or nun responsible for servingthe rice to the rest of the monastic com-munity at mealtime. This responsibilityrotates among the monks or nuns in resi-dence. In the Rinzai sect, the term some-times refers to the monks’ hall (sôdô).

Hanka FuzaTerm that means “sitting in the half-lotus position” in Japanese. Also calledBosatsu-za, the bodhisattva position.See half-lotus position.

HannyaWisdom. Hannya is the Japanesetransliteration of the Sanskrit term pra-jna. See prajna.

Hannya ShingyôHeart Sutra, an abbreviated Japanesetitle for the Prajna-paramita-hrdaya-sutra (T. 8, no. 251). The full title inJapanese is Maka Hannya HaramittaShingyô. See Heart Sutra.

Hannya ZanmaiThe samadhi, or state of consciousnessof perfect wisdom, in which one realizesthe reality of emptiness through wisdom. Hannya zanmai is theJapanese transliteration of the originalSanskrit term prajna samadhi. Therealization of emptiness is regardedwithin the Buddhist tradition as themoment of enlightenment.

Han–shan(J. Kanzan) Chinese poet and Buddhistpractitioner of the T’ang dynasty

(618–907) about whom little is known.Scholars tentatively date his life at thelate eighth to early ninth century. Helived in Han-shan cave on Mount T’ien-t’ai, from which he drew his name. He isknown as an eccentric whose behaviorwas quite erratic. Tradition maintains,however, that he had a deep under-standing of Buddhism and that hisunusual behavior was intended toexpress the principles of Zen. He is saidto have disappeared mysteriously; latergenerations identified him as an incar-nation of the bodhisattva Manjusri.Portraits of him were popular amongZen students in China and Japan. He isusually pictured with a writing scroll,and he is often paired with his friendand fellow hermit, Shih-te (J. Jittoku),who holds a broom because he workedin the temple kitchen. His poetry, com-prised of approximately three hundredverses, is collected in the Han-shanShih ( J. Kanzanshi). The JapaneseRinzai master Hakuin Ekaku(1685–1768) wrote a commentary onHan-shan’s three hundred poems. Seealso Rinzai sect.

Han-shan Shih“Poems of Han-shan” (J. Kanzanshi),the collected poems of the Chinese poetand Zen practitioner Han-shan. Thiscollection of approximately three hun-dred verses has long been popularamong Zen students, and several com-mentaries have been written on it. TheJapanese Rinzai master Hakuin Ekaku(1685–1768), for example, wrote a commentary on the collection, knownas the Kanzanshi Sendai Kimon. Seealso Rinzai sect.

Han-shan Te-ch’ingChinese Rinzai master (1546–1623) ofthe late Ming period (1368–1644). Han-shan was one of a small group of mas-ters who brought about a revival ofBuddhism in the late Ming period. Headvocated a combined practice of Zenmeditation and Pure Land devotion toAmida buddha. Although he was a Zen

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monk, he continually chanted thename of Amida (Ch. nien-fo; J. nem-butsu) and claimed that he once had avision of Amida in a dream. See alsodual practice and Rinzai sect.

Hsu, Sung-peng. A Buddhist Leader inMing China: The Life and Thoughtof Han-shan Te-ch’ing, 1546–1623.University Park, PA: PennsylvaniaState University Press, 1979.

HanshôA temple bell shaped like the ogane, the largest of the monastery bells, butsmall enough to hang under the eaves of a temple building. The hanshô is sounded by striking its side with a wooden hand mallet. Seealso denshô.

HaraThe colloquial Japanese term for thelower abdomen, known more formallyas tanden. Various systems of Asianmeditation identify the hara as the cen-tral core of the individual or as one ofthe body’s energy centers. One methodof Zen concentration focuses the atten-tion on the hara, especially its move-ment as one inhales and exhales.

HaraizaiOffenses that consist of defeat, whichare the most serious offenses againstthe monastic code a Buddhist monk ornun can commit. The word haraizai isthe Japanese transliteration of theSanskrit term parajika. See parajika.

Hashin KyûjiNeedle and moxa. This term refers tothe mundane activities of sewing robesand burning moxa, a flammable substance obtained from the leaves ofthe mugwort plant. In traditional Zen monasteries, monks and nunssewed their own robes. In addition, they patched and repaired damagedrobes to extend their wear. The

monastic code limits the number ofrobes an individual can own at onetime and recommends that old robesbe completely worn out before a monkor nun acquires a new one. Monksburned moxa on their skin as a medic-inal treatment for sore legs and otherminor ailments. These activities weretypically undertaken on bath day atZen monasteries, when the regularmeditation schedule was notobserved. Although these activitiesmay seem separate from the Zen prac-tice of meditation, they neverthelesstypify the mindfulness of the Zen life.

HassaikaiThe “eight precepts of abstinence”observed by lay people on specific daysof the month. The eight precepts are 1)not to kill living beings; 2) not to steal;3) to abstain from sexual misconduct;4) not to lie; 5) not to take intoxicants;6) not to eat after noon; 7) not to adornthe body with perfume, flowers, jew-elry, etc., and not to participate in pub-lic entertainment, including dancing,plays, singing, etc.; and 8) not to use aluxurious bed. See eight precepts.

HasshikiJapanese term for the eight conscious-nesses that make up the human processof perception according to the Yogacharaschool (Hossô) of Mahayana Buddhism.The eight consciousnesses are 1) sightconsciousness (genshiki), 2) sound con-sciousness (nishiki), 3) smell conscious-ness (bishiki), 4) taste consciousness(zesshiki), 5) tactile consciousness (shin-shiki), 6) mind consciousness (ishiki), 7)ego consciousness (manashiki) and 8)the storehouse or alaya consciousness(arayashiki). See eight consciousnesses.

Hasshôdô“Holy Eightfold Path,” the Japaneseterm for the Eightfold Path ofBuddhism. See Eightfold Path.

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HassuJapanese term for Dharma heir. A stu-dent who qualifies to succeed his or hermaster in teaching disciples and trans-mitting the Dharma. See Dharma heir.

HatsuJapanese term for begging bowl; alsopronounced “hachi.” The largest of a setof nested eating bowls that Zen monksand nuns receive at ordination. Thisbowl corresponds to the ancient beg-ging bowl used by Buddhist mendicantsto collect donations of food from laybelievers. There are a number of relatedJapanese terms, including hou, jihatsu(begging alms), and ôryôki.

HatsuiAn alternative pronunciation for “hoi,”the place where one eats one’s meals ina Zen monastery. See hoi.

HatsunehanJapanese transliteration of “pari-nirvana.” See parinirvana.

HattôThe Dharma hall; the main assemblyand lecture hall at a Zen monastery. Thehattô is one of the seven buildings(shichidô garan) that form the heart ofany Zen monastery. It is generallylocated behind the Butsuden, orBuddha hall, and replaces the kôdô, orlecture hall, found in monasteries ofother Buddhist schools. It is used forlectures, as well as for discussions,question and answer sessions (mondô),and ritual services. Unlike other lecturehalls, the Zen Dharma hall does notusually have an image of a buddha orbodhisattva enshrined within it;instead, the abbot is said to representthe buddhas and patriarchs when hetakes his place on the central dais toinstruct the community on the Dharma.

The building is designed to hold theentire monastic community, whichgathers there for morning assemblies

(jôdô) and great assemblies (daisan).For this reason, most Dharma halls arelarge, without much internal furnishingthat would take up space. The mainfocus of the hall is the central dais, fromwhich the abbot addresses the commu-nity. The dais is approached by threesets of stairs. The abbot’s formalDharma chair (hôza) holds a prominentplace on the dais. Many of the Dharmahalls in Japanese Zen monasteries havea high circular ceiling adorned with adramatic painting of a dragon.

Heart Sutra(J. Hannya Shingyô) Prajna ParamitaHrdaya Sutra, an extremely brief sutra,only a single page in length, which pre-sents the heart or essence of theMahayana tradition. The originalSanskrit text was probably composedduring the fourth century C.E. There aretwo versions in the Sanskrit, a shorterversion with only the main body of thetext and a longer version that includesan additional introduction and conclu-sion. In East Asia, the shorter version ismore commonly used. There are severalChinese translations of the sutra; themost popular are those by Kumarajiva(T. 8, no. 250), completed in 402, and byHsuan-tsang (T. 8, no. 251), completedin 648.

The Heart Sutra is among the mostimportant of the Buddhist scriptures inChina, Korea, and Japan. Buddhistmonks and nuns of many sects, includ-ing the Zen schools, recite the sutradaily. In addition, many lay Buddhistscommit the sutra to memory and reciteit as a prayer. See also lay believer. AnEnglish translation from the Sanskritcan be found in Conze’s BuddhistScriptures: A Bibliography and Suzuki’sManual of Zen Buddhism.

Conze, Edward. Buddhist Scriptures: ABibliography. Ed. Lewis Lancaster.New York: Garland, 1982.

Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro. Manual of Zen Buddhism. New York: GrovePress, 1960.

HeavenOne of the six realms of existence intowhich sentient beings may be reborn.According to the Buddhist understand-ing of existence, unenlightened sentientbeings are trapped in a continual pat-tern of birth, death and rebirth. Actionsin the present life determine the natureof future rebirths. Those who build upsufficient good karma may be reborn inone of the various heavens (J. ten). Likeother possible rebirths, however, exis-tence as a heaven-dweller is not eternal.Eventually, good karma is exhaustedand even deities pass away, to be rebornin another realm. It should be notedthat, in religious terms, heaven is not acompletely desirable rebirth. Whileheaven dwellers do not suffer asintensely as sentient beings in the lowerrealms of existence, they are not able tomake spiritual progress toward releasefrom the cycle of rebirth. In that regard,birth as a human being is the mostdesirable outcome.

In addition to the realm of the godsrecognized by all parts of the Buddhisttradition, some schools of MahayanaBuddhism believe in the existence ofBuddha Lands, or Pure Lands, whichare somewhat reminiscent of heavens.Buddha Lands are envisioned as otherworlds, beautiful to all the senses,where sentient beings may readily hearthe Dharma from a buddha and prac-tice Buddhism.

HebiichigoA letter in two segments, written byHakuin Ekaku (1685–1768), a Rinzaimonk, in 1754. The letter, composed asa sermon on the Dharma, wasaddressed to Ikeda Munemasa,daimyô, or military leader, of Iyoprovince. In the letter, Hakuin dis-cusses the behavior and virtue of abeneficent ruler and explains thekarmic repercussions of tyrannicalrule. An English translation can befound in Philip Yampolsky’s The ZenMaster Hakuin. See also Rinzai sect.

Yampolsky, Philip B, trans. The Zen MasterHakuin: Selected Writings. New York:Columbia University Press, 1967.

HekiganrokuThe Japanese title for the Pi-yen Lu (T. 48,no.), a classic Chinese Zen kôan collectionin ten segments. The full title in Japaneseis Bukka Engo Zenji Hekiganroku, “TheBlue Cliff Record of Zen Master Yuan-wu.”Yüan-wu K’o-ch’in (1063–1135; J. EngoKokugon), the Sung dynasty Rinzai monkcompleted the work in 1125; it was firstpublished in 1128. The Hekiganroku grewout of a series of sermons on an earliercollection of one hundred kôan puttogether by Hsüeh-tou Ch’ung-hsien (J.Setchô Jûken) in the eleventh century.Hsueh-tou originally selected his kôanfrom the Ching-te Ch’üan-teng Lu (J.Keitoku Dentôroku) and the recorded say-ings of Yun-men Wen-yen (864–949). Toeach kôan, Hsueh-tou appended a verseof his own as a commentary. Yüan-wuadded an introduction as well as notesand commentaries on each kôan andrelated verse.

The original edition of theHekiganroku was destroyed by Ta-huiTsung-kao (1089–1163), a disciple ofYuan-wu. Ta-hui, a prominent Rinzaimaster in his own right, collected all theprinted copies of the text that he couldfind and burned them. He alsodestroyed the original woodblocks. It isuncertain why Ta-hui took this action,but some scholars believe that he wasconcerned that Zen practitioners wouldbecome too reliant on a written text.The text as we know it was piecedtogether later by a lay practitionernamed Chang Ming-yuan in 1300. Seealso lay believer and Rinzai sect.

HekiganshûAlternative title for the Hekiganroku.See Hekiganroku.

HekigoKôan series studied “after theHekiganroku,” a classic Chinese Zen

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kôan collection. During the medievalperiod (1185–1600), Zen monks of theJapanese Rinzai school worked througha series of three hundred kôan. The sys-tem included three sets of one hundredkôan each: the Hekizen, theHekiganroku, and the Hekigo. The man-ner in which the kôan were used isunknown, since the medieval systemwas replaced by the current practicedeveloped in the eighteenth century bythe reformer Hakuin Ekaku(1685–1768). See also Rinzai sect.

Hekikan“Wall contemplation;” to meditate fac-ing a blank wall. The practice is said toderive from Bodhidharma, the tradi-tional founder of Zen in China.According to legend, Bodhidharmaspent nine years in seated meditation(zazen) facing a cliff wall outside hissmall hermitage on Mount Sung. TheZen school preserves that practice for:when a young person first requestsentrance to a Zen monastery, he or shemust spend up to three days in isolation,doing zazen facing a blank wall.

The term first appears in the Treatiseon the Two Entrances and Four Practices(Ch. Erh-ju Ssu-hsing Lun), traditionallyattributed to Bodhidharma. The textreads in part: “If one discards the falseand takes refuge in the True, one residesfrozen in ‘wall contemplation’ (pi kuan),[in which] self and other, ordinary per-son and sage, are one and the same. . .”(McRae, p. 103) Some modern scholarsmaintain that the expression means notto face a wall while meditating, but tomeditate like a wall.

McRae, John R. The Northern Schooland the Formation of Early Ch’anBuddhism. Honolulu, HI: Universityof Hawaii Press, 1986.

HekizenKôan studied “before the Hekiganroku.”During the medieval period(1185–1600), Zen monks of theJapanese Rinzai school worked through

a series of three hundred kôan. Thesystem included three sets of one hun-dred kôan each: the Hekizen, theHekiganroku, and the Hekigo. TheHekizen was the initial set of approxi-mately one hundred kôan to be mas-tered before moving on to theHekiganroku itself. See also Rinzai sect.

HellOne of the six realms of existence intowhich sentient beings are born.According to the Buddhist under-standing of existence, unenlightenedsentient beings are trapped in a con-tinual pattern of birth, death, andrebirth. Actions in the present lifedetermine the nature of futurerebirths. Those who commit seriousacts of evil create bad karma, whichresults in birth in one of the varioushells (J. jigoku). Like other possiblerebirths, existence as a hell-dweller isnot eternal, and those suffering in hellwill eventually exhaust their badkarma and attain higher births.

The Buddhist tradition graphicallydescribes the punishments suffered invarious hells, especially the eight coldhells and the eight hot hells. The pur-pose of these descriptions is to warnpeople about the karmic consequencesof their actions. Zen masters sometimesdescribe the various hells as the presentcondition of wicked individuals ratherthan the punishment waiting in a futureexistence. Those individuals who kill forsport or participate in other evil activi-ties are said to be hell dwellers.

Henshô Goi“The five ranks of the real and the apparent,” a standard Japanese re-statement of the five ranks of Tung-shan Liang-chieh (807–869), thepopular Zen name for Mount Feng-muin present day Hupeh. See five ranks.

HenzanTo travel on a pilgrimage of visiting Zenmasters. The term henzan may be used

synonymously with angya. DôgenKigen (1200–1253) included an essayentitled “Henzan” in his Shôbôgenzô(Chapter 62). See pilgrimage.

Hiei-zanMount Hiei, a mountain situated to thenortheast of Kyoto, Japan. Hiei-zan isthe site of Enryaku-ji, the headquartersfor the Tendai school of JapaneseBuddhism. The Japanese Buddhistmonk Saichô (767–822) founded thetemple there in 782. Because of its aus-picious location to the east of Kyoto,Mount Hiei and the temples on itsslopes were traditionally regarded asthe guardians of the capital city. Asmany as 3,000 temples at one timestood on the mountain, but all of themwere burned to the ground by the mili-tary leader Oda Nobunaga in 1571. Seealso Enryaku-ji.

HiganLiterally meaning “the other shore,” theJapanese term higan derives from aChinese rendering of the Sanskrit wordpâramitâ, meaning to cross over fromthis shore of suffering to the othershore of nirvana, the realm where suf-fering ceases. The word higan cantherefore be used to express the attain-ment of enlightenment.

In Japan, the term higan is oftenused to denote the spring and autumnequinoxes, since rituals known ashigan-e are held at those times.Alternatively, higan may also be used asan abbreviated reference to the higan-erituals themselves.

Higan-eBuddhist rituals held in Japan at thespring and autumn equinoxes, whichare observed on March 18–24 andSeptember 20–26 according to the modern calendar. Services are offered at Buddhist temples of all denomina-tions to aid sentient beings, especiallythe spirits of the dead, to pass from this shore of suffering to the other

shore (higan) of enlightenment. On amore popular level, Japanese familiesobserve the festival period by visitingfamily graves, cleaning them, and making offerings of flowers, water, and festival foods in honor of deceasedfamily members.

HijiriLiterally, a holy person or a sage. TheJapanese term has a variety of uses inthe context of Buddhism. Since aboutthe mid-Heian period (794–1185), ithas been a term for wanderingBuddhist ascetics who spreadBuddhism among the common people,as well as for mountain ascetics whopracticed austerities in the mountains.In some cases these ascetics were for-mally ordained monks, in other casesthey were self-ordained. In the earlyperiod most hijiri operated indepen-dently, outside the confines of theexisting Buddhist monastic system.Buddhism at this time was largelyassociated with the elite classes andthus under close government scrutiny:the government tried to limit the activ-ities of hijiri in order to control thespread of Buddhism among the com-mon people. Later, in the Kamakuraperiod (1185–1333), various schools ofBuddhism incorporated hijiri into theirranks as a part of their program tospread their teachings on a more pop-ular level. In this capacity, groups ofhijiri from Mount Kôya helped to pop-ularize Shingon Buddhism, especiallypopular devotion to its founder Kûkai(774–835).

Kûya (903–972), sometimes pro-nounced Kôya, is a prime example ofthe early hijiri. Kûya was a Tendai monkwho traveled throughout the Japanesecountryside, mostly working among thecommon people to promote Pure Landpractice and belief. He is said to haveconstantly chanted the nembutsu, call-ing on the name of Amida buddha. Forthis reason, he is called an Amida hijiri.See also Shingon sect and Tendai sect.

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Hori, Ichiro. Folk Religion in Japan:Continuity and Change. Ed. JosephM. Kitagawa and Alan L. Miller.Chicago, IL: University of ChicagoPress, 1968.

Hinayana BuddhismA derogatory name used by theMahayana Buddhist tradition todescribe the early Buddhist teachings as well as the surviving Theravadaschool of Buddhism. The term literallymeans “small vehicle” or “lesser vehi-cle,” and is contrasted with the greatvehicle of Mahayana.

Hinko“Raising the torch,” the ritual action ofstarting the cremation fire at a funeralservice. Today, the hinko is a symbolicgesture performed during the service.The Buddhist monk leading thefuneral service symbolically lights the

cremation fire with a torch. In practice,the term sometimes refers to the finalwords addressed to the deceased by theofficiant at the funeral. Hinko is performed as one of the nine ritualactions, (kubutsuji) comprising thefuneral services for an abbot or otherprominent member of the monasticcommunity. It is also one of the threeritual actions that characterizeBuddhist funerals for ordinary monksand lay believers. See ako.

Hinpotsu“Taking hold of the whisk,” a formalsermon given by a master from the highseat. The name derives from the firstaction taken by the master after assum-ing his place on the high seat, which isto take hold of the hossu or whisk, asymbol of the master’s authority toteach the Dharma. According to Zenmonastic codes, the abbot or anothersenior officer serving the monastery

Hô, a wooden gong in the shape of a fish, is sounded to announce meal times in a Zen monastery.

was obliged to give a hinpotsu sermonfour times each year, on the openingand closing days of the summer andwinter retreats. In the Zen corpus, col-lections of hinpotsu sermons representa genre in Zen literature.

In the Gozan system of Zen templesin medieval Japan (1185–1600), hin-potsu came to refer to a qualifying examundertaken by monks who wished toadvance to the highest level of seniority.Senior monks were required to pass thehinpotsu exam before they qualified toserve as abbot at a major temple ormonastery. The exam was held on ayearly basis, when senior monks wouldtake the high seat in place of the abbotand engage in an exchange of Zen ques-tions and answers (mondô) withyounger monks. If an individual’s per-formance was deemed acceptable bythe abbot, the monk would receive ahinpotsu certificate.

HôA wooden gong in the shape of a longfish with a pearl in its mouth used inZen monasteries. In some cases, the hômay have the shape of a dragon head ona fish body. In modern Zen monasteries,the hô hangs outside the dining hall ormonks’ hall (sôdô). It is sounded bystriking it with a wooden stick and isused to announce meal times in a Zenmonastery. In former periods, the hôwas known as the mokugyo (literally,“wooden fish”). For this reason, it issometimes still called mokugyo today,although that term generally refers to adistinct instrument used duringBuddhist ritual services.

Hô(2) Japanese translation for the Sanskritword Dharma. It may refer to 1) theteachings of the Buddha or theBuddhist scriptures; 2) Buddhistmorality, or the Buddhist path; 3)Reality or Truth, the realization of thingsas they really are; and 4) elements ofphenomenal existence, things, mentalconstructions, and events. See Dharma.

Hôben(Expedient means) Any teaching device employed by a buddha oranother Buddhist teacher in order toconvey aspects of the Dharma to individuals. Hôben is the Japanesetranslation of the Sanskrit term upaya(expedient means) or upaya-kaushalya.See expedient means.

Hôgen Bun’ekiJapanese rendering of Fa-yen Wen-i, aChinese Zen monk who founded theFa-yen school. See Fa-yen Wen-i.

Hôgen SchoolThe Japanese name for the Fa-yenschool, a lineage of Chinese Zen activeduring the T’ang dynasty (618–907). SeeFa-yen school.

HôgoTeachings on Zen Buddhism presentedby a master to disciples either orally (asa sermon) or in writing. Hôgo representan important genre of Zen instructionalliterature, which encompasses a widerange of materials, including formalsermons in classical Chinese and lessformal instructions conveyed in collo-quial language. The term is the Japaneserendering of the Chinese word fa-yu,which literally means “Dharma words.”In Japan, it is typical to contrast the more formal hôgo composed inclassical Chinese with the more popular kana hôgo, informal sermonswritten in Japanese.

HoiThe designated place within a Zenmonastery where a monk or nun sits toeat daily meals. The term literallymeans “the place for the beggingbowls.” In Japanese Sôtô monasteries,monks and nuns eat, sleep, and sit inmeditation at the same spot in themonks’ hall (sôdô). In Rinzai and Obakumonasteries, there is generally a sepa-rate dining hall. In either case, assigned

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places are determined by length ofpractice and rank. Also pronounced“hatsui.” See also Obaku sect, Rinzaisect, and Sôtô sect.

HôjiLiterally meaning “Dharma matter,” theterm was originally used for anyBuddhist ritual observance. It nowrefers specifically to memorial servicesoffered for deceased family members.In Japan, memorial services are con-ducted at specified intervals from thedate of death, continuing for a numberof years. During the primary period ofmourning (chûin), which lasts forty-nine days, services are offered everyseventh day. After that, services markthe hundredth day, the first, third, sev-enth, thirteenth, seventeenth, twenty-third, twenty-seventh, and thirty-thirdanniversaries of death. In some cases,fiftieth and hundredth anniversaries arelikewise marked. In the case ofextremely influential people, includingfounders, memorial services may beobserved perpetually every fifty or one-hundred years.

Hôji(2) Japanese transliteration of Fa-ch’ih(635–702), Fourth Patriarch of theOxhead school of early Zen. See Fa-ch’ih.

Hôjin“Bliss body,” the Japanese translation ofthe Sanskrit term sambhogakaya.Within the Mahayana Buddhist doc-trine of the three bodies of the Buddha( J. sanshin), the sambhogakaya isunderstood as manifestations of theeternal Buddha (J. hosshin; Sk.Dharmakaya) in other celestial worlds.See sambhogakaya.

Hoji ZazenAfternoon session of zazen, one of thefour periods of meditation (J. shijizazen), observed daily in Zen monas-teries. Although the exact hours differ

by monastery, sôshin zazen is held afterlunch, sometime between three o’clockand five o’clock.

HôjôThe abbot’s quarters at a Buddhisttemple or monastery. The Zen schooluses the expression more regularly thanother Buddhist schools. In the Zen sect,the term may also be used as a politetitle for the abbot or chief monk. Theterm hôjô literally means “ten-footsquare,” a reference to the bedroom ofVimalakirti as described in theVimalakirti Sutra. Vimalakirti, themain character of the sutra, was awealthy lay Buddhist of deep wisdomwho attained enlightenment while stilla lay person. According to the sutra, hesuccessfully debated with the bod-hisattva Manjusri and taught a gather-ing of 32,000 disciples in his small ten-foot square room.

Although the name suggests thecramped quarters of a simple medita-tion hut, Zen hôjô are typically largecomplexes. The abbot of a Zenmonastery traditionally uses his quar-ters not only for sleep, private medita-tion, and study, but also as a place ofinstruction for the entire community.According to Zen monastic codes,evening instruction, known as “smallassemblies,” take place within theabbot’s quarters. In the Rinzai sect, per-sonal interviews between master anddisciples likewise occur in the hôjô.Since the hôjô needed to accommodatethe entire monastic community onsome occasions, they are often largestructures, divided into private innerquarters and outer public areas. Seealso lay believer.

Collcutt, Martin. Five Mountains: TheRinzai Zen Monastic Institution inMedieval Japan. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press, 1981.

Hôjô(2) “Releasing living things,” or theBuddhist practice of buying captive

animals, such as birds, fish, and turtles,for the sole purpose of releasing them.The term is also used as an abbreviatedexpression for Hôjôe, the Buddhist cer-emony celebrating the release of cap-tive animals. The ritual was typicallyheld on the fifteenth day of the eighthlunar month, and became popular inboth China and Japan as a means topromote compassion for living beingsand to build merit.

In China, T’ien-t’ai monasteries com-monly held Hôjôe rituals, since thefounder of the school, Chih-i (538–597),favored the practice. Chih-i designated aspecially constructed pond on MountT’ien-t’ai for the purpose of releasingfish. In Japan, the practice initially gainedthe support of the imperial family andthe aristocracy, who considered it both amerit builder and a pleasant pastime.Special ponds, known in Japanese as hôjôiki, were constructed at some Buddhisttemples and Shintô shrines for the cere-monies. The Zen master Yin-yüan Lung-ch’i (1594–1673), founder of the ObakuZen sect, favored the ceremony andincluded a pond for the release of captivefish on the grounds of Mampuku-ji, themain Obaku monastery. See also Obakusect and T’ien-t’ai school.

Hôjô RegentsThe Hôjô family was a samurai clanthat governed Japan as regents ( J.shikken) to the shôgun during theKamakura period (1185–1333). Theywere patrons of Zen Buddhism, beginning with Tokiyori (1227–1263),the fifth regent. The Hôjô helped toestablish Zen as an independent schoolin Japan. They invited prominentChinese Zen masters to visit and settlein Japan, built many large monasteriesin Kamakura and Kyoto, and began theGozan (Five Mountain) system of officially sponsored Zen templesthroughout the country.

Hôjô Sadatoki(1271–1311) The seventh Hôjô regent;he showed an interest in Zen both as a

form of personal religious practice andas a cultural resource. He practiced Zenmeditation under the guidance of theChinese master I-shan I-ning(1247–1317) and invited the ChineseSôtô master Tung-ming Hui-jih(1272–1340) to come to Japan to serveas abbot at several of the major monas-teries in Kamakura. Sadatoki becameinvolved in issues of monastic disci-pline, issuing a list of regulations forZen monasteries in 1294. He also over-saw the first introduction of the Gozansystem (Five Mountain) of officiallysponsored Zen temples. He took thetonsure—shaving the head at ordina-tion as an indication of the break fromordinary secular life and dedication tomonastic practice—in 1301 and contin-ued to govern from retirement until hisdeath in 1311. See also Sôtô sect.

Hôjô TokiyoriThe fifth of the Hôjô regents who gov-erned during the Kamakura period(1185–1333). Tokiyori (1227–1263) notonly patronized Zen masters andtemples, he undertook the serious prac-tice of seated meditation (J. zazen) andof exchanges with a Zen master ( J.mondô). He assumed the office ofregent in 1246, the same year that theprominent Chinese Zen master Lan-ch’i Tao-lung (1213–1278) immigratedto Japan. The two men met in 1249, andTokiyori immediately became themonk’s patron. He first establishedLan-ch’i as the head monk at Jôraku-ji,which he converted to a Zen temple forthe master. Tokiyori then began theconstruction of Kenchô-ji, the first full-scale Zen monastery in Kamakura mod-eled on the Sung Chinese style. Tokiyoriinvited Lan-ch’i to serve as the foundingabbot. Tokiyori also practiced Zenunder the instruction of the Chinesemaster Wu-an P’u-ning (1197–1276),who granted the regent formal inka(official certification that a student hasattained the same insight into theDharma as the master) and a Dharmarobe as a symbol of the transmission.

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Hôjô Tokimune(1251–1284) The sixth Hôjô regent,and son of Tokiyori. Tokimunebecame a patron of Zen only late inhis life; in his early years he was a sup-porter of the Ritsu sect. Like hisfather, he not only acted as patron, healso practiced Zen meditation.Tokimune was in power during theperiod of the Mongol invasions, andhe built the Zen monastery Engaku-jias a memorial for the Japanese war-riors who died in battle against theinvaders. He died suddenly at the ageof thirty-four. On the day of his death,he had taken the tonsure and becomea Zen monk.

HokekyôThe most commonly used abbreviatedJapanese title for the Myôhô rengekyô,the Lotus Sutra. See Lotus Sutra.

HôkiA vessel of the Dharma. Sometimespronounced hokki. An expressionused to describe an individual with adeep capacity to master the BuddhistDharma. In the Zen school, it refers toa Zen practitioner who is capable ofattaining enlightenment and is wor-thy of transmitting the Dharma. Amaster will often use the term in refer-ence to a prospective disciple whoshows great promise. For example,when Hui-k’o (487–593), the SecondPatriarch, cut off his arm and gave itto Bodhidharma to show his determi-nation to practice Zen, Bodhidharmaconcluded that he was a worthy vesselof the Dharma.

HokkaiDharma realm, the Japanese transla-tion of the Sanskrit term dharmad-hatu. See dharmadhatu.

The hokkai jôin mudra is a meditative position of the hands and body.

Hokkai JôinThe “cosmic mudra,” the body andhand position generally assumed dur-ing periods of Zen meditation. Oneforms the hokkai jôin by first crossingthe legs either in the lotus or half-lotus position, with the left foot rest-ing on the right thigh. The right handrests on the left foot, palm facing up.The left hand rests on the right hand,with the tips of the thumbs lightlytouching.

HokkekyôAn alternative pronunciation forHokekyô, the common abbreviatedJapanese title for the Myôhô rengekyô,the Lotus Sutra. See Lotus Sutra.

HokkuSometimes pronounced “hôku,” aterm meaning “Dharma drum,” adrum used during Buddhist services.The hokku found in Sôtô and Rinzaitemples is one of two large drums(taiko) found in the Dharma hall(hattô). The hokku sits in the north-east corner of the hall, while thesaku—the “tea drum” used to callmonks to tea—sits in the northwestcorner. They rest horizontally onwooden platforms and both ends maybe played using two wooden sticks.The hokku is sounded at large assem-blies of the monastic community,including such occasions as the abbottaking the high seat to give a formalsermon (jôdô), the small eveningassembly (shôsan), and informal ser-mons (fusetsu).

The hokku found in Obaku templesis somewhat different in style andusage. Instead of resting horizontally,it sits vertically in a wooden frame,with only one surface for playing. It isused regularly at both morning andevening services. See also Obaku sect,Rinzai sect, and Sôtô sect.

Hokku(2) See Haiku.

Hô KojiJapanese rendering of “LaymanP’ang.” See Layman P’ang.

Hôkô-jiA major Rinzai Zen monastery locatedin Tôtômi, Shizuoka Prefecture. Itsformal name is Shin’ô-zan Hôkô-ji.The monastery was founded byMumon Gensen (1323–1390) in 1384.It was originally an independentmonastery ( J. rinka), not associatedwith the Gozan system, and it nowserves as the main headquarters forthe Hôkô-ji branch of Rinzai Zen. Seealso Rinzai sect.

Hôkô-ji HaThe Hôkô-ji branch of Rinzai, one ofthe fourteen contemporary branchesof the Japanese Rinzai sect. Thebranch’s main monastery, founded byMumon Gensen (1323–1390), for thebranch in Hôkô-ji, is located inTôtômi, Shizuoka Prefecture. TheHôkô-ji Ha has 170 temples through-out Japan and claims approximately590,000 adherents.

Hômon“Dharma gate,” usually a reference to the Buddhist teachings. See Dharma gate.

HômyôThe “Dharma name” given to an indi-vidual upon taking the tonsure andbecoming a monk or nun. The termalso often denotes the posthumousBuddhist name granted to a lay per-son during Buddhist memorial ser-vices (hôji). The term hômyô is usedless commonly than the related termkaimyô. See kaimyô.

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HondôThe main hall at a Buddhist temple ormonastery in which the main image (J.honzon) of a buddha or bodhisattva isenshrined. Morning and evening servicesare generally held in the Hondô. At Zentemples, the Hondô is formally known asthe Butsuden, or Buddha hall. At otherBuddhist temples, it is often known as thekondô, or golden hall. See Butsuden.

Hônen(1133–1212) Japanese Pure Land monk ofthe late Heian (794–1185) and earlyKamakura (1185–1333) periods, whofounded the Jôdo sect of Pure LandBuddhism in Japan. Hônen began hiscareer as a Tendai monk, and it was duringhis years as a Tendai monk on Mount Hieithat he first became familiar with the prac-tices and teaching of Pure Land devotion.He became a believer in Amida buddhaand chanted the nembutsu constantly. In1175, after more than twenty years of train-

ing and study on Mount Hiei, Hônen leftthe mountain and moved to the city ofKyoto where he began to publicly teach theexclusive practice of nembutsu (J. senjunembutsu). His disciples included peoplefrom every social class, Buddhist monksand nuns, commoners, and warriors.Conflict with established schools ofBuddhism lead to his exile in 1207. He diedin 1212 at the age of eighty. See also PureLand sect and Tendai sect.

Hongaku“Original enlightenment,” the Japaneseterm for the innate Buddha Nature pos-sessed by all sentient beings. See originalenlightenment.

Honji Suijaku“Manifestation of the original state,” aunique Japanese religious teaching thatseeks to harmonize Buddhism with theindigenous Shintô belief in kami (indige-nous Japanese deities or spirits).

The Hondô, formally known as Butsuden, is the main hall of a Buddhist temple where morning and evening services are held.

According to the Honji suijaku theory,various buddhas and bodhisattvas takeon specific forms in Japan as the nativeJapanese kami. The buddhas and bod-hisattvas are identified as the honji, ororiginal state, while the Shintô kami rep-resent the suijaku, or localized manifes-tation. For example, Amida buddha issaid to become manifest as the kamiKumano Gongen, and the Sun GoddessAmaterasu is a manifestation of the SunBuddha Dainichi (MahavairochanaBuddha). The Honji suijaku theory devel-oped gradually during the Heian(794–1185) and Kamakura (1185–1333)periods and allowed Buddhism to spreadamong the common people whoremained devoted to the local kami. Listsof kami and their associated Buddhistfigures date back to at least the twelfthcentury, but there is no real consistencybetween existing lists. Although someassociations became fairly standard, theHonji suijaku theory was applied mainlyat the local level.

Honrai No Menmoku“Original Face,” in Japanese. One of themost common Zen expressions, mean-ing original enlightenment. SeeOriginal Face.

Honshin“Original Mind,” a Japanese Zen expres-sion meaning one’s true nature or BuddhaNature. The term is contrasted with thedeluded mind of ordinary beings. Zenteaches that everyone possesses theOriginal Mind of enlightenment, which isclouded by delusions. Through medita-tion, it is possible to realize the OriginalMind, another expression for satori.

Honshô“Original nature,” a common JapaneseZen expression for buddhahood or origi-nal enlightenment. It is based on the affir-mation that all sentient beings inherentlypossess the Buddha Nature and are origi-nally buddhas. Enlightenment is the real-ization of one’s original nature.

Honshô(2) “Original lives,” Japanese translationfor jataka tales of the historical Buddha’sprevious lives. See jataka tales.

Honshôkai“Precepts of the original nature,” aMahayana expression indicating thatobservance of the bodhisattva preceptsis a natural expression of one’s inherentBuddha Nature. Since one’s true natureis Buddha Nature, the Buddhist pre-cepts are not an external moral code.

HonzanThe main monastery for a school ofBuddhism. In Japanese Buddhism, everyindependent sect of Buddhism has one ormore honzan, which serve as headquar-ters for the sect or its branches. In manycases, the honzan also serves as the pri-mary training monastery for Buddhistpriests who will serve in local parishtemples. Other temples within the sectare generally related to the mainmonastery as branch temples. The termhonzan may also be used for the maintemple within a large monastic complexto distinguish it from other subtemples(tatchû) on the grounds.

Although the practice of rankingtemples is quite old, the hierarchicalsystem of ranking temples as main andbranch temples was not formalized untilthe Tokugawa period (1600–1867). Atthat time, every Buddhist temple andmonastery was required to fit some-where within a formal sectarian struc-ture. Honzan were designated as thehighest level, and as such, representedthe sect as a whole to the government.Under the honzan were various levels ofprimary temples (honji) and branchtemples (matsuji) that answereddirectly or indirectly to the honzan.Today, there are eighteen honzan withinthe Zen school. The Sôtô sect has two,Rinzai has fifteen (one for each of itsmain branches), and Obaku has one.See also Obaku sect and Rinzai sect.

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HonzonThe main image at a Buddhist temple ormonastery. The term literally means the“main honored one.” In most cases, theimage is a statue of a buddha or bod-hisattva, but different schools of Bud-dhism favor different images. For example,Pure Land temples always have an imageof Amida buddha enshrined as their hon-zon. In Zen temples, the honzon is mostoften an image of Shakyamuni (SiddhartaGautama), the historical Buddha. Oftenthe central image is flanked by two otherstatues to form a triad. When Shakyamunistands in the center, he is flanked by twoprominent attendants from his lifetime orby buddhas from the past and future.Other popular images include the bod-hisattva Kannon, Yakushi Buddha, or thebodhisattva Jizô.

Hôô“The King of the Dharma,” an epithet usedfor the Buddha. Hôô is the Japanese trans-lation for the Sanskrit Dharma Raja. InJapanese history, the Empress Shôtoku(764–770 C.E.) bestowed the title of Hôô ona Buddhist monk named Dôkyô (d. 770) in766 C.E. Dôkyô had designs on ascendingthe imperial throne himself, and the titleconferred upon him the empress’s fullauthority to determine government policy.See also Dharma King.

HôrinJapanese for Wheel of the Dharma. SeeWheel of the Dharma.

HôrindenThe Japanese title for the Pao-linChuan. See Pao-lin Chuan.

HosshiDharma master, a Buddhist monk or nunwell-versed in the Buddhist teachings whois competent to instruct others. TheJapanese term may also be pronounced“hôshi.” In some cases, it is used to distin-guish scholar-monks from meditationmasters (zenji) and vinaya masters (ritsuji).

Hosshin“Dharma body,” the Japanese transla-tion of the Sanskrit term Dharmakaya.Within the Mahayana Buddhist doctrineof the three bodies of the Buddha(J. sanshin), the Dharmakaya is thehighest aspect of the Buddha, and isunderstood as the absolute or eternalBuddha. In Japanese the other bodies ofthe Buddha are the hôjin (Sk. samb-hogakaya), and the ojin (Sk. nir-manakaya). See Dharmakaya.

Hosshin KôanA category of kôan comprising thosebased on sayings from the classical Zentexts related to the concept of hosshin, orDharmakaya. The word hosshin is theJapanese translation of the Sanskrit termDharmakaya, literally meaning “body ofthe Dharma.” Hosshin kôan generallyinclude a comment or verse made by oneof the great historical Zen masters whenasked about the Dharmakaya. As a cate-gory of kôan, they encourage a deepunderstanding of the Buddha Nature thatpervades all of reality.

Hosshin kôan represent the first of fivestages of Rinzai kôan practice, which fol-low the initial enlightenment experience(kenshô). The process of working throughfive categories of kôan, established by theeighteenth century reformer HakuinEkaku (1685–1768) and his successors,remains standard practice in the Rinzaischool in Japan today. The practitionerundertakes the contemplation of hosshinkôan to expand the initial experience ofseeing into one’s own nature. See alsoRinzai sect.

Miura, Isshû, and Ruth Fuller Sasaki.The Zen Kôan. New York: Harcourt,Brace & World, 1967.

Shimano, Eido T. “Zen Kôans.” In Zen,Tradition and Transition. Ed. KennethKraft. New York: Grove Press, 1988.

Hossô SchoolThe Japanese name for the Yogachara orFa-hsien school of Buddhism, alsoknown as the Yuishiki or “Consciousness

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Only” school. The Hossô school wasone of the six schools of NaraBuddhism, established in Japan duringthe Nara period (710–794). The termHossô literally means “characteristicsof the dharmas,” which reflects theschool’s philosophical interest inunderstanding the essential nature ofall phenomena (dharmas). The pri-mary teachings of the school includethe storehouse consciousness (alayaconsciousness) and the three naturesof reality. The school is also known asthe Yuishiki or “Consciousness Only”school, because it teaches that thephysical world that we experiencethrough the five senses is actually aproduct of our conscious minds. TheYogachara school developed in Indiaduring the fourth through the seventhcenturies C.E., based on the writings ofAsanga and Vasubandhu, two IndianBuddhist scholar monks. It spread toChina in the seventh century, and wasfirst introduced in Japan by Dôshô(628–700), the monk who studiedunder the Fa-hsien master Hsuan-tsang (600–664) in China.

HossuA fly whisk, usually made from horsehair attached to a short staff. Originally,Buddhist monks in India carried thewhisk to clear the ground in front ofthem as they walked to avoid inadver-tently killing any small insects in theirpath. In the Zen school, the hossu is car-ried by a Zen master as a sign of teach-ing authority. The master may use the whisk as a means of nonverbalcommunication during encounters withdisciples, raising the whisk, throwing itto the ground, or even striking studentswith it. Because the whisk is regarded asa symbol of a master’s authority to teachand transmit the Dharma, a master maypass a whisk on to a disciple as a physi-cal symbol of Dharma transmission.

HoteiJapanese for Pu-tai (d. 916), an eccen-tric Chinese monk from the T’ang

dynasty (618–907). In Japan, Hotei isrevered as one of the seven lucky gods(J. shichifukujin). In that regard, he isconsidered the patron deity for fortunetellers and liquor merchants. See Pu-tai.

HotokeJapanese term for the Buddha or abuddha. The word can refer generally toany enlightened being or more specifi-cally, to the historical Buddha, and issaid to be derived from an ancientChinese transliteration for the Sanskritword buddha, futoke, or futo.

The term is also commonly used inJapan in reference to the dead. Althoughnot in keeping with orthodox Buddhistteachings of transmigration, rebirth andnirvana, in Japanese folk understand-ing, the spirits of the dead are said tobecome buddhas after death.

Ho-tse SchoolAn early lineage of Chinese Zen andone of three lineages founded by disci-ples of the Sixth Patriarch Hui-neng(638–713). The lineage was founded byHo-tse Shen-hui (670–762), theDharma heir of Hui-neng, during theT’ang dynasty (618–907). AlthoughShen-hui had a lasting impact on Zenhistory, providing the traditionalunderstanding of the orthodox lineageand the distinction between theSouthern and Northern schools, hislineage was not a dominant force inearly Zen. The Ho-tse school ( J.Kataku-shû) survived for only five orsix generations. The only significantfigure to emerge from the school afterShen–hui was Kuei-feng Tsung-mi.

Ho-tse Shen-hui(670–762; J. Kataku Jinne) Chinesemonk of the T’ang dynasty (618–907),remembered as the founder of the Ho-tse school of early Zen. The name Ho-tse derives from the mountainwhere he had his monastery. Shen-huiwas a Dharma heir of the SixthPatriarch Hui-neng (638–713).

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Nothing is known of Shen-hui’s earlylife. In 699 he became a disciple ofShen-hsiu (606?–706), founder of theso-called Northern school of Zen. In701, he joined Hui-neng’s Zen commu-nity on the advice of his former master.He received Hui-neng’s inka—or “sealof approval”—in 713, shortly before themaster died. Shen-hui played an impor-tant role in Zen history, creating the tra-ditional distinction between theNorthern and Southern schools of earlyZen. Shen-hui publicly denounced Zenmaster Shen-hsiu and his Northernschool, accusing them of usurping thepatriarchy and promoting a hereticalform of gradual enlightenment. Shen-hui argued that his own master Hui-neng was the only disciple of the FifthPatriarch Hung-jen (601–674) to receivea valid transmission of the Dharma.Therefore, Hui-neng alone deserved thetitle Sixth Patriarch. Shen-hui arguedthat Hui-neng’s Southern school pre-served the orthodox understanding ofsudden enlightenment taught by theFifth Patriarch Hung-jen. Shen-hui’sattacks on the Northern school came toa head at the Great Dharma Assembly(J. Daihôe), which he held at Ta-yun-ssumonastery in Honan in 732. Shen-hui’sunderstanding of Zen eventuallybecame the dominant version, and theSouthern school became the orthodoxschool. All currently active lineages ofZen trace their roots through Hui-neng.Scholars now believe that the distinc-tion between the two schools waslargely of Shen-hui’s own creation.

Hottô HaA lineage of Japanese Rinzai and one ofthe twenty-four lineages of JapaneseZen active during the Kamakura(1185–1333) and early Ashikaga(1392–1568) periods. The Hottô Ha is aJapanese branch of the Yang-ch’i lin-eage founded by Shinchi Kakushin(1207–1298). Its name comes fromKakushin’s honorific title Hottô Zenji.After Kakushin traveled to Sung China,where he became the Dharma heir

of the Chinese Rinzai master Wu-menHui-k’ai (1183–1260), he returned toJapan and established his own lineageat Saihô-ji, later called Kôkoku-ji. Thelineage retained Kakushin’s interest in esoteric teachings and rituals. It also emphasized the study of Wu-men’s Mumonkan, which Kakushinintroduced to Japan. The Hottô lineagewas closely associated with theSouthern Imperial Court and thereforereceived patronage from the Ashikagabakufu. See also Rinzai sect andYang-ch’i school.

Hou Hei“Lord Black,” one of two clever robbersfrom China whose names appear occasionally in Zen literature. His part-ner in crime, Hou Po (Lady White), is afemale robber. Hou Hei is known as KôKoku in Japanese.

Hou Po“Lady White,” the clever female robberfrom China, associated with a male rob-ber named Hou Hei. They appeartogether in Zen literature. Hou Po isknown as Kô Haku in Japanese.

HouseholderA term commonly used to designateBuddhist lay believers who have notbeen ordained as monks or nuns. Theterm indicates that the primary concernof lay practitioners remains family life,thus distinguishing them from monksand nuns who leave the home lifebehind when they enter the monastery.

HôyûJapanese transliteration of Fa-jung(594–657), the Chinese monk whofounded the Oxhead school of earlyZen. See Fa-jung.

HôzaThe Dharma seat, usually the abbot’sformal lecture chair located on the

raised platform in the hattô, or Dharmahall of the monastery. The abbotaddresses the assembly from this seatfor formal lectures and informal discus-sions about the Dharma. When seatedin the chair expounding the Dharma,the abbot is said to represent theBuddha and the patriarchs, thus thechair is generally the focus of theDharma hall, which typically houses noother buddha images.

Hsiang-yen Chih-hsien(d. 898; J. Kyôgen Chikan) Chinese Zenmaster of the T’ang dynasty (618-907)from the Kuei-yang school (J. Igyô-shû). He was a Dharma heir of Kuei-shan Ling-yu (771–853), although hewas originally a disciple of Pai-changHuai-hai (720–814). The story ofHsiang-yen’s attainment of enlighten-ment is very famous within the Zen tra-dition. It recounts that althoughHsiang-yen was an accomplishedscholar of the Buddhist scriptures, hedid not make progress in his medita-tion. One day, when Kuei-shan askedhim about his “Original Face before hisbirth” ( J. honrai no memmoku),Hsiang-yen could not respond. Hisextensive knowledge of scripture didhim no good; as he observed, picturesof food cannot satisfy the hungry. Heburned his books and concentrated hisefforts on the problem, finally, as he wasworking in the yard, he heard the soundof a tile strike the ground and was sud-denly enlightened.

Hsing-hua Ts’ung-chiang(830–888; J. Kyôgen Chikan) A ChineseRinzai monk of the T’ang dynasty(618–907). Hsing-hua was an importantDharma heir of Lin-chi I-hsüan (d.867), the founder of the Rinzai school.He joined Lin-chi’s assembly in 861.After he attained enlightenment, he setoff on a pilgrimage. He later returned tocare for the master during the lastmonths of his life. Hsing-hua played acrucial role in preserving the teachings

and Zen style of Lin-chi. His mostimportant Dharma heir was Nan-yüanHui-yüng. See also Rinzai sect.

Hsin-hsin-ming“Hymn of the Sincere Mind,” a verse of 146 lines traditionally attributed to Seng-ts’an (d. 606), the third Chinese patriarch. The verse is an early example of Zen poetry andincludes many famous lines quoted insubsequent Zen literature. It is known inJapanese as Shinjinmei. D. T. Suzuki(1689–1966) published an English trans-lation of the verse in both Essays in ZenBuddhism (First Series; Ryder, 1970) andManual of Zen Buddhism (Grove, 1960).

Hsi-shan“West Mountain,” the Zen monasteryestablished by Tao-hsin (580–651), thefourth Zen patriarch. Hsi-shan is amountain in Lo-ch’ang in modern dayGuandong. It is also known as MountShuang-feng (J. Sôhô-zan)

Hsüan-tsang(ca. 600–664; J. Genjô) ChineseBuddhist scholar monk who traveled toIndia on a pilgrimage in search ofBuddhist texts and translated manytexts into Chinese upon his return.Hsüan-tsang left China secretly in 629,having been denied official permissionto make the trip to India. He traveledthroughout Central Asia and India,studying Sanskrit and Buddhist philos-ophy. He returned to China in 645, car-rying 657 Buddhist texts. He spent therest of his life translating them fromSanskrit into Chinese, but he completedonly seventy-three items. A large por-tion of the texts that he translated werefrom the Yogachara school. He is cred-ited with founding the ChineseYogachara school, known as the Fa-hsiang school. Hsüan-tsang is said tohave introduced Zen to the earlyJapanese Buddhist monk Dôshô(628–670), the first Japanese monk tostudy Zen in China. He wrote an account

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of his travels in the T’a-t’ang Hsi-yü chi(Record of the Western Regions). His jour-ney was also made famous by the popu-lar novel Monkey (Ch. Hsi–yüki).

Wu, Ch’eng-en. Monkey. Trans. ArthurWaley. New York: Grove Press, 1994.

Hsüeh-feng I-ts’un(822–908; J. Seppô Gison) Chinesemonk who was one of the most famousand influential Zen masters of the lateT’ang period (618–907). Hsüeh-fengwas the Dharma heir of Te-shanHsuan-chien (782–865). He appears inmany classical kôan, including numberthirteen in the Mumonkan and num-bers five, twenty-two, forty-nine, fifty-one and sixty-six of the Hekiganroku.His leading disciples include Yun-menWen-yen (864–949) and Hsüan-shaShih-pei (835–908), founders of theYun-men and Fa-yen houses of Zenrespectively, and Ch’ang-ch’ing Hui-leng (854–932). See also Fa-yen school.

Hsüeh-mo Lun“Treatise on Blood Lineage,” a Zen trea-tise written in Chinese (T. 48, no. 2009).It is known more commonly by its titlein Japanese, the Ketsumyaku Ron.Although the text is traditionally attrib-uted to Bodhidharma (d. 532), the firstpatriarch, it is a later work, probablycomposed in the early T’ang dynasty(618–907). The sermon stresses the Zenteaching of seeing into one’s ownnature and thus attaining enlighten-ment without reliance on externalpractices or written words. The authormay have been from Ma-tsu Tao-i’s lin-eage or perhaps from the Oxheadschool. The Hsüeh-mo Lun appears inBodhidharma’s Six Gates (Ch. Shao-shih, J. Shôshitsu Rokumon Shû), a col-lection of six essays attributed toBodhidharma. An English translation ofthe essay by Red Pine appears in TheZen Teaching of Bodhidharma (NorthPoint Press, 1989).

Hsüeh-tou Ch’ung-hsien(980–1052; J. Setchô Jûken) Chinese Zenmaster of the early Sung dynasty(960–1279) who was a member of theYun-men school and also one of its lastprominent masters. The Dharma heirof Chih-men Kuang-tsu (d. 1031), hetook his name from Mount Hsüeh-tou,in present day Chekiang, where hetaught and wrote for thirty years.Hsüeh-tou was a famous writer andpoet of his time, and among his writingsis a compilation of the most importantclassical kôan, the Hsüeh-tou Po-tseSung-ku, which included one hundredcases favored in the Yun-men lineage.The work later became the basis for theHekiganroku. The collection includeseighteen kôan originally created byYun-men Wen-yen (864–949), thefounder of the lineage, which helped topreserve the master’s influence on latergenerations of Zen students. Hsüeh-toualso composed a poem for each of theone hundred cases, which served as hiscommentary.

Hsü-t’ang Chih-yü(1185–1269; Kidô Chigu) A ChineseRinzai monk of the Sung dynasty(960–1279). Chih-yü was born in a vil-lage in what is now Chekiang Province.He took the tonsure at age sixteen at alocal temple and then set out on pil-grimage. He practiced under the Rinzaimaster Yü-an P’u-yen (1156–1226) atChing-shan in Hangchow, and eventu-ally became his Dharma heir. He was ingood favor with the imperial court andheld the position of abbot at many ofthe leading monasteries of his time.After he retired to Hsüeh-tou-shan, theJapanese monk Nampô Jômyô(1235–1309) became his disciple andlater carried his Dharma lineage backto Japan. See also Rinzai sect.

Hsü-t’ang Lu Tai-piehA portion of the Hsü-t’ang Ho-shang Yu-lu, the Recorded Sayings of Master Hsü-t’ang, which circulates as an independent

work, and contains a collection of one-hundred old kôan with answers. Fifty-three of the kôan have answers in thetai-yu (J. daigo) style, in which the mas-ter responds for the disciple, and theremaining forty-seven have answers ofthe pieh-yu (J. betsugo) style, in whichthe master offers an alternative answerto the original. The Hsü-t’ang Lu Tai-pieh (J. Kidô Roku Daibetsu) is used asan advanced text within the Takujû lineof modern Japanese Rinzai. See alsoRinzai sect and Takujû school.

Huang-lung Hui-nan(1002–1069; J. Oryô or Oryû Enan)Chinese Rinzai master of the Sungdynasty (960–1279) who founded theHuang-lung school, one of the twomajor Rinzai lineages of his time. Hui-nan was the Dharma heir of Shih-shuang Ch’u-yuan (986–1039), and hereceived the posthumous title Pu-chaiChan-shih. His lineage lasted for about200 years, and was transmitted to Japanby Eisai (1141–1215), the JapaneseRinzai monk. See also Rinzai sect.

Huang-lung SchoolA lineage of Chinese Rinzai Zen activeduring the Sung dynasty (960–1279) andknown as one of the so-called sevenschools of Zen. The lineage wasfounded by the Zen master Huang-lungHui-nan (1002–1069; J. Oryô Enan). Theschool remained active for about 200years in China before it faded. In thelate twelfth century, Eisai (1141–1215),the Japanese Zen monk, transmittedthe lineage to Japan, where it becameknown as the Oryô school. See alsoRinzai sect.

Huang-mei Hung-jen(601–674; J. Obai Gunin) An alternativename for the Ffth Chinese Patriarchof Zen, better known simply as Hung-jen. The name Huang-mei derives fromthe mountain were he lived and taught.See Hung-jen.

Huang-mei Shan“Yellow Plum Mountain” (J. Obai-zan),the mountain in present day Hupeh,China, where the Fifth Patriarch Hung-jen (601–674) had his monastery. Themountain is also known by alternativenames. It is called Wu-tsu-shan, or FifthPatriarch Mountain (J. Goso-zan) inhonor of Hung-jen. Some texts refer toit as Tung-shan (807–869), or EastMountain (J. Tôzan).

Huang-po Hsi-yün(d. 850; J. Obaku Kiun) Chinese Zenmaster of the T’ang dynasty (618–907),one of the most famous and influentialmasters of the classical period. Huang-po took his vows at Chien-fu-ssu onHuang-po-shan in Fukien, then movednorth and practiced for a time underNan-ch’üan P’u-yüan (748–835). Laterhe became the disciple of Pai-changHuai-hai (720–814), who recognizedhim as his Dharma heir. A lay disciplebuilt a temple for him in the mountainsof western Kiangsi. Huang-po namedthe mountain and the temple Huang-po-shan and Huang-po-ssu after themountain where he took the tonsure,and he later became known by the same name. His most prominent disciple was Lin-chi I-hsüan (d. 867),founder of the Lin-chi ( J. Rinzai)school. Huang–po’s writings arerecorded in the Huang–po Tuan-chiCh’an-shih Wan-ling Lu, which wastranslated into English by John Blofeld.See also lay believer and Rinzai sect.

Blofeld, John. The Zen Teaching ofHuang Po on the Transmission ofMind. Boston, MA: Shambhala,1994.

Huang-po-shan“Mount Huang-po.” There are twomountains in China that bear the nameHuang-po. One is in Fukien provincenear the modern city of Foochow insoutheastern China, and the other incentral China in the western part ofKiangsi. The mountain in Fukien has

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been the site of a Zen temple since thelate eighth century. In 789, a Zen monknamed Cheng-kan, a disciple of theSixth Patriarch Hui-neng (638–713),constructed a meditation hut there,which was later expanded to a full Zenmonastery called Chien-fu-ssu. TheChinese master later known as Huang-po Hsi-yün (d.850; J. Obaku Kiun) tookhis monastic vows at Chien-fu-ssu andlater named the other Mount Huang-poafter his childhood home. Chien-fu-ssufell into disrepair during the Sungdynasty (960–1279) and was only a ruinby the late Ming dynasty (1368–1644)when a new Zen monastery, Wan-fu-ssu, was built on the same site. Huang-po-shan Wan-fu-ssu (J. Obaku-san

Mampuku-ji) was the home monasteryof Yin-yüan Lung-ch’i (1594–1673) who emigrated to Japan in the mid-seventeenth century and founded theObaku sect.

Huang-po Hsi-yün, after receivinginka from Pai-chang Huai-hai(720–814), established a monastery ofhis own on a mountain in westernKiangsi. Hsi-yün named both themonastery and the mountain in centralChina after Mount Huang-po in thesouth. His own popular name derivesfrom this latter mountain, since it wasthere that he trained his own disciples,including Lin-chi I-hsüan (d. 867), thefounder of Rinzai Zen. See also laybeliever and Rinzai sect.

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Hui-k’o is depicted offering his arm to Bodhidharma. He is said to have cut off his arm to demonstrate hissincerity in seeking the dharma.

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Hua-yen School“Flower Garden” school, one of the thir-teen schools of Chinese Buddhism thatdeveloped during the T’ang dynasty(618–907). The name derives from thetitle of the primary scripture of theschool, the Hua-yen Sutra (Sk.Avatamsaka Sutra; J. Kegonkyô).Although the sutra was written in India,the school has no Indian counterpart.Its primary teachings include the fourrealms of reality and the ten stages ofthe bodhisattva. The school recognizesthe Chinese monk Fa-shun (557–640) asits founder, although it was the ThirdPatriarch Fa-tsang (643–712) who sys-tematized its teachings.

Hua-yen Sutra( J. Kegonkyô) The “Flower Garland”Sutra, the Chinese translation of theAvatamsaka Sutra. There are threeChinese translations of the text: the firstproduced by Buddhabhadra from418–421 in sixty parts (T. 9, no. 278), thesecond by Shiksananda from 695–699 ineighty parts (T. 10, no. 279), and thethird by Prajna from 759–762 in fortyparts (T. 10, no. 293). The Hua-yen Sutrawas used widely by various schools ofEast Asian Buddhism, including Zen.The Buddhabhadra translation servedas the scriptural basis for the Hua-yenschool of Chinese Buddhism, known asthe Kegon school in Japan. SeeAvatamsaka Sutra.

Hui-k’o(487–593; J. Eka) Chinese Buddhistmonk who became known as the SecondChinese Patriarch of Zen. According toZen tradition, Hui-k’o inherited theDharma from Bodhidharma. The storyof the transmission is among the mostfamous in Zen literature. According totraditional biographies, Hui-k’o wasborn in Wu-lao (present day Honan). Hestudied Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhistwritings on his own before deciding tobecome a Buddhist monk. He receivedthe tonsure on Lung-men Hsiang-shanand then studied various Buddhist

teachings extensively. He practicedmeditation at Lung-men for eight years before seeking out a master at theage of forty.

Shen-kuang, as Hui-k’o was thencalled, traveled south and foundBodhidharma living at Shao-lin-ssu. Invain he beseeched the master to admithim as a disciple. On a cold winternight, as Hui-k’o stood outside themonastery in a raging blizzard. Themaster asked him what he wanted. Inresponse, Hui-k’o drew out a sharpknife, cut off his left arm, and handed itto Bodhidharma. This dramatic gestureproved the intensity of his intention toseek the Dharma. Bodhidharmaaccepted him as his disciple and recog-nized him as his Dharma heir. He alsogranted him the new name Hui-k’o.

Hui-k’o spent five or six years withBodhidharma. Before the two parted,Hui-k’o received from the master a robe and bowl as signs of Dharmatransmission. Hui-k’o then traveled for some years. In 551, he met a laypractitioner of meditation, whom he recognized as his Dharma heir. Hui-k’o bestowed monastic vows onhim and gave him the name Seng-ts’an,thus making him the Third Patriarch.See also lay believer.

Hui-neng(J. Enô) Chinese Zen master (638–713)of the T’ang dynasty (618–907), tradi-tionally known as the Sixth ChinesePatriarch of Zen. Little is known for cer-tain about Hui-neng except that he wasat one time a disciple of the FifthPatriarch Hung-jen (601–674). Thereare, however, traditional accounts of hislife, such as the one found in thePlatform Sutra. Scholars regard thesestories as historically problematic, butthey represent the Zen tradition’s view ofits own history. According to the biogra-phy in the Platform Sutra, Hui-nenggrew up in poverty, supporting his wid-owed mother by gathering and sellingfirewood. He did not receive any formaleducation and remained illiterate. Hedecided to enter monastic life after

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hearing someone recite the DiamondSutra. He made his way to MountHuang-mei and entered Hung-jen’sassembly as a lay person, laboring in themill, grinding flour. He came to theattention of the Zen master when hecomposed a poem in response to a versewritten by Shen-hsiu (606?–706), thesenior disciple. Hung-jen recognizedHui-neng’s verse as an indication ofenlightenment. He secretly designatedhim as the Sixth Patriarch and sent himsouth to protect the Dharma. Hui-neng’s lineage, which became the orthodox school of Zen, is known as the Southern school. Tradition main-tains that the latter portions of thePlatform Sutra preserve lectures givenby Hui-neng later in his teaching career.According to the teachings presented in the sutra, Hui-neng taught the identity of wisdom (prajna) and meditation, and advocated the conceptof original enlightenment. His teachingrepresents the orthodox Zen teaching of sudden enlightenment. See also lay believer.

Hung-chih Cheng-chüeh(1091–1157; J. Wanshi Shôgaku)Chinese Sôtô Zen master of the Sungdynasty (960–1279). Cheng-chüehdescended from the Yün-chü (J. Ungo)lineage. He was born in Hsi-chou inmodern day Shansi and became amonk at age eleven. He received inkafrom the Sôtô master Tan-hsia Tzu-ch’un. He taught for most of his life atChing-te-ssu on T’ien-lung-shan inChekiang. He restored the monasteryand gathered a large assembly of disci-ples, said to have numbered up to 1,200students, and he is sometimes known asT’ien-lung Cheng-chüeh because of hisrole as restorer.

Cheng-chüeh is remembered pri-marily for the famous controversy thatarose between him and his Rinzaifriend and contemporary, Ta-huiTsung-kao (1089–1163), concerning theuse of kôan. Ta-hui favored the contem-plation of kôan during seated medita-tion as the best approach for achieving

enlightenment. Hung-chih preferredmeditation without the use of kôan,striving instead for a mental state ofcomplete tranquillity. His style of medi-tation became known as “silent illumi-nation Zen” (mokushô Zen), which stillcharacterizes practice within the Sôtôschool. He received the posthumoustitle Hung-chih Ch’an-shih from theSung emperor Kao-tsung. Although hedid not regard the use of kôan as highlyas Ta-hui, his writings include two sep-arate collections of one hundred kôaneach, which he compiled. The morefamous of the two is the Sung-ku Po-tse.His writings were collected in the Hung-chih Ch’an-shih Kuang-lu. See alsoRinzai sect and Sôtô sect.

Hung-chou SchoolAn important lineage of early Zenfounded by the T’ang dynasty (618–907)master Ma-tsu Tao-i. The name wascoined by Tsung-mi (780–840) after theregion where Ma-tsu had hismonastery. The Hung-chou school (J.Kôjû-shû or Kôshû-shû) is one of themain branches of the so-calledSouthern school of Zen, whichdescended from the Sixth PatriarchHui-neng (638–713). Many of theprominent Zen masters of the T’angdynasty arose from this lineage, includ-ing Pai-chang Huai-hai (720–814),Nan-chüan, Huang-po Hsi-Yün (d.850), Lin-chi I-hsüan (d. 867), andYang-shan Hui-chi (807–883).

Hung-jenThe Chinese Buddhist master (601–674;J. Gunin) who became known as theFifth Patriarch of Zen in China. He isalso known as Huang-mei Hung-jen andWu-tsu Hung-jen. According to tradi-tion, Hung-jen received the Dharmafrom the Fourth Patriarch Tao-hsin(580–651) and later recognized Hui-neng(638–713) as the authentic SixthPatriarch, founder of the Southernschool. He also formally recognizedShen-hsiu (606?–706), who founded theNorthern school, as a Dharma heir.

After Tao-hsin’s death, Hung-jen estab-lished a monastery at Huang-mei-shanin modern day Hupeh, where he trainedhis own disciples.

According to the account of trans-mission given in the Platform Sutra,Hung-jen asked his disciples at Huang-mei-shan to compose verses so that hecould select a Dharma heir who wouldbecome the next patriarch. Only Shen-hsiu, the highest ranking disciple, submitted a verse. The master publiclypraised the verse and had the othersrecite it; he privately informed Shen-hsiu that the verse indicated that he hadnot attained perfect enlightenment.Hui-neng, then only a lay disciple working in the threshing room, heardthe verse and composed a reply. Basedon this verse, Hung-jen secretlyacknowledged Dharma transmissionand bestowed on Hui-neng the robe and bowl of transmission. See alsolay believer.

Hungry Ghost( J. gaki) A type of sentient being,known as preta in Sanskrit. After death,Buddhism teaches that an individualmay be reborn into one of six possiblerealms of existence (rokudô) rangingfrom hell dwellers and hungry ghosts toheaven dwellers. The realm of the hun-gry ghosts is regarded as an evil out-come because hungry ghosts suffer in avariety of ways. They are said to liveeither in an area just outside of hell or ina region of hell itself, but unlike otherhell dwellers, they leave hell and wander through other regions in search of food, often looking forgarbage and human waste on the outskirts of human cities. As their name suggests, they are unable to satisfy their craving for food, and thusare doomed to perpetual hunger. Theyare said to be invisible during daylighthours but visible at night.

In this Zen monastery at the Spring Equinox, rice is offered at an altar to hungry ghosts, sentient beings who have been condemned to wander the earth looking for food.

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The Buddhist tradition describesseveral different kinds of hungry ghostsin terms of specific behavior patterns inthe previous life, which lead to appro-priate punishments. For example, a per-son who steals food is said to become ahungry ghost that can only eat corpses,while a person who deals harshly withothers out of anger will have a mouth offire that destroys food before it can beconsumed. A person who prevents oth-ers from practicing the virtue of giving(danna), becomes a hungry ghost witha big belly and a neck as thin as aneedle. This last species became thebasic image for hungry ghosts in EastAsian Buddhism. See also six paths.

Strong, John S. The Experience ofBuddhism:Sources and Interpretations.Belmont, CA: Wadsworth PublishingCo., 1995.

Hyakujô EkaiThe Japanese pronunciation for Pai-chang Huai-hai (720–814), a ChineseZen monk. See Pai-chang Huai-hai.

Hyakujô ShingiJapanese title for the Pai-chang Ch’ing-kuei, a monastic code used in the prac-tice of Zen, attributed to Pai-changHuai-hai (720–814). See Pai-changCh’ing-kuei.

HyôshigiWooden clappers used in a Zenmonastery to signal specific times andevents, such as the start of meals.

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IIcchantika(J. issendai, or sendai) A sentient beingwithout the capacity to attain enlight-enment. This term is also used todescribe a bodhisattva who willinglychooses not to enter nirvana in order tocontinue living in the world of samsaraand assist other sentient beings. Someschools of Theravada and MahayanaBuddhism maintained the theory thatcertain individuals have so damagedtheir store of merit that they have noroot of goodness left; thus these indi-viduals have no hope of ever attainingenlightenment. Other schools ofMahayana denied this teaching. Theyargued that icchantika do not exist orthat even if they do exist, icchantikahave the Buddha Nature. AfterBuddhism was transmitted to East Asia,controversy over these teachings con-tinued to be important in several EastAsian schools of Buddhism.

The Buddhist scriptures can beused to support both arguments, as canbe seen by comparing two versions ofthe Nirvana Sutra. One version statesthat icchantika lack the seed of enlight-enment; the other teaches that all sen-tient beings, including the icchantika,possess the Buddha Nature and are thuscapable of attaining enlightenment. InChina, the former version of the textwas transmitted earlier, setting off thecontroversy. The monk Tao-sheng(360–434 C.E.) rejected the notion thaticchantika lacked the Buddha Nature.His position was later vindicated whenthe latter version of the sutra was trans-lated. Most schools of East AsianBuddhism, including Zen, follow Tao-sheng’s lead and teach that the BuddhaNature is universal.

Another sutra favored by the Zenschool, the Lankavatara Sutra, teachesan alternative and more positive under-standing of the concept of icchantika.The Lankavatara Sutra applies the termto bodhisattvas who deliberatelychoose to stay in samsara and serveother sentient beings. Like the earlierconcept of icchantika, a bodhisattvawho chooses to remain in samsara untilall sentient beings have been saved willnever attain enlightenment. In thiscase, however, the cause is compassionfor others, so the icchantika-bod-hisattva is a valiant figure.

Strong, John S. The Experience ofBuddhism:Sources and Interpretations.Belmont, CA: Wadsworth PublishingCo., 1995.

Ichidaiji Innen“The most important cause,” usuallyreferring to the primary reason theBuddha had to appear in the world. The Lotus Sutra says that the Buddha’sprimary purpose was to preach the Dharma and thereby save sentient beings.

IchienAn alternative name for Mujû Dôkyô(1226–1313), a Japanese Rinzai monkwho authored the Shasekishû. SeeMujû Dôkyô.

Ichi Ensô“One circle,” an alternative name forensô, the image of a painted circle com-monly found in Zen art. See ensô.

Ichiji Kan“One-word barrier,” a Zen teachingdevice made famous by the masterYunmen. The device entails a masterusing one sharp word in response to aquestion asked by a disciple. The single-word answer is sometimes accompa-nied by a shout or slap. The purpose ofthis device is to cut off the disciple’s

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rambling flow of rational thought and toprompt an immediate experience orrealization. Translators often have diffi-culty rendering a satisfactory transla-tion with a single word, since the origi-nal Chinese character usually encom-passes several possible meanings. Oneof Master Yunmen’s famous one-wordbarriers is the Chinese word fu, mean-ing “everywhere,” “universal,” or “vastand great.” “Someone asked MasterYunmen, ‘What is the eye of the genuineteaching?’ The Master said, ‘It’s every-where [fu]’” (App, p. 91).

App, Urs., trans. and ed. MasterYunmen: From the Record of theChan Master “Gate of the Clouds.”New York: Kodansha International,1994.

Ichijô“One vehicle,” the path of MahayanaBuddhism. See one vehicle.

Ichimi Zen“One-taste zen,” an expression used to mean a pure form of zen, the zentransmitted by the buddhas and patri-archs. It is contrasted with “five-tastezen” (gomi zen), or impure forms ofmeditative practice.

Ichinen Fushô”Nonarising of a single thought,” therealm in which no delusions arise. Theexpression describes the enlightenedmind of a buddha or the experience ofenlightenment. In his collection oftalks and instructions, the Shôbôgenzô,Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253) identifies themental state of ichinen fushô withzazen, or meditation itself.

Igan ButsujiMoving the coffin of a deceased abbotor other prominent Buddhist monk ornun to the lecture hall. Igan is one of thenine ritual acts (kubutsuji) performedwhen a prominent Buddhist monk ornun dies. The coffins of ordinary monks

and nuns are left in the infirmary untilcremation. See also kubutsuji.

Igyô SchoolThe Japanese name for the Kuei-yangschool, a lineage of Chinese Zen activeduring the T’ang dynasty (618–907). SeeKuei-yang school.

IhaiA memorial tablet prepared for thedeceased soon after death, according toJapanese Buddhist custom. Inscribedon the tablet is a special Buddhistname, known in Japanese as thekaimyô, which is used for the deceasedat all memorial services. Kaimyô arenormally conferred on monks or nunsat their ordination; lay Buddhists usually receive the kaimyô posthu-mously from members of their familytemple shortly after death. Initially,temporary memorial tablets are used,often made of plain wood with thekaimyô written in black ink. Later, permanent tablets, typically black lacquered wood embossed with thename in gold, are prepared.

Memorial tablets are used as physi-cal representations of the deceased atthe funeral service and at all subse-quent memorial services (hôji) per-formed for the individual. In manycases, two permanent memorial tabletsare prepared for each person, one to bekept by the family and the other to bekept at the family temple. Incense,prayers, and readings from sacred textsare offered before the ihai in much thesame manner that offerings are madeto other Buddhist images. Templesmark the anniversaries of death (nenki)for deceased members by offering ser-vices in front of the appropriate ihai onthe specified day.

After an initial period of mourning(chûin), lasting forty-nine days fromthe time of death, the family enshrinesits copy of the ihai on an altar (butsu-dan), along with the memorial tablets ofother deceased family members. ManyJapanese families make daily offerings

of food and water before the ihai, andkeep flowers on the altar to honor thedead. It is not unusual for importantevents, such as graduations, new jobs,and marriages to be formallyannounced to the ihai, particularly ifthe deceased was the head of the house-hold. According to tradition, the familywill keep the ihai until the final memor-ial service, usually the service markingeither the thirty-third or the fiftiethanniversary of death. After that time,the family disposes of the ihai, oftenreturning it to the temple for burning.See also lay believer.

Smith, Robert. Ancestor Worship inContemporary Japan. Stanford, CA:Stanford University Press, 1974.

IkebanaFlower arranging, the popular name forkadô, the way of flowers. See kadô.

Ikko Hanko“One person” or “half a person.” Theexpression appears in the Hekiganroku,the Dentôroku (Ch. Ching-te Ch’üan-tengLu), and other classical Zen texts. It refersto a general scarcity of talented people,indicating that it is rare to find a worthy disciple. A master might say that he hopes to find one disciple or evenhalf a disciple to whom he can transmitthe Dharma.

Ikkyû Sôjun(1394–1481) Japanese Rinzai monk fromthe Ashikaga period (1392–1568). Ikkyûbelonged to the Daitoku-ji branch ofRinzai and was a dominant figure in thatlineage. He is famous for his calligraphy,painting, and writing, especially poetry.He was an eccentric and remains a con-troversial figure. Ikkyû was born inpoverty in Saga, in western Kyoto,although he came from a noble family.His mother, a court lady for Emperor Go-Komatsu (1392–1412), was dismissed

Ihai are memorial tablets used as physical representations of the deceased at a funeral service.

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from court during her pregnancy. WhenIkkyû reached the age of five, sheentrusted him to a local temple where hereceived a solid education in the Chineseclassics and Buddhist texts. At age thirtyhe went to Kennin-ji, where he studiedpoetry with the poet monk Botetsu forfour years. Disturbed by the worldlyatmosphere at Kennin-ji, he moved to asmall temple called Saikin-ji where helived with the hermit monk Ken’ô.Although Ikkyû attained enlightenmentduring this period, Ken’ô was not quali-fied to certify his experience. AfterKen’ô’s death, Ikkyû became the discipleof Kasô Sôdon (1352–1428). AlthoughKasô was officially abbot of Daitoku-ji,he resided in a small hermitage on LakeBiwa. Ikkyû practiced with him for nineyears, becoming his Dharma heir in1420. It is said that when Ikkyû receivedhis certificate of enlightenment, hethrew it onto the fire and destroyed it.

After his master’s death, Ikkyûbecame a wandering monk and spentthirty years travelling throughout theKyoto and Osaka region, mostly dealingwith lay people rather than the Zenmonastic community. He did notbelieve that he was bound by any exter-nal monastic code, and was known todrink sake, eat meat and fish, and enjoythe company of women. Ikkyû wasquite critical of monastic life.

Ikkyû settled down at the age of sixty,when he undertook the restoration ofMyôshin-ji, a major Rinzai monastery inKyoto. Disciples built him a hermitagewithin the grounds, which he calledShûon-an. For the first time in his career,he guided a community of students. Helater restored Daitoku-ji, which hadbeen badly damaged by fire. In 1474, hewas appointed abbot at Daitoku-ji, butcontinued to reside at Shûon-an. Hedied there at age eighty-seven. See alsoRinzai sect and lay believer.

Covell, Jon Carter, and Shobin Yamada.Unraveling Zen’s Red Thread:Ikkyu’s Controversial Way. Eliza-beth, NJ: Hollym InternationalCorporation, 1980.

ImpermanenceAccording to the Buddhist understand-ing of reality, impermanence (J. mujô)characterizes all of existence. All thingsare impermanent and subject to per-petual change until they eventually passout of existence. Things arise, change,and then pass away. Nothing is eternal;indeed, nothing remains constant orunchanging for even a moment.Acceptance of impermanence is part of the process of recognizing the natureof reality. Buddhist meditation allowsone to observe the impermanence of the mind, following the ongoing flow of thoughts, emotions, and feelings. Impermanence is one of thethree marks of existence, along with suffering (Sk. duhkha) and No-Self(Sk. Anatman).

IncenseBuddhists burn incense before imagesof the Buddha and other Buddhist fig-ures as a sign of reverence. One willalmost always find incense burning atthe various temples of Buddhistschools. The pleasant aroma is said tobe a reminder of the Buddha himselfwho was traditionally described as fragrant. Incense is among the appro-priate offerings made to a buddha or to Buddhist monks and nuns. Incenseis also regularly offered as a part offuneral and memorial services fordeceased relatives.

IndaramôJapanese for Indra’s jewel net, alsocalled Taimô, an abbreviation forTaishakumô. See Indra’s jewel net.

Indra(J. Indara) The god of war in ancientIndian mythology, whose exploits arecelebrated in the Rig Veda and otherVedic texts. Indra was the primary deityof the Aryan people who migrated tothe Indian subcontinent. He is anatmospheric god who lives in the regionbetween heaven and earth and is

described as a powerful warrior, the dri-ver of a chariot whose weapon is thethunderbolt. In his most dramaticexploit, he destroyed the snake demonVrtra, who was withholding rain andsunlight from the earth. The warriorclass (kshastriya) regard him as theirspecial patron. Since Indra enjoys heavydrinking, he is closely associated withthe god Soma, the deified form of anintoxicating liquor used in Vedic ritual.

In Buddhism, Indra is regarded as aguardian deity for Buddhist teachingsand believers. He appears frequently inBuddhist texts, including theBuddhacharita, the story of the histor-ical Buddha’s life. In that text, Indraappears to the recently enlightenedBuddha as he sits in meditation underthe bodhi tree. Along with other Hindudeities, Indra begs the Buddha to venture out to teach the Dharma for the sake of all sentient beings. Indra issaid to reside in a palace inTrayastrimsha Heaven above MountSumeru, where he receives reports fromthe four guardian kings (shittennô)regarding the moral condition of peoplein the world.

Indra’s Jewel Net(J. Indaramô) According to Buddhistlore, the god Indra lives above MountSumeru in a magnificent palace. Drapedover the palace is a wondrous net madewith jewels, which hang from each nodeof intersection on the net. The jewels areperfectly reflective, such that every jewelperfectly reflects every other jewel; thus,any jewel can be taken as the centralpoint, which encompasses the entiretyof the net. The image of Indra’s Jewel Netis used in Mahayana Buddhist texts toteach the concept of interrelatednessand the interpenetration of all things.Because of their reflective quality, analteration made to any single jewelaffects them all. For example, painting adot on one jewel will produce reflecteddots on all the others. In the same way,all things in the world are interrelatedwith one another and interdependent.Most importantly, causing harm to one

sentient being injures all other sentientbeings. The Hua-yen Sutra (Sk.Avatamsaka Sutra) provides the classi-cal description of the image.

IngaCause and effect; the law of causality.The Japanese word literally means “acause and its fruits.” According to theBuddhist conception of reality, everyaction inevitably produces conse-quences. Actions can be likened toseeds which an individual sows. Theseeds eventually mature and producerelated fruits. Good actions producegood effects and bad actions producebad effects. Retribution for evil actionsand reward for good actions are notmeted out by a deity, but are the naturalconsequence of the action itself. Thus,the workings of cause and effect func-tion like an impersonal moral law. Seealso karma and Law of Causation.

Inga MonogatariCausation stories, or tales of cause andeffect; a genre of Buddhist literatureused for popular instruction in theworkings of karma. In particular thestories are told to demonstrate the neg-ative effects of evil or harmful behavior.Inga monogatari also include miracu-lous tales of salvation brought about byan individual’s pious behavior or deepfaith in a buddha, bodhisattva, orsutra. Inga Monogatari is the title of atext composed by Suzuki Shôsan(1579–1655), a Tokugawa period Zenmonk, which was published in 1661.

Ingen RyûkiJapanese pronunciation for Yin-yüanLung-ch’i (1594–1673), the ChineseRinzai master who founded the Obaku sect of Japanese Zen. See Yin-yüan Lung-ch’i.

In’in EkishiThe practice of changing Dharma lin-eage according to the temple at which amonk serves as abbot. According to the 153

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in’in ekishi process, when a monkmoves from his home temple tobecome abbot at a different temple, hechanges lineage. He gives up his initiallineage inherited from his immediatemaster and adopts the lineage of theformer abbots of the new temple. Thechange takes place even if the monknever practiced under any of thetemple’s previous abbot. In this manner,a monk could change lineages severaltimes during the course of a career,based solely on the temples he serves.The practice of in’in ekishi is not gener-ally regarded as compatible with theZen ideal of inheriting the Dharma(shihô) directly from one’s master (isshiinshô). According to normal Zen prac-tice, a disciple becomes a part of theDharma lineage of his master when hereceives formal acknowledgment ofenlightenment (inshô or inka). At thattime, he is said to inherit the Dharmaand become a Dharma heir. Lineage ofthis type, depicted in much the sameway as blood lineage on a family tree,does not change based on the temple ofresidence. Nevertheless, in’in ekishi hasbeen the norm in some periods of Zenhistory. Before Manzan initiated areform movement in seventeenth cen-tury Japan, for example, in’in ekishi wasthe common practice for Sôtô Zen. Seealso Sôtô sect.

Bodiford, William M. “Dharma Trans-mission in Sôtô Zen.” MonumentaNipponicaVol. 46 No. 4 (Winter 1991).

InkaThe most commonly used expression inthe Zen school for a seal of Dharmatransmission, which confirms thevalidity of an individual’s enlighten-ment experience and indicates thattransmission of the Dharma hasoccurred from master to disciple. Inkais actually an abbreviation of inkashômei, which literally means “seal ofapproval with clear proof.” One typi-cally speaks of a master conferring inkaon a disciple, or a student receivinginka. Inka functions as an official

certification or seal of approval from aZen master that a disciple has attainedthe same insight into the Dharma as themaster and is qualified to serve as a Zenmaster to others. In some cases, inka issymbolically represented by a writtendocument; in others, it is representedby conferring a personal religious itemfrom the master such as a robe orwhisk. A disciple who receives inka isformally included in the Dharma lin-eage of the master, which is alwaystraced back through the generations toBodhidharma and ShakyamuniBuddha (Siddharta Gautama). Inkaformally indicates that the disciple hasattained a sufficient level of maturity inthe Dharma to qualify as a master in hisor her own right. Once receiving inka, aZen teacher may accept students andacknowledge them in turn. For this rea-son, not all students who attain enlight-enment experiences receive inka. Longyears of training after an initial enlight-enment experience are often requiredto qualify for inka.

InkinA small hand-held bell used at Zen monasteries. The bell is bowl-shaped, resting on a small cushion and attached to a wooden handle. It is sounded by striking the side of thebowl with an attached metal stick. Inkinare used in the meditation hall to signalthe beginning and end of periods ofseated mediation.

InoThe supervisor of trainees at a Zenmonastery in charge of the meditationor monks’ hall (sôdô), sometimes trans-lated as registrar or rector. The sameterm, usually transliterated ina, is usedby other Buddhist sects for a high rank-ing officer who manages the affairs of atemple. In a Zen monastery, the ino isone of the six senior offices of theEastern rank (tôhan), who assist theabbot in the administrative aspects ofthe community. The ino plays a crucialrole in managing the daily activities

within the monastic communitybecause he oversees activities in themonks’ hall. New arrivals register withhim, and he determines the relativeranking of seniority among the residentmonks. The ino sees to it that the monkskeep to the daily mediation and ritualschedule, and leads the monks in someceremonies. See also temple positions.

InshôA common abbreviation for the expres-sion “inka shômei.” Inshô refers to theformal recognition of a disciple’senlightenment experience by a Zenmaster. In some cases, inshô is repre-sented by a written certificate indicat-ing that an authentic transmission ofthe Dharma has taken place. In othercases, a Zen master may bestow anotherphysical object, usually a personal reli-gious implement, such as a robe, awhisk (J. hossu), a portrait of the mas-ter, or a scripture. See inka.

InterrelatednessThe Buddhist understanding of reality,which posits that all things and all indi-viduals are mutually dependent on oneanother. Interrelatedness implies thatany action taken toward one individualwill impact all others. The concept of interrelatedness is based upon thenotion of emptiness, that all thingsexist as a result of causes and nothing is absolutely self-existent. A basic component of interrelatedness is compassion, since injuring any othersentient being causes injury to all,including the self. See also emptinessand Indra’s jewel net.

Inzan Ien(1751–1814) Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe Tokugawa period (1600–1867) whois regarded as the founder of the Inzanschool of Japanese Zen. Inzan was theDharma heir of Gasan Jitô (1727–1797),a leading disciple of the reformerHakuin Ekaku (1685–1768). Along withhis Dharma brother, Takujû Kosen

(1760–1833), Inzan is credited withcompleting the process of systematiz-ing kôan practice within the Rinzaisect. Inzan was born in Echizenprovince, where at age nine he entered aBuddhist temple in Gifu. At sixteen, heturned to Zen and practiced withBankoku, a Rinzai master, who pro-moted the teachings of the Rinzai mas-ter Bankei Yôtaku (1622–1693). Afterthree years, he became the disciple ofRinzai master Gessen Zen’e(1702–1781), with whom he remainedfor seven years. He later spent manyyears in Mino, before hearing aboutGasan. He practiced with Gasan for twoyears and became his Dharma heir.After receiving inka, he spent severalyears on pilgrimage. In 1806, he settleddown and established a community atZuiryô-ji in Gifu, where he taught formost of his final years. He wasappointed abbot at Myôshin-ji in 1808,and served briefly. See also Rinzai sect.

Inzan SchoolOne of two major forms of modernJapanese Rinzai Zen founded by InzanIen (1751–1814), a second-generationdescendant of Hakuin Ekaku(1685–1768). All active lineages of RinzaiZen in Japan descend from either theInzan or the Takujû schools. The teach-ing methods and Zen style of the twoschools are nearly identical. Togetherthey encompass what is often known asHakuin Zen. See also Rinzai sect.

Ippen(1239–1289) Japanese Buddhist monkof the Kamakura period (1185–1333)who founded the Ji sect of Pure LandBuddhism. He was originally a Tendaimonk and studied for many years onMount Hiei. He was then known asZuien. He later left Mount Hiei andbecame a disciple of Shôtatsu Shônin, aPure Land teacher. He took the nameIppen in 1276 while visiting the Shintoshrine on Mount Kumano. He traveledthroughout the countryside of Japan,spreading Pure Land belief by handing

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out nembutsu amulets (J. fusan). Hewas popularly known as Yugyô Shônin,“the wandering holy man,” because ofhis itinerant life. See also Tendai sect.

Isan ReiyûJapanese rendering of Kuei-shan Ling-yu (771–853). See Kuei-shan Ling-yu.

I-shan I-ning(1247–1317; J. Issan Ichinei) ChineseRinzai monk of the Yüan dynasty (1260-1368) who emigrated to Japan. I-shanwas sent to Japan as an emissary by thenew Yüan government in 1299. TheJapanese suspected him of being a spyand confined him under house arrest atShuzen-ji in Izu. When Japanese offi-cials realized that they were mistaken, I-shan was welcomed in Kamakura by theregent Hôjô Sadatoki (1271–1311). Heeventually served as abbot at bothKenchô-ji and Engaku-ji. He attracteddisciples in such numbers that he lim-ited entry into his assembly with anentrance exam designed to test the lit-erary skill of the applicants. MusôSôseki (1275–1351) was among his stu-dents in Kamakura. I-shan emphasizedthe literary, artistic, and cultural aspectsof Zen far more than religious practice.He greatly influenced the rise of Gozanculture in Japan. He also served asabbot at Nanzen-ji in Kyoto and influ-enced the Zen culture of the traditionalcapital. See also Gozan literature andRinzai sect.

Ishin DenshinTransmission from mind to mind. Anexpression used to describe the authen-tic transmission of the Dharma in theZen school from master to disciple,generation after generation. The con-cept of ishin denshin forms one of thebasic assumptions of Zen practice: thatenlightenment passes from one indi-vidual to another not through theprocess of teaching with words, but byan accord of minds. A student attains anintuitive understanding of the Dharma

and the master recognizes that intu-ition, and although no specific teach-ings have passed from one to the other,they share a realization of the Dharma.The opening line of the Hsüeh-mo lun( J. Ketsumyaku ron), attributed toBodhidharma, provides a classicalstatement of the concept: “The ThreeWorlds arise from and return to OneMind. From buddhas of the past to suc-ceeding buddhas, [the Dharma] istransmitted from mind to mind, with-out reliance on words or letters” (T. vol.48, p. 373).

IssaikyôA general Japanese term for the entiretyof the Buddhist scriptures. The wordliterally means “all the sutras” and isused synonymously with Daizôkyô.Since the term is generic, it may refer tothe ancient Sanskrit or Pali Tripitaka,the more extensive Chinese Tripitaka,or Japanese editions, which includeadditional materials.

Issan IchineiJapanese transliteration of I-shan I-ning (1247–1317), a Chinese Rinzaimonk of the Yüan dynasty (1260–1368).See I-shan I-ning.

IssendaiJapanese for icchantika, a sentient beingwho lacks the capacity to attain enlight-enment. Also used for bodhisattvas whoremain indefinitely in the realm of sam-sara in order to lead other sentientbeings to enlightenment. See icchantika.

Isshi InjôAn alternative pronunciation for isshi inshô, to receive the Dharma seal(inka) from only one Zen master. Seeisshi inshô.

Isshi InshôTo receive Dharma transmission andinka from only one Zen master. Also pronounced “isshi injô.” Isshi inshô

became one of the reform themes forJapanese Sôtô during the Tokugawaperiod (1600–1867). In earlier genera-tions, it was common practice in the Sôtôschool for monks to change Dharma lin-eages whenever they assumed a newposition as abbot or head monk (in’inekishi). Rather than maintaining identifi-cation with a single master and lineage,they assumed the Dharma seal of theirimmediate predecessor at each new post.The seventeenth-century Sôtô reformerManzan opposed this practice and cham-pioned a return to the principle of isshiinshô. See also Sôtô sect.

Isshin“One mind,” Japanese term for the mind of enlightenment that perceives ultimate reality and tran-scends the dualism of ordinary thoughtand perception.

Isshitô ZenSee One-finger Zen.

IsshuA hand position used during periods ofwalking meditation (kinhin). The lefthand forms a fist around the thumb,and the right hand covers the left. Thehands are held in front of the body withforearms straight.

Ittengo“One turning word,” a word or expres-sion usually spoken by a Zen masterthat turns or shifts one’s point of viewand thereby leads the listener to sud-denly attain enlightenment.

This Zen calligraphy depicts “Isshin,” the Japanese term for “one mind,” or enlightenment.

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JJakugoA verse that a Zen practitioner offers to hisor her master in response to a kôan. Theverse expresses the practitioner’s under-standing of the kôan, and hence of theDharma. The practice of using cappingverses in this manner developed gradu-ally from a unique genre of Zen commen-tary found in the Zen kôan literature. Inthe classical period of Zen in China, themasters who compiled collections ofkôan attached verses to each of the his-torical cases they included in their com-pendia, thereby expressing in poetic lan-guage their own understanding of themeaning of the kôan. Each kôan in theMumonkan, for example, is accompa-nied by a verse composed by the monkwho compiled the text.

Later, masters devised the practiceof testing their students’ progress byasking them for capping verses, whichsimilarly expressed their understandingof a kôan. In eighteenth century Japan,Hakuin Ekaku (1685–1768) establisheda regularized system of kôan study,which applied the same principle, a sys-tem that is still used in the Rinzai secttoday. When a disciple has made suffi-cient progress in contemplating a par-ticular kôan, the master will ask for acapping phrase. The student then pro-vides a verse, but not an original poem,composed on the spot. Rather, the stu-dent draws upon the classical Zen bodyof religious and secular literature to findan appropriate verse or phrase. Themost common resource for this pur-pose is the Zenrin Kushû.

Miura, Isshû, and Ruth Fuller Sasaki.The Zen Kôan. New York: Harcourt,Brace & World, 1967.

———. Zen Dust: The History of the Kôan and Kôan Study in Rinzai(Lin-chi) Zen. New York: Harcourt,Brace & World, 1967.

JakumetsuTranquility and extinction. Jakumetsu isthe Japanese pronunciation of aChinese compound sometimes used totranslate the Sanskrit word nirvana inthe scriptures. It is used as a synonymfor nirvana and enlightenment. It canbe understood to mean the state oftranquillity in which all of the afflic-tions (bonnô) have been extinguished.

Jakushitsu Genkô(1290–1367) Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe Kamakura period (1185–1333),regarded as the founder of the Eigen-jibranch of the Rinzai sect. Jakushitsuwas born in Mimasaka. His parents senthim to Tôfuku-ji in Kyoto when he wastwelve years old so that he could receivea classical education. Two years later,the young man became determined toundertake a serious religious life. He leftTôfuku-ji and joined Yakuô Tokken(1245–1320) in Kamakura. When Tokkenbecame abbot at Kennin-ji, Jakushitsuaccompanied him. He attained enlight-enment in 1306 and soon began a wandering life. He practiced with many of the Chinese émigré monks,including Tung-ming Hui-jih(1272–1340) and I-shan I-neng(1247–1317). Under the latter’s influ-ence, he became a refined poet.

Jakushitsu traveled to China in 1320in order to become the disciple ofChung-feng Ming-pen (1263–1323). He practiced with the master at T’ien-mu-shan for one year, and then traveledthroughout China for several years, visiting various masters. He returned to Japan in 1326, where he spent thenext twenty-five years as a wanderingmonk. In 1361, Sasaki Ujiyori becamehis patron and built for him themonastery Eigen-ji in Omi province(modern day Shiga prefecture).Jakushitsu gathered a community of

disciples at the temple and remainedactive as abbot for five years. In 1366, heretired in favor of his leading disciple,Miten Eishaku (d. 1406).

JariA common abbreviation for ajari. InSôtô Zen, it is a title of respect used for a senior monk who has practicedZen for more than five summer retreats.See ajari.

Jataka Tales(J. Jataka or Honshô) Stories concern-ing the previous lives of SiddhartaGautama, the historical Buddha. Jatakatales represent a traditional form ofBuddhist literature, which has longbeen used for popular instruction. Inparticular, the stories are used to illus-trate various Buddhist virtues, espe-cially the six perfections and the bene-fits of building good karma. They arealso a common subject for Buddhist art.One collection of 547 jataka tales formsa part of the Theravada Buddhistcanon; many other collections, canoni-cal and otherwise, exist throughout theBuddhist world.

JiThe Japanese term for temple, whichcommonly refers to Buddhist templesand monasteries. Ji generally appears asa part of any Buddhist temple’s name.See tera.

JigokuThe Japanese term for hell, one of thesix realms of existence (rokudô) intowhich sentient beings are reborn.According to Buddhist teachings,actions in the present life determineone’s next rebirth. Hell is the lowest andmost painful of the six possibilities. Ifone commits evil acts and accumulatesbad karma, one may be reborn in oneof several hells. The tradition describeseight hot hells (hachinetsu jigoku),eight cold hells (hachikan jigoku), andvarious others. Each one entails a form

of suffering appropriate for variouskinds of evil action performed in a pre-vious existence. See also six paths.

JihatsuTo beg for alms; one of the basic prac-tices of Buddhist monastic life. Jihatsuis more commonly referred to astakuhatsu or kotsu jiki. The term mayalso refer to the begging bowls thatmonks own and use. See begging alms.

JihiJapanese Buddhist term for “compas-sion.” The mental attitude of compas-sion toward all sentient beings isregarded as an ideal within theMahayana tradition, and is manifestedespecially by bodhisattvas who vow tosave all sentient beings from sufferingand assist them toward enlightenment.The Japanese word is a compound oftwo Chinese characters: “ji” means “togive pleasure” and is related to theSanskrit word maitri; “hi” means “torelieve suffering” and is related to theSanskrit word karuna.

Jiin HattôTemple regulations enacted by theTokugawa military government(bakufu) during the Tokugawa period(1600–1867) to control Buddhisttemples in Japan. In the era immedi-ately preceding the Tokugawa period,some Buddhist sects and individualtemples maintained significant finan-cial influence, and in some cases,impressive military power. The militaryleaders who unified Japan, leading tothe establishment of the Tokugawaregime, opposed these Buddhist centersof power and brought them under secu-lar control. The Tokugawa governmentintended the jiin hattô to maintain thatcontrol by limiting Buddhist groups’access to secular power. Most of the reg-ulations were issued between 1615 and1640. Although some were issued to regulate specific temples or individualsects of Buddhism, many were general

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in nature and applied to the entire net-work of sects and temples. Temple regu-lations forbade the construction of newtemples and limited the restoration ofdilapidated temples without govern-ment permission. They required thatevery temple claim a sectarian affilia-tion and be listed within the given sect’shierarchical structure of main templesand branch temples. In some cases,entire groups were banned, such as theFujufuse sect of Nichiren Buddhism.Other regulations, directed at the clergy,were intended to encourage monks andnuns to engage in religious and intellec-tual pursuits. These specifically pro-scribed certain behaviors for monksand nuns, including inter-sectarian dis-putes, public debates, and some infrac-tions against the monastic code.

Jikai“Observance of the precepts.” Keepingthe Buddhist precepts is a valuethroughout the Buddhist world,although Buddhists understand theprecepts somewhat differently depend-ing on time, place, sect, and the statusof the believer. Within the monasticworld, monks and nuns are generallyexpected to live according to the codelaid out in the vinaya texts, especiallythe ten precepts of novices. Lay peopletypically strive to follow the first five ofthese precepts. This holds true not onlyfor Theravada Buddhists but for manyMahayana Buddhists as well. In someschools of Mahayana Buddhism, laypeople, monks, and nuns strive touphold the bodhisattva precepts,which may replace or supplement theprecepts of the vinaya. However theprecepts may be interpreted, observingthem is generally regarded as one of thebasic elements of Buddhist practice forall members of the community. Indeed,many Buddhist teachers regard ethicalbehavior as the starting point on theBuddhist path, the basis on which allother forms of practice are built. InMahayana descriptions of the Buddhistpath of a bodhisattva, for example,

observance of the precepts is the sec-ond of the six perfections. See also JikaiZen and lay believer.

Jikai Zen“Observe-the-precepts Zen,” a termwhich can be applied to any style of Zenpractice that emphasizes keeping theBuddhist precepts, especially thedetailed monastic code for monks andnuns. In a Zen monastic context, keep-ing the precepts often implies livingaccording to special monastic codes (J.shingi), developed specifically for Zentemples. In particular, the term appliesto movements within the Zen world toreform and revitalize Zen practice by arenewed dedication to keeping themonastic codes.

Although the phrase Jikai Zen can beused in a positive manner, in most casesit suggests a negative criticism of over-emphasis on the external observance ofprecepts. Zen monastic practice gener-ally assumes a strict observance of themonastic code, which defines nearlyevery aspect of life in the monastery.Nevertheless, Zen teachings often take acritical stance against formalisticbehavior based on the observance of anexternal moral code. In the PlatformSutra of the Sixth Patriarch, forexample, Hui-neng (638–713) intro-duces the concept of preserving “form-less precepts.” This teaching stressesthat the origin of the precepts lieswithin the enlightened mind, not in anyexternal code. If the Zen practitionerbecomes overly concerned with fulfill-ing the letter of the law rather than themotivating spirit within, the monasticcode becomes a hindrance to practicerather than an enabling device.

JikidôIn a Zen monastery, the monk assignsto watch over the robes and bowls in the meditation hall. Any lost items arethe jikidô’s responsibility. This duty traditionally rotates on a daily basis andis shared by all monks in turn.

JikijitsuThe manager of the monks’ hall, orsôdô. Originally, the term applied to themonk assigned to care for the robes andbowls of the monastic community. Themonks rotated the duty on a daily basis.Today, in the Rinzai sect, the jikijitsuserves as the manager for the dailyactivities within the monks’ hall. Themanager of the monks’ hall keeps trackof the timing for meditation sessions,mealtimes, and other aspects of thedaily schedule. He alerts the othermonks through the use of a hand belland sounding boards (han). The posi-tion of jikijitsu no longer rotates on adaily basis among the monks, but is anappointed position lasting for an entireretreat period. See also jikidô.

Jikishi Ninshin“Direct pointing to the mind,” aJapanese Zen expression used to characterize Zen practice and teach-ings, especially meditation. The Zentradition maintains that one’s mind isidentical with the mind of the Buddha,if one only realizes it. By focusing one’sattention inward on the mind, enlight-enment becomes possible. All Zenteaching devices and practices areintended to serve as aids in attainingenlightenment, or “fingers pointingdirectly at the mind.”

Jikishi Ninshin Kenshô Jôbutsu“Direct pointing to the mind, seeingone’s nature and becoming a buddha.”The expression is part of a verse tradi-tionally attributed to Bodhidharma,which provides the classical characteri-zation of Zen practice. According to Zenteachings, all ordinary individualsalready possess the buddha mind andare in fact originally buddhas. By focus-ing one’s attention inward through thepractice of meditation, one may be ableto realize this reality and attain enlight-enment. The process may be under-stood less as an ordinary personbecoming a buddha than as a shift of

perspective which allows a person tosee his or her true nature.

Jikishi TandenDirect transmission of the Dharmafrom a Zen master to a disciple. This Japanese expression is used synonymously with ishin denshin,“transmission from mind to mind.” Seeishin denshin.

JikkaiThe ten realms of living beings, whichinclude, in ascending order, 1) helldwellers (jigoku), 2) hungry ghosts(gaki), 3) animals (chikushô), 4) humanbeings (ningen), 5) ashura (ashura), 6)heaven dwellers (tenjô), 7) shravakas(shômon), 8) pratyeka buddhas(engaku), 9) bodhisattvas (bosatsu), and10) buddhas (Butsu). See ten realms.

Jikkai(2) The ten precepts accepted by maleand female novices at their ordination.Also pronounced “jukkai.” The ten pre-cepts represent the heart of the tradi-tional Buddhist monastic code. Theyinclude 1) not to kill living beings; 2)not to steal; 3) to abstain from sexualmisconduct; 4) not to lie; 5) not to takeintoxicants; 6) not to eat after noon; 7)not to adorn the body with perfume,flowers, jewelry, etc.; 8) not to partici-pate in public entertainment, includingdancing, plays, singing, etc.; 9) not touse a luxurious bed; and 10) not to han-dle money. These precepts are some-times known in Japanese as theshamikai, or novice precepts.

The term jikkai sometimes refers alternatively to the ten heavy precepts (Jûjû kinkai), the most impor-tant elements in the bodhisattva precepts. The ten heavy precepts are prohibitions against 1) killing, 2)stealing, 3) sexual misconduct, 4) lying,5) using intoxicants, 6) finding fault inothers, 7) boasting about oneself, 8)envy, 9) anger and ill will, and 10) slan-dering the three treasures. The Japanese

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Sôtô and Rinzai communities use the tenheavy precepts developed within theMahayana tradition in place of theabove novice precepts, which derivefrom the Theravada tradition. See tenheavy precepts and ten precepts.

Jin“Dust,” a Japanese Buddhist expressionfor the objects of human perception,including sights, sounds, tastes, tex-tures, aromas, and mental images. Theterm has negative connotations sug-gesting contamination or defilement,since tradition maintains that sensoryperceptions may stimulate desires.Desires lead to attachment and ulti-mately result in suffering. See dust.

Jinjû“Steward of purity,” the sanitation stew-ard at a Zen monastery, responsible forkeeping the latrines clean. In a Zenmonastery, cleaning the toilets was nottraditionally relegated to lay attendantsor junior monks. Senior monks wereexpected to hold the position. See alsolay believer.

JinneThe Japanese pronunciation for Ho-tseShen-hui (670–762), an early ChineseZen monk. See Ho-tse Shen-hui.

Jinshi Eison(1195–1272) Japanese Buddhist monkof the Kamakura period (1185–1333).Eison was born in Echigo, present dayFukuoka Prefecture. He became aBuddhist monk at age seven, studyingthe Tendai tradition. He was first intro-duced to Zen by Shakuen Eichô(d.1247) at Chôraku-ji, a Tendai templewhere a combined form of esoteric andZen Buddhism were practiced. In 1235,he journeyed to China where he studiedan exclusive form of Rinzai Zen. Hereturned to Japan in 1238. In 1240, hebecame founding abbot at Manjuji inEchizen. See also Tendai sect.

JinshûThe Japanese pronunciation for Shen-hsiu (606?–706), an early Chinese Zenmonk. See Shen-hsiu.

JiriPhenomena and noumena, or relativeand absolute. The Japanese term, basedon the Chinese term shih-li, is used intechnical philosophical discussions onthe nature of reality. The character jitypically refers to things experienced inthe phenomenal world, while ri refers toan underlying principle or reality. In aBuddhist context, ri is most often asso-ciated with the concept of emptiness.

Jiriki“Self Power”, the Japanese term forseeking enlightenment through one’sown merit and religious practice. SeeSelf Power.

Ji Sect“Time sect,” a sect of Japanese PureLand Buddhism founded by the monkIppen (1239–1289) during theKamakura period (1185–1333). Thename is said to signify that memberschant the nembutsu at all times of theday and night. In the early generationsof its history, all members of the Ji sectfollowed Ippen’s example and wereexpected to practice yugyô, or constanttravel to spread the teachings, andfusan, the distribution of nembutsutablets. Later, the sect allowed for laybelievers who did not leave the home todevote their lives to religious practice.

JishaAttendants to the abbot; youngermonks who serve the abbot as personalassistants. In medieval monasteries, thejisha were selected from among themore talented or promising youngmonks. The position was covetedbecause it provided important training in the workings of monasticlife. Serving as a jisha prepared a young

monk to later assume high-rankingmonastic offices.

The abbot typically had five atten-dants, who served in a variety of roles.They assisted in serving tea, cared forthe abbot’s incense box, served asacolytes at ritual functions, received theabbot’s guests, handled the abbot’s per-sonal correspondence, kept the abbot’spersonal financial accounts, and pro-vided medical attention and herbaltreatments. The jisha were oftenassisted in their duties by anja, layattendants who did most of the strenu-ous physical labor. See also lay believer.

Jishô“Self Nature” or “Original Nature,” aJapanese Zen expression used to indi-cate the Buddha Nature, which isinherent in all sentient beings.Realization of one’s original nature,freed from the veil of delusion, isenlightenment. In Zen contexts, jishô isused synonymously with the termsHonshô (Original Nature), Busshô(Buddha Nature), and Nyoraizô(Tathagata Garbha). In most Buddhistcontexts, however, the term jishô isused quite differently. In Mahayanatexts it was first used as the Japanesetranslation of the Sanskrit concept ofsvabhava, a permanent, unchangingself. According to the Buddhist teachingof emptiness, all things are devoid ofself-nature in this sense of the word.

Jishô Butsu“One’s self nature is itself Buddha.” Thisis a Japanese Zen expression for origi-nal enlightenment, the affirmation thatordinary individuals possess theBuddha Nature. If one is freed from alldelusions, one will see one’s true natureand attain enlightenment.

Jishô Kai“Precepts of the self nature,” aMahayana expression in Japanese indi-cating that observance of the bod-hisattva precepts is a natural expression

of one’s inherent Buddha Nature.Since one’s true nature is BuddhaNature, the Buddhist precepts are notan external moral code. Used as a syn-onym for Honshôkai.

Jishô ShôjôSelf nature, originally pure and freefrom delusion. The Japanese term maybe used as a synonym for Nyoraizô(Tathagata Garbha) and Shinshin(True Mind).

Jissatsu Temples“Ten Distinguished Temples,” a designa-tion for a lower ranking within the Gozansystem of Chinese and Japanese Zenmonasteries. In the original Chinese sys-tem, the Ten Temples referred to a groupof ten Zen monasteries, which rankedbelow the prestigious Five Mountains.Along with the Five Mountains, the TenTemples received some governmentpatronage. In Japan, the number ofJissatsu temples was not strictly limitedto ten. As the second tier in the Gozansystem, the Jissatsu designation was atone time limited to ten monasteries inKyoto and ten monasteries in Kamakura,which were regarded as less prestigiousthan the Gozan monasteries. The cate-gory gradually extended to include anumber of temples in Kyoto andKamakura as well as numerous impor-tant provincial monasteries throughoutthe country. See also Gozan system.

Jizô“Earth womb,” the Japanese name forthe cosmic bodhisattva known asKshitigarbha in Sanskrit. In China, he isknown as Ti-tsang. The name mayderive from the popular belief that thehistorical Buddha invokedKshitigarbha’s name to bear witnessthat he had overcome Mara’s tempta-tion. In images of that episode, theBuddha is depicted pointing to the earth. Although Kshitigarbha wasnever a popular figure in Indian andCentral Asian Buddhism, he became

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Jizô is an especially popular bodhisattva in Japan; his image often appears at temples and roadside shrines.

progressively more popular in East Asia. Devotion to Jizô is strongest inJapan, where his image is commonlyfound at roadside shrines in the coun-tryside, at city street corners, and atmany temples.

As a part of his bodhisattva vows,Jizô swore to remain in the realm ofsamsara throughout the difficult periodbetween the death of ShakyamuniBuddha (Siddharta Gautama) Buddha,and the birth of the future buddhaMaitreya. He is said to travel freelyamong the six paths (rokudô) intowhich sentient beings are born, offer-ing assistance to anyone in need. Inparticular, Jizô willingly journeys downto the realm of hell, where he relievesthe suffering of hell dwellers and hungry ghosts. Jizô is understood to bea guide for individuals making the transition from one birth to the next,especially for children. Because of this,Jizô has strong associations with children: women pray to him when theywish to get pregnant or are hoping for an easy childbirth, and bereavedparents request Jizô’s help in guiding a deceased child through the afterlife.In modern day Japan, Jizô is a promi-nent cult image for women who havehad abortions.

In Japanese Buddhist iconography,Jizô is depicted as a young monk withshaven head and monastic robes. Inmany cases, he is surrounded by smallchildren, regarded as his specialcharges. He carries a staff (shakujô)with six rings in his right hand and amani jewel in his left. The six rings rep-resent the six paths of samsaric exis-tence. Grouping six Jizô imagestogether (roku jizô) is another populardevice for illustrating the same concept.

de Visser, Marinus Willem. “TheBodhisattva Ti-Tsang in China andJapan.” Ostasiatische Zeitschift 2(1913).

La Fleur, William R. The Karma of Words:Buddhism and the Literary Arts inMedieval Japan. Berkeley, CA:University of California Press, 1983.

———. Liquid Life: Abortion andBuddhism in Japan. Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 1992.

Jôchi-jiAn important Rinzai monastery inKamakura, Japan. Jôchi-ji was foundedby the Chinese master Ta-hsiu Cheng-nien (1259–1289) in 1283. It was laterdesignated as one of the Gozan monas-teries in Japan. See also Gozan systemand Rinzai sect.

Jôdô“To go up to the hall,” which usuallyrefers to a Zen abbot entering the lec-ture hall and going up to the lectureplatform to give a formal sermon to theassembly. Alternatively, it may refer tomonks and nuns entering the medita-tion hall or monks’ hall (sôdô) for ameal. In some cases the term may alsorefer to the upper (or eastern) portion ofthe monks’ hall.

Jôdo(2) Pure Land, the Japanese term for theMahayana Buddhist concept of a celes-tial world or paradise created by abuddha. In most cases, jôdo refersspecifically to the Western Pure Land ofAmida buddha. See Pure Land.

Jôdô-eThe East Asian Buddhist festival cele-brating the Buddha’s enlightenmentunder the bodhi tree. The holiday ismore commonly known as Rôhatsu-e or simply Rôhatsu. It was traditionallyobserved on the eighth day of thetwelfth lunar month, but is now celebrated on December 8th in Japan.See Rôhatsu.

Jôdo no SanbukyôThe three Pure Land Sutras, whichform the scriptural basis for the PureLand teachings. In Japanese, the threetitles are Daimuryôjukyô (Larger PureLand Sutra), Amidakyô (Amida Sutra,

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also known as the Smaller Pure LandSutra), and Kammuryôjukyô (Medita-tion Sutra).

Jôdo ShinshûTrue Pure Land sect of JapaneseBuddhism, founded by the monkShinran (1173–1262) during theKamakura period (1185–1333). See TruePure Land sect.

Jôdo-ShûThe Pure Land sect of JapaneseBuddhism, founded by the monkHônen (1133–1212) during theKamakura period (1185–1333). See PureLand sect.

JôjûThe term literally means permanence,something that remains withoutchange. In a Zen monastery, it refers tothe public property of the community,those things available for common useas opposed to the private belongings ofthe monks or nuns. In this sense, itrefers to buildings, grounds, utensils,and food supplies. By extension, theterm may also be used as a reference tothe administrative office of themonastery. The temple administrationbears responsibility for the business ofrunning the monastery, including foodpreparation, the upkeep of the publicproperty, seeing to visitors, etc.

Jômyô-jiAn important Rinzai monastery inKamakura, Japan. Jômyô-ji was origi-nally founded as a Shingon temple in1188, by the shogun Ashikaga Yoshikane(1147–1196). It was later converted to aZen temple by his son Yoshiuji(1189–1254). Taikô Gyôyû (1163–1241),a Dharma heir of Eisai (1141–1215), isofficially listed as the founding abbot.The monastery was later designated asone of the Gozan monasteries in Japan.See also Gozan system, Rinzai sect, andShingon sect.

Jôshû JûshinThe Japanese name for Chao-chouTs’ung-shen (778–897), one of the outstanding Zen masters of the T’ang dynasty (618–907). See Chao-chou Ts’ung-shen.

Jôza“High seat,” a term for the highest ranking monastic officer in a Zentemple after the abbot. The term refers to the Jôza’s position beside theabbot on the meditation platform. It ismore commonly referred to as theshuso. See shuso.

JûakuThe ten evil acts. They are: 1) killing aliving being (sesshô); 2) stealing(chûtô); 3) sexual misconduct (jain); 4) lying (môgo); 5) slander (akku), 6)using language that causes dissentionamong others (ryôzetsu), 7) idle talk(kigo), 8) greed (ton’yoku), 9) giving wayto anger (shinni), and 10) holdingwrong views (jaken). The jûaku are theopposites of jûzen, the ten good acts.See ten evil acts.

Ju-ching(1163–1228; J. Nyojô) Chinese Sôtômaster of the Sung dynasty (960–1279)best known as the Dharma master ofDôgen Kigen (1200–1253), the founderof Japanese Sôtô. He is also known asT’ien-t’ung Ju-ching (J. Tendô Nyojô)after Mount T’ien-t’ung where he was the abbot at Ching-te-ssu. He wasthe Dharma heir of Tsu-an Chih-chien.Ju-ching stressed the importance ofseated meditation and the strict obser-vance of proper monastic behavior. Seealso Sôtô sect.

Jûdai DeshiThe ten great disciples of ShakyamuniBuddha (Siddharta Gautama). Amongthe immediate disciples of the Buddha,the tradition has singled out ten as out-standing in some respect. Their names,

in Japanese, are: 1) Anan (Sk. Ananda),known for hearing and recalling the ser-mons of the Buddha; 2) Anaritsu (Sk.Anuruddha), known for his divineinsight; 3) Kasennen (Sk. Katyayana),known for analyzing the teachings; 4)Makakashô (Sk. Mahakashyapa),known for his dedication to asceticpractice; 5) Mokuren (Sk. Maudgal-yâyana), known for his psychic powers;6) Furuna (Sk. Purna), known for hiseloquence and skill in debate; 7) Ragora(Sk. Rahula), known for his dedicationto training young novices; 8) Sharihotsu(Sk. Shariputra), known for his deepwisdom; 9) Shubodai (Sk. Subhuti),known for his deep understanding ofthe teaching of emptiness; and 10)Ubari (Sk. Upali), known for his strictobservance of the precepts.

The Zen school reveres Makakashôand Anan as the first and second of thetwenty-eight Indian Patriarchs of Zen.

Juen“To enter the temple,” an expression forthe formal installation of a new abbot ata Zen temple or monastery. It is alterna-tively pronounced “nyûin.” The cere-mony was generally witnessed by hon-ored guests, usually high-rankingmonks from other monasteries as wellas government officials. The mostsenior visitor officiated as byakutsui,calling the assembly to order at eachstage of the ceremony. According to rit-ual protocol, the new abbot would enterthrough the main gate, offer incense,and say a few words to the gatheredassembly. He would then proceed to theBuddha hall where he would offerincense and prayers, followed by a shortsermon. The abbot would visit variousother halls within the monastery, andthen formally register at the monks’ hall(sôdô). Since all newly arrived monksand nuns register in a similar manner atthe monks’ hall, the term juen some-times is used for the entry of a new res-ident, especially a novice, to a Zenmonastery. Only after registering didthe new abbot take possession of theabbot’s quarters. See shinsanshiki.

Jufuku-jiAn important Rinzai monastery inKamakura, Japan, and the first Zenmonastery in that city. Jufuku-ji wasfounded by Eisai (1141–1215) in 1200.Hôjô Masako (1157–1225), the widow ofthe founding shôgun of the Kamakuraperiod (1185–1333), MinamotoYoritomo, had the monastery built inthe memory of her deceased husband.It was later designated as one of theGozan monasteries in Japan. See alsoGozan system and Rinzai sect.

JûgôThe ten epithets or honorific titles of theBuddha. In Japanese they are: 1) Nyorai,(Tathagata or Thus Come One), 2) Ogu(arhat, or a holy one worthy of venera-tion), 3) Shôhenchi (Fully enlightenedone), 4) Myôgyôsoku (Possessor ofWisdom and Practice), 5) Zenzei (WellGone One), 6) Sekenge (Knower of theWorld), 7) Mujôshi (Unsurpassed), 8)Jôgojôbu (Trainer of Human Beings), 9)Tenninshi (Teacher of gods and humanbeings), and 10) Butsu seson (the Buddha,the World-Honored One).

Jûgyûzu“Ten oxherding pictures,” a series often drawings of an ox and an oxherder,which describe the process of Zen prac-tice and enlightenment. The oxherderrepresents the Zen practitioner seekingenlightenment while the ox representsthe true self. The original pictures areattributed to the twelfth-centuryChinese Zen monk K’uo-an Shih-yuan(J. Kakuan Shion; d. 1234). The ten pic-tures are known in Japanese as: 1)jingyû (seeking the ox); 2) kenshaku(finding its footprints); 3) kengyû (see-ing the ox); 4) tokugyû (catching the ox);5) bokugyû (herding the ox); 6) kigyûkike (riding the ox home); 7) bôgyû zon-nin (forgetting the ox, but not the self );8) ningyû kubô (forgetting both ox andself); 9) henpon gengen (returning tothe source); and 10) nitten suishu(entering the marketplace to bestowblessings on others).

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Jûji“One who dwells in the world andmaintains the Dharma,” the Japaneseterm for an abbot or chief monk at a monastery or temple. It is said that the abbot teaches the Dharma in placeof the Buddha and the patriarchsof Zen and thus makes their compas-sion manifest.

At a training monastery or largetemple, the abbot serves as the chiefadministrative officer for the entirecommunity. At a smaller temple, thejûji may be the only monk in resi-dence. In such cases, it is more appro-priate to call him the chief monk. Theabbot is responsible for the smoothfunctioning of both the administrativeside of the monastery and the medita-tion and training side, the so-calledeastern (tôhan) and western (seihan)ranks. For this reason, he oversees thework done by the other high-rankingofficers of the monastery. In addition,the abbot is the primary teacher of theDharma for the monastic community.He holds the “great assemblies”(daisan) several times each month toinstruct the community on theDharma.

Jûji(2) Ten stages of a bodhisattva. Alsopronounced “jucchi.” In Japanese, theten stages are: 1) kangiji (the stage ofjoy in benefiting oneself and others), 2)rikuji (the stage of freedom from alldefilement), 3) hakkôji (the stage ofemitting the light of wisdom), 4) enneji(the stage of radiating wisdom), 5)nanshôji (the stage at which one is dif-ficult to conquer), 6) genzenji (thestage at which reality is manifestedbefore one’s eyes), 7) ongyôji (the stageof going far), 8) fudôji (the stage ofbeing immovable), 9) zenneji (thestage of attaining expedient wisdom),and 10) hôunji (the stage when one canspread the Dharma like a cloud). Seeten stages of a bodhisattva.

JûjûkinkaiThe ten heavy precepts. The primaryprecepts of the bodhisattva path,derived from the Bonmôkyô (BrahmaNet Sutra). The ten include prohibitionsagainst: 1) killing, 2) stealing, 3) sexualmisconduct, 4) lying, 5) using intoxi-cants, 6) finding fault in others, 7)boasting about oneself, 8) envy, 9) angerand ill will, and 10) slandering the threetreasures. A secondary set of forty-eight light precepts (shijûhachikyôkai)fill out the full bodhisattva preceptswhich guide the practice of MahayanaBuddhists. See ten heavy precepts.

Jukai“To receive the precepts.” In mostcases, this expression indicates ordina-tion as a Buddhist monk or nun, sincemonks and nuns accept the monasticcode at their ordination ceremony. InTheravada Buddhism and many partsof the Mahayana tradition, novices firstreceive the ten precepts of a novicebefore accepting the full compliment of250 precepts for monks and 500 pre-cepts for nuns. In Japan, many Buddhistsects, including Zen, use an alternativeset of precepts known as the bod-hisattva precepts.

A related Japanese term with thesame pronunciation but written withdifferent Chinese characters means “tobestow the precepts.” This refers to aBuddhist monk or nun granting someform of the Buddhist precepts on laybelievers, novices, or monks and nuns.

JukaieCeremony for receiving the precepts. Inmost cases, this refers to a Buddhistordination ceremony for monks ornuns in which they accept the monasticprecepts as a part of joining the monas-tic community. In some contexts, theterm may refer to ceremonies designedfor all Buddhist practitioners, laypeople and monastics, at which theyreceive the bodhisattva precepts andrenew their commitment to Buddhism.See also lay believer.

JûrokujôkaiThe sixteen article precepts that formthe basis for Sôtô ordinations. The sixteen precepts, sometimes called thebodhisattva precepts, include the three refuges (sankikai), the three pureprecepts (sanshujôkai), and the tenheavy precepts (jûjûkinkai). These six-teen precepts are understood toencompass the entire moral code ofMahayana Buddhism. Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253) spelled out the sixteen pre-cepts and the manner of ordination in achapter in the Shôbôgenzô entitled“Jukai” (Receiving the Precepts). Seealso Sôtô sect.

Yôkoi, Yûhô, and Daizen Victoria. ZenMaster Dôgen: An Introduction withSelected Writings. New York:Weatherhill, 1976.

JûzenThe ten good acts. They are: 1) notkilling living beings (fusesshô); 2) notstealing (fuchûtô); 3) abstaining fromsexual misconduct (fujain); 4) not lying(fumôgo); 5) not committing slander(fuakku), 6) not using language thatcauses dissention among others(furyôzetsu), 7) not engaging in idle talk(fukigo), 8) not acting out of greed(futon’yoku), 9) not giving way to anger (fushinni), and 10) not holdingwrong views (fujaken). They are theopposites of jûaku, the ten evil acts. Seeten good acts.

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Buddhist monks or nuns are ordained during the Jukai ceremony.

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KKadaJapanese transliteration of the Sanskritterm gâthâ, a form of religious verse.See gâthâ.

Kadô“The way of flowers,” a traditionalJapanese art form, closely associatedwith the tea ceremony (chanoyû). Kadôis popularly known as ikebana, orflower arranging. Although flowerarranging predates the introduction ofZen Buddhism to Japan, it is now indi-rectly associated with the Zen tradition.

KaichinThe Zen expression for laying out one’sbed and retiring for the night. At thesound of the kaichin bell, residentmonks or nuns take down their bedding, which is stored in the monks’hall, or (sôdô). Traditionally, Zen monksand nuns use only one futon, or mattress pad, and no pillow. Since they are allowed no other blankets, they roll themselves into the singlefuton on cold nights.

KaidanOrdination platform; a platform onwhich one receives the Buddhist preceptsas a part of the ordination ceremony. Thetradition of designating special sitesfor ordination ceremonies is said todate to the time of the historical Buddha.In the ancient tradition, the communitywould mark out a special area knownas a sima for ordination rituals. In EastAsia, it became customary to constructplatforms with three steps for this pur-pose. The first ordination platform was

constructed in China at Lo-yang in themiddle of the third century. The firstkaidan in Japan was constructed atTôdai-ji in Nara under the direction ofthe Chinese Vinaya master Chien-chen(688–763; J. Ganjin). Initially, allBuddhist monks and nuns in Japanreceived their full ordination at a fewofficially sanctioned ordination plat-forms under the supervision of mastersfrom the Ritsu school. The Japanesemonk Saichô (767–822), founder of theTendai sect of Buddhism, later alteredthis pattern. He received permission toconstruct a Mahayana kaidan on MountHiei specifically for Tendai ordinations.Unlike ordinations held at the Ritsukaidan, Tendai monks were ordainedusing a set of Mahayana precepts knownas the bodhisattva precepts. After thattime, it became common practice foreach sect of Japanese Buddhism tomaintain its own ordination platforms.

Matsunaga, Daigan, and AliciaMatsunaga. Foundation of JapaneseBuddhism. 2 vols. Los Angeles, CA:Buddhist Books International, 1976.

Kaidan SekiA stone tablet posted outside the gates ofboth the Zen and Ritsu monasteries,which announces that meat, fish, andalcohol are forbidden within templegrounds. Although the sign only specifies afew items forbidden by the monastic code,it is intended to indicate that the monasticcommunity maintains all of the preceptsreceived by its members at ordination.

Kaigen“Opening the eyes.” The root meaning ofthe term is the experience of enlighten-ment, when one sees through the delu-sions of ordinary thinking and opens theBuddha eye to see things as they reallyare. The term also denotes the consecra-tion ritual used for enshrining a newBuddhist image, usually that of a buddhaor bodhisattva. At the consecration cere-mony, the eyes of the image are symboli-cally opened in some manner. In some

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cases, the image may be fully draped orthe face covered until an appropriatepoint in the ritual when the image isuncovered. In the Zen sect, the eyes maybe opened by the officiant drawing a cir-cle (J. ensu) in black ink.

According to traditional accountswithin the Obaku Zen sect, a kaigen cere-mony was held at Mampuku-ji in 1663 toenshrine a set of sixteen life-size statuesof arhats. The masters Mu-an Hsing-t’ao(1611–1684; J. Mokuan Shôtô) and Chi-feiJu-i (1616–1671; J. Sokuhi Nyoitsu) offici-ated, each consecrating eight of theimages. Mu-an is said to have proceededdown the row, politely offering incense,bowing, and reciting the appropriateDharma words before each statue. Chi-feineither bowed nor offered incense. Hewalked up to each arhat in turn, struckthe image squarely between the eyes andsaid, “This monk’s eyes are already open.”See also Obaku sect.

KaihanAn announcement of the time of day. AtJapanese Rinzai monasteries, the time ofday is announced three times daily, at day-break, dusk, and bedtime. This is done bysounding a han hanging outside themonks’ hall (sôdô). See also Rinzai sect.

Kaiki“To open a foundation”; a term for thefounding patron of a Buddhist temple ormonastery or the founding of a temple bya patron. In most cases, founding patronswere lay Buddhists who donated moneyto construct a new temple in order tobuild merit. Buddhism teaches that laybelievers accrue merit from such gooddeeds, especially donations made to amonastic community. Lay believers builttemples, thus providing shelter to monksand nuns, for a variety of spiritual andpractical benefits. They could hope toensure a better rebirth in the next life forthemselves or for deceased family mem-bers. In some cases, patrons built templesin order to promote physical health, toensure themselves and their family alonger life, or to maintain peace within

the country. Emperors, military rulers,and wealthy government officials oftenprovided patronage for the Buddhistmonastic order by founding temples.

KaimyôA special Buddhist name conferred onan individual at the time of ordinationas a monk or nun. The term literallymeans “precept name,” since monksand nuns receive the name when theyaccept the precepts at their ordination.Generally speaking, the name is chosenby the ordinand’s teacher, known as theprecept master. The name may indicatethe lineage of the new monk or nun andmay suggest an aspect of the person’scharacter. In the Zen sect, a master mayconfer a new kaimyô on a previouslyordained individual when first accept-ing the individual as a disciple.

In Japanese Buddhist practice, theterm is also used for the special Buddhistname that most lay people receive afterdeath. For this reason, kaimyô is oftenreferred to as the posthumous name. Thekaimyô is usually conferred on thedeceased at the first seventh day service(shonan), held seven days after death. Atthat service, the presiding monk confersthe precepts on the deceased, symboli-cally ordaining the person as a monk ornun. The name indicates the gender ofthe individual and may indicate socialstanding in the community.

Whether referring to a name receivedposthumously or at ordination, therelated term hômyô, or “Dharma name,”may also be used. Hômyô is used morecommonly in the Obaku sect than in Sôtôor Rinzai. See also lay believer, Rinzaisect, and Sôtô sect.

Kaisan“To open a mountain,” a term for thefounding abbot of a temple or monastery.All Zen temples have a mountain name,regardless of where they actually are built.The practice of mountain names harkensback to the tradition of Zen masters build-ing meditation huts in the mountains,removed from the distractions of towns

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and cities. Disciples wishing instructionwould seek out a noted master even in aremote area, and in this way, masters builtup a meditative community based ontheir reputation; construction of a templecomplex followed later. The early found-ing abbots were therefore said to open themountain. The term now applies to anyfounding abbot. The term is also used inreference to the founder of a Buddhistsect or a Zen lineage.

In many cases, the kaisan may nothave initiated construction of the newtemple. A founding patron (kaiki) mayappoint or invite a particular monk ornun to serve as the first abbot after thebuilding project is complete. It is notuncommon for a monk or nun to nametheir own Zen master as the foundingabbot, sometimes posthumously, as asign of appreciation and respect.

The fortieth case of the Mumonkanrecounts how master Pai-chang Huai-hai(720–814) selected the kaisan of a newmonastery. The master challenged his dis-ciples to respond (agyo) to his question,with the understanding that the winnerwould become the founder. “[Pai-chang]took a water jug and put it on the ground.He asked, ‘You must not call this a waterjug. So, what will you call it?’ The chief seat(shuso) answered, ‘You can’t say it’s awooden post.’ Then Pai-chang askedKuei-shan Ling-yu (771–853). Kuei-shanknocked the water jug over and left. Pai-chang laughed and said, ‘The chief seatloses to Kuei-shan!’ Thereupon, Pai-changmade Kuei-shan the founding abbot.”

KaisandôJapanese for founder’s hall, a monasterybuilding dedicated to the temple’sfounding abbot. See founder’s hall.

Kaisan Shidô Bu’nan Anju Zenji Anroku“The Biography of the Founder, theHermitage-dwelling Zen Master ShidôBu’nan,” composed by Tôrei Enji (1721–1792). The brief text provides a basic bio-graphical sketch of Shidô Bu’nan(1603–1676), a Rinzai master from the

lineage of Kanzan Egen who was theteacher of Dôkyô Etan (1642–1721), themaster of Hakuin Ekaku (1685–1768). Seealso Rinzai sect.

Kaiyoku“To open the bath.” At traditional Zenmonasteries, the bath house was preparedand a hot bath provided for the residentmonks or nuns only on specially desig-nated days. According to the ChokushûShingi, the bath was prepared every fivedays during the winter retreat and dailyduring the summer retreat. At Sôtômonasteries, bath days were generallyobserved on days with the numerals 4 or 9,the shikunichi. According to Zen monas-tic codes, the bath house is one of threeareas within temple grounds wheresilence is observed. See also Sôtô sect.

Kaji Ichige“To give a forceful shout,” an expressionused in reference to the moment ofattaining satori (enlightenment). Zenmasters often use a loud shout, called“katsu!” in Japanese, as a teachingdevice. Shouting serves to shock a stu-dent caught up in ordinary thinkinginto an experience of enlightenment. Atthe moment of breakthrough, the stu-dent may also give a great shout.

Kako ShichibutsuJapanese for the seven buddhas of thepast, whose biographies appear at thebeginning of the Transmission of theLamp (Ch. Ching-te Chüan-teng Lu; J.Keitoku Dentôroku) and other tradi-tional accounts of the history of ZenBuddhism through the ages. The namesof the seven in Japanese are Bibashi Butsu(Sk. Vipashyin buddha), Shiki Butsu (Sk.Shikhin buddha), Bishabu Butsu (Sk. Vishvabhu buddha), Kuruson Butsu(Sk. Krakucchanda buddha), Kuna-gonmuni Butsu (Sk. Kanakamunibuddha), Kashô Butsu (Sk. Kashyapabuddha), and Shakamuni Butsu (Sk.Shakyamuni Buddha or SiddhartaGautama). See seven buddhas of the past.

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Kakua(b. 1142) Japanese Buddhist monk whotraveled to Sung China and became aRinzai master there. Kakua was origi-nally a Tendai monk who studied onMount Hiei before he became inter-ested in Zen. He went to China in 1171and practiced under the Rinzai masterHui-yüan (1103–1176), better known asFo-hai Ch’an-shih, of the Yang-ch’i lin-eage. He received the master’s Dharmaseal (inka) in 1175 and returned toJapan to propagate Zen. Kakua wasamong the first to attempt to spreadZen teachings in Japan, but he waslargely unsuccessful. It is said that whenEmperor Takakura (r. 1161–1181)invited him to court to speak about Zen,Kakua responded by playing a singlenote on his flute. The emperor and his entourage were not convinced, and Kakua eventually retired to a small hermitage on Mount Hiei, wherehe practiced Zen until his death. Seealso Rinzai sect, Tendai sect, and Yang-ch’i school.

Kakuan Shion(d. ca. 1234) A Japanese monk from theDaruma sect, an early Japanese schoolof Zen. Kakuan Shion was a disciple ofthe sect’s founder, Dainichi Nônin; hecontinued to train disciples at Sambô-jiafter Nônin’s death. He moved the sect’sheadquarters and set up a monastery atTônomine, in the Nara area, to avoidharassment from Tendai monks fromMount Hiei. After Kakuan’s death hisdisciple Ekan (d. 1251) led the groupuntil they joined Dôgen Kigen’s(1200–1253) community at Eihei-ji.Kakuan’s former disciples, Ejô(1198–1280) and Ekan, became leadingdisciples of Dôgen.

Kakushin(1207–1298) Shinchi Kakushin orMuhon Kakushin was a JapaneseBuddhist monk of the Kamakura period(1185–1333), regarded as the founder ofthe Fuke sect. Kakushin was born inwhat is now Nagano Prefecture; at age

Moss garden of Saihô-ji (later renamed Kôkoku-ji), founded by Kakushin in Wakayama, Japan.

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fourteen, he entered Buddhist orders inthe Shingon tradition of esotericBuddhism. Later he went to study atMount Kôya. He studied Zen in Japanunder such masters as Taikô Gyôyû(1163–1241), Shakuen Eichô (d. 1247),and Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253), beforetraveling to China in 1249. In China, hereceived Dharma transmission fromWu-men Hui-k’ai (1183–1260), com-piler of the Mumonkan. Kakushinintroduced that important kôan collec-tion to Japan when he returned in 1254.After coming home, he founded Saihô-ji(later renamed Kôkoku-ji) inWakayama, where he remained for therest of his life. He resisted all attemptsby retired, Buddhist-minded emperorsto draw him into the Zen community inKyoto or Kamakura, preferring a life ofsolitude. His lineage was known as theHottô-ha. See also Shingon sect.

Kalpa(J. kô) A world age or a world cycle; atraditional measure of time used in var-ious Indian religions. It indicates anincalculably long period, lasting severalthousand eons. In some parts of theHindu tradition, for example, a kalpa isunderstood to be a single day for thegod Brahma, lasting 4,320 million earthyears. The Buddhist traditionmetaphorically defines the duration ofa kalpa as the time required to empty aten-mile-square city filled with poppyseeds, if one removes one seed everythree years. Alternatively, a kalpa is thetime required for a heavenly woman towear away a ten-cubic-mile rock byrubbing it with her robe once everythree years.

KamiA Shintô spirit or deity. Shintô, theindigenous religious tradition in Japan,recognizes the existence of a wide vari-ety of spiritual beings which are knownas kami, including supernatural deitiesdescribed in mythological terms likestories of the gods from other cultures.The concept of kami is not limited,

however, to beings understood as godsin the usual Western sense of the word.Some kami represent forces in nature,such as the sun, the moon, wind andstorms, etc. The most important deity ofthis kind is Amaterasu, the SunGoddess. Amaterasu is revered as thehighest kami in the heavens and isregarded as an ancestor of the imperialfamily. Other kami are legendary heroesor prominent historical figures whobecame kami after death. Even livinghuman beings may be regarded as kamiunder certain extraordinary circum-stances. In addition, there are manyplaces identified as kami, includingmountains, waterfalls, extraordinaryrock formations, and the like. The con-cept of kami encompasses the under-standing that nature is a sacred force.According to the classical definitionwritten by Motoori Norinaga, the lead-ing Shinto scholar of the eighteenth andnineteenth centuries, a kami may beanything extraordinary, mysterious, orawe-inspiring.

Kana HôgoDharma lectures composed in Japaneserather than classical Chinese. Kanahôgo represents a genre of JapaneseBuddhist literature designed to make itsteachings accessible to a broader audi-ence. Traditionally, Buddhist monkswrote about Buddhism in classicalChinese, the literary language used bythe elite educated classes for all schol-arly writing. Kana refers to two Japanesephonetic syllabaries (hiragana andkatakana) of approximately fifty charac-ters each, which allow the spoken lan-guage to be rendered in written form.Hôgo literally means “words on theDharma” and refers to a lesson or ser-mon about the Buddhist teachings.

Kanakamuni Buddha(J. Kunagonmuni) One of the sevenBuddhas of the past whose biographiesappear at the beginning of theTransmission of the Lamp (Ch. Ching-teChüan-teng Lu; J. Keitoku Dentôroku)

and other traditional accounts of thehistory of Zen Buddhism through theages. Kanakamuni is the fifth on the listand is identified as the second buddhaof the present eon.

KanbenBrief conversations between a Zen mas-ter and a disciple in which the mastertests the disciple’s understanding of theDharma. The Sayings of Lin-chiincludes a selection of kanben, forexample. Kanben is the Japanese ren-dering of the Chinese term k’an-pien.

Kanbutsu“Bathing the Buddha;” the ritual ofsprinkling perfumed water or sweet-ened tea over an image of the Buddha.The rituals is also known as Yokubutsu.Throughout the Buddhist world, believ-ers bathe images of the infantSiddharta Gautama as part of theobservance of his birthday. In East Asia,Buddhists traditionally commemoratethe Buddha’s birthday on the eighth day of the fourth lunar month. Thepractice of kanbutsu recalls the descrip-tion of the Buddha’s birth in traditionalbiographies, which depict gods andother heavenly beings celebrating thebirth of the child by bathing him in per-fumed water and showering him withflower blossoms.

The practice of bathing images ofthe Buddha to celebrate his birth origi-nated in India. It became a popular cus-tom in China by the seventh and eighthcenturies, when it was transmitted toJapan. Prince Shôtoku Taishi (574–622)held the first kanbutsu ritual in Japan tocelebrate the Buddha’s birthday in 606.See also Hana Matsuri.

Kamens, Edward, trans. The Three Jewels:A Study and Translation of MinamotoTamenori’s Sanboe. Ann Arbor, MI:Center for Japanese Studies,University of Michigan, 1988.

KanchôThe head abbot responsible for theadministration of an entire sect ofJapanese Buddhism. The position wascreated by the Japanese governmentduring the modern period (1868–pre-sent), as a part of the Meiji govern-ment’s program of regulations to facili-tate its control of Buddhism. Beginningin 1872, government regulationsrequired a reorganization and simplifi-cation of the Buddhist monastic worldinto seven sects, Tendai, Shingon, Jôdo,Zen, Shin, Nichiren, and Ji. At the headof each sect was the kanchô, responsi-ble for the administration of all sub-sects and answerable to the govern-ment for the entire sect. Under this ini-tial restructuring, the Rinzai, Sôtô, andObaku sects were unified under a singlehead abbot. The government latereased its regulations, allowing sub-sectsto gain independence. Under therevised regulations, Rinzai, Sôtô, andObaku were each independent sects, each with its own head abbot.Since 1946, under the Religious JuridicalPersons Law, the position of kanchô has been replaced by a board of at least three officials for any sect thatchooses to register under the law for tax purposes. Head abbots of the main monastery for a sect are nowknown as the kanshu. The term is sometimes translated as bishop, orarchbishop. See also Obaku sect, Rinzaisect, and Sôtô sect.

Hori, Ichiro, et. al, eds. JapaneseReligions: A Survey by the Agency forCultural Affairs. Tokyo: KodanshaInternatiuonal, 1972.

Kanjizai“One who observes freely,” an alternative Japanese name for the bod-hisattva Kannon (Sk. Avalokiteshvara).See Kannon.

Kanki Issoku“To exhale in a single breath;” a term forexhaling and inhaling to regulate one’s

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breathing at the beginning of seatedmeditation. In the Fukan Zazengi,Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253) uses thisexpression to explain the initial processof regulating one’s breathing. Afteradjusting one’s body in the correct posture, one opens the mouth slightlyand quietly and fully exhales, expellingthe air from deep in the abdomen in a single, long breath. One then closes the mouth and breathes inthrough the nose.

Kanna Zen“The Zen of seeing into a kôan,” thepractice of Zen using kôan as a medita-tion device. The term, pronounced K’an-hua Ch’an in Chinese, was originallycoined by the disciples of Hung-chihCheng-chüeh (1091–1157) as a deroga-tory expression for the Zen style of theirrival Ta-hui Tsung-kao (1089–1163). Ta-hui was a strong advocate for the use ofkôan, regarding kôan as an essentialdevice for attaining enlightenment.Eventually, the term kanna Zen lost itsnegative connotations and is generallyused to denote the Rinzai style of Zenpractice, which relies upon the use ofkôan. The opposite style of practice isknown as mokushô Zen, or silent illumi-nation Zen. See also Rinzai sect.

Kannon“One who observes the sounds,” theJapanese name for Avalokiteshvara, thebodhisattva of infinite compassion andmercy. Kannon is among the most pop-ular Buddhist deities in Japan. She isrevered in all sects of JapaneseBuddhism, including the Zen sects. Thename is understood to mean thatKannon closely observes the world andcan hear all the cries of suffering com-ing from sentient beings everywhere.Kannon will respond to save anyonewho cries out for help using her name.Kannon can assume any corporeal shapeand can enter any region, including hell,to rescue a believer. It is also believedthat Kannon will appear at death tosafely escort a believer to Amida’s Pure

Land. One of the most popular depic-tions of Kannon in Japan is theThousand-armed Kannon (J. SenjuKannon), which has an eye in each of itsmany hands to better watch over theworld. Although images ofAvalokiteshvara from India are alwaysmasculine in form, there are many fem-inine images for Kannon in East Asia. InJapan, Hidden Christians (J. KakureKirishitan), who were forbidden by lawto openly practice their Catholic faithfor many years, used images of Kannonto represent the Virgin Mary. Shebecame known as Maria Kannon. Alsoknown in Japanese as Kanzeon (“onewho observes the sounds of the world”)and Kanjizai (“the one who observesfreely”). See also Kuan-yin.

KannonkyôKannon Sutra, the popular Japanesetitle for the “Kanzeon Bosatsu Fumon-bon” (“The Universal Gateway of theBodhisattva Perceiver of the World’sSounds”), the twenty-fifth chapter ofthe Lotus Sutra. It is alternativelyabbreviated as the “Fumon-bon.” Themost common version of the sutra usedin East Asia is the translation byKumarajiva. The text has circulatedindependently and is sometimesregarded as a separate sutra. It is oftenrecited at Zen rituals involving lay prac-titioners. See also AvalokiteshvaraSutra and Kuan-yin Ching.

KanshiPoetry composed in Chinese, especiallythat written by Japanese authors. InJapan, kanshi is contrasted with Waka,poetry composed in Japanese.

Kanshiketsu“A dried outhouse stick.” See shiketsu.

KanshôA small hanging bell used in Zenmonasteries to announce the opportu-nity for private instruction with themaster (dokusan). The bell is sounded176

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Kannon is among the most popular of the Buddhist dieties.

by striking it with a wooden mallet. Thekanshô sits outside the master’s quar-ters, and an assistant sounds the bell atthe beginning of the instruction period.Students seeking instruction gather toawait their turn. One by one, after themaster signals for the next person toenter, students ring the bell twice toannounce their entrance.

KansuThe supervisor, one of the six stewardsat a Zen monastery who assist theabbot in the administrative responsibil-ities in managing the monastery. Alongwith the assistant supervisor (fûsu) andthe prior (tsûsu), the kansu is one ofthree financial officers responsible forthe economic management of templeresources. The supervisor and his assis-tant keep the daily accounts and drawup the annual budget. The economicofficers replaced the single office ofkan’in (or kannin), previously the solefinancial administrator for Zen monas-teries. See also temple positions.

KanzanJapanese rendering of the name Han-shan, a Chinese Zen poet of the T’angdynasty (618–907). See Han-shan.

Kanzan Egen(1277–1369) Japanese Rinzai monk of theKamakura period (1185–1333) whofounded the important monasteryMyôshin-ji. He was born in Nakano, inpresent day Nagano Prefecture, andentered Buddhist orders at a young age tostudy with his uncle, Gekkoku Sôchû, aDharma heir of Nampô Jômyô(1235–1309). At age twenty, his uncle tookhim to Kenchô-ji in Kamakura, where hebriefly became a disciple of NampôJômyô. When the master died, Kanzanreturned to his home and practiced onhis own for twenty years. At age fifty, hetraveled to Kyoto to study with ShûhôMyôchô (1282–1337), the abbot atDaitoku-ji, and in two years’ time hebecame Shûhô’s Dharma heir. In 1337,

following Shûhô’s recommendation, theretired Emperor Hanazono (1297–1348)invited Kanzan to become foundingabbot at a new temple which wouldbecome Myôshin-ji. Kanzan continuedto live a frugal and austere life atMyôshin-ji, accepting only a few disci-ples, and training them severely. Heacknowledged only one Dharma heir, JuôSôhitsu (1296–1380). Nevertheless, hislineage survived and became one of themost important in Japanese Rinzai.Kanzan left behind no recorded sayingsor other writings. He received posthu-mous titles from six emperors, but is bestknown as Musô Daishi, the title con-ferred on him in 1909 by the EmperorMeiji (1868–1912). See also Rinzai sect.

KanzanshiJapanese title for the Han-shan Shih (Poems of Han-shan). See Han-shan Shih.

Kanzeon(Sk. Avalokiteshvara) “One whoobserves the sounds of the world,” an alternative Japanese name for thebodhisattva Kannon See Kannon.

Kanzeon Bosatsu Fumon-bon“The Universal Gateway of theBodhisattva Perceiver of the World’sSounds,” the twenty-fifth chapter of theLotus Sutra. More popularly known inJapanese as the “Kannonkyô.” SeeAvalokiteshvara Sutra.

KapilavastuCity in present-day Nepal in thefoothills of the Himalayas, which wasthe home of Siddharta Gautama.Kapilavastu was the capital city of thekingdom of the Shakya clan into whichthe future Buddha was born. Siddhartawas born outside the confines of thecity, in a garden called Lumbini, andwas raised in Kapilavastu.

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Kare Sansui“Dry mountains and water;” dry land-scape gardens constructed of stone, sand,and moss, which represent a traditionalform of Japanese art closely associatedwith Zen Buddhism. In most cases, rakedsand or pebbles are used to representflowing water, larger stones representislands and mountains, and moss sug-gests forests. Dry landscape gardens are acommon feature in Japanese Zen monas-teries. The most famous examplesinclude the gardens at Ryôan-ji, Daisen-in, and Saihô-ji, all in Kyoto.

Karma(J. gô) Actions and the personal conse-quences that accrue from one’s actions.The basic concept of karma is shared bythe Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist religioustraditions, with some variations ininterpretation. In the Buddhist teachingof karma, moral actions of the body,speech, and mind that are taken inten-tionally are said to inevitably bear somefruit for the individual. If an action is

good, its resulting effects will be posi-tive and pleasant. If an action is evil,then the consequences will be negativeand painful. Karma thus works as animpersonal law of cause and effect, inwhich good and bad actions producetheir own rewards or punishments. Nodeity metes out punishment or reward,nor does a deity determine the nature ofgood and evil. In this context, good andbad can be understood in terms of thebasic Buddhist precepts against killing,stealing, sexual misconduct, and so on.

In the Buddhist understanding ofkarma, intention is a crucial aspect ofthe cause and effect process. Indeed,even an intention that does not result inthe action itself will, nevertheless, havesome karmic consequences for the indi-vidual. While the intention to murdermay not produce the same evil karma asthe act of murder, it does entail someconsequences. On the other hand,although unintentional actions maycause some inadvertent effects, they donot produce karmic consequences.

Kare sansui gardens are dry landscapes that include raked sand, stone, and moss.

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It is possible that the karmic conse-quences of one’s actions may not cometo fruition in a single lifetime. AlthoughBuddhism denies the existence of apermanent spirit or soul, it neverthelessteaches that karma carries over fromone birth to another. The karmicresidue accumulated in one lifetimehelps to determine the next rebirth. Anindividual who has accumulated goodkarma, often referred to as merit, willbe reborn in one of the better realms ofexistence. A person who has behavedimmorally will fall into one of the threeevil paths and be reborn as a helldweller, a hungry ghost, or an animal. Itshould be noted that whether the sumof one’s actions is good or bad, karmicconsequences perpetuate the cycle ofsamsara. In this sense, even the pro-duction of good karma is not ideal.Breaking the cycle is only possible whenone lives without acting out of greed,anger, and ignorance.

Robinson, Richard H. and William L.Johnson. The Buddhist Religion: AHistorical Introduction. Belmont,CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1996.

King, Winston L. In the Hope ofNibbana: The Ethics of TheravadaBuddhism. LaSalle, IL: Open Court,1964.

Kashaku“To hang up one’s staff,” to formallyenter a Zen monastery for practice.Traditionally, Buddhist monks andnuns carried a staff (shakujô) with themwhen they traveled on pilgrimage.When they entered a monastery tospend a few nights or to stay for a sea-sonal retreat, they would hang up theirstaff on a hook above their assignedplace in the monks’ hall (sôdô). Theexpression is now used primarily fornovices entering a Zen monastery fortraining. In certain contexts, however, itmay refer to a Zen monk or nun takingup the position as abbot or residentpriest at a temple.

KashayaBuddhist monastic robe. See kesa.

KashinHanging a portrait of a deceased abbotor other prominent Buddhist monk ornun in the lecture hall during thefuneral services. In addition to the por-trait, banners are hung around the cof-fin and the personal possessions of thedeceased, such as the master’s whisk,meditation mat, and razor, are laid outwithin the hall. Kashin is one of the nineritual acts (kubutsuji) performed whena prominent Buddhist monk or nundies. The term is also pronouncedKeshin. See also kubutsuji.

KashôJapanese transliteration for Kashyapa,the common abbreviation forMakakashô, or Mahakashyapa. SeeMahakashyapa.

Kashyapa BuddhaOne of the seven buddhas of the pastwhose biographies appear at the begin-ning of the Transmission of the Lamp(Ch. Ching-te Chüan-teng Lu; J.Keitoku Dentôroku) and other tradi-tional accounts of the history of ZenBuddhism through the ages. Kashyapa(Mahakashyapa) is sixth on the list andis identified as the third Buddha of thepresent eon.

KasshikiA postulant; the Japanese term for anindividual who lives and trains in amonastery without taking any monasticvows. In the Chinese milieu, kasshikicould live in the monastery indefinitely,without ever taking vows. In Japan,most kasshiki came to the temple withthe intention of eventually seekingordination, so the English renderingpostulant is more appropriate for theJapanese context. In medieval Japan(1185–1600), it was not uncommon foryoung boys, between the ages of five

and seven, to be sent to a monastery tobegin their religious training.Ordination was not generally allowedbefore age fifteen or older, so the boysspent several years as postulants. Theseyoungsters did not shave their heads orwear monastic robes, so they were a dis-tinctive presence within the confines ofa monastery. Today, children are notnormally accepted into monasteries inthe same manner. There are, however,usually determined periods of practicein the monastery before an individualqualifies for initial ordination as anovice, so that adults may reside in atemple as postulants.

The term literally means “toannounce meals.” In Chinese temples,it was originally used in reference to thelay attendants (anja) responsible forannouncing mealtime and serving thefood in the monks’ hall (sôdô).According to Dôgen Kigen’s(1200–1253) description in the FushukuHanbô (Rules Governing the Morningand Noon Meals), the kasshiki’sannouncement included a careful list-ing of the items on the day’s menu. Seealso lay believer.

KataThe term literally means “to hang upone’s bag and staff” and indicates takingup residence at a Zen monastery forpractice and instruction. When a monkor nun first requests formal admittanceto a Zen monastery and receives per-mission to enter, a process that maytake several days, the newcomer isassigned an appropriate place in theresidence hall. Each assigned spaceincludes a hook, upon which the newarrival hangs up both bag and staff. Theterm is also pronounced Katô.

Katai Futô RokuJapanese title for the Chia-t’aiComprehensive Record of the Lamp (Ch.Chia-t’ai p’u-teng lu). See Chia-t’aip’u-teng lu.

Kataku JinneThe Japanese pronunciation for Ho-tseShen-hui (670–762), a Chinese Zenmonk. See Ho-tse Shen-hui.

Kataku-shûThe Japanese name for the Ho-tseschool of early Chinese Zen, founded by Ho-tse Shen-hui (670–762) duringthe T’ang dynasty (618–907). See Ho-tse school.

Katsu!A shout characteristically used by Zenmasters, especially in the Rinzai school, tosuggest a state beyond distinctions anddiscursive thought. Katsu is the Japanesepronunciation for the Chinese characterread “Ko!” The shout was first used as ateaching device by the Chinese T’angdynasty master Ma-tsu Tao-i, but is mostoften associated with Lin-chi I-hsuan,founder of the Rinzai school. Zen mastersuse a loud shout as a means to shock dis-ciples into cutting off discursive and ana-lytical thought. In some cases, the shout issaid to have pushed students into theenlightenment experience.

In a passage found in the Sayings ofLin-chi (Rinzai-roku), Lin-chi distin-guished four types of Katsu in a formulathat came to be known as shikatsu, thefour shouts.

The Master said to a monk, “At timesmy shout is like the precious sword ofthe Diamond King. At times my shout islike a golden-haired lion crouching onthe ground. At times my shout is like thesearch pole and the shadow glass. Attimes my shout doesn’t work like ashout at all” (Watson, p. 98).

In the first instance, the shout is com-pared to the sword of wisdom, capableof cutting through any delusion. Thesearch pole and the shadow glass referto lures used by fishermen to draw fishto one spot. See also Rinzai sect.

Watson, Burton, trans. The ZenTeachings of Master Lin-chi: ATranslation of the Lin-chi lu.Boston, MA: Shambhala, 1993.

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Kattô“Creeping vines” or “complications,” aJapanese Zen expression generally usedas a derogatory reference for an overlycomplex teaching. In the Zen school, it refers to an attachment to words, participation in pointless dialogue, orverbal explanations.

KattôshûAbbreviated title for the ShûmonKattôshû. See Shûmon Kattôshû.

Kattô ZenA derogatory expression for any Zenstyle which is overly concerned withwords and literary pursuits rather thanseeking a direct understanding of theDharma. It is used synonymously withmoji Zen. See moji Zen.

Katyayana(J. Kasennen) One of the ten outstand-ing disciples of the Buddha, renownedfor his ability to analyze the Buddhistteachings and to convey them to oth-ers. Katyayana was a Brahmin fromAvanti, a region in western India farfrom the Buddha’s territory. He is saidto have trained under the guidance ofAshita, the seer who predictedSiddharta Gautama’s greatness at hisbirth. Katyayana served as a courtpriest for the king in Avanti. When theking sent him on a mission to visitShakyamuni, he became a disciple andsoon attained arhatship (nirvana). TheBuddha then sent Katyayana back toAvanti to spread the Dharma there. Seealso arhat.

Ishigami, Zenno. Disciples of theBuddha. Trans. Richard L. Gage andPaul McCarthy. Tokyo: KoseiPublishing Co., 1989.

Kechimyaku“Blood vessel,” a term for lineagecharts, especially those within the Zenschool, which illustrate the succession

of the teachings through generationsof masters and disciples. Dharmatransmission is likened to a blood lin-eage linking the present generationwith all previous generations of mas-ters going back to the Buddha. Thecharts typically delineate all genera-tions of Zen patriarchs and mastersfrom the Buddha or Bodhidharma,through the particular sectarian lin-eage of a Zen master down to a newlyrecognized disciple. These documentswere traditionally presented to disci-ples either at the time of ordination orwhen they were officially designated asDharma heirs. During the medievalperiod in Japan (1185–1600), it becamea common practice in the Sôtô schoolto distribute kechimyaku to lay practi-tioners who participated in preceptceremonies. See also lay believer andSôtô sect.

KegonkyôThe “Flower Garland Sutra,” theJapanese title for the Hua-yen Sutra, theChinese translation of the AvatamsakaSutra. See Avatamsaka Sutra.

Kegon School“Flower garland school,” the Japanesename for the Hua-yen school ofChinese Buddhism. The Kegon schoolwas one of the six schools of NaraBuddhism, established in Japan dur-ing the Nara period (710–794). Thename derives from the title of the pri-mary scripture of the school, the Hua-yen Sutra (Sk. Avatamsaka Sutra; J.Kegonkyô). The primary teachings ofthe school include the four realms ofreality and the ten stages of the bod-hisattva. The founder of the schoolwas the Chinese monk Fa-shun(557–640), although it was the ThirdPatriarch Fa-tsang (643–712) who sys-tematized its teachings. The schoolwas transmitted to Japan by theKorean monk Shen-hsiang (d. 742).

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Kechimyaku charts delineate the generations of Zen patriarchs and masters.

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KeisakuThe warning staff or admonition staffused during periods of seated medita-tion (zazen) to ward off drowsiness, todiscipline a mind that is wandering, orto encourage the efforts of a meditatorstriving for enlightenment. Keisaku isthe Japanese reading of the Mandarinterm, pronounced “ching-ts’e,” which ispreferred by the Rinzai school. In theSôtô school, the same term, is moreoften pronounced Kyôsaku. Keisakutypically are made from wood, with arounded handle at one end for grippingand a flat portion at the other endwhich strikes the body. They come invarious lengths, from two to five feet.The flat end is usually about two tothree inches wide. Heavier weightkeisaku are used in colder weatherwhen heavier clothing provides extrapadding, while lighter keisaku are usedin warm weather.

The jikidô, the person in charge ofthe meditation hall, wields the keisakuduring sessions of seated meditation.Use of the stick is not intended as aform of punishment, although its usemay appear quite harsh or painful.

Indeed, it is regarded as a crucial aid forthose who sit in meditation, especiallyin the hands of a skillful jikidô. Not onlydoes the keisaku assist meditators tostay awake and focused, it relieves someof the muscular tension and discomfortthat may build up during longer ses-sions. Individuals may request a blowfrom the keisaku when they feel sleepyor distracted by lifting their hands ingasshô, the Buddhist gesture of rever-ence. In other instances, the jikidô mayrecognize the signs of sleepiness andoffer the blow. Generally, the jikidôgives a warning tap on the shoulder toprepare the individual to receive theblow. The meditator leans forward andthe keisaku falls across the shoulderand back muscles. Afterward, the medi-tator thanks the jikidô by bowing, andthe jikidô responds with a bow. See alsoRinzai sect and Sôtô sect.

Keisen Sôryû(1425–1500) Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe Ashikaga period (1392–1568). Hewas a seventh-generation descendantof Kanzan Egen’s (1277–1369)Myôshin-ji line. He became the

The keisaku is a long wooden staff used during meditation to strike those who are becoming drowsy or otherwise preoccupied.

Dharma heir of Sekkô Sôshin(1408–1486) and was one of his fourprincipal disciples. He served as abbotat Myôshin-ji, Ryôan-ji, and othermajor Rinzai monasteries. See alsoRinzai sect.

KeisuA large, bronze percussion instrumentused during sutra chanting and otherrituals in the Buddha hall (Butsuden).In the Zen sect, the keisu is made fromcast bronze and is shaped very muchlike a begging bowl. It rests on a pillow,supported by a wooden stand. Thekeisu is sounded by striking the rimwith a padded stick. It is used through-out ritual ceremonies to punctuate thechanting. It is also called a kin. Smallerversions are called shôkei.

Keitoku DentôrokuThe Japanese title of the Ching-teCh’üan-teng Lu, a compilation of Zenbiographies recounting the history ofthe Zen school from the seven buddhasof the past through the Chinese mastersof the Sung dynasty (960–1279). SeeChing-te Ch’üan-teng Lu.

Keizan Jôkin(1268–1325) Japanese Sôtô monk of theKamakura period (1185–1333), whofounded Sôji-ji, one of the mainmonasteries for the Sôtô sect. Keizanplayed a crucial role in the early devel-opment and spread of Sôtô. He is some-times regarded as the second founder ofthe sect. Keizan was born in what is nowFukui Prefecture and became a monk atage twelve, when he entered Eihei-ji.He first practiced under Koun Ejô(1198–1280) and later became the disci-ple and Dharma heir of Tettsû Gikai(1219–1309). He became abbot atDaijô-ji after his master Gikai retired in1303. He remained there for ten years,before passing on the leadership to adisciple and setting out to found othertemples. In 1322, he inherited aShingon temple that he renamed Sôji-ji.

The Emperor Go-daigo (1287–1339)later elevated Sôji-ji to the same rank asEihei-ji, and it remains the second mainmonastery for the sect. Keizan popular-ized Sôtô among the common peopleand rural samurai class by incorporat-ing some esoteric rituals into Sôtô prac-tice and introducing funeral andmemorial services for lay members.Keizan’s written works include theDenkôroku, Zazen Yôjinki, and theKeizan Shingi. He received the posthu-mous title Jôsai daishi from the Meijiemperor. See also lay believer andShingon sect.

Keizan ShingiA Sôtô monastic code of two sectionscomposed by Keizan Jôkin(1268–1325), the Second Patriarch ofthe Zen sect in Japan. Keizan wrote thecode in 1325 to govern life at Yôkô-ji, amonastery he founded in Noto. The textis also known as the Keizan Oshô Shingior the Tôkoku Shingi. It was first pub-lished in 1680 by the Sôtô scholar-monkManzan. See also Sôtô sect.

Kekka FuzaTo assume the full lotus position, thebody posture most commonly usedduring Buddhist meditation. One sitscross-legged, placing the right foot onthe left thigh and the left foot on theright thigh. In most schools ofBuddhism, one places the hands palmup, the right hand resting on the leftfoot and the left hand on the right foot. In the case of Zen meditation, theright hand rests palm up on the left foot, and the left hand is placed abovethe right hand with the tips of thethumbs touching.

KekkaijiRestricted area, the Japanese term formonastery grounds that were restrictedto practitioners only. In Japan, the termapplied especially to Buddhistmonastery complexes such as those onMount Hiei and Mount Kôya, where

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Kendô practice in a class held at Hanazono College, a Buddhist college in Kyoto, Japan.

women were not allowed to enter. Thesewere also known as nyonin kekkai, areasrestricted from women.

Kenchô-jiA major Rinzai Zen monastery locatedin Kamakura, Japan. Its formal name isKofuku-zan Kenchô-ji. It was named inhonor of the Kenchô era (1249–1256).The temple was founded under thepatronage of the regent Hôjô Tokiyori(1227–1263), who planned to constructthe first full-fledged Rinzai monasteryin Japan. He invited the Chinese masterLan-ch’i Tao-lung (1213–1278; J. RankeiDôryû) to serve as the founding abbot.The temple was consecrated in 1253.Kenchô-ji was the first major Zenmonastery constructed in Kamakura,and unlike Rinzai monasteries alreadystanding in Kyoto, it did not include anystructures for esoteric Buddhist rituals.It was modeled after the Ching-shanmonastery built during the Sungdynasty (960–1279) in China andincluded a monks’ hall (J. sôdô), thefirst in the country. It ranked firstamong the Gozan (Five Mountain) temples in Kamakura. It serves today as the main headquarters for theKenchô-ji branch of Rinzai Zen. See alsoRinzai sect.

Kenchô-ji HaThe Kenchô-ji branch of Rinzai, one ofthe fourteen contemporary branches ofthe Japanese Rinzai sect. The mainmonastery for the branch in Kenchô-ji,located in Kamakura. Lan-ch’i Tao-lung(1213–1278; J. Rankei Dôryû) isregarded as the founder. The branch has407 temples throughout Japan andclaims approximately 89,000 adherents.

Kenchû Seikoku Zokutô RokuJapanese title for the Chien-chungChing-kuo Supplementary Record of theLamp (C. Chien-chung Ching-kuo Hsu-teng Lu). See Chien-chung Ching-kuoHsu-teng Lu.

Kendô“The way of the sword,” a Japanese mar-tial art popularly associated with ZenBuddhism. It is also known as Kenjutsu,“the art of the sword.” The connectionbetween swordsmanship and Zen firstemerged in the medieval period(1185–1600), when some sword masterstook up the practice of Zen. The stead-fastness, concentration, and compo-sure in the face of death of an accom-plished Zen practitioner is often com-pared to the mindset needed by a war-rior in battle. Kendô became widelypopular during the Tokugawa period(1600–1867), when the arts of war werelearned as sport. The Zen masterTakuan Sôhô (1573–1645) wrote aboutthe relationship between Zen andkendô among other martial arts. In themodern period (1868–present), kendô ispracticed using wooden swords andprotective clothing.

Kennin-jiA major Rinzai monastery, located inKyoto, Japan. It was founded by MyôanEisai (1141–1215) in 1202 and namedfor the era. It was built under thepatronage of Minamoto Yoriie(1182–1204), the second Kamakurashôgun, and was modeled after the Po-chang-shan monastery in China. It wasnot originally an independent Rinzaimonastery but a branch temple ofEnryaku-ji, the headquarters for theTendai sect. Some of the temple struc-tures were intended to house esotericrituals of both the Shingon and Tendaischools, rather than strictly Rinzai ser-vices. Under the guidance of theChinese master Lan-ch’i Tao-lung(1323–1390; J. Rankei Dôryû) it becamea strictly Rinzai monastery. It laterranked among the Gozan (FiveMountain) temples in Kyoto. Themonastery was completely destroyedduring the Onin War in the late fifteenthcentury, and was later rebuilt. Thetemple serves today as the main head-quarters for the Kennin-ji branch of theRinzai sect. See also Shingon sect.

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Kennin-ji HaThe Kennin-ji branch of Rinzai, one ofthe fourteen contemporary branches ofthe Japanese Rinzai sect. The mainmonastery for the branch is Kennin-ji,located in Kyoto. Myôan Eisai(1141–1215) is regarded as the founder.The branch has seventy-two templesthroughout Japan and claims approxi-mately 25,000 adherents.

Kenshô“Seeing one’s nature,” that is, realizingone’s own original Buddha Nature.Kenshô is a Japanese term commonlyused for an enlightenment experience;in many cases it is used synonymouslywith satori. In the Rinzai school, it mostoften refers more specifically to one’sinitial enlightenment experienceattained through kôan practice. Seealso Rinzai sect.

Kenshô Jôbutsu“Seeing one’s nature and attaining bud-dhahood.” The phrase first appeared ina commentary on the Nirvana Sutra,the Ta-po Nieh-p’an-ching Chi-chieh (J.Daihatsu Nehangyô Shuge; T37:377–611). It is best known as one linein a poem, attributed to Bodhidharma,which describes Zen Buddhism.According to Zen teachings, all ordinaryindividuals already possess the Buddhamind, or Buddha Nature, and are originally buddhas. By focusing one’sattention inward through the practiceof meditation, one may be able to realize this reality and attain enlightenment. The process may beunderstood less as an ordinary personbecoming a buddha than as a shift ofperspective, which allows a person tosee his or her true nature.

KesaBuddhist monastic robes worn bymonks and nuns. The Japanese termderives from the Sanskrit word kashaya.There are three primary types of kesaused in the Zen school, those made with

five, seven, or nine strips of cloth. Thefive-strip robe (Sk. antarvasa; J. gojôe)was originally designed to be worn asan inner garment or undergarment. It issometimes known as the work garment,because monks often stripped down tothe inner robe when engaging in physi-cal labor. The seven-strip robe (Sk.uttarasanga; J. shichijôe) is an outergarment intended to be worn as thebasic monastic robe within the monas-tic community. The nine-strip robe (Sk.samghati; J. kujôe) was originallydesigned as a formal outer garment tobe worn when outside the monastery.

In China and Japan, kesa are worn ina more symbolic fashion, with the longmonastic robe, called the Koromo,,serving as the basic monastic robe.Buddhist monks generally wear a kesadraped over the koromo. In many cases,the gojôe is worn on a strap placedaround the neck as a symbolic reminderof the Buddha’s patched robe and hisenlightenment. The strap and five-stripkesa worn together in this manner areknown as a rakusu. Alternatively, ashichijôe is worn over the shoulder as atunic or sash.

Kesa BukuroThe bag or box designed to carrymonastic robes, alternatively known as the kesa gôri or kesa bunko.Traditionally, monks used a large clothbag to carry their robes and other possessions. In East Asia, boxes made of bamboo or lacquered wood are also commonly used. Zen monksalways carry the kesa bukuro with themwhen they go out on pilgrimage. Seealso kesa.

Kesa Kudoku“Merit of the monastic robe.” There arethree types of monastic robes tradi-tionally worn by monks, which arecalled kesa in Japanese. It is said thateach type of kesa brings a specific ben-efit with its use. The five-strip kesafrees one from greed. The seven-stripkesa destroys anger, while the nine-strip

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kesa alleviates ignorance. Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253) wrote an essay entitled“Kesa kudoku,” which is included as achapter in the Shôbôgenzô. In it, heexplains that all the buddhas and patriarchs of Zen have worn themonastic robe which symbolizes theDharma. Monks and nuns receivetheir robes at ordination, clothingwhich marks them as members of the monastic community and links themback to the buddhas and patriarchs.

Ketsumyaku RonJapanese title of the Chinese text theHsüeh-mo Lun, attributed toBodhidharma. Also pronounced“kechimyaku ron.” See Hsüeh-mo Lun.

Kidô ChiguJapanese rendering of the name Hsü-t’ang Chih-yü (1185–1269), a ChineseRinzai monk of the Sung dynasty(960–1279), known in Japan as theDharma master of Nampô Jômyô(1235–1309), better known as DaiôKokushi. See Hsü-t’ang Chih-yü.

Kidô Roku DaibetsuThe Japanese title for the Hsü-t’ang LuTai-pieh, a collection of 100 old kôanwith answers composed by Hsü-t’angChih-yu. The Kidô Roku Daibetsu is stillused today as an advanced text withinthe Takujû line of modern JapaneseRinzai. See Hsü-t’ang Lu Tai-pieh.

KieTo take refuge. The practice of takingrefuge dates back to ancient India. InIndian culture, to take refuge in a per-son or concept indicates that one hasmade a deep personal commitment.Taking refuge usually involved publiclyreciting an oath or some other state-ment of commitment. In a religiouscontext, refuge does not imply a placeto hide but rather a source of strength.Buddhists of all denominations speakof taking refuge in the Buddha as an

expression of their commitment to theBuddhist tradition. They regularlyrecite a brief ritual prayer stating theirreliance on the Buddha, the Dharma,and the sangha. Buddhists repeat the formula, “I take refuge in theBuddha, I take refuge in the Dharma, Itake refuge in the sangha” three times.This is known as taking refuge in thethree treasures.

Yampolsky, Philip B. The Platform Sutraof the Sixth Patriarch. New York:Columbia University Press, 1967.

Kie SambôTo take refuge (kie) in the three trea-sures. Buddhists express their commit-ment to Buddhism by verbally confirm-ing their trust in the Buddha, theDharma, and the sangha. The brief rit-ual formula, “I go to the Buddha forrefuge, I go to the Dharma for refuge, Igo to the sangha for refuge” is recitedthree times. The triple repetition indicates that this prayer is not a formof ordinary speech and allows thespeaker to dwell on the meaning of eachphrase at least once. Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253) wrote an essay entitled “Kiesambô”, which is included as a chapterin the Shôbôgenzô.

KiganThe procession accompanying the cof-fin of a prominent Buddhist monk ornun as it is carried from the lecture hallto the cremation grounds. During theprocession, attendants carry the coffinon their shoulders, while other mem-bers of the monastic community followbehind, carrying banners, gongs,incense burners, and other itemsneeded at the cremation site. Kigan isone of nine ritual actions (kubutsuji)performed during the funeral servicesfor abbots and other high-rankingmembers of the monastic community.See also kubutsuji.

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KikaiThe center of breathing, locatedapproximately 11⁄2 inches below thenavel. During periods of contemplationand introspection, attention is focusedon an area below the navel, between thekikai and the tanden.

KikanA teaching device used by a Zen masterto help a disciple overcome a hindranceto enlightenment. The term is derivedfrom the Japanese words konki, whichmeans “capacity,” and kanmon, whichmeans “barrier gates.” The master setsup barrier gates in accordance with theindividual capacities of his disciples.

Kikan(2) “Tortoise mirror,” a term for theadmonitions addressed to a Zen com-munity at the beginning of a longperiod of meditation. The term origi-nally implied a magical mirror or devicethat could foretell the future but latercame to mean an example or model tobe emulated. It is in this context thatkikan is used in Zen. In Chinese Zentemples, it was customary for mastersto begin long periods of intensive prac-tice by telling exemplary stories of ear-lier Zen masters who struggled to attainenlightenment. They hoped to encour-age the assembled community to strivewith comparable devotion. In Japan,the custom later changed, and mastersoffered personal words of encourage-ment and guidance to their community.In some cases, the admonitions of amaster were preserved, passed downwithin the monastery, and read aloudby successive generations of masters.Kikan usually spell out guiding princi-ples for the resident monks or nunsand offer encouragement in their practice. In Japan, they are traditionallyread aloud at the beginning of the summer and winter retreats and thenight before Rôhatsu sesshin, theperiod of intensive meditation thatcommemorates the enlightenment ofthe historical Buddha.

Miura, Isshû, and Ruth Fuller Sasaki.Zen Dust: The History of the Kôanand Kôan Study in Rinzai (Lin-chi)Zen. New York: Harcourt, Brace &World, 1967.

Kikan KôanOne of five categories of kôan distin-guished by the Rinzai school. Kikankôan deal with differentiation and dis-tinction. The eighteenth-centuryJapanese Rinzai reformer HakuinEkaku (1685–1768)and his successorsdeveloped a system for kôan practicestill in use today. Students who havealready experienced an initial break-through (kenshô) are guided through aseries of kôan intended to deepen theirunderstanding. Kikan kôan are the sec-ond category in the series. They followthe hosshin kôan, which stress the real-ization of the essential oneness of theself and all reality. In order to preventstudents from getting trapped at asuperficial level of understanding,Kikan kôan encourage the contempla-tion of multiplicity and differentiation,while still acknowledging the underly-ing unity. It is said that holding togetherthe sense of oneness and multiplicityallows the freedom to deal sponta-neously with phenomena in the hereand now. See also Rinzai sect.

Miura, Isshû, and Ruth Fuller Sasaki.The Zen Kôan. New York: Harcourt,Brace & World, 1967.

Shimano, Eido T. “Zen Kôans.” In Zen, Tradition and Transition. Ed.Kenneth Kraft. New York: GrovePress, 1988.

Kikutsuri“Devil’s cave,” a place of total darknesswhere one can see nothing. The termappears in Zen writings in reference toliving in a state of delusion, attached toa false conception of reality. Zen mas-ters apply the term kikutsuri no kakkei,living in a devil’s cave, to those studentswho become obsessed with nihilism, a

false understanding of the concept ofemptiness. Kikutsuri is also used in thegame of gô for the stalemate of beingtrapped in seki.

KimôTortoise hair, a Zen expression forsomething that does not exist. See tortoise hair.

Kimô TokakuTortoise hair and rabbits’ horns, a Zenexpression for something that does notexist. See tortoise hair.

KinA percussion instrument used duringBuddhist ritual services. In Japanese, itis alternatively called keisu. The kin ismade from cast bronze and is shapedlike a bowl or cauldron. It rests on acushion; larger instruments sit onwooden stands. It is sounded by strikingthe side or rim with a padded malletcalled a bai. The instrument is used dur-ing sutra chanting.

King Ashoka(J. Aikuô) An Indian ruler who governedthe powerful Maryan empire from 269to 232 B.C.E. The Buddhist traditionreveres King Ashoka as an ideal laypractitioner and an example forBuddhist rulers. See Ashoka.

KinhinA form of walking meditation, used as abreak between periods of zazen (seatedmeditation). Generally speaking, a tenminute period of kinhin follows a fiftyminute period of zazen. The word liter-ally means the “warp of a woven cloth,”and refers to the pattern of walkingcharacteristic of kinhin. The individualwalks straight forward, makes a pivotturn, and walks straight back. In theslow-paced kinhin preferred by the Sôtôtradition, the meditator walks a halfstep with each complete breath (exhala-tion and inhalation). The hands are held

in front of the chest, the right hand in a fist, left hand loosely covering the right, and forearms parallel to thefloor. Faster-paced kinhin is performedwith the hands loosely held at one’ssides, moving almost at a run. See alsoSôtô sect.

Kinkaku-jiThe Golden Pavilion, the popular name for Rokuon-ji, a Rinzai temple in northwestern Kyoto, Japan. SeeGolden Pavilion.

Kitchen-officeOne of the seven primary buildingsforming the core of a Zen temple ormonastery, known as the ku’in inJapanese. The Kitchen-office housedboth the kitchen areas and related staffas well as all of the administrative officesfor the monastery. See ku’in.

KitôPrayers recited to buddhas, bod-hisattvas, or Shintô kami (deities) for aspecial intention. Typical intentionstraditionally included requests for fairweather or for rain, relief from variousnatural disasters, recovery from illness,or a person’s birthday. In some cases,lay people make special requests totemples and monasteries to have kitôperformed in exchange for a donation.In the Zen sect, the purpose of theprayer service is posted on anannouncement board (kitôhai). Zencommunities most often perform a tendoku service, reading theDaihannyakyô (Great Wisdom Sutra).See also lay believer.

KôA world age or a world cycle; theJapanese term for kalpa. See kalpa.

Kôan(Ch. kung-an) “Public case,” Term for ateaching device used within the Zenschool, especially associated with the

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Rinzai style of practice. Practitionersuse kôan as the focus of meditation inorder to transcend dualistic thinkingand promote enlightenment experi-ences. Generally kôan take the shape ofa short episode from Zen literature,depicting an encounter between a mas-ter and disciple or a traditional accountof an important event in Zen history.Although commonly thought of as puz-zles, kôan are not intended to elicitrational responses. Rather, they represent challenges to discursive andrational thought.

The term derives from the Chinesegovernmental tradition of publishingjuridical cases that set precedent in law.Chinese Zen masters of the Sungdynasty (960–1279) developed kôanpractice by drawing upon famous casesof the earlier T’ang dynasty masters.According to traditional accounts of thedevelopment of the kôan, Zen mastersin the early periods spontaneouslyinvented teaching devices to aid theirdisciples, drawing upon some aspect ofthe immediate situation. Eventually,stories about these encounters were

recorded in Zen biographies andrecorded sayings. By the ninth or tenthcentury, Zen masters started to usethese stories, presenting them to theirown students as a means to promoteenlightenment and to test their stu-dents’ understanding of Zen. By theeleventh century, collections of traditional stories of masters and disci-ples were being compiled, along withpoetic and prose commentaries; kôancollections became a distinct genre ofZen literature. The most famous ofthese collections are the Mumonkanand the Hekiganroku.

In Chinese Zen, kôan practice cameto full flower under the inspiration ofTa-hui Tsung-kao (1089–1163), whochampioned its active use as a medita-tive device and rejected the literarystudy of kôan. Kôan have often beenstudied in a literary fashion in the Zenschool, especially as a means to learnthe classical style of poetry. The modernpractice of kôan employed by theJapanese Rinzai school was system-atized by Hakuin Ekaku (1685–1768)and his disciples. This system includes

Koden is the offering of incense before an image of Buddha in honor of Zen patriarchs and founders.

five types or progressive levels of kôan:hosshin, kikan, gonsen, nantô, and go-ikôan. See also Rinzai sect.

Kôan CollectionsOne of the most important genres ofZen literature. Most kôan collectionsdraw sayings and incidents from theclassical tradition. Many are famousstories about the interaction betweenZen masters and their disciples. Kôancollections were originally compiled byZen masters of the Sung dynasty(960–1279) in China as aids in trainingdisciples. Collections often include the compiler’s prose and poetic com-mentary on each case. The most impor-tant collections include the Wu-menKuan (J. Mumonkan) and the Pi-yen Lu(J. Hekiganroku).

Kôan-gazing ZenStyle of seated meditation characteris-tic of the Rinzai school of Zen, whichuses kôan as the focus of meditation.See kanna Zen.

Kôbô DaishiThe posthumous honorific title, whichmeans “Great Teacher Who SpreadsWidely the Dharma,” by which Kûkai(774–835), the founder of the Shingonsect in Japan, is popularly known. Theemperor bestowed the title on him in921. Kôbô daishi has long been theobject of popular veneration for theJapanese, regardless of sectarian affilia-tion. Throughout Japan, there arenumerous pilgrimage routes dedicatedto Kôbô daishi, who functions forbelievers very much like a saint inRoman Catholicism. There are manymiracle stories associated with Kôbôdaishi, especially those regarding hissaving powers for believers on pilgrim-age. See Kûkai.

KôdenTo offer incense. Throughout theBuddhist world, incense is commonlyburned in front of an image of a buddha

or bodhisattva as a symbol of rever-ence. The term kôden is also used inEast Asia for the practice of offeringincense for the sake of one’s deceasedrelatives and ancestors. Such offeringsare often made as a part of memorialservices (hôji) marking anniversaries ofdeath. In the Zen sect, the term primar-ily denotes offerings of incense made tothe patriarchs and founders, since theyare regarded as ancestors.

In the context of modern JapaneseBuddhism, the term kôden has come tomean the monetary offerings made tothe bereaved family by those whoattend a funeral. The money is used todefray the cost of the funeral and thesubsequent memorial services.

Kôgaku-jiAn important rural Japanese Rinzai Zentemple, located in Enzan, YamanashiPrefecture. Its formal name is EnzanKôgaku-ji. It was founded by BassuiTokusho (1327–1387) in 1380. It was atone time ranked as one of the Jissatsutemples (“Ten Distinguished Temples”),ranking below the Five Mountains inthe Gozan system. It serves today as themain headquarters for the Kôgakubranch of the Rinzai sect.

Kôgaku-ji HaThe Kôgaku-ji branch of Rinzai, one ofthe fourteen contemporary branches ofthe Japanese Rinzai sect. The mainmonastery for the branch is Kôgaku-ji,located in Yamanashi Prefecture. BassuiTokusho (1327–1387) is regarded as thefounder. The branch has sixty-twotemples throughout Japan and claimsapproximately 30,100 adherents.

Kôgaku SôenThe formal religious name of the promi-nent Rinzai master Shaku Sôen(1859–1919). See Shaku Sôen.

Kô Haku“Lady White,” Japanese for Hou Po, aclever female robber who appears in 193

Kô Haku

Zen literature as the partner of Kô Koku,Lord Black. See Hou Po.

KôhôJapanese rendering of Fa-hai. See Fa-hai.

Kohô Kakumyô(1271–1361) Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe Kamakura period (1185–1333).Kohô was the disciple of ShinchiKakushin (1207–1298) and the secondgeneration patriarch of the Hottô lineof Japanese Rinzai Zen. He foundedUnju-ji in Izumo and Daiyû-ji in Izumi.See also Rinzai sect.

Koji“Lay person” or “householder,” a Japaneseterm for a Buddhist believer who has notleft the home life to become a monk ornun. In the modern period (1868–present),the term is often used as the final part ofthe posthumous Buddhist name given tothe deceased as a part of a JapaneseBuddhist funeral. See also lay believer.

KôjôReality itself; the ultimate state ofsatori. The opposite of kôge, or phe-nomenal reality. Kôjô refers to the realmof absolute equality, which transcendsall distinctions. The term literallymeans above or beyond, or to moveupward or to progress. In the Zenschool, the term is sometimes used forthe third and highest level of a threepart system of kôan practice; in this sys-tem, kôjô follows Richi and kikan.

Kôjû-shûAn alternative Japanese transliterationof Hung-chou school, an importantChinese lineage of early Zen. Alsotransliterated as Kôshû-shû. See Hung-chou school.

Kôke ZonshôJapanese transliteration for Hsing-huaTs’ung-chiang (830–888), a Dharma

heir of Lin-chi I-hsüan (d. 867). SeeHsing-hua Ts’ung-chiang.

Kô Koku“Lord Black,” Japanese for Hou Hei, aclever male robber who appears in Zenliterature as the parter of Kô Haku (HouPo), Lady White. See Hou Hei.

Kôkon ZazenEvening session of zazen, one of thefour periods of zazen (J. shiji zazen)observed daily in Zen monasteries.Although the exact hours differ bymonastery, Kôkon zazen is held in theevening, sometime between seven andnine o’clock. See also shiji zazen.

KokusanThe black mountains, a legendaryregion understood to be north of India.In Indian mythology, the black moun-tains are veiled in darkness andinfested with evil demons. Zen masterssometimes use an allusion to thisregion as a metaphor for an unproduc-tive mental state in which a person ishindered by delusions and discrimina-tory thinking.

Kokushi“National Teacher,” the Japanese ren-dering of the Chinese term kuo-shih. Anhonorific title conferred on prominentBuddhist masters by the emperor. Thepractice is said to have originated in India. The first monk to receive the honor in China was Fa-ch’ang in 550. In China, the masters designatedas kokushi, usually served in somecapacity as teachers of the ruling family at court.

In Japan, the term was first usedduring the Nara period (710–794) for amonastic officer responsible for over-seeing the Buddhist monks and nuns ina given province. The practice of con-ferring the title as an imperial honorwas transmitted later. EmperorHanazono (1297–1348) first bestowed

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the posthumous title kokushi on Zenmaster Enni Ben’en (1202–1280) in 1312.After that time, the honor was oftengranted in Japan as a posthumous trib-ute for outstanding figures, althoughthere are also examples of monks receiv-ing the title during their lifetime.

In Zen texts, the title is sometimesused in reference to Nan-yang Hui-chung, the first Zen master to receivethe honor in China. According to thetradition, Hui-chung was summoned tocourt by the emperor three times beforehe accepted the invitation. When he didfinally go to court, he impressed theemperor so thoroughly that he receivedthe title National Teacher.

Kokutai-jiAn important rural Rinzai monasterylocated in Takaoka, Toyama Prefecture.Its formal name is Machô-zan Kokutai-ji. It was founded by Jiun Myôi(1274–1345) in 1327. It serves today asthe main headquarters for the Kokutaibranch of the Rinzai sect.

Kokutai-ji HaThe Kokutai-ji branch of Rinzai, one ofthe fourteen contemporary branches ofthe Japanese Rinzai sect. The mainmonastery for the branch is Kokutai-ji,located in Toyama Prefecture. Jiun Myôi(1274–1345) is regarded as the founder.The branch has thirty-five templesthroughout Japan and claims approxi-mately 2,200 adherents.

Komusô“Monk of emptiness,” The most com-monly used name for members of theFuke sect of Japanese Zen Buddhism.The exact derivation of the name isunknown. Komusô were half-monksand half-laymen, neither shaving theirheads, nor wearing ordinary monk’srobes. They lived a mendicant life, trav-eling through Japan begging for almsand playing the shakuhachi, a bambooflute. During the Tokugawa period(1600–1867), the movement flourished,

attracting many rônin, or masterlesssamurai. At that time komusô wore adistinctive costume which included abee-hive shaped bamboo hat. The hatcompletely hid the face and thereforeeffectively disguised the person’s iden-tity. For this reason, criminals some-times posed as komusô, and the gov-ernment eventually outlawed thegroup. See also Fuke sect.

Kongô Hannya Haramitsu KyôThe Perfection of Wisdom DiamondSutra (Sk. Vajra-cchedika-prajna-paramita-sutra), more commonlyknown as the Kongôkyô or DiamondSutra. See Diamond Sutra.

Kongôjô“Diamond vehicle,” the Japanese trans-lation for the Sanskrit term Vajrayana.See esoteric Buddhism.

Kongôkai MandaraThe Japanese name for the Diamond-Realm Mandala, one of two primarymandala used in esoteric Buddhism,especially within the Shingon sect. TheDiamond Mandala represents thepower of the diamond (vajra) of wis-dom to overcome all ignorance. It con-sists of nine almost square rectanglesarranged in three rows of three. Theother primary mandala used in esotericBuddhism is the Taizôkai Mandara(Womb-Realm Mandala). SeeDiamond-Realm Mandala.

KongôkyôDiamond Sutra, the popular abbrevi-ated Japanese title for the KongôHannya haramitsu kyô (Sk. Vajra-cchedika-prajna-paramita-sutra). SeeDiamond Sutra.

Konkô“Diamond,” the Japanese translation forthe Sanskrit word vajra. The diamondrepresents firmness and indestructibil-ity in Buddhism. It is therefore used as a

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symbol for the buddha mind, whichcan cut through any obstruction.

Konkômyôkyô( J. Chingo Kokka No Sambukyô)“Golden Light Sutra,” the Japanese titlefor the Suvarna Prabhasottama Sutra,one of three scriptures used in JapaneseBuddhism to protect the state. TheGolden Light Sutra teaches that wher-ever a ruler honors the sutra and gov-erns according to its teachings, the fourguardian kings (J. Shitennô) will pro-vide protection for the ruler, the nation,and its people. There are three majorChinese translations of the text (T. nos.663–665). Japanese emperors beginningwith Temmu (r. 672–686) had the sutradistributed at temples throughout thecountry, where it was recited andcopied for the sake of the nation.

Konkô No ChoVajra pounder. Originally a weapon ofwar in ancient India, the vajra pounderwas adopted as a religious implement inthe esoteric traditions of Buddhism.The konkô no cho symbolizes the abilityof the enlightened mind to cut throughany delusion. In the Zen school, it issaid that the konkô no cho representsthe realization that “thusness” is not dif-ferent from the dharmas.

KonshôThe evening bell which is sounded aftersunset. It is customary in Zen monas-teries to ring the evening bell 108 timesto drive out all delusions. The numbercorresponds to the number of differentkinds of delusion that are said to afflicthuman beings. As the person responsi-ble sounds the bell, he or she simulta-neously chants a sutra. On New Year’sEve, Zen monasteries sound the Konshô108 times at midnight.

KoromoA long monastic robe worn by Buddhistmonks in China and Japan. In India,

this style of robe was traditionally usedas a sleeping garment. It is alternativelyknown as the jikitotsu. See also kesa.

Kôsen Sôon(1816–1892) Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe late Tokugawa (1600–1867) andMeiji (1868–1912) periods who servedas the abbot at Engaku-ji in Kamakura.His family name was Imakita, and he isoften referred to as Imakita Kôsen.Kôsen is among the most importantRinzai masters of the modern period(1868–present). He studied Confucianismas a young man and only became aBuddhist monk at age twenty-five. Hebegan as the disciple of Daisetsu Shôen(d. 1855) at Shôkoku-ji in Kyoto, withwhom he practiced for seven years.Daisetsu then sent him to practiceunder Gisan Zenrai (d. 1877) inOkayama. It was from Gisan that Kôsenreceived his official recognition as aDharma heir. Kôsen became abbot atEikô-ji in Yamaguchi Prefecture in 1858,where he taught the daimyô, or militaryleader, of Iwakuni province and manyother samurai. In 1862, he completedhis most important work, the ZenkaiIchiran (One Wave on the Sea of Zen), acommentary on Confucian terms froma Zen perspective. After the MeijiRestoration, Kôsen gained furtherprominence. He was appointed as headof the Bureau of Religion and Educationby the Meiji government. He alsobecame abbot at Engaku-ji in 1875. Asabbot, he developed Ryômô Kyôkai, anorganization devoted to promoting thepractice of Zen among the laity. Hisother writings include the Kôroku andthe Nempu. His most importantDharma heir was Shaku Sôen(1859–1919). See also Rinzai sect.

Koshin Mida“Amida within the self,” the under-standing that Amida buddha does notexist as an external reality outside one’sown mind. Rather than rely upon theexternal power of Amida buddha as isthe norm in Pure Land practice, other

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schools of Mahayana Buddhism,including Zen, shift the emphasis toone’s own efforts of meditation on thetrue nature of the self.

Kôshô-jiA Sôtô temple in Fukukusa, Japan,south of Kyoto. Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253) established a communitythere in 1233 a few years after hereturned from China. The temple wasofficially consecrated in 1236. Dôgenconstructed Kôshô-ji as the firstChinese-style Zen temple in Japan. Itincluded a monks’ hall ( J. Sôdô), aDharma hall (J. Hôdô), and a Buddhahall (J. Butsudô). See also Sôtô sect.

Koshushaku“The barbarian with a red beard,” a ref-erence to Bodhidharma. The Chinesereferred to all foreigners as barbariansand commonly believed that foreignershad red hair. Since Bodhidharma wasan Indian monk, Zen texts often refer tohim in this manner.

Kôshû-shûAn alternative Japanese transliterationof Hung-chou school, an importantChinese lineage of early Zen. Alsotransliterated Kôjû-shû. See Hung-chou school.

KotsuA small staff or baton used by a Zen master when instructing studentsor giving a sermon. The kotsu is usually about fifteen inches (35 cm)long, carved from wood or bamboo, and curved in the shape of a humanspine. The master may use the kotsu to emphasize a point when speaking, to strike a student during a privateinterview (sanzen), or as a staff to rest upon when seated on the floor. The implement was originally used by government officials in China as a writing tablet, which was held at the chest during public audiences. The material (jade, ivory, or bamboo),

indicated the official’s rank. Also known as a nyoi.

Kotsu JikiTo beg for food, one of the basic prac-tices of the monastic life. According tothe most ancient Buddhist tradition,monks and nuns sustain themselves bybegging for food and not by any otherform of labor. Begging is an asceticpractice, which reduces one’s attach-ment to external possessions and con-cerns. In addition, monastic beggingprovides lay practitioners with theopportunity to build up merit throughtheir generosity to monks and nuns. Inthe early tradition, monks and nunsbegged daily for prepared food. Whilebegging remains a standard practice inthe Zen monasteries of East Asia, it ismore common for monks to beg lessfrequently and to receive monetarydonations or uncooked rice. See alsobegging alms and lay believer.

Kôyôboku No Zen“Boxwood tree Zen.” See boxwood Zen.

Kôzen GokokuronDiscourse on the Propagation of Zen andthe Protection of the Nation, a text inthree parts (T. 80, no. 2543), composedby the Japanese Rinzai monk Eisai(1141–1215) in 1198. In the text, Eisairesponds to criticisms of the newlyintroduced Zen teachings from mem-bers of established Japanese Buddhistsects. He maintains that promoting thepractice of Zen will benefit the entirenation. This was the first work concern-ing Zen Buddhism written in Japan.

Krakucchanda BuddhaOne of the seven buddhas of the pastwhose biographies appear at the begin-ning of the Transmission of the Lamp(Ch. Ching-te Chüan-teng Lu; J.Keitoku Dentôroku) and other tradi-tional accounts of the history of ZenBuddhism through the ages.Krakucchandra ( J. Kuruson) is the

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fourth on the list and is identified as thefirst buddha of the present eon.

Kshatriya(J. setteiri) The warrior class in India.According to the classical Hindu classsystem, the kshatriya were the second offour classes or castes, falling under theBrahmin or priestly class. Traditionally,kshatriyas had the responsibility to pro-tect the people, either by governing inpeacetime or fighting in wartime.Although Brahmanical texts clearly indi-cate that the priestly class was superiorto the kshatriyas, kshatriyas did notalways concede to priestly superiority.Buddhist texts, for example, often listthe kshatriya as superior to the brah-mins, rejecting the concept of priestlyauthority. Siddharta Gautama, the his-torical Buddha, was born into a warriorclass family. According to the Buddhisttexts, had the brahmins been the supe-rior class, he would have been born abrahmin.

Basham, A. L. The Wonder That Was India:A Survey of the History and Culture ofthe Indian Sub-Continent Before theComing of the Muslims. New York:Taplinger Publishing Co., 1968.

KshitigarbhaThe Sanskrit name for the “EarthWomb” bodhisattva. See Jizô.

Kû“Emptiness,” the Japanese translationof the Sanskrit term shunyata. See emptiness.

KuSuffering; one of the basic teachings ofBuddhism. Ku is the standard Japanesetranslation of the Sanskrit termduhkha. See suffering.

Kuan-li-ssuAn important Chinese Zen monasteryon A-yu-wang-shan. It was designated

as one of the Five Mountains (Ch. wu-shan; J. Gozan temples), the most pres-tigious Zen monasteries in China.

Kuan-yin(J. Kannon) “One who observes thesounds,” the Chinese name forAvalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of infi-nite compassion and mercy. Kuan-yin isamong the most popular Buddhistdeities in China and is universallyrevered in Chinese Buddhism, regardlessof the sect or school. The name Kuan-yinis a rough translation of the originalSanskrit. It conveys the popular Buddhistunderstanding that Kuan-yin listens tothe cries of suffering coming from sen-tient beings throughout the world. Shewill respond to rescue anyone in dangerwho cries out for help using her name.Kuan-yin can assume any corporealshape and can enter any region, includ-ing hell, to save a believer.

Avalokiteshvara was consistentlyportrayed as masculine in Indianimages and texts, but changes occurredin the Chinese iconography of the bod-hisattva. Scholars cannot definitivelyexplain the reasons for the transforma-tion, but since at least the twelfth cen-tury, Kuan-yin has almost always beendepicted as female in China. EarlyChinese figures retained the masculineidentity, but female versions began toappear as early as the fifth century. Themost popular version takes the form ofthe white-robed Kuan-yin.

From an early period, Kuan-yinbecame the object of a popular cult dedi-cated to her; this remains true today. Sheis one of the most common subjects formiracle stories in popular Chinese litera-ture, and pilgrimage to famous images ofthe bodhisattva is a common aspect ofpopular devotion. She is closely identifiedwith several indigenous deities, includingMiao-shan, a legendary Chinese princesswho became a Buddhist nun, and who isnow protective deity. Many scholarsmaintain that she has been completelytransformed into a goddess in Chinesefolk religion, although she is still reveredin Chinese Buddhist temples. She is

closely associated with childbirth inChina, and women pray to her when theyhope to conceive and when they areapproaching childbirth.

Jesuit missionaries to China in thesixteenth century coined the nameGoddess of Mercy for Kuan-yin. Theynoted the striking resemblancebetween female figures of the bod-hisattva, especially the white-robedKuan-yin, and Catholic images of theVirgin Mary. She is also known inChinese as Kuan-shih-yin (“one whoobserves the sounds of the world”) andKuan-tzû-tsai (“the one who observesfreely”). See also Kannon.

Kuan-yin ChingKuan-yin Sutra, the popular Chinesetitle for the “Kuan-shih-yin P’u-sa P’u-men P’in” (“The Universal Gateway ofthe Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’sSounds”), which appears as the twenty-fifth chapter of the Lotus Sutra. Themost common version of the sutra usedin East Asia is the translation byKumarajiva. The text has circulatedindependently and is sometimesregarded as a separate sutra. It is oftenrecited at Zen rituals involving lay prac-titioners. See also AvalokiteshvaraSutra, Kannonkyô, and lay believer.

KubutsujiNine Buddhist ritual actions performedas a part of the funeral of a prominentBuddhist monk or nun. They are 1)nyûgan, laying the corpse in the coffin;2) igan butsuji, moving the coffin to thelecture hall; 3) sagan butsuji, closingthe coffin lid; 4) kashin, hanging a por-trait of the deceased in the lecture hallor at the front gate; 5) taireishôsan, abrief sermon on the Dharma in front ofthe coffin at the taiya service; 6) kigan,carrying the coffin to the cremationgrounds; 7) tencha butsuji, offering hot tea, 8) tentô butsuji, offering hotsweetened water; and 9) ako, startingthe cremation fire with a torch. Also pronounced kyûbutsuji.

Kuei-shan Ling-yu(771–853; J. Isan Reiyû) Chinese Zenmaster of the T’ang dynasty (618–907)who, along with his disciple Yang-shanHui-chi (807–883), founded the Kuei-yang school (J. Igyô-shû) of Zen. TheKuei-yang school is one of the so-calledfive houses (J. goke) of Chinese Zen. Hewas the Dharma heir of Pai-changHuai-hai (720–814). Pai-changappointed him abbot at a newmonastery on Mount Kuei-shan, fromwhich his popular name derives.Among his forty-one Dharma heirs, themost influential were the brothers Yang-shan and Hsiang-yen Chih-hsien.

Kuei-yang School(J. Igyô-shû) A lineage of Chinese Zenactive during the T’ang dynasty(618–907) and known as one of the so-called five houses of Zen. The lineagewas founded by two Zen masters, Kuei-shan Ling-yu (771–853) and hisDharma heir, Yang-shan Hui-chi(807–883). The two developed a distinc-tive style of Zen practice, favoringsilence and action over words. They alsoperfected the use of circular images as aZen teaching device. The Kuei-yangschool did not survive for long. It hadalready faded by the beginning of |the Sung dynasty (960–1279), and itsteachings were incorporated into theLin-chi school.

Kufû(“work on” or “inquire into”) Zen prac-tice, especially seated meditation (J.zazen) or contemplation of a kôan dur-ing seated meditation. The expressionmay also be used to indicate intensive,single-minded meditation.

KugeThe Japanese aristocracy, noble familiesassociated with the imperial court.When Buddhism was first transmittedto Japan, it was limited to the kuge class.The kuge class became supporters ofZen, beginning in the Kamakura period

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(1185–1333). They were especially inter-ested in the highly refined culture of theGozan temples, centers for the fine artsand literature during the medievalperiod (1185–1600).

Ku’inThe kitchen-office building, one of theseven core buildings (shichidô garan)within a traditional Zen monastery. Intraditional layouts, the ku’in waslocated off to the right side of theBuddha hall (butsudô). The largekitchen-office complexes of medievalZen monasteries housed not only thekitchen areas where the two daily mealswere prepared for the whole monasticcommunity, but also storage areas andadministrative offices. The head admin-istrator in the ku’in was the tenzo, orcook, one of the highest offices in themonastery hierarchy. The tenzo typi-cally oversaw a large staff of assistantsand novices. Other administrative offi-cers (tôhan) likewise had their offices inthe ku’in. Over the centuries, ku’in fellout of use in Japanese Zen monasteries;they were replaced by the smaller kuri.

Kujôe“Nine-strip robe,” one of three basictypes of kesa, or monastic robes, wornby Buddhist monks and nuns. Thenine-strip robe was originally called thesamghati in Sanskrit. It is alternativelyknown in Japanese as the sôgyari or the daie, literally “great robe.” The kujôe was originally designed to beworn as a formal outer garment, whichmonks and nuns donned wheneverthey had business outside themonastery grounds.

Kûkai(774–835) Japanese Buddhist monkwho founded the Shingon sect ofJapanese Buddhism. Kûkai came from anoble class family and received a formaleducation in the Chinese classics. Helater left school to pursue Buddhistpractice. Kûkai traveled to China in 804,

where he was initiated into the practicesof esoteric Buddhism. He returned toJapan in 806 and eventually establishedthe Shingon monastic headquarters onMount Kôya.

Hakeda, Kûkai. Major Works. Trans.Yoshito S. Hakeda. New York:Columbia University Press, 1972.

Kumarajiva(344–413; J. Kumarajû or Rajû) ABuddhist monk from Kucha, in CentralAsia, who became the foremost transla-tor of Buddhist texts from Sanskrit intoChinese. His father was Indian and hismother was the sister of the king ofKucha. He entered monastic life at ayoung age and studied both Theravadaand Mahayana teachings. When theChinese overran Kucha in 383, they tookKumarajiva captive. After being held fornearly twenty years, he was taken toChang-an, the capital city of China, in401. In China, Kumarajiva supervised alarge team of linguists, including bothChinese and Central Asians, who pro-duced new and revised translations ofnumerous texts, including the HeartSutra, the Diamond Sutra, the LotusSutra, the Vimalakirti Sutra, and thebasic treatises of the Mâdhyamakaschool. His disciples became thefounders of the San-lun school, basedon the Mâdhyamaka teachings thatKumarajiva had transmitted. For thisreason, Kumarajiva is regarded as one ofthe school’s patriarchs.

KumarajûJapanese transliteration for Kuma-rajiva. Generally abbreviated to Rajû.See Kumarajiva.

Kung-an“Public case,” the original Chinesename for kôan, the teaching devicesused in Zen practice. The term derivesfrom the Chinese governmental tradi-tion of publishing judicial cases that setprecedent in law. See kôan.

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Kunshin GoiThe five ranks of lord and vassal. Analternative expression of the five ranksdeveloped by Ts’ao-shan Pen-chi(840–901). In this version of the for-mula, the lord represents ultimatereality and the vassal represents phe-nomenal existence. The five-part for-mula may be translated: 1) the lordsees the vassal; 2) the vassal faces thelord; 3) the lord alone; 4) the vassalalone; and 5) lord and vassal are one.See five ranks.

KuriA small monastery kitchen, traditionallyused to prepare meals for the residentsof the abbot’s quarters and the guestquarters. The kuri was much smaller insize than the main kitchen-office, orku’in, where meals for the majority ofthe monastic community were pre-pared. Over the centuries, Japanese Zenmonasteries came to rely on the kurirather than the ku’in, and the kuribecame the administrative core for themonastery. Instead of gathering as acommunity to eat together in a centraldining hall, most Japanese monks andnuns ate within their specific subtem-ples (tatchû) within the largermonastery complex. Meals were typi-cally prepared at the small kuri whichserved the various subtemples.

KuyôOfferings made to express veneration,especially offerings made to the threetreasures, the Buddha, the Dharma,and the sangha. The word kuyô is theJapanese translation of the Sanskritterm puja. Kuyô can include ritualofferings of food, flowers, incense andthe like, presented to images of bud-dhas and bodhisattvas. It may also referto the food, clothing, shelter, and othernecessities that lay people provide formonks and nuns. See also lay believer.

Today, the most common usage ofkuyô is for memorial services offered forthe sake of deceased relatives. Othertypes of memorial services also exist,

such as mizuko kuyô, or memorial ser-vices offered for the sake of miscarried oraborted fetuses. See also four offerings.

Ku Zôshi“The Phrase Book,” an anthology of5,000 Zen phrases compiled in Japan byTôyô Eichô (1438–1504), a Dharmadescendant of Kanzan Egen(1277–1369) of the Myôshin-ji line ofRinzai Zen. Tôyô drew his material fromsutras, recorded sayings of ChineseZen masters, Taoist texts, Confuciantexts, and Chinese poetry. He arrangedthe phrases according to length, includ-ing expressions of one to eight charac-ters and parallel verses of five to eightcharacters. Tôyô’s work circulated inmanuscript form for several genera-tions, but was never published. In theseventeenth century, someone usingthe pen name Ijûshi produced anexpanded version of the Ku Zôshi underthe title Zenrin Kushû, first publishedin 1688. See also Zenrin Kushû.

KyôThe standard Japanese translation forsutra. The word is commonly appendedto the title of a sutra, and may in somecases be pronounced gyô. See sutras.

Kyôgen ChikanJapanese rendering of Hsiang-yenChih-hsien (d. 898). See Hsiang-yenChih-hsien.

KyôsakuThe warning staff or admonition staffused during periods of seated medita-tion (zazen) to ward off drowsiness anddistracted thoughts and to provideencouragement for meditators strivingfor enlightenment. Kyôsaku is theJapanese transliteration of the Chineseterm preferred by the Sôtô school. Inthe Rinzai school, the same term ismore often pronounced keisaku. Themost obvious difference in the use ofthe Kyôsaku in the Sôtô school arisesfrom differences in positioning during

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Kyûdô, or “the Way of the Bow,” is the modern Japanese term for archery. Archery was introduced to Japan during the sixth century.

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periods of meditation. Since meditatorssit facing the wall in a Sôtô context, theymay not always anticipate a blow fromthe Kyôsaku. In addition, the Kyôsaku isgenerally used only to strike the rightshoulder in Sôtô, rather than both sidesas is the case in Rinzai. See keisaku.

Kyôun-shûAnthology of Crazy Cloud, a collectionof Zen poetry composed in classicalChinese by Ikkyû Sôjun (1394–1481).The collection, two sections in length,was first published in 1642. Kyôun(Crazy Cloud) was Ikkyû’s pen name.

Kyôzan EjakuJapanese rendering of Yang-shan Hui-chi (807–883). See Yang-shan Hui-chi.

Kyûdô“The Way of the Bow,” the modernJapanese term for archery. In earlierperiods it was more commonly knownas kyûjutsu, the art of the bow. Archerywas introduced to Japan from the Asianmainland by the sixth century, longbefore Zen had developed in China. Itfirst became associated with Zen prac-tice during the medieval period(1185–1600), when several prominentarchers studied and practiced Zen med-itation. Eugen Herrigel wrote about therelationship between kyûdô and Zen inZen in the Art of Archery.

Herrigel, Eugen. Zen in the Art ofArchery. Trans. R.F.C. Hull. NewYork: Vintage Books, 1989.

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LLan-ch’i Tao-lung(1213–1278; J. Rankei Dôryû) A Yüandynasty (1260–1368) Zen master fromthe Yang-ch’i lineage of Rinzai Zen, whotraveled to Japan in 1246. Lan-ch’i wasthe first of several prominent Chinesemonks who helped to establish exclu-sive Rinzai practice devoid of esotericelements in Japan. In Kamakura, theregent Hôjô Tokiyori (1227–1263)invited Lan-ch’i to become the found-ing abbot of Kenchô-ji, the first strictlyRinzai monastery in Japan. Lan-ch’imodeled the monastery on Chineseexamples; the grounds included suchtypical Zen structures as a communalmeditation hall (sôdô). There were nobuildings for esoteric practices and therule observed allowed for no mixing ofRinzai with esoteric Buddhism. Lan-ch’i was later accused of being a Mongolspy and was twice exiled. See alsoRinzai sect and Yang-ch’i school.

Lankavatara Sutra(J. Ryôgakyô; Ch. Leng-ch’ieh Ching)Sutra When Entering Lanka, aMahayana sutra set when the Buddhavisited the island of Lanka and gave asermon. Lanka is identified as beinglocated to the south of India, and is gen-erally thought to be a reference to SriLanka. The date and place of origin ofthe sutra are uncertain, although tradi-tion holds that it was composed in Indiaaround the second century C.E. TheLankavatara Sutra provides an unsys-tematic review of several Mahayanateachings. It focuses primarily on thepsychological workings of the mind,and it presents concepts such as thestorehouse consciousness (alaya con-sciousness) and the tathagata

gharbha. It explains that enlighten-ment is an internal transcendence ofdualistic thought and that the Dharmamay be transmitted without words,teachings later promoted by the Zenschool. Indeed, the sutra is closely associated with Zen; in the early period of Zen’s development in China, it was sometimes referred to as the Lankavatara school. According toZen tradition, Bodhidharma handeddown a copy of the Lankavatara Sutra tothe Second Patriarch Hui-k’o (487–593)as a symbol of Dharma transmission.There are three Chinese translations (T. 16, nos. 670–672) of the sutra. D. T.Suzuki (1689–1966) translated the sutrainto English, basing his work on theSanskrit text.

Latter Age of the Dharma(J. Mappô) According to a MahayanaBuddhist concept of history, the teach-ings and practice of Buddhism passthrough three progressively deteriorat-ing stages following Buddha’s death. Ineach stage the Dharma is said to deteri-orate until it ceases to exist. After theend of the third age, the world will awaita new buddha to set the process back inmotion. During the initial period, theDharma survives intact, and the teach-ings, practice, and the attainment ofenlightenment remain viable. Duringthe second age, the teachings and prac-tice remain, but enlightenment is nolonger attainable. By the third and finalage, the Dharma has deteriorated sothoroughly that even the practice ofBuddhism becomes impossible. All thatremains are the teachings, which can-not be truly followed or fully realized.This latter age of the Dharma is said tolast for 10,000 years.

For many Buddhists, the latter age ofthe Dharma caused grave concern, inmuch the same way that the end of themillennium and predictions about theapocalypse concern some Christians.Calculations for the onset of the latterage of the Dharma differ in variousparts of the Buddhist world. In EastAsia, calculations are traditionally

based on 949 B.C.E. as the year of theBuddha’s death. In addition, the firstage may be calculated to last either 500or 1,000 years. In China, Buddhists typ-ically believed that the latter age com-menced around the year 550 C.E. InJapan, where calculations were usuallybased on the longer interpretation, itwas thought to begin around 1050 C.E.Zen Buddhists have not generally beenas concerned about the concept of thelatter age of the Dharma. This is because of the Zen understandingthat enlightened masters of any age can teach the Dharma and that Zen practitioners continue to attainenlightenment. See also three ages ofthe Dharma.

Laughing BuddhaA popular name for Maitreya, especiallywhen depicted as the Chinese monkPu-tai (d. 916; J. Hotei). While earlyBuddhist images of the future buddha

Maitreya depicted him as a graceful fig-ure, sometime during the Sung dynasty(960–1279) an alternative portrayalbecame popular in China. The image ofPu-tai, regarded as an incarnation ofMaitreya, is that of a smiling monk witha large belly protruding from his robes.He may be seated with his right legraised or standing with his hands thrustover his head. Pu-tai was a historical fig-ure, a Chinese Zen monk from the Sungdynasty, who became the subject ofpopular religious legend. After hisdeath, Pu-tai was identified as an incarnation of Maitreya. Statues of Pu-tai are sometimes enshrined atBuddhist temples in East Asia as imagesof the future buddha Maitreya. Smallfigurines of Pu-tai are commonly soldas good luck charms.

Chên, Kenneth Kuan Shêng. Buddhismin China: A Historical Survey.Princeton, NJ: Princeton UniversityPress, 1964.

The Laughing Buddha, or Maitreya, is a smiling monk with a protruding belly. Small figures of the Laughing Buddha are commonly sold as charms.

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Law of CausationThe Buddhist understanding of causeand effect, which is based on the under-standing that all phenomena, whetherphysical or mental, have causes.Everything arises due to certain causesand conditions. When those causes andconditions cease to exist, the thing inquestion changes and passes out ofexistence. The Law of Causation isclosely related to the concept of code-pendent origination, which is used toexplain the origin and the possible ces-sation of suffering.

In addition, the Buddhist Law ofCausation maintains that every inten-tional action necessarily produces an effect, whether in this lifetime or in a future life. In this regard, the Law of Causation is closely related to the concept of karma. Good actionsnecessarily produce positive fruits, and evil actions necessarily producenegative fruits.

Lay BelieverAn ordinary member of a religiousgroup who is neither ordained nor amember of a religious order of monksor nuns. Lay believers typically do notdevote their entire lives to religiouspractice. In Buddhist contexts, laybelievers are frequently called house-holders, indicating that their primaryconcern revolves around family life,unlike monks and nuns, who leave thehome life when they enter themonastery. Lay Buddhists follow anabbreviated set of moral precepts,known as the five precepts, whichenjoin the practitioner to abstain fromkilling, lying, sexual misconduct, steal-ing, and drinking alcohol. These are thefirst five precepts kept by all ordainedBuddhists, although they are inter-preted differently for lay people. Forexample, the third precept, which for-bids monks and nuns from engaging inany sexual activity, is understood topreclude only improper sexual contact,including premarital and extramaritalrelations, for lay believers.

Layman P’ang(740–803; J. Hô koji) P’ang Yun, aChinese lay practitioner of ZenBuddhism and accomplished poetfrom the T’ang dynasty (618–907).Nothing is known of his youth. Married,with two children, P’ang practiced Zenthroughout his life, receiving guidancefrom some of the leading masters of theday, including Shih-tou and Ma-tsuTao-i. He attained enlightenmentunder Ma-tsu but refused to become amonk. In his later years, he gave awayhis home and took up an itinerant life.P’ang appears in case forty-two of theHekiganroku. He is often compared toVimalakirti, another prominent laypractitioner who attained enlighten-ment without ever taking the tonsure.P’ang left behind more than 300 poems,some of which still survive. There is anEnglish translation of his recorded say-ings, edited by Ruth Fuller Sasaki. Seealso lay believer.

Sasaki, Ruth Fuller, Yoshitaka Iriya, andDana R. Fraser. A Man of Zen: TheRecorded Sayings of Layman P’ang.New York: Weatherhill, 1971.

Lin-chi I-hsüan(d. 867; Rinzai Gigen) Chinese Zen mas-ter of the T’ang dynasty (618–907), whois regarded as the founder of the Rinzaischool of Zen Buddhism. Lin-chi had adistinctive teaching style, making use ofshouts (J. katsu) and slaps to push hisdisciples toward an enlightenmentexperience. Little is known about Lin-chi’s early life. He was born in Ts’ao pre-fecture sometime between 810 and 815C.E. It is not known at what age he firstentered monastic orders; he initiallystudied the Vinaya and variousMahayana teachings. Eventually, hetraveled to Chiang-hsi to practice Zen atthe monastery of Huang-po Hsi-yün (d.850). The story of his enlightenment isquite famous within the tradition. Afterthree years in Huang-po’s community,Lin-chi had made little progress and hadnot once approached the master for

direct instruction. The chief seat (J.shuso) at the monastery encouragedLin-chi to ask the master about the car-dinal principle of the Dharma. Threetimes Lin-chi asked Huang-po, and threetimes the master struck him with a blow.With Lin-chi on the verge of quitting thecommunity in discouragement, Huang-po suggested that he visit Zen master Ta-yu. Lin-chi experienced enlightenmentduring his first interview with Ta-yu. Hethen returned to Huang-po, who recog-nized him as his Dharma heir. After tenmore years of practice with Huang-po,Lin-chi went on a pilgrimage and even-tually settled near the city of Chen-chouin a small temple called Lin-chi-yuan,from which he gained his popular name.He spent the last years of his life in atemple in Wei-fu. Lin-chi’s recorded say-ings, the Lin-chi Lu (Sayings of Lin-Chi),is among the most important texts withinthe Zen corpus. See also Rinzai sect.

Lin-chi LuThe common abbreviation for Lin-chiCh’an-shih Yu-lu, the Recorded Sayingsof Ch’an Master Lin-chi (J. Rinzai-roku).See Sayings of Lin-chi.

Lin-chi School( J. Rinzai-shû) One of two majorschools of Chinese Zen, along with theTs’ao-tung school (J. Sôtô). Lin-chi Zenis named for its founding patriarch Lin-chi I-hsuan (d. 867), one of the mostfamous Chinese Zen masters of theT’ang dynasty (618–907). The predomi-nant Lin-chi style of practice uses kôanas the focus of attention during seatedmeditation (zazen). The Lin-chi style isalso traditionally associated with theuse of slapping and shouting (katsu!) asteaching devices.

The Lin-chi lineage first took shapeduring the T’ang dynasty and numbersamong the five houses of Chinese Zenfrom that period. During the Sungdynasty (960–1279), the Lin-chi schooldivided into two major branches, theYang-ch’i line ( J. Yôgi-shû) and theHuang-lung line (J. Oryô-shû). Since

the Sung dynasty, it has been the domi-nant form of Zen practice in China. TheLin-chi school was transmitted to Japanduring the Kamakura period(1185–1333) and is known there as theRinzai sect. See also Huang-lungschool and Yang-ch’i school.

LineageWithin the Zen school of Buddhism, itis very common to discuss the history ofthe school as a whole, or a segment of itin terms of lineage. Zen typically repre-sents itself as a lineage of enlightenedmasters going back to Bodhidharmaand the historical Buddha. Zen lineagesare charted out in much the same waythat family trees are drawn, presentingseveral generations of related Zenteachers and disciples. In a Zen context,however, lineage is not understood sim-ply as a matter of historical relation-ships. It functions as a religiouslycharged concept and is understood toimply Dharma transmission from onegeneration to the next.

Lineage ChartA listing from generation to generationof the Zen practitioners officiallyregarded as Dharma heirs within a seg-ment of the Zen school. Lineage chartsresemble family trees, mapping out thereligious notion of Dharma transmis-sion. They are a standard feature in theZen school for presenting in graphicform the understanding that theDharma is passed from master to disci-ple. Lineage charts typically begin withthe historical Buddha, Bodhidharma,or another founding patriarch. The listthen continues through the subsequentgenerations of patriarchs and masters.

Ling-yin-ssuAn important Chinese Zen monasteryon Pei-shan. The monastery’s full namewas Ching-te Ling-yin-ssu. It was desig-nated as one of the Five Mountains (Ch.wu-shan; J. Gozan temples), the mostprestigious Zen monasteries in China.

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Lion’s RoarAn expression indicating intensity andpower, since a lion’s roar is said to pos-sess the resonance of one hundred ani-mals. Buddhist scriptures often applythe original Sanskrit expression “simhanada” ( J. shishiku) to describe theunsurpassed quality of the Buddhapreaching the Dharma.

Lotus PositionThe body posture most commonly usedfor Buddhist meditation. In the fulllotus position (J. kekka fuza), one sitscross-legged, placing the right foot onthe left thigh and the left foot on theright thigh. In most schools ofBuddhism, one places the hands palmsup, the right hand resting on the left footand the left hand on the right foot. In thecase of Zen meditation, the right handrests palm up on the left foot, and theleft hand is placed above the right handwith the tips of the thumbs touching.

Lotus Sutra(J. Myôhô Rengekyô) Popular name forthe Saddharma-pundarika Sutra, theScripture of the Lotus Flower of theWondrous Dharma, one of the mostimportant Mahayana sutras. The LotusSutra was originally composed inSanskrit and was completed sometimearound 200 C.E. It has been especiallyinfluential throughout East Asia, whereit is widely accepted by all schools ofBuddhism. In particular, the T’ien-t’ai,Tendai, and Nichiren schools are basedon interpretations of the Lotus Sutra.There are several Chinese translationsof the text, but by far the most popularwas the one completed by Kumarajiva(T. 9, no. 262) in 406 C.E. There are sev-eral English translations from theChinese text, including Leon Hurvitz’sScripture of the Lotus Blossom of theFine Dharma and Burton Watson’s TheLotus Sutra.

The Lotus Sutra presents a numberof distinctive Mahayana teachings, inmany cases providing the primaryscriptural basis for Mahayana concepts.

The sutra is set on Vulture Peak and ispresented as the final sermon given bythe Buddha before his death. For thisreason, the sutra is said to represent theculmination of the Buddha’s teachings,perfecting or superseding his earliersermons, which are treated in the textas provisional. Through the use of col-orful parables, including the stories ofthe burning house and the conjuredcity, the Buddha explains that he makesuse of upaya, or expedient means, toprepare his followers for progressivelyadvanced teachings. For this reason,followers of the Theravada (Hinayana)teachings who seek nirvana are actuallyon the same path as bodhisattvas of theMahayana tradition who seek buddha-hood. The sutra teaches that all sen-tient beings are capable of attaining

The Lotus Sutra was originally composed inSanskrit around 200 C.E.

enlightenment and are on the path tobuddhahood. Finally, the Buddhaexplains that he is not an ordinaryhuman being who attained enlighten-ment, but a manifestation of an eternalBuddha. As a means of instructing oth-ers, the eternal Buddha assumes humanform at various times in history, andthen appears to pass into nirvana. Seealso Tendai sect and T’ien-t’ai school.

Tanabe, George J., Jr., and Willa JaneTanabe. The Lotus Sutra in JapaneseCulture. Honolulu, HI: University ofHawaii Press, 1989.

Lump of Red FleshA graphic expression used by the T’angZen master Lin-chi I-hsüan (d. 867) inreference to the human body or the

human mind. Lin-chi I-hsüan con-trasted the “lump of red flesh” (J. shaku-niku danjô) with the innate BuddhaNature within the self. A famous pas-sage from the Sayings of Lin-chi says:“The master ascended the hall and said,‘Here in this lump of red flesh there is aTrue Man with no rank. Constantly hegoes in and out the gates of your face. Ifthere are any of you who don’t know thisfor a fact, then look! Look!’”

Watson, Burton. The Zen Teachings of Master Lin-chi: A Translation ofthe Lin-chi lu. Boston, MA:Shambhala, 1993.

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MMâdhyamakaThe Middle Doctrine school of earlyMahayana Buddhism (J. Chûgan-ha),based on the writings of Nagarjuna(ca. 150–250 C.E.). The primary teach-ings of the school include the two truths and emptiness (shunyata).Mâdyamaka thought first developed inIndia but became extremely influentialthroughout East Asian Buddhism. InChina and Japan, it became knownrespectively as the San-lun school andthe Sanron school.

MâdhyamikaA follower of the Mâdhyamakaschool of Mahayana Buddhism. See Mâdhyamaka.

Mahakashyapa(J. Makakashô or Kashô) One of the tendistinguished disciples of the Buddha,reknowned for his strict ascetic prac-tice. Tradition has it that Mahakashyapaobtained enlightenment and becamean arhat after only eight days as theBuddha’s disciple. Because of his strictadherence to the ascetic life,Mahakashyapa became the head of the Buddhist community after theBuddha’s death. He convened the FirstBuddhist Council at Rajagrha, at whichthe community composed the Vinayaand Sutra Pitaka, the first two sectionsof the Tripitaka.

Mahakashyapa came from a wealthybrahmin family, but from his youth wasuninterested in worldly pleasures. Heleft the home life soon after his parentsdied and requested that the Buddhaaccept him as a follower. His requestgranted, Mahakashyapa folded his

outer garment and offered it to theBuddha as a cushion. When the Buddhaadmired its softness, Mahakashyapabegged that the Buddha accept his robe,which was made from the same qualityfabric. The Buddha agreed, offering hisown tattered robe to Mahakashyapa in return. Mahakashyapa continued to wear the master’s robe throughouthis life, despite criticism from other disciples that his appearance was a discredit to the sangha, the communityof Buddhist believers. Zen traditionregards this robe as the first robe of transmission.

Mahakashyapa is revered in the Zenschool as the first of the twenty-eightIndian patriarchs of Zen. The firsttransmission of the Zen Dharma fromShakyamuni (Siddharta Gautama) toMahakashyapa is a common theme inZen literature. Once when the Buddhawas lecturing to his disciples on VulturePeak, he silently held up a flower. Hisdisciples made no reply, unable tounderstand the Buddha’s action. OnlyMahakashyapa answered, respondingto the Buddha with a smile. Seeing hissmile, the Buddha said, “I have the TrueDharma Eye, the wondrous mind ofnirvana. I entrust it to Mahakashyapa.”This story is the subject of several kôan,including case six of the Mumonkanand case 253 of the Sanbyakusoku.

Mahaprajna Paramita( J. daihannya haramitta) “Great perfection of wisdom,” an expressionfor the attainment of real or intuitivewisdom. Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253)used the term as the title for one essayin the Shôbôgenzô.

Mahavairochana Buddha(J. Dainichi Butsu) The central of thefive cosmic buddhas closely associatedwith the esoteric traditions ofBuddhism. Originally, the epithetVairochana, or “One who shines forth,”was applied to Shakyamuni Buddha(Siddharta Gautama), but eventually,Vairochana came to be understood as

an independent celestial buddha.Unlike other celestial buddhas,Mahavairochana is not thought to haveexisted first as a bodhisattva, but toexist eternally as a buddha.Mahavairochana Buddha is regarded asthe embodiment of reality in the uni-verse. Since his body, speech, and mindpervade the universe, many esotericBuddhist practices focus on the threemysteries of body, speech, and mind asa means to identify with Vairochana.

Iconographically, Mahavairochanaoccupies the central position in the Womb-Realm Mandala and the Diamond-Realm Mandala, both of which are used extensively in the Shingon sect. He is sometimesdepicted attended by the bodhisattvasManjusri ( J. Monju) and Samanta-bhadra (J. Fugen).

Mahayana Buddhism(J. Daijô) “The Great Vehicle,” one of thetwo (or three) major divisions withinBuddhism, which incorporates a largenumber of distinctive schools ofthought and styles of practice.Mahayana Buddhists adopted the nameto contrast themselves with earlierforms of Buddhism, which they dubbedHinayana, or “Lesser Vehicle.”Mahayana is sometimes calledNorthern Buddhism because it pre-dominates throughout East Asia, whichlies to the north of Theravadan cultures.The various schools of Mahayanainclude the Yogachara school, the Hua-yen school, the Pure Land schools, the Zen, the T’ien-t’ai school, and many others. In addition, some scholars include the Vajrayana schools of Buddhism, including Tibetan Buddhism, under the generalrubric of Mahayana.

Mahayana teachings are presentedin a series of new scriptures that serveas a supplement to the early scripturescompiled in the original Tripitaka.Mahayana scriptures incorporate theWisdom Literature, including the HeartSutra, the Diamond Sutra, the LotusSutra, the Avatamsaka Sutra, the Pure

Land Sutras, etc. Later Chinese andJapanese writings, including many textsfrom the extensive Zen corpus of litera-ture, are also incorporated into theChinese, Korean, and Japanese versionsof the Tripitaka.

Mahayana Buddhism representsseveral new developments thatdiverged from the early Buddhist teach-ing and practice. These innovations firstemerged in India from the first centuryB.C.E. through the third century C.E. andcan be summarized under three basicareas. First, Mahayana teachings devel-oped and expanded the concept of theBuddha to include the concept of anEternal Buddha, who takes on specificform as the numerous historical andcelestial buddhas. Second, theMahayana teachings contrasted theirunderstanding of the ideal practitionerof Buddhism, the bodhisattva, whodemonstrates compassion to all sentient beings, with the earlier ideal of the arhat, who seeks only his or her own enlightenment. Finally,Mahayana thought built upon andextended the early teaching of No-Self(Sk. Anatman), which stressed the tran-sient nature of the individual human self,thus developing the concept of empti-ness (Sk. shunyata) which is said to char-acterize all phenomena (Sk. Dharmas).See also esoteric Buddhism and threebodies of the Buddha.

Main TempleA Buddhist temple or monastery thatserves as the institutional headquartersfor a network of branch temples. Thepattern of affiliation between main andbranch temples ( J. honji matsuji)emerged in Japan during the medievalperiod (1185–1600) and was later sys-tematized in the early modern (1600–1867) and modern periods (1868–pre-sent). During the Tokugawa period(1600–1867), the government requiredthat all Buddhist temples be affiliated ina sectarian hierarchy. The governmentlimited the number of sectarian head-quarters to a specified group of mainmonasteries and communicated with

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the main temples, which were thenresponsible for conveying governmentregulations to the branch templesunder their control. Main temples thusfunctioned as a part of the govern-ment’s regulatory system designed tocontrol many aspects of Japanese soci-ety, including Buddhism. The practiceof temple networks continues today inJapan, although the separation ofchurch and state in the post-World WarII period has freed Buddhist maintemples from any official governmentalcontrol. Most Buddhist temples inJapan are still affiliated as branchtemples within an institutional sectar-ian structure under the administrativeleadership of a main temple that servesas the sect’s headquarters.

Maitreya(J. Miroku) The Future Buddha, whomShakyamuni Buddha (Siddharta

Gautama) is said to have designated ashis successor. Other than Shakyamunibuddha himself, Maitreya is the onlymajor cultic figure accepted throughoutthe Buddhist world, enjoying devo-tional popularity in both the Mahayanaand the Theravada traditions.Buddhists believe that Maitreya currently resides as a highly advancedbodhisattva in Tushita Heaven, wherehe continues to perfect his bodhisattvapractice in preparation for his finalbirth here in this world. As the future Buddha, Maitreya often serves as a symbol of hope for a better age,when human beings will find it easier topractice Buddhism more fully andattain enlightenment.

The most common form of Buddhistdevotion to Maitreya focuses on build-ing merit sufficient to warrant rebirthduring Maitreya’s future golden age. It is believed that those individuals fortunate enough to hear Maitreya

Maitreya, the “future Buddha,” is accepted throughout the Buddhist world as a symbol of hope.

preach the Dharma at that time will be able to attain enlightenment. Inmost Buddhist conceptualizations oftime, it is understood that Maitreya will be born far in the distant future,millions of years from now. Before the dawn of the new age, the worldmust first pass through the tribulationsof the end of the present age as theteachings of Shakyamuni buddha progressively fade away.

Another form of popular devotionalpractice once popular in East Asiafocused on the hope of attaining rebirthin Tushita Heaven in the immediatefuture. Individuals born there wouldnot only benefit from an environmentmore conducive to Buddhist practice,they would also have an opportunity toaccompany Maitreya when he returnsto this world. A believer hoping forrebirth in Tushita Heaven would seek tobuild merit and call upon Maitreya’sassistance. This form of practice is quitesimilar to some forms of Pure Landbelief. In fact, devotion to Amidabuddha and hope for rebirth in hisWestern Pure Land later eclipsed devo-tion to Maitreya in East Asia.

In a few rare cases, East AsianBuddhists reinterpreted the main-stream Maitreya myth, transforminghim into a messianic savior who wouldsoon appear, or had already appeared,to usher in the millennial age. In somecases, political leaders in China claimedto be Maitreya to legitimate the rule. Inother cases, Maitreya served as a rally-ing symbol for revolutionary politicalmovements. The latent political andreligious power of this variation of theMaitreya myth has not completely dis-appeared. In at least two new Japanesereligions that have emerged in this cen-tury, founders were identified an incar-nations of Maitreya.

Sponberg, Alan, and Helen Hardacre,eds. Maitreya, the Future Buddha.New York: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1988.

Maka Hannya Haramitsu“Great Perfection of Wisdom,” theJapanese transliteration for Maha-prajna Paramita. See MahaprajnaParamita.

MakakashôThe Japanese pronunciation ofMahakashyapa, the foremost discipleof the Buddha and the first Indianpatriarch of Zen. See Mahakashyapa.

MakuragyôA brief Japanese Buddhist service per-formed by a Buddhist monk over thebody of the deceased immediately afterdeath. Since the service is traditionallyperformed at the deathbed, it is knownas the pillow sutra. Despite the name,there is no text bearing the name“Pillow Sutra,” nor do the variousBuddhist denominations employ a sin-gle common text for the deathbed ser-vice. The Makuragyô service is uniqueto Japanese Buddhist custom. The ser-vice typically includes the burning ofincense, reading of a short passagefrom a sutra, and a brief sermon by aBuddhist priest. Throughout the ser-vice, the face of the deceased is coveredwith a white cloth, used as a shroud.

The custom of performing the pillowsutra became common in all denomi-nations of Japanese Buddhism duringthe Tokugawa period (1600–1867). Atthat time, the Japanese governmentrequired that in every case of death, aBuddhist monk examine the bodybefore filing a report and issuing adeath certificate. Only then was permis-sion granted for burial or cremation.The requirement was part of theTokugawa government’s effort to limitthe spread of illegal religious groups,including Christianity. Buddhist monksplayed a role in the government’s pro-gram by helping to ascertain that everyJapanese was a member of a Buddhisttemple, and not a member of an illegalreligion. In earlier periods, theMakurakyô was a part of the wake, heldthroughout the night following death.

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Mampuku-jiThe main monastery for the Obaku sectof Japanese Zen, located in Uji, a smallcity south of Kyoto. The full formalname is Obaku-san Mampuku-ji. Themonastery was founded in 1663 by Yin-yüan Lung-ch’i (1594–1673), thefounder of the Obaku sect. Themonastery is distinctive in Japan,because it is constructed in the MingChinese style. It was originally modeledafter Yin-yüan’s home monastery, Wan-fu-ssu, in Fukien province. In additionto using Chinese architectural styles,Yin-yüan commissioned Chinese arti-sans to complete much of the carvingand art work which adorns the templebuildings (shichidô garan).

ManbôJapanese pronunciation of the Chinesecharacters meaning “ten thousandDharmas (things).” This is a commonEast Asian Buddhist expression foreverything in existence, the entire phe-nomenal world. The phrase is alterna-tively translated as the “myriad things.”See ten thousand Dharmas.

MandalaA sacred visual image often constructedof circles and rectangles, designed tosymbolically depict the cosmos, therealm of a deity, or buddha. Originallydeveloped in India, mandala (J. man-dara) are generally used as aids in med-itation. In the Buddhist world, they aremost commonly associated with eso-teric Buddhism, including TibetanBuddhism and the East Asian schools ofShingon and Tendai Buddhism.Buddhist mandala generally incorpo-rate images of various buddhas andbodhisattvas, or Sanskrit letters thatsymbolically represent them. Mandalamay be temporary constructions or per-manent images painted on scrolls. InTibetan practice, mandala are imagesmade from colored sand for specific rit-uals. In other cases, physical objectssuch as statues or religious imple-ments may be arranged to form three-

dimensional mandala. Mandala are notregularly used in the Zen school. Seealso Diamond-Realm Mandala, Womb-Realm Mandala, Shingon sect, andTendai sect.

ManiA mythical wish-fulfilling jewelobtained from a dragon king (naga) liv-ing in the sea. The jewel is spherical in shape, with a short pointed top, andis said to be capable of warding off calamities. In the eighth chapter of the Lotus Sutra, the mani is used as a metaphor for buddhahood. When the Buddha predicted perfect enlight-enment for the five hundred arhats,they told a parable of a man with a jewel sewn to his garments. Not realiz-ing that he had in his possession a jewel which would fulfill all his needsand wants, the man struggled and suffered to eke out a living, just ashuman beings, not realizing that theyhave the seed of buddhahood withinthemselves, suffer needlessly. In Zentexts, the mani is used in a similar manner as a symbol of the BuddhaNature that every individual possesses.

Manju-jiAn important Rinzai monastery inKyoto. Manju-ji was designated as aJissatsu temple for a time and was laterdesignated one of the Gozan temples inJapan. Today it is a sub-temple ofTôfuku-ji. See also Rinzai sect.

ManjusriThe cosmic bodhisattva who representsthe qualities of knowledge, wisdom, andenlightenment of the buddhas. Knownas Monju in Japanese. See Monju.

Mantra(J. shingôn) Sacred sounds, often withno literal meaning, which are believedto have intrinsic power. The Buddhistuse of mantra derives from the IndianHindu practice of using sacred soundsfrom the Vedas, the Hindu scriptures.

The Buddhist scriptures includemantras of various lengths, from one ortwo syllables to lengthy passages. InBuddhist contexts, mantras may beused as sacred formulas to ward off evil,to ensure good health, to bring rain intime of drought, and to acquire otherpractical benefits. They are also used asaids in meditation. The steady repeti-tion of a mantra may help to focus theconcentration and induce a meditativestate. Mantra are used widely in theBuddhist world, and although they maybe most closely associated with esotericBuddhism, they are sometimes usedwithin the Zen school. In the Obakusect of Japanese Zen, for example,mantras are chanted during morningand evening services.

Manual LaborZen monks and nuns engage in manuallabor (J. fushin or samu) as a regular partof their monastic practice. Activitiessuch as raking the yard, collecting fire-wood, and cooking meals are interpretedby the Zen tradition as active forms ofmeditation that contribute to an indi-vidual’s practice. The incorporation ofmanual labor into the Zen monasticlifestyle is said to date to the time of thefourth patriarch, Tao-hsin (580–651),when it was adopted as a necessity toinsure the community’s physical sur-vival. Tao-hsin and his disciples, said tonumber over five hundred, lived asecluded life at Shuan-feng-shan, wherethey could not rely on the lay communityto provide sufficient food supplies. Theytherefore undertook farming the land

Zen monks and nuns are required to perform manual labor such as raking, cooking, or collecting firewood as a part of their monastic practice.

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themselves, an activity traditionally for-bidden to monks and nuns in theVinaya. The requirement to participatein manual labor was later incorporatedinto the Zen monastic codes. Pai-changHuai-hai (720–814), traditionally credited with creating the first monasticcode specific to Zen, is said to haveadmonished his disciples, “A day without work, a day without food.”Despite the traditional value placed onmanual labor, not all members of theZen monastic community engage in it on a daily basis. Certain monks and nuns are excused in order to concentrate more fully on meditation.Those who are otherwise occupied withadministrative duties are also usuallyexcused. See also lay believer.

Manzan Dôhaku(1636–1715) Japanese Sôtô scholar-monk of the Tokugawa period(1600–1867) who initiated majorreforms in the Sôtô school. Manzan wasborn in Bingo province, present-dayHiroshima Prefecture. He enteredBuddhist orders at age six, and as ayoung man he traveled frequently withhis master throughout the country. In1651, they arrived in the capital city ofEdo (now Tokyo). Manzan had numer-ous enlightenment experiences overthe years. When he first met GesshûShûko (1616–1696), then abbot atDaijô-ji, in 1678, the master immedi-ately acknowledged him as his Dharmaheir. Two years later, Manzan suc-ceeded Gesshû as abbot and served inthat post for twelve years. Manzan carried out monastic reform in a num-ber of ways, inspired by reading theworks of the founder, Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253). Manzan studied the exist-ing monastic codes available to him,including early Sôtô codes, such asDôgen’s Eihei Shingi and the KeizanShingi, and the recently publishedObaku Shingi of the Obaku sect. Heprepared his own monastic code, theShôjurin Shingi, for Daijô-ji. Basedupon these texts, Manzan also argued

that Dharma transmission and lineagesuccession needed to be restored tocomply with Dôgen’s original under-standing. His efforts to reinstitute “theseal of succession from one master” (J.isshi inshô) and “Dharma transmissionfrom mind to mind” (J. Menju shihô)were successful.

Mappô“The end of the Dharma,” a term for the latter age of the Dharma, or the Age of the degenerate Dharma, the third and final period after the death ofthe historical Buddha. See latter age ofthe Dharma.

MaraThe Tempter, an evil deity in theBuddhist cosmology. The name Maraliterally means “killer” or “death” inSanskrit. Mara reigns in one of the sixheavens in the realm of desire. InBuddhist legends, Mara is depicted asthe personification of evil, a deity whoprevents human beings from concen-trating on religious practice by distract-ing them with various sensual pleasuresand secular concerns. He can be seen asa special enemy of Buddhism.

Mara plays an important role in thestories of Shakyamuni’s (SiddahrtaGautama’s) life, especially the accountsof the Buddha’s enlightenment. Whenthe Buddha sat down to meditate underthe bodhi tree, determined to meditateuntil he had achieved his goal, Mara setout to prevent him. He attempted todissuade the Buddha from his course bytempting him with worldly benefits andattacking him with armies of demons.Understanding that Mara’s promisesand attacks are always illusory, the Buddha persevered and defeatedMara. In other Buddhist texts, Mara can be found causing trouble for the Buddha’s disciples and otherBuddhist practitioners.

Boyd, James W. Satan and Mara: Christianand Buddhist Symbols of Evil. Leiden,Netherlands: Brill, 1975.

Ling, Trevor Oswald. Buddhism and the Mythology of Evil: A Study inTheravada Buddhism. Rockport,MA: Oneworld, 1997.

Married ClergyIn most parts of the Buddhist world,Buddhist monks and nuns leave theordinary life of a married householderto live celibate lives within the monasticcommunity. In Japanese Buddhism,this is no longer the norm in the mod-ern period (1868–present), and mostJapanese Buddhist monks are actuallymarried men with families. They aresometimes called priests in English,since the word monk implies celibacy inmost contexts. The Jôdo Shinshû, orTrue Pure Land sect, was the firstJapanese sect to allow its clergy tomarry, beginning with the founderShinran (1173–1262), who lived duringthe late twelfth and early thirteenthcenturies. For many centuries, JôdoShinshû priests were the only marriedBuddhist clergy in Japan. During theMeiji period (1868–1912), the Japanesegovernment lifted the legal sanctionsagainst marriage for Buddhist monks.Although the monastic code was neveractually changed, Buddhist monksbegan to marry, and it is now typical forBuddhist temples in Japan to be handeddown within biological families, withsons inheriting the position of headmonk from their fathers. The Japaneseintroduced the practice of marriedclergy to Korea during the years of occu-pation (1911–1945). The practiceresulted in difficulties in the KoreanBuddhist community after the end ofthe Second World War, when KoreanBuddhists began to reassert the tradi-tional monastic code of celibacy. Seealso monastic celibacy.

Masangin“Three pounds of flax,” a famous lineattributed to the master Tung-shanShou-chu (J. Tôzan Shusho; d. 900)from one of the most popular of the traditional Zen kôan. The kôan appears

as case eighteen in the Mumonkan,case twelve in Hekiganroku, and case172 in Dôgen Kigen’s (1200–1253)Sanbyakusoku. It is commonly referredto as “Tôzan masangin,” using theJapanese pronunciation. In the case, amonk asked Tung-shan, “What is theBuddha?” Tung-shan replied, “Threepounds of flax.” Tung-shan’s reply issimilar to a “one word barrier” (ichijikan), a device perfected by his teacherYun-men Wen-yen (864–949) that isintended to push a disciple beyondrational discursive thought. Tung-shanhimself said that words without anyrational intention are living words,while words with rational intention aredead words.

Masen“Polishing a tile,” a reference to thefamous classical kôan about the masterNan-yüeh Huai-jang (677–744) and hisdisciple Ma-tsu Tao-i (709–788).According to the story, Ma-tsu avidlypracticed zazen in the hopes of attain-ing enlightenment and becoming abuddha. Nan-yüeh, aware that his dis-ciple was becoming obsessed withmeditation to such an extent that med-itation itself constituted an obstacle tohis progress, devised an ingeniousmethod to overcome the problem. Hesat outside his quarters polishing acoarse ceramic tile. Ma-tsu asked themaster what he was trying to accom-plish, and Nan-yüeh replied that he wasmaking a mirror. When Ma-tsuexclaimed that he could not make amirror by polishing a tile, Nan-yüehretorted that neither could Ma-tsumake a buddha by practicing zazen.

MatsujiA branch temple which has formal tiesto a main temple or monastery (hon-zan). Most local Buddhist temples inJapan are branch temples that answerto a main monastery and that serve asthe sect’s headquarters. Historically,most relationships between branchtemples and main temples go back to

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the founding of the branch temple.When a new temple was built, thepatron usually invited a prominentmonk to serve as the founding abbot(kaisan). The new temple would thenbe related to the temple or monasteryfrom which the founding abbot came,and his disciples typically served subse-quently as abbots. Relationshipsbetween branch temples and maintemples were formalized officially dur-ing the Tokugawa period (1600–1867).

Matsuo Bashô(1644–1694) One of the most famousJapanese writers of the Tokugawaperiod (1600–1867), who was deeplyinfluenced by Zen Buddhism. Bashô is best known for his Haiku poetry,linked verse, and travelogues, whichcombine poetry and prose. Bashô’s bestknown writings include Hoku nohosomichi, known in English as TheNarrow Road to the Deep North, a

description of his final and longest journey undertaken to the northeasternprovinces from 1689 to 1691.

Ma-tsu ssu-chia luRecorded sayings of the four houses ofMa-tsu. See Ssu-chia Yu Lu.

Ma-tsu Tao-i(709–788; J. Baso Dôitsu) One of the mostinfluential Chinese Zen masters of theT’ang dynasty (618–907). Ma-tsu was theDharma heir of Nan-yüeh Huai-jang. Hedeveloped a dynamic teaching style, hav-ing learned from his master that sittingquietly alone was insufficient. Accordingto accounts of his enlightenment, Ma-tsu was at one time overly absorbed byseated meditation and would do nothingelse. When Nan-yüeh asked his studentwhat he hoped to accomplish through allhis meditating, Ma-tsu replied that hewanted to become a buddha. The master

Matsuo Bashô is a famous Japanese writer best known for his poetry. The seventeenth-century calligraphy shown above is by Bashô, the painting by one of his students.

then took up a rough ceramic tile andbegan to rub it, and when Ma-tsu askedhim what he was doing, the masterreplied that he was polishing the tile tomake a mirror. Ma-tsu asked, “How canyou hope to make a mirror from a tile?”The master replied, “How can you hopeto make a buddha out of meditating?”Ma-tsu is famous for employing loudshouts and other shocking actions, suchas striking students. These Zen teachingdevices later characterized the Rinzaischool, which descended from Ma-tsu’slineage. His Dharma heirs representmost of the dominant lineages of theperiod; they include Pai-chang Huai-hai(720–814), Nan-ch’üan P’u-yüan, and Ta-mei Fa-ch’ang. Ma-tsu is sometimesreferred to as the “Patriarch of the Houseof Ma.” See also Rinzai sect.

Maudgalyâyana(J. Mokuren) One of the ten distin-guished disciples of the Buddha,renowned as foremost in psychic pow-ers. Maudgalyâyana came from a brah-min family and left the home life tobecome a follower of Sanjaya, one of thesix non-Buddhist teachers mentionedin the Buddhist scriptures. Maud-galyâyana and Shariputra, another out-standing disciple of the Buddha, wereclose friends from boyhood and joinedSanjaya’s community together. Whenthey made their decision to leaveSanjaya and become disciples ofShakyamuni (Siddahrta Gautama),they led numerous other disciples tofollow suit, creating tension. Maud-galyâyana suffered persecution becauseof his decision and was eventually killedby members of a rival religious groupshortly before the Buddha’s death.

Maudgalyâyana is best known inEast Asian Buddhism for a story foundin the Ullambana Sutra. According tothe tradition, when Maudgalyayana’smother died, he used his psychic pow-ers to learn her fate in the next rebirth.Maudgalyâyana searched through allthe realms of existence and finally dis-covered that she had been reborn inhell as a hungry ghost. By means of his

supernatural powers, Maudgalyâyanatraveled down into hell and tried tooffer his mother food and water to easeher suffering. She eagerly accepted hisoffering, but when she tried to eat it, itturned to fire in her mouth.Maudgalyâyana asked the Buddha howhe could help his mother, and theBuddha instructed him to feed theentire assembly of monks at the end ofthe rainy season retreat. At that time, the community would have accumulated a large reserve of meritfrom their intensive practice and couldtransfer the merit to all hungry ghosts,thus easing the suffering ofMaudgalyâyana’s mother.

Medicine BuddhaThe buddha of healing, called Yakushibutsu in Japanese and Bhaishajya-guruin Sanskrit. See Yakushi butsu.

MeditationA general English term for a wide varietyof introspective contemplative tech-niques used throughout the religiousworld. Meditation is one of the most basic elements of Buddhist practice, especially for monks andnuns. Within the Buddhist world, thedifferent schools teach a wide variety ofmeditation styles, some of whichinclude breathing practices, specialbody postures, visualization tech-niques, and different stages or levels ofaltered states of consciousness. Thecommon goal of most forms ofBuddhist meditation is the immediaterealization of enlightenment.

The style of meditation practiced bymembers of the Zen school is com-monly known as zazen, which simplymeans seated meditation. Zazen is usu-ally performed while seated in the lotusor half-lotus position. It does notinvolve a complex series of levels orstages of attainment, nor do practition-ers of zazen employ visual or mentalimages to focus the mind. In mostcases, practitioners learn to observetheir breathing, without seeking to

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control the pattern. In some cases,especially in the Rinzai school of Zen,teaching devices known as kôan areused as the focus of Zen meditation. Seealso lotus position and Rinzai sect.

Meditation HallA hall specifically designed for the com-munal practice of seated meditation ata Zen monastery or temple. Meditationhalls are equipped with raised medita-tion platforms typically covered withtatami, or rush matting. The term medi-tation hall may refer to the monks’ hall(sôdô), since it served as the traditionallocation for seated meditation withinChinese and medieval Japanese Zenmonasteries. Alternatively, it may referto a separate hall used exclusively formeditation. The latter is much smallerthan the traditional monks’ hall, sinceresidents do not use it for eating meals

or sleeping. Separate zendô of this typewere introduced in Japan by the Chinesefounders of the Obaku sect in the earlyTokugawa period (1600–1867) and havesince become common throughout allthe sects of Japanese Zen.

Memorial ServiceBuddhist ritual services (kuyô) that areheld for deceased members of the com-munity, both lay and monastic, to markspecific anniversaries of the date ofdeath. The custom of holding memorialservices for several years after deathwas first developed in China underConfucian influence. Initially, ChineseZen monasteries developed a system ofmemorial services to commemorate thepassing of monks and nuns from withinthe monastery community. When Zenspread to Japan, lay sponsors requestedfuneral and memorial services for their

A meditation hall is specifically designed for seated meditationand is equipped with special platforms and matting.

deceased family members. To accom-modate this, Zen monks adapted theservices originally designed for ordinarymonks and nuns. Since the Tokugawaperiod (1600–1867), it has been custom-ary that all Japanese receive funeral andmemorial services from a Buddhisttemple. The pattern of services cur-rently used by the majority of JapaneseBuddhist sects is related to the originalZen monastic rituals.

The actual pattern of memorial ser-vices differs slightly between the vari-ous school of Buddhism in Japan. In theinitial period of mourning (J. chûin)immediately following the death, ser-vices were traditionally held everyseven days for the first forty-nine daysand then again on the hundredth day.Today, families rarely hold all seven sev-enth-day services; the first and last arethe most common. Subsequentanniversary services gradually becomeless frequent, with the first anniversaryservice being the most important. In theZen sect, it is typical for memorial ser-vices to be held on the first, third, sev-enth, thirteenth, seventeenth, twenty-third, twenty-seventh, and thirty-thirdyears. In some cases, memorial servicescontinue until the fiftieth anniversary.The cycle of services concludes with thethirty-third or fiftieth service, except inthe case of extremely prominent mem-bers of the monastic community, suchas the founder of a sect or lineage. Seealso lay believer.

Memorial Tablet(J. ihai) A wooden tablet on which iswritten the name of a deceased individ-ual. Memorial tablets have been used aspart of East Asian funeral rituals since atleast the second or third century inChina. They were originally Confucianin origin, but were adopted by ChineseBuddhism. The custom of makingmemorial tablets was transmitted toJapan by the Zen school and becamewidespread during the Tokugawaperiod (1600–1867). According to mod-ern Japanese Buddhist custom, itemssuch as the posthumous Buddhist

name, date of death, secular name, andage are inscribed on the memorialtablet. See ihai.

Menju KuketsuFace to face oral transmission of theDharma. See menju shihô.

Menju Shihô“Face-to-face transmission” of theDharma from a Zen master to a disci-ple. The term refers to direct, one-on-one contact between the teacher andstudent, leading to formal recognitionof the student as a Dharma heirthrough the conferral of inka. Used syn-onymously with ishin denshin.

MenpekiTo do zazen (seated meditation) facinga wall. The term literally means “facinga wall.” The practice is said to derivefrom Bodhidharma, the traditionalfounder of Zen in China. According toZen legend, Bodhidharma built him-self a hermitage on Mount Sung out-side the city of Lo-yang and spent nineyears in meditation facing the steepface of the cliff. The hermitage wasknown as Menpeki-an, or “Wall-gazinghermitage.” At Sôtô temples andmonasteries, monks and nuns stillmeditate facing the wall, with theirbacks to the central aisle. The practiceis also known as hekikan (Ch. pi-kuan). See hekikan.

Menzan Zuihô(1683–1769) Japanese Sôtô scholarmonk of the Tokugawa period(1600–1867) who carried out a majorreformation of the Sôtô sect, whichwas inspired by his elder ManzanDôhaku (1636–1715). Menzan wasborn in Higo province, in theKumamoto area. He studied brieflyunder Manzan, but then became thedisciple of Sonnô Sôeki (1649–1705).After Sôeki’s death in 1705, Menzanundertook a thousand-day period ofstrict solitude at Rôba-an in Sagami. 221

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He later became abbot at several lead-ing Sôtô monasteries. He wrote sev-eral commentaries on Dôgen Kigen’s(1200–1253) writings, the most impor-tant being the Shôbôgenzô Shôtenroku,an eleven-volume encyclopedic com-panion to the Shôbôgenzô.

MeritAn expression commonly used inBuddhist texts in a manner roughlysynonymous with “good karma.”Buddhist practitioners, especially laypeople, seek to build merit throughgood actions, since it is believed to con-fer benefits in one’s present and futurelives. The benefits of merit include longlife, health, wealth, and a better rebirthin one’s next lifetime. Activities such askeeping the precepts, giving donationsto the monastic community, readingand copying Buddhist scriptures, spon-soring Buddhist rituals, and other simi-lar actions are said to build one’s merit.In addition, Mahayana teachingsexplain that merit may be shared fromone individual to another. It is believed,for example, that the highly advancedbuddhas and bodhisattva can assistordinary sentient beings by transferringmerit to them. See also lay believer.

MetsujinjôThe meditation of extinction, anadvanced level of meditation in whichall mental activity is extinguished.Practitioners in the Theravada traditionsought this meditative state as one of the ultimate states of mental tranquility. It is said that once attained,a practitioner can remain in meditationfor up to seven days. Only those whohave reached enlightenment and thus attained the stage of an arhatare capable of attaining the meditation of extinction. Also calledmetsujin samadhi.

Middle PathAn early name for Buddhism said todate back to the historical Buddha

himself. In his first sermon, the Buddhaadmonished his followers to avoid the two extremes of sensual pleasureand severe asceticism. From his own life experience, the Buddha realizedthat neither of the extremes lead toenlightenment. He recommendedinstead a path that took a middle coursebetween the two.

Mikkyô“Secret teaching,” Japanese name foresoteric Buddhism, especially theShingon and Tendai sects. It is so named because practitioners arerequired to undergo initiation before they qualify for instruction. Seeesoteric Buddhism.

Mind and Body Drop-OffSee shinjin datsuraku.

Mind Ground(J. shinji) A Zen expression for one’smental state. The mind is compared to a field or the ground because it is regarded as the source of all thoughts and experiences, includingperceptions of all external phenom-ena. In some cases, the term refers tothe mind of enlightenment.

Mind-to-Mind TransmissionAn expression used to describe theauthentic transmission of the Dharmain the Zen school from master to disciple, generation after generation.See ishin denshin.

MirokuThe Japanese name for the cosmic bodhisattva Maitreya, recognizedthroughout the Buddhist world as thefuture Buddha. Miroku resides for nowin Tosotsuten (Sk. Tushita heaven),awaiting the appropriate time for birthin this world. See Maitreya.

Moji Zen“Word and letter Zen” or “literary Zen,”a derogatory expression for any Zenstyle which is overly concerned withwords and literary pursuits rather thanseeking a direct understanding of theDharma. It is used synonymously withkattô Zen.

MokugyoA “wooden fish,” a musical instrumentused to accompany chanting in Zenmonasteries. The shape of the instru-ment is globular, in the stylized shape ofa fish with a bloated belly and a dragon’shead. The exterior is engraved withmarkings to suggest the fish and dragonmotif. The mokugyo is carved from asingle piece of wood, with the centerhollowed out. It is played by striking itwith a padded stick. The mokugyo generally sits on a wooden stand, resting on a cushion.

According to one traditionalaccount, the drum is made in theshape of a fish because fish never closetheir eyes to sleep, night or day. Theimage is intended to encourage Zenpractitioners to forget about sleep andstrive diligently in meditation. Themokugyo is a Ming-style instrument,introduced to Japan in the mid-seven-teenth century by Chinese Obakumonks who founded the Obaku sectof Zen. Before that time, the wordmokugyo was used for the wooden fishgong, known today as the hô, used tocall monks to meals.

MokurenJapanese for Maudgalyâyana, one ofthe ten outstanding disciples of theBuddha, reknowned for his psychicpowers. See Maudgalyâyana.

Mokugyo, or “wooden fish,” is a musical instrument carved from a single block of wood. It is used to accompany Zen chanting.

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Mokushô Zen“Silent illumination Zen,” the practice ofZen characteristic of the Sôtô school of ZenBuddhism. Mokushô Zen involves practic-ing seated meditation without the use of ameditative device such as a kôan as a focalpoint. The term, pronounced mo-chaoch’an in Chinese, was originally coined byTa-hui Tsung-kao (1089–1163) as aderogatory expression for the Zen style ofhis friend and rival Hung-chih Cheng-chüeh (1091–1157), which Ta-hui regardedas unorthodox. The opposite style of prac-tice is known as kanna Zen, or “Kôan-gaz-ing Zen.” Although the term mokushô Zenis not always used in a negative sense, it ismore common for people within the Sôtôtradition to refer to their style of medita-tion as shikan taza, or “just sitting.”

Monastic CelibacyBuddhist monks and nuns traditionallyleave the ordinary secular life of house-holders (i.e., those who marry and havechildren) to lead celibate lives within themonastic community. Monastic celibacydates to the historical Buddha and hisimmediate disciples, who left their familiesand possessions behind when they tookthe tonsure. It was common in the Indianculture of that time for religious seekersand holy people to forego sexual relationsas a part of their religious practice. TheVinaya, or traditional Buddhist monasticcode, required celibacy for all monks andnuns. Breaking the precept against sexualrelations was one of only four violationsthat entailed expulsion from the commu-nity. Monastic celibacy represented one ofthe major stumbling blocks to Buddhism’sinitial acceptance in China and other areasin East Asia, since it was diametricallyopposed to the dominant Confucianethics, which demanded that every indi-vidual marry and rear children to fulfill theobligation of filial piety toward parentsand family. Buddhist monastic celibacywas at first viewed as unfilial and destruc-tive to the society, but Chinese Buddhistseventually came to interpret monasticcelibacy as the highest form of filial piety.Today, monastic celibacy remains the

norm throughout most of the Buddhistworld. Japanese Buddhism represents theprimary exception to this pattern: In Japan,although Buddhist nuns continue to leadcelibate lives, most Buddhist monks aremarried men with families. See also mar-ried clergy.

Monastic CodeA collection of ethical precepts designedto govern the lives of monks or nuns liv-ing in religious communities. Within theBuddhist tradition, the earliest monasticcode is the Vinaya, which constitutes oneportion of the Tripitaka, the scriptures ofTheravada Buddhism. According toBuddhist accounts, the regulations pre-served in the Vinaya were actually estab-lished by the historical Buddha to regu-late the activities of the sangha, the com-munity of Buddhist believers, during hislifetime. The Buddha created regulationsto meet various problems that arosewithin the community. The regulationstypically convey the circumstances underwhich the individual rules were createdand their specific purpose. The traditionmaintains that the entire Vinaya wasrecited by the disciple Upali at the firstBuddhist council held shortly after theBuddha’s death. Later, tradition added tothe Vinaya code as the need arose, andseveral versions of the Vinaya developed.

The Zen school developed its owngenre of monastic codes, known inChinese as ching-kuei and in Japanese asshingi, or “pure regulations.” One of thedistinctive features of the Zen codes is therequirement that all monks or nunsengage in manual labor as a regular partof their monastic training. Zen traditionmaintains that the Chinese Zen masterPai-chang Huai-hai (720–814) composedthe earliest Zen monastic code, the Pai-chang Ch’ing-kuei (J. Hyakujô Shingi), inthe eighth or ninth century. Chinesecodes were transmitted to Japan, whereJapanese Zen masters designed their ownversions to suit the Japanese context.Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253), the founder ofSôtô Zen, wrote one of the most famousJapanese examples, the Eihei Shingi.

Monastic TrainingThe practice and discipline followed by amonastic community of monks or nuns.Buddhist monastic training is tradition-ally said to be divided into three parts:wisdom (J. egaku, Sk. prajna), morality (J.kaigaku, Sk. sila), and concentration (J.jôgaku, Sk. samadhi). See also threefoldtraining.

Mondô“Question and answer,” a term for the dis-cussion about the Dharma between aZen master and disciple. In the classicalZen literature there are numerousexchanges between masters and disci-ples. In some cases, a student posed aquestion to the master, either to clarify anissue of personal concern or as a chal-lenge. The master typically responded in amanner designed to push the studenttoward an immediate understanding ofthe Dharma. In other cases, the masterwould challenge an individual student orhis entire assembly with a question. If a

disciple answered the master’s questionwith insight, the master could recognizethe student’s level of enlightenment insome way. It was very common foranswers to take non-verbal forms such asshouts, slaps, or other gestures.Exchanges of this type became a commoncharacteristic of Zen in T’ang dynastyChina (618–907). Many of the classicalexamples of mondô were recorded andlater served as the basis for kôan.Although Zen masters and disciples stillengage in mondô, in many cases thepractice has become stylized andscripted, lacking the spontaneity of theoriginal exchanges.

MonjuThe cosmic bodhisattva Manjusri,understood to represent the qualities ofknowledge, wisdom, and enlighten-ment of the buddhas. Monju is oftenfigured as an attendant of the Buddha(either Shakyamuni or Vairochana),standing on the left side of the triad. Heis contrasted with the other attendant,

Monju is the bodhisattva who represents knowledge, wisdom, and enlightenment.This monk pays respect to an image of Monju in the meditation hall.

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the bodhisattva Fugen, who representsmeditation and practice. Iconograph-ically, Monju rides a lion, and carries inhis hands a sutra and the sword of wis-dom, which cuts through the hin-drances to enlightenment.

Monju is a favorite figure in Zen artand literature, because of his close asso-ciation with meditation. In many Zenmonasteries, an image of Monju isenshrined as the main image in themeditation hall (zendô) or monks’ hall (sôdô). A story about Monju’sencounter with a Chinese Zen monk appears in the Hekiganroku,case thirty-five.

MonkA male member of a religious monasticorder. Given the many similaritiesbetween Christian and Buddhistmonastic practice, the term monk hasbeen adopted for Buddhist clerics. LikeChristian monks, Buddhist monks typi-cally live a celibate life within a monas-tic community devoted to religiouspractice, especially meditation. Theyshare a similar tradition of taking vowsand abiding by a monastic code thatgoverns religious life in the monastery.Buddhist monks traditionally enterorders by taking on the ten precepts ofa novice. A novice may later accept fullordination by undertaking the full setof 250 precepts.

Monks’ HallOne of the seven primary buildings(shichidô garan) which form the core ofa Zen temple or monastery.Traditionally, the monks’ hall served asthe central living quarters for themajority of the monastic communityand also as the dining hall and medita-tion hall. See sôdô.

MonnaQuestions about the Dharma, usuallyaddressed by a disciple to a Zen master.The term literally means “to ask a question.” The term refers specifically

to a question that a student asks duringmondô (the question and answer session between master and student).In some cases, it applies to classicalexamples of questions drawn from Zen literature.

Moral CodeA set of precepts or ethical norms thatgovern the life and practice of religiousindividuals. See precepts.

Mount Gridhrakuta“Vulture Peak,” or “Mount of theNuminous Eagle” ( J. Ryôjusen), amountain outside the city of Rajagrha,India, where Shakyamuni Buddha(Siddharta Gautama) sometimes livedand taught. The mountain was probablyso called because its profile resemblesthat of an eagle or vulture’s head, orbecause flocks of vultures congregatethere. In addition to the historical occa-sions when the Buddha gave sermonson Mount Gridhrakuta, the mountain isnamed as the legendary site for a num-ber of later Mahayana sutras. The mostfamous sermon said to have been givenat Vulture Peak was the Lotus Sutra. InBuddhist texts and art, MountGridhrakuta came to be envisioned as atranscendent mountain where won-drous events occurred, rather than thegeographical site in India.

Within the Zen tradition, MountGridhrakuta is regarded as the site ofthe first authentic Zen transmission ofthe Dharma from Shakyamuni toMahakashyapa. According to tradi-tional accounts, once when the Buddhahad a large audience of disciples gath-ered around him, he held up a flowerwithout comment. No one in the audi-ence said a word, except Mahakashyapawho smiled in response. The Buddha,understanding from the smile thatMahakashyapa had attained enlighten-ment, said, “I have the True Eye of theDharma, the wondrous mind of nir-vana, the true form of formlessness andthe mysterious Gate of the Dharma.Without reliance on words or letter, in a

special transmission outside the teach-ings, I entrust this to Mahakashyapa.”Zen masters have often used thisexchange as a kôan; it is included in theMumonkan (case six) and theSanbyakusoku (case 253). The Zen tra-dition regards the exchange as the firsttransmission of the Dharma from mindto mind without recourse to words.

Tanabe, George J., Jr. and Willa JaneTanabe. The Lotus Sutra in JapaneseCulture. Honolulu, HI: University ofHawaii Press, 1989.

Mount Sumeru(J. Shumisen) According to Indian cos-mology, Mount Sumeru, or Meru, is thehighest mountain in the world andstands at the center of the universe. It issurrounded in each of the four cardinaldirections by mountains, oceans, andcontinents. The continent to the southof Meru, the region where humanbeings dwell, is India, separated fromSumeru by the Himalayas. Mt. Sumeruis the axis of heaven and earth, under-stood as the dwelling place of the gods.Indra dwells in a palace at its summit,and the four guardian kings (shitennô)live on its slopes, each protecting hisrespective direction and associatedcontinent. Buddhism adopted the ear-lier ancient Indian cosmology in itsbasic outlines, but made some alter-ations to suit its teachings.

Moxa(J. yomogi or mogusa) A combustiblesubstance obtained from the leaves ofthe mugwort plant. The English term isderived from the Japanese. Peoplethroughout East Asia have used moxafor centuries as a traditional medicine.Fibers from the mugwort are gatheredtogether and formed into tiny cones,like incense. An individual lights a coneand holds it against the skin for a few minutes, causing mild burns. Theburning sensation is said to be bearable, and the warmth that follows is pleasant. Moxa is applied to specific

points on the body depending on thepurpose of the treatment.

Zen monks traditionally use moxatreatments to ease minor ailments and discomfort, especially pain in thelegs caused by long sessions of seatedmeditation (zazen). In this case, thepractice of using moxa is not a form ofasceticism, but a medicinal practice.There are some examples, however, ofmonks who used moxa treatments as aform of ascetic practice. In the lattercases, the burning is used to purify themind of improper thoughts, especiallysexual desires. Burning the foreheadwith moxa was also a traditional part ofthe ordination ceremony in China. Thistradition survives in modified form inparts of Buddhist East Asia.

Mu“No,” “not,” “nothing, “without.” TheJapanese translation of the Chineseword wu, a word of negation, which isused to negate other terms in much thesame manner as the English prefixes a-,ab- or un-. When used in contrast to theword u, which means “existence” or“being,” mu means “non-existence” or“non-being” as opposed to existence orbeing. In Zen texts, the expression muoften refers to the Mu kôan, or to thekey phrase (watô) from the kôan.

Mu-an Hsing-t’ao(1611–1684; J. Mokuan Shôtai) ChineseObaku monk of the late Ming dynasty(1368–1644) who emigrated to Japan andassisted his master Yin-yüan Lung-ch’i(1594–1673) in founding the Obaku sectof Zen in Japan. Mu-an was born inFukien province and took the tonsure atage nineteen at Wan-fu-ssu monastery,where Yin-yüan was abbot. He becameYin-yüan’s Dharma heir in 1650. Mu-aninitially remained in China when Yin-yüan left for Japan in 1654, but he thensailed for Japan the next year at Yin-yüan’s request. In 1664, Mu-an suc-ceeded his master and became the sec-ond abbot at Mampuku-ji. During hisseventeen years as abbot, he oversaw the

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construction of most of the monasterybuildings. He also founded Zuishô-ji, theObaku headquarters in the capital city ofEdo (now Tokyo). Mu-an recognized overforty Dharma heirs, including TetsugyûDôki, Tetsugen Dôkô (1630–1682), andChôon Dôkai. Mu-an is well known forhis calligraphy; along with Yin-yüan andChi-fei, he is known as one of the “threebrushes of Obaku.”

MudraSymbolic body postures, especiallyhand gestures, used in religious iconog-raphy and as a part of religious practicewithin various traditions, including several schools of Buddhism (J. ingei or inzô). The Sanskrit term literallymeans sign or seal. In Buddhist art,mudra are used to indicate the state ofenlightenment or special attributes of a buddha or bodhisattva. The ritualuse of mudra is associated most closely

with esoteric and tantric forms ofBuddhist practice. In these cases, thepractitioner performs mudra whilereciting related mantras as an aid toattain specific states of consciousness.Ritual use of mudra is not a regular feature of Zen practice.

Muen BotokeThe spirit of a dead person (hotoke)caught between the worlds of the livingand the dead, unable to attain release.The term literally translates as “a buddha (or dead spirit) without attachments.” To be without attach-ments in this context means to have noliving family to offer the properBuddhist memorial services. InJapanese folk belief, it is thought thatsuch spirits wander in this world,unable to attain release on their own.See wandering spirits.

A mudra is a hand gesture or other body posture used to indicate a state of enlightenment. This mudra isknown as nebina gasshô in Japanese. It represents a firm and sincere heart.

Muga“No-Self,” the Japanese translation for the Sanskrit term Anatman. See Anatman.

Mugaku SogenJapanese pronunciation for Wu-hsüehTsu-yüan (1226–1286), a Chinese Rinzai master who helped to establishthe Rinzai school in Japan. See Wu-hsüeh Tsu-yüan.

Muhon KakushinSee Kakushin.

Mujaku Dôchû(1653–1744) A Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe Tokugawa period (1600–1867).Mujaku was born in Tajima, in modernday Hyôgo Prefecture. He became amonk at the age of seven and becamethe disciple of the Rinzai monk JikuinSomon (1610–1677) at Ryôge-in, a sub-temple of Myôshin-ji. He inherited thetemple from Jikuin after his death.Mujaku also practiced under severalother Zen masters and served threetimes as abbot of the main monasteryMyôshin-ji. Mujaku was a leadingRinzai scholar monk of his day, and hepioneered philological studies of theChinese Zen corpus, producing severalcommentaries and lexicons. Many ofhis scholarly works remain in use today.See also Rinzai sect.

MujôImpermanence, which characterizes allthings that exist. Impermanence is oneof the three marks of existence, alongwith suffering (dukkha) and No-Self(Sk. Anatman). According to theBuddhist understanding of reality, allthings are impermanent and undergoconstant change. Things arise, change,and eventually pass away. Nothingremains constant or unchanging foreven a moment. Mujô is the Japanesetranslation for the Sanskrit conceptanitya or the pali anicca.

Mujû Dôgyô(1226–1313) Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe Kamakura period (1185–1333), alsoknown as Mujû Ichien. Mujû became amonk at age nineteen and studied awide variety of Mahayana teachings.Although he became a Zen monk andpracticed as a disciple of Rinzai monkEnni Ben’en (1202–1280), he retainedhis interest in the mixture of Zen teach-ings and esoteric Buddhism. He isremembered primarily as the author ofthe Shasekishû, a collection ofBuddhist stories and anecdotes. Seealso Rinzai sect.

Mujun ShibanJapanese pronunciation for Wu-chunShih-fan (1177–1249), a leadingChinese Rinzai Zen monk of the late Sung dynasty (960–1279). See Wu-chun Shih-fan.

Muken JigokuThe Japanese translation for Avici hell,the hell of incessant suffering, the worstof the eight hot hells (hachinetsujigoku). See Avici hell.

Mu KôanOne of the most famous traditional Zenkôan, and the one Rinzai masters mostoften give to beginners as a focus for med-itation. The so-called “Mu kôan” appearsas the first case in the Mumonkan. A stu-dent once asked Zen Master Chao-chouTs’ung-shen (778–897; J. Jôshû) if a doghas the Buddha Nature. Chao-chouanswered, “mu.” The word mu (Ch. wu) isa negation that can be translated as “no,”“not,” “nothing,” “without.” It is also usedto express emptiness, the Buddhist char-acterization for ultimate reality. Since thetime of Hakuin Ekaku (1685–1768),Japanese Rinzai has classified the Mukôan as a hosshin kôan, that is, a kôanappropriate for beginners seeking ken-shô, the initial enlightenment experi-ence. The Mu kôan is also known asJôshû’s Dog, or Chao-chou’s Dog. See alsoRinzai sect.

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Mumon Ekai

Mumon EkaiJapanese pronunciation for Wu-menHui-k’ai (1183–1260), Chinese Rinzaimaster who authored the Mumonkan.See Wu-men Hui-k’ai.

Mumon Gensen(1323–1390) A Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe Ashikaga period (1392–1568) whofounded the Hôkô-ji line of JapaneseRinzai. Mumon was born in Kyoto, the sonof Emperor Go-daigo (1287–1339). Heentered Buddhist orders at age seven. Ateighteen, he entered the Zen monasteryKennin-ji and practiced under MeisôSôkan, Kaô Sônen, and Sesson Yûbai. In1343, he traveled to Yüan-dynasty Chinawhere he visited many famous monaster-ies and practiced under various Zen mas-ters. He received his formal inka in China.Mumon returned home to Japan in 1350 toescape chaos and warfare in China. Hefounded the monastery Hôkô-ji, in presentday Shizuoka prefecture, in 1384. See alsoRinzai sect.

MumonkanThe Japanese title for the Wu-mên kuan(T. 48, no. 2005, pp. 292–299), a classicChinese Zen text compiled by the Rinzaimaster Wu-men Hui-k’ai (1183–1260; J.Mumon Ekai) and edited by his discipleTsung-shao (J. Shûshô). The work wascompleted in 1228 and first published in1229. The full title in Japanese is ZenshûMumonkan, “The Gateless Gate of theZen Lineage.” The text is comprised offorty-eight kôan from various sources,most of them extremely famousencounters in Zen history. To each kôan,Wu-mên provided a title and appendedhis own prose commentary and a verse.

Wu-mên explains in his preface tothe Mumonkan that he collected thekôan cases to aid his own disciples intheir practice. He wrote that he used“the cases of the ancient masters asbrickbats to batter the gate and lead [hisdisciples] on according to their respec-tive capacities” (Sekida, p. 26). The texthas long been the most popular collec-tion of kôan, used widely in the Zen

world as a resource for training stu-dents. Many students of Zen begin theirkôan practice with the first case of theMumonkan, “Jôshû’s ‘Mu.’”

The Japanese Rinzai monk ShinchiKakushin (1207–1298) first brought thecollection to Japan in 1254. Kakushintraveled to China and practiced directlyunder Master Wu-mên’s guidance. WhenKakushin was leaving China to returnhome to Japan, the master gave him acopy of the Mumonkan as a departinggift. Kakushin’s copy was a handwrittenmanuscript, copied by Wu-mên himself.All versions of the Mumonkan in usetoday in Japan are based on a woodblock edition produced at Tosotsu-zanKôon-ji in 1405. The Mumonkan hasbecome popular in the West as well.There are several complete Englishtranslations, including Katsuki Sekida’sTwo Zen Classics (Weatherhill, 1977),Robert Aitken’s The Gateless Barrier(North Point Press, 1990), and ZenkeiShibayama’s Zen Comments on theMumonkan (Harper & Row, 1974),among others. See also Rinzai sect.

MunenNo-thought, the Japanese translation ofthe Chinese term wu-nien, a basic Zenconcept introduced in the PlatformSutra. See no-thought.

MuniSage or saint, in Sanskrit. Muni was orig-inally an honorific title used for any out-standing religious teachers. In Buddhisttexts, it refers specifically to the histori-cal Buddha. The most commonly usedname for the historical Buddha,Shakyamuni, is a compound wordmeaning “the Sage of the Shakya people,” as Siddharta Gautama wasborn to a family from the Shakya clan.

Muni(2) Non-duality, transcendence from thedistinctions of ordinary perception. TheJapanese term literally means “not two,”since from the perspective of ultimate

reality there are no distinctions such asgood and bad, male and female, and so on.

Muryôju“Infinite Life,” another Japanese namefor Amida buddha. See Amida buddha.

Muryôkô“Infinite Light,” another Japanese namefor Amida buddha. See Amida buddha.

MushinNo-mind, the Japanese translation ofthe Chinese term wu-hsin. Within the Zen school, the term is used syn-onymously with munen, “No-thought.”See No-thought.

Musical InstrumentsA variety of musical instruments areused in Zen temples and monasteries toannounce times of day, provide cues tobegin and end daily activities, and punc-tuate ritual ceremonies. In traditionalmonastic settings, verbal announcements

are rendered unnecessary by the regularsystem of sounding instruments. Themost common instruments include thefollowing categories:

1) Bells. The largest of the monasterybells is the daishô, or ogane, which isgenerally made from cast bronze andhangs in a separate structure, the shôrô.Smaller versions of the same style of bell include the denshô, which hangs outside the Buddha hall, and the kanshô, which sits outside the master’s quarters.

2) Drums. Taiko drums, called hokkuand saku in a Zen context, are found inthe Buddha hall. These large instrumentsrest horizontally on wooden platformsand may be played at both ends usingwooden sticks. Another drum-like instru-ment found in monasteries is the woodenmokugyo, carved in the shape of a fish.

3) Gongs. One style of Buddhist gongis shaped like a bowl, typically madefrom cast bronze. Gongs rest on pillows,supported by a wooden stand, and aresounded by striking the rim with apadded stick. In Zen monasteries, the

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Musical instruments, such as this sounding gong (mokugyo), are used in Zen monasteries to signal such things as the time of day and the beginning of ceremonies or rituals.

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larger version is called keisu and thesmaller shôkei. There are also largewooden gongs, known as hô, which arecarved in the shape of a fish with a pearlin its mouth.

4) Sounding Boards. There are basi-cally two styles of sounding boards, themetal umpan and the wooden han.These boards are found throughoutmonastery grounds, hanging outsidenearly every structure.

5) Small Hand Instruments. A varietyof hand-held instruments that resembletiny bells or gongs include the suzu, therei, and the inkin. There are also woodenclappers called hyôshigi.

Musô Kai“Formless precepts,” the commonJapanese abbreviation for the termmusô shinji kai. See musô shinji kai.

Musô Shinji Kai“Formless precepts of the mind-ground,” the Japanese rendering of theoriginal Chinese term derived from thePlatform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch.The concept of “formless precepts” is adistinctly Zen understanding of theBuddhist precepts, which sees them notas an external moral code, but rather asthe naturally pure behavior whicharises from the enlightened mind.

Musô Soseki(1275–1351) Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe late Kamakura (1185–1333) andearly Ashikaga (1392–1568) periodswho was the most influential GozanZen master of his age. He is also knownas Musô Kokushi, or National TeacherMusô, an honorific title that EmperorGo-daigo (r. 1318–1339) bestowed onhim in 1335. Musô was born in Ise to abranch of the Minamoto family withimperial roots. He became a Buddhistmonk at age eight and studied ShingonBuddhism for ten years before turningto Zen when his first teacher died.Musô traveled extensively on Zen pil-grimage’s and studied with many of

the leading Japanese and Chinese Zenmasters throughout Japan. He eventu-ally became the Dharma heir of KôhôKennichi (1241–1316). Musô spent hisearly years in seclusion, practicingintently. He later gained the patronageof emperors and shôgun and wasinvited to serve as abbot at severalimportant monasteries includingNanzen-ji, Jôchi-ji, and Engaku-ji. In1339, Musô founded the Zenmonastery Tenryû-ji as a memorial tothe recently deceased Emperor Go-daigo, with the patronage of the shô-gun Ashikaga Takauji (1305–1358).After his death, Musô received a totalof six other honorific titles from suc-cessive emperors, including FusaiKokushi, Genyû Kokushi, ButtôKokushi, and Daien Kokushi. He isremembered for his contributions inthe fields of Zen literature, especiallypoetry, and landscape gardening. AnEnglish translation of Musô’s poetryand sermons was published by W. S.Merwin and Sôiku Shigematsu. Seealso Gozan literature, Rinzai sect, andShingon sect.

Merwin, W. S., and Sôiku Shigematsu.Sun at Midnight. San Francisco, CA:North Point Press, 1989.

Musô Zange“Formless repentance,” the Japaneserendering of the original Chinese termderived from the Platform Sutra of theSixth Patriarch. The concept of “formlessrepentance” is a distinctly Zen under-standing of repentance based on theawareness that outward actions, whethergood or evil, are ultimately empty. Seeformless repentance.

Myôan Eisai(1141–1215) The Japanese Zen mastertraditionally credited with founding theRinzai sect in Japan. He is most com-monly known as Eisai, which may also bepronounced Yôsai. See Eisai.

Myôhô renge kyô“The Scripture of the Lotus Flower of theWondrous Dharma,” the full Japanesetitle for the Saddharma pundarika, popu-larly known as the Lotus Sutra. See LotusSutra.

Myôô“Shining lord,” a class of fierce guardiandeities who protect Buddhism, the threetreasures, people, and the nation fromevil. The word is a Japanese translation ofthe Sanskrit Vidyaraja. The myôô wereadopted by Buddhism from Hindumythology. They are understood in theBuddhist tradition to be manifestations ofDainichi, the Buddha Vairochana, capa-ble of teaching the most stubborn unbe-lievers through the use of mantra (shin-gon). They are depicted as dramaticallyfierce figures, armed with weapons andhaving contorted faces, blazing eyes andhair of flames. A group of five myôô,known as godai myôô (the five greatmyôô), are especially revered in Japan as protective deities of the four directionsand the center of the universe. Theyinclude Fûdô, Gôzanze, Gundari,Daiitoku, and Kongôyasha.

Although more closely associated withschools of esoteric Buddhism than Zen,the myôô are often represented at Zentemples as guardians. The most popularmyôô in the Zen tradition, and inJapanese Buddhism in general, is FudôMyôô. The Tokugawa period (1600–1867)Zen master Suzuki Shôsan (1579–1655),for example, recommended Fudô as aninspiration for Zen practitioners.

Myôshin-jiA major Rinzai monastery, located inKyoto. Its formal name is Shôbô-zanMyôshin-ji. The monastery was founded

by retired Emperor Hanazono (r. 1308–1318) in 1337. The retired emperor tookthe tonsure in 1335, and converted oneof his residences into a Zen temple. Heinvited Kanzan Egen (1277–1369) toserve as the founding abbot. The originalstructure of the temple was quite bare,and Egen lived a frugal existence there.He maintained a strict and rigorous styleof Zen practice that continued to charac-terize the monastery throughout its his-tory. The monastery never became asso-ciated with the Gozan system of rankingtemples, nor with the literary and artisticconcerns that characterized the Gozantemples. The temple was completelydestroyed during the Onin War andrebuilt under the patronage of EmperorGo-Tsuchimikado in the late fifteenthcentury. It reached its greatest period ofinfluence during the Tokugawa period(1600–1867), and today remains one ofthe most active monastic communitiesfor training Zen monks. The monasteryserves today as the main headquartersfor the Myôshin-ji branch of the Rinzaisect. It sponsors the affiliated HanazonoCollege (J. Hanazono Daigaku), a majorcenter for Zen studies in Japan.

Myôshin-ji HaThe Myôshin-ji branch of Rinzai, thelargest of the fourteen contemporarybranches of the Japanese Rinzai sect interms of both branch temples andadherents. The main monastery for thebranch is Myôshin-ji, located in Kyôto.Kanzan Egen (1277–1369) is regarded asthe founder. The branch has 3,431temples throughout Japan and claimsapproximately 1,628,000 adherents.

MyôzenSee Ryônen Myôzen.

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NNaga(J. ryû) Lesser gods and demigods fromthe Buddhist pantheon. Veneration ofnagas dates back to pre-Hindu India.Nagas are serpent-like beings, some-times said to resemble dragons. Theyreside in the sea, under the earth, or inthe air, and control rainfall as well as thefertility of the land. The Buddhist tradi-tion regards them as guardians of theDharma, the teachings of the Buddha.According to some Mahayana legends,the Buddha entrusted his laterMahayana sermons to them, to berevealed to human beings only whenthey are prepared to hear the advancedteachings of Mahayana Buddhism.

Nagarjuna(J. Ryûju) Indian monk who lived duringthe second or third century C.E.Nagarjuna was one of the outstandingphilosophers of the early Mahayana tra-dition and was the founder ofMadyamika school of early Mahayana.His most famous writing was the Verseson the Middle Way (MâdhyamakaKarikas), which rejects wrong views. AnEnglish translation of the entire text waspublished by Garfield. His basic teach-ing is that all things are characterized byemptiness, including the concept ofemptiness itself; he takes a middle viewthat rejects both an absolute conceptionof reality and an absolute negation ofreality. Several schools of East AsianBuddhism regard him as a foundingpatriarch, including the Pure Landschools, the esoteric and tantric schoolsand the Zen school. The Zen traditionregards him as the fourteenth of thetwenty-eight Indian patriarchs of Zen.

Garfield, Jay L., trans. The FundamentalWisdom of the Middle Way: Nagarjuna’sMulamadhyamakakarika. New York:Oxford University Press, 1995.

Kalupahana, Nagarjuna. The Philosophyof the Middle Way. Albany, NY: StateUniversity of New York Press, 1986.

Streng, Frederick J. Emptiness: A Studyin Religious Meaning. Nashville, TN:Abingdon Press, 1967.

Naikan“Introspection,” a form of inner con-templation in which attention is focusedon the lower abdomen (tanden). Thepurpose of the practice is to build up andmaintain the ki, or vital breath, withinthat power center of the body. This formof introspection can be carried outthroughout the day during various activ-ities. The Zen Master Hakuin Ekaku(1685–1768) advocated this form of intro-spection for therapeutic purposes.

Nampô Jômyô(1235–1309) Japanese Rinzai monk of theKamakura period (1185–1333) who trav-eled to China to study Zen. Nampô wasborn in what is now Shizuoka Prefectureto a branch of the Fujiwara family. Heentered a Buddhist order at age fifteen ata local temple and traveled to Kenchô-jiin Kamakura to practice under theChinese master Lan-ch’i Tao-lung(1213–1278) at age eighteen. In 1259, hesailed for China, where he became thedisciple of Hsü-t’ang Chih-yü(1185–1269) at Hsüeh-tou-shan. LikeLan-ch’i, Chih-yü was from the Yang-ch’ilineage of Rinzai. Nampô accompaniedChih-yü to Ching-t’zu-ssu and Ching-shan, and in 1265 became his Dharmaheir. He returned to Japan two years later.

In Japan, Nampô served as abbot firstat Kôtoku-ji in Fukuoka, and then Sôfuku-ji, where he remained for thirty years. Theemperor called him to Kyoto in 1304 tobecome abbot at Manju-ji. Later theKamakura bakufu summoned him toKamakura, where he served as abbot atKenchô-ji. His leading Dharma heir wasShûhô Myôchô (1282–1337). He is more

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popularly known as Daiô Kokushi. Hiswritings are recorded in the Enzû DaiôKokushi Goroku (The Recorded Sayings ofthe National Teacher Enzû Daiô). See alsoRinzai sect and Yang-ch’i school.

NamuThe Japanese pronunciation of theChinese characters used to transliteratethe Sanskrit word namas. Namu expressesreverence, and is most commonly used inEast Asian Buddhism with reference tothe buddhas and the three treasures(Buddha, Dharma, and sangha). It maybe used in formulaic expressions of faithwhen invoking the name of one or morebuddhas, or when taking refuge (kie) inthe three treasures. It may be variouslytranslated into English as “Homage to. . .,”“All praise to. . .,” or “I take refuge in. . .”

Namu Amida Butsu“All praise to Amida buddha.” TheJapanese pronunciation for the formulathat followers of Pure Land Buddhismuse most commonly to express theirfaith in and reliance on Amida buddha.The practice of calling on Amida’s nameusing this formula is known as the nembutsu. According to Pure LandBuddhist belief, those who recite thenembutsu in faith will be reborn inAmida’s Western Pure Land.

Namu Myôhô Rengekyô“All praise to the Sutra of the LotusBlossom of the Wondrous Dharma.”Followers of Nichiren Buddhism recitethis formula daily as an expression oftheir faith and reliance in the LotusSutra. The practice of reciting the for-mula is known as Shôdai or Daimoku.According to Nichiren belief, those who recite the Daimoku will becomebuddhas in the future.

Nan’in EngyôJapanese transliteration of Nan-yüanHui-yung (d. 930), a Chinese Rinzaimaster. See Nan-yüan Hui-yung.

Nan-shanMount Nan, literally Mount South, amountain in modern day Hang-chouprovince, China, traditionally an impor-tant religious site for Zen. The mountainwas the site for the Zen monasteryChing-tzu-ssu. Nan-shan becameknown as one of the Five Mountains (Ch.wu-shan; J. Gozan temples), the mostprestigious Zen monasteries in China.

Nantô Kôan“Difficult to pass through,” the fourth offive categories of kôan distinguished bythe Rinzai school of Zen. The kôan so des-ignated are regarded as among the mostdifficult to understand. Since the time ofthe eighteenth century Japanese reformerHakuin Ekaku (1685–1768), the Japaneseschool of Zen has used five categories ofkôan to organize the ongoing process ofkôan practice. After the practitioner hasattained an initial enlightenment experi-ence (kenshô), the student is guidedthrough successive stages of kôan practice,each designed to deepen his or her under-standing of Zen. Among the final stages arethe Nantô kôan. See also Rinzai sect.

Miura, Isshû, and Ruth Fuller Sasaki.The Zen Kôan. New York: Harcourt,Brace & World, 1967.

Shimano, Eido T. “Zen Kôans.” In Zen:Tradition and Transition. Ed. KennethKraft. New York: Grove Press, 1988.

Nan-yüan Hui-yung(J. Nan’in Engyô; d. 930) Chinese Rinzaimonk of the late T’ang (618–907) and Five Dynasties period (907–960).Nan-yüan is also known as Pao-ying Ho-shang, or Master Pao-ying. He was theDharma heir of Hsing-hua Ts’un-chiang(830–888), an important disciple of Lin-chi I-hsüan (d. 867). Although little isknown of Nan-yüan, he played a crucialrole in preserving the Rinzai lineage, andhe was the first to make use of the kôanas a teaching device with his students.His only Dharma heir, Feng-hsueh Yen-chao (896–973), carried on the lineage.See also Rinzai sect.

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Nanzen-ji

Nanzen-jiA major Rinzai monastery located inKyoto. Its formal name is Zuiryû-zanNanzen-ji. The monastery was founded bythe retired emperor Kameyama (r.1259–1274), who converted one of his res-idences into a Zen temple in 1293 andinvited Mukan Fumon (1212–1291) toserve as the founding abbot. According totraditional accounts, soon after the retiredemperor built a villa in the Higashiyamaarea of the capital, it became haunted. Herequested that a Shingon monk fromTôdai-ji exorcise the grounds, but afterconducting ritual chanting for ninetydays, the monk was unsuccessful in exor-cising the demons. The emperor nextsought the help of Mukan Fumon, who issaid to have solved the problem by takingup residence in the villa and practicingmeditation for an extended period oftime. To express his gratitude, the retiredemperor converted the estate into a Zenmonastery that then became the mostpowerful Zen monastery in the country

and remained so for many generations. Itwas long ranked as the highest monasteryin the Gozan (Five Mountain) system. Themonastery grounds were completelydestroyed during the Onin War(1466–1477) and were not restored untilthe early Tokugawa period (1600–1867). The monastery serves today as the main headquarters for the Nanzen-jibranch of the Rinzai sect. See alsoShingon sect.

Nanzen-ji HaThe Nanzen-ji branch of Rinzai, one ofthe fourteen contemporary branches ofthe Japanese Rinzai sect. The main monastery for the branch isNanzen-ji, located in Kyoto. MukanFumon (1212–1291) is regarded as the founder. The branch has 427 temples throughout Japan and claimsapproximately 91,200 adherents. It nowranks second to Myôshin-ji in terms oftemples and adherents.

Nanzen-ji, Kyoto, Japan.

NehanThe Japanese transliteration of nirvana.See nirvana.

Nehandô“Nirvana hall,” the infirmary or sick room at a Zen monastery. See nirvana hall.

Nehan-eNirvana Festival, the day East AsianBuddhists commemorate the death, orperfect nirvana (Sk. parinirvana), ofthe historical Shakyamuni Buddha(Siddharta Gautama). Nehan-e is oneof the Sanbukki, or three festivals com-memorating major events in theBuddha’s life. See Nirvana Festival.

NehankyôCommonly used Japanese abbreviationfor the Daihatsu Nehangyô, the NirvanaSutra. See Nirvana Sutra.

Nembutsu“To think about the Buddha,” a Buddhistpractice that may either involve medita-tion on the Buddha or, more commonly,the invocation of the Buddha’s name.Nembutsu is the Japanese pronuncia-tion of the Chinese word nien-fo. Inmost cases, the buddha Amida serves asthe focus of nembutsu devotion. Thepractice of chanting the nembutsu isespecially associated with the PureLand schools of East Asian Buddhism.All forms of the practice derive from thePure Land scriptures, three Mahayanasutras devoted to the buddha Amidaand his Western Pure Land.

Meditation on the Buddha or theBuddha’s Pure Land is known more fullyas kannen nembutsu. There are actuallyseveral styles of meditation on theBuddha, which may include visualizationof the physical form of Amida and on thenature of the Pure Land. These meditativetechniques are practiced primarily bymonks and nuns as a part of their monas-tic practice. The goals of meditation on

the Buddha are multiple. The immediategoal may be a vision of the Buddha or anenlightenment experience. The practi-tioner may also hope to be reborn inAmida’s Pure Land (ôjô) in the next life.

The practice of verbally invoking theBuddha’s name is known more fully asshômyô nembutsu. This practice gener-ally involves the repetition of a formula ofpraise using the Buddha’s name. The mostcommon formula is, “Namu AmidaButsu,” which may be translated “Allpraise to Amida buddha” or “I take refugein Amida buddha.” Since the invocationof the Buddha’s name is an extremelysimple practice to learn, its use is wide-spread among lay Buddhists as well asmonastics. The ultimate goal of chantingthe nembutsu depends on the faith of thebeliever. In many cases, people chant thename in order to gain rebirth in Amida’sPure Land. In the case of Jôdo Shinshû(Pure Land sect), believers chant thenembutsu in order to express gratitude toAmida for the promise of rebirth.

During the practice of chanting thenembutsu within the Zen school, it ismost often the former style of medita-tion on the Buddha which is stressed.Zen masters will refer to the Buddhawithin the self (koshin mida) and thePure Land of the Mind Only (yuishin nojôdo). In some cases, Zen mastersencourage disciples to make use of thenembutsu as a kôan. The combinedpractice of Zen meditation and nem-butsu was introduced to the Zen schoolby disciples of the Fifth Patriarch Hung-jen. It became common in Chinese Zenbeginning in the tenth century and char-acterized all of Chinese Zen by the earlyMing dynasty (1368–1644). It is still char-acteristic of the Obaku sect of JapaneseZen, introduced from China in the seven-teenth century. See also dual practice,lay believer, and Nembutsu kôan.

Nembutsu KôanA kôan based upon the practice of nem-butsu, or chanting the name of theBuddha. The Nembutsu kôan generallytakes the form of a question, such as“Who chants the nembutsu?” Although

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the Nembutsu kôan is common in someparts of the Zen world, it is not derivedfrom any traditional kôan collection orother classical Zen literature, but seemsto have developed as a result of the dualpractice of Zen and Pure LandBuddhism in Chinese monasteries dur-ing the Ming dynasty (1368–1644).

Nembutsu KyôgenA popular form of Japanese dramadevoted to Buddhist themes, such asmiracle stories or moral tales of karmicretribution. The plays are performed aspantomimes, with the actors dressed incolorful costumes and masks. Nembutsukyôgen dates back several hundred yearsand is still performed today at Buddhistmonasteries, such as Mibu-dera inKyoto. The popular dramas are oftencomical in nature, but designed to con-vey Buddhist morals and teachings whileentertaining the audience.

Nempu“Chronology of years,” biography of an important Zen monk or nun, composed to cover the life year by year. It is traditional for a leading disciple to record the biography of themaster shortly after his or her death.Nempu represents a distinctive genre of Zen literature.

NenA Japanese word, which, when used asa noun, means “a thought,” “amoment,” or “a moment of thought.”When used as a verb, it may mean “tothink,” “to contemplate,” or “toremember.” In some cases, such as inthe expression nembutsu, it may alter-natively mean to chant or recite.

Nenge Mishô“Lifting a flower and smiling faintly,” areference to the Zen tradition’s accountof the first transmission of the Dharmafrom Shâkyamuni Buddha toMahakashyapa, the first Indianpatriarch of Zen. When Shâkyamuni

lectured on the Dharma to a group ofdisciples on Vulture Peak, he is said tohave raised a flower and winked his eyewithout speaking a word. Only Maha-kashyapa understood the Buddha’saction, and he silently smiled his reply.Seeing Mahakashyapa smile, theBuddha recognized that he grasped theDharma. According to Zen teachings,this event marks the beginning of theZen school. The story is one of themost famous classical kôan, appearingas the sixth case in the Mumonkan.

Nenge Shunmoku“Lifting a flower and winking an eye,” areference to the Zen tradition’s accountof the first transmission of the Dharmafrom Shakyamuni Buddha (SiddhartaGautama) to Mahakashyapa, the firstIndian patriarch of Zen. The morecommon expression is Nenge mishô.See Nenge mishô.

NenkiThe anniversary of death. In JapaneseBuddhist custom, memorial services(hôji) are held for deceased members ofthe monastic community on certainanniversaries of the death date.Although there is much variation inmemorial practice throughout thedenominations of Japanese Buddhism,the anniversaries most commonlyobserved are the first, third, seventh,thirteenth, seventeenth, twenty-third,twenty-seventh, and thirty-third. It islikewise customary for lay people tohave similar memorial services held fordeceased family members either athome or at the temple. Zen monasteriescommemorate certain anniversaries ofdeath on an annual basis, especiallythose of the sect’s founder, the founderof the monastery, and other importantpersonages. See also lay believer.

NettetsuganA red-hot iron ball; one of the punish-ments of hell dwellers described inBuddhist texts is being forced to swallow

a ball of hot iron. According to Lin-chiI-hsüan (d. 867), any person whodeceives others in this life will swallowhot iron in hell.

Nichimen Butsu, Gatsumen Butsu“Sunface buddha, Moonface buddha,”the dying words of the Chinese Zenmaster Ma-tsu Tao-i (709–788), whichappear as a kôan in case three of theHekiganroku. Sunface buddha andMoonface buddha are two of the threethousand buddhas named in the Sutraof the Buddhas’ Names ( J.Butsumyôkyô; T. 14, nos. 440–442).According to the sutra, the lifespan ofthe Moonface buddha is twenty-fourhours, while that of the Sunfacebuddha is 1,800 years. See Sunfacebuddha, Moonface buddha.

Nichiren(1222–1282) Japanese Buddhist monk ofthe Kamakura period (1185–1333) whofounded the Nichiren school of JapaneseBuddhism. Nichiren was originally aTendai monk and practiced and studiedfor some years on Mount Hiei. Hebecame convinced that the Lotus Sutrawas the ultimate teaching of Buddhism,and the only authentic teaching duringthe age of Mappô. He promoted thepractice of chanting the title of the sutrausing the formula “Namu myôhôrengekyô.” Nichiren was twice exiled byJapanese authorities for his outspokenrejection of other schools of Buddhism.See also Tendai sect.

Nichiren SectA sect of Japanese Buddhism foundedby the monk Nichiren (1222–1282) dur-ing the Kamakura period (1185–1333).The teachings and practices of the sectare based on Nichiren’s understandingof the Lotus Sutra, which serves as thesect’s principal scripture. Nichiren wasoriginally a Tendai monk, and he stud-ied the Lotus Sutra at the Tendai head-quarters on Mount Hiei. Chanting thetitle of the sutra (using the formula

“Namu myôhô rengekyô”) is among theprimary practices of Nichiren faithful.See also Tendai sect.

Nien-fo“To think about the Buddha” Nien-forefers to two types of Buddhist prac-tices related to Amidha buddha. Thefirst type involves some form of medi-tation on the Buddha or his Pure Land.The second, more common type ofnien-fo practice includes the invoca-tion of the Buddha’s name.Practitioners generally chant the for-mula, “Na-mo A-mi-t’o fo,” which maybe translated “All praise to Amidabuddha” or “I take refuge in Amidabuddha.” See nembutsu.

NijôJapanese for the two vehicles, namelythose of shravakas and pratyeka bud-dhas. See two vehicles.

NijûgotenThe twenty-five divisions of the night,from sunset to daybreak, which weretraditionally announced in Zen monas-teries using a wooden gong (J. han).

Ninyû“Two entrances,” the Japanese termfor the two basic ways to attain anunderstanding of ultimate reality.Tradition maintains that Bodhi-dharma, the founder of Zen, firstdescribed the two entrances. The firstentrance is rinyû, “the entrancethrough reason.” This refers to study-ing the teachings of Buddhism as setout in the scriptures. The secondentrance is gyônyû, “the entrancethrough practice.” Zen Buddhism rep-resents a form of gyônyû.

Ninyû Shigyôron“Discourse on Two Entries and FourPractices,” a Zen text traditionally attrib-uted to Bodhidharma. See ShôshitsuRokumon.

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Niô“The two guardian kings.” Two fiercefigures of Kongô kings (vajra orDiamond kings) often found guardingeither side of a temple gate. The two areidentified by name as Misshaku (on theleft) and Naraen (on the right). They aredepicted as prepared for battle, ready torepulse demons and other forces of evilfrom entering temple grounds. The fig-ure on the left has his mouth open,symbolically speaking the sacred sound“a”; the figure on the right has his mouthclosed, pronouncing the syllable “Um.”The two sounds together form the pow-erful mantra “AUM,” a combination ofthe first and last letters in Sanskrit.

Niô Zen“Guardian King Zen.” A form of Zenpractice recommended by the Toku-gawa period (1600–1867) Zen masterSuzuki Shôsan (1579–1655). Shôsan didnot believe that beginners were capable

of practicing what he called Nyôrai Zen,the meditation of the Buddha. He sug-gested that beginners visualize the formof the Niô in their minds and concen-trate on the intense energy displayed bythem. In some cases, he suggested thatthe meditator physically imitate theposture and facial expression of the Niôin order to generate the same levels ofenergy. The purpose of the exercise wasto generate energy and direct it againstthe evil influences that hinder the medi-tation of a beginner.

King, Winston L. Death Was His Kôan:The Samurai-Zen of Suzuki Shosan.Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1986.

Tyler, Royall, trans. Selected Writings ofSuzuki Shosan. Ithaca, NY: China-Japan Program, Cornell University,1977.

Nirmanakaya(J. ôjin) “Transformation body,” one ofthree aspects or bodies of the Buddhaaccording to the Mahayana under-standing of the concept of Buddha.Nirmanakaya are manifestations of theeternal Buddha in this world, the so-called historical buddhas. These histor-ical buddhas appear in human form toteach the Dharma to ordinary sentientbeings. Siddharta Gautama is oneexample of nirmanakaya; theMahayana tradition teaches that therehave been innumerable others. See alsothree bodies of the Buddha.

Nirvana(J. nehan) “Blowing out” or “extinction,”the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice.The concept is associated with anenlightened state in which one hasextinguished all passions and attainedthe highest wisdom. Having attainednirvana, one is no longer subject to theworkings of karma or the process ofrebirth. All suffering, delusion, andattachment are blown out in the stateof nirvana. The final or perfect nirvana

Niô are fierce guardian kings foundon either side of a Zen temple gate.

(Sk. parinirvana) may be said to occurat the death of the enlightened individ-ual. Although tradition has long main-tained that nirvana cannot be ade-quately described with words, it is oftendiscussed in positive terms as a blissfulstate of altered consciousness.

Nirvana FestivalIn East Asian Buddhism, the celebra-tion commemorating the death of thehistorical Shayamuni Buddha(Siddharta Gautama). As a part of thefestival, followers display imagesdepicting the Buddha entering his finalor perfect nirvana (Sk. parinirvana)and chant the Nirvana Sutra.Traditionally, the festival was observedon the fifteenth day of the secondmonth of the lunar calendar, but inJapan it is now observed on February15, according to the solar calendar.

Unlike their East Asian counterpartswho celebrate the major events in the Buddha’s life on separate holidays, South and Southeast AsianBuddhists commemorate the Buddha’sbirth, enlightenment, and death on asingle day, usually in May. See alsoBuddha Day.

Nirvana HallThe infirmary or sick room at a Zenmonastery. The name refers to theattainment of perfect nirvana (Sk. pari-nirvana), or the final passing intoextinction that occurs when an enlight-ened person dies. Monks and nuns arecared for in the infirmary when they aretoo ill to continue with the normaltemple life. Other names for the sickroom include “hall for the prolongationof life” (enjudô) and anrakudô, the “hallof peace and pleasure.”

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Niô are typically depicted as prepared for battle, ready to fight evil demons.

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Nirvana Sutra(J. Nehankyô) The Parinirvana Sutra, aMahayana sutra that presents itself asthe final sermon given by the Buddhabefore his death. There are no Sanskritversions extant, only Chinese translations (T. 12, nos. 374 and 375),the more important completed byDharmakshema, a Buddhist monk of the fourth century C.E. The sutra gives an account of the Buddha’s passage into parinirvana. Its basicteaching is that all sentient beingspossess Buddha Nature and are capable of attaining enlightenment.

Nitai“Twofold Truth,” a Mahayana teachingthat there are two levels or perspectiveson reality. The two are daiichigitai, orabsolute truth, and sezokutai, or con-ventional truth. See Twofold Truth.

Nitten SôjoDaily cleaning of a Zen monastery ortemple. Every morning after breakfast,the resident monks or nuns participatein cleaning the temple buildings(shichidô garan) and grounds. Alsocalled nitten samu.

Niu-t’ou School(J. Gozu-shû) The Oxhead school, animportant lineage of early Chinese Zen founded by Fa-jung (594–657),a Dharma heir of the Fourth Patriarch Tao-hsin (580–651). SeeOxhead school.

Niwa ZumeWaiting period endured by new Zentrainees (unsui) before they are admit-ted to a Zen monastery for formal train-ing. The term means to be left waiting atthe entry gate (genkan), which is wherethe newcomer remains until the requestfor entry is accepted. Zen postulantsformally request permission to enter amonastery for practice, but the initialrequest is always refused as a matter of

form. The postulant then waits for aperiod of one to several days as a sign ofhis or her determination to practiceZen. Throughout the waiting period, thepostulant sits at the edge of the raisedplatform in the entryway, with headbowed down over his or her baggageand hands held together in supplica-tion. The practice is intended to test theresolve of trainees.

The Niwa Zume is a stylized versionof traditional practices. Early Zen literature is filled with stories of masterstesting the sincerity and determinationof would-be disciples. Perhaps the mostfamous is the story of the SecondPatriarch Hui-k’o (487–593), who stoodpatiently in the snow for several daysawaiting recognition from Bodhi-dharma, the first patriarch. Finally,Hui-k’o cut off his arm with a sharpknife and presented it to Bodhidharmaas a symbol of his deep commitment tothe practice of Zen.

Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro. The Training ofthe Zen Buddhist Monk. New York:Globe Press Books, 1991.

Nô DramaA highly stylized form of Japanesedrama and dance indirectly associatedwith Zen Buddhism. Nô, sometimestransliterated as Noh, was developedduring the Ashikaga period (1392–1568)by Kan’ami (1333–1384) and his sonZeami (1363–1443) out of more popularforms of dance. The drama is performedby masked actors accompanied bymusicians and a chorus. Although not all dramas portray Buddhistthemes, the aesthetics of Nô and someof its themes are said to have been permeated by Zen influence.

No-MindA Buddhist concept used somewhat dif-ferently in various schools of thought.Within the Zen school, the term no-mind (mushin) refers to a state ofdetachment from the ordinary flow ofdiscursive thought, which characterizes

the state of enlightenment. The expres-sion is used synonymously with no-thought. See no-thought.

Non-dualityThe enlightened perspective of ultimatereality that transcends the distinctionsof ordinary perception. The unenlight-ened individual experiences the worldas a series of distinct phenomena, eachperceived as different and judged aspleasant or unpleasant. From the per-spective of ultimate reality, all phenom-ena are understood to be characterizedby emptiness and are therefore withoutdistinction. Reality is thus experiencedas non-dual (J. muni); distinctions suchas subject and object, samsara and nir-vana, good and bad, male and female,and so on, are understood to be relativeand not absolute.

Northern SchoolAn important lineage of early ChineseZen descending from Shen-hsiu(606?–706), a Dharma heir of the Fifth

Patriarch Hung-jen (601–674). TheNorthern school flourished for severalgenerations before fading. It is notknown if the lineage died out on its ownor as a result of opposition from theSouthern school of Zen. The divisionbetween the so-called Northern schoolof Shen-hsiu and the Southern school ofHui-neng (638–713) is regarded as oneof the earliest splits within the Zen tradition. The names derive from therelative geographical location of the twolineages. Shen-hsiu and his lineage wereactive in the area north of the YellowRiver and in the cities of Lo-yang andCh’ang-an, while Hui-neng and hisgroup were active in the south.According to traditional accounts ofearly Zen, the Northern school was anunorthodox form of Zen. It divergedfrom the orthodox Southern school intwo ways. First, it taught a form of gradual enlightenment, which contra-vened the authentic Zen teaching of sudden enlightenment. Second, itfollowed an alternative lineage that didnot recognize Hui-neng as the only valid

Nô, a highly theatrical form of drama and dance, is performed by masked actors along with musicians and a chorus.

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Sixth Patriarch. More recent research byZen scholars, based on texts found atTun-huang, has shown that this charac-terization is not historically accurateand was largely the creation of Ho-tseShen-hui (670–762), a descendent ofHui-neng.

McRae, John R. The Northern School andthe Formation of Early Ch’anBuddhism. Honolulu, HI: Universityof Hawaii Press, 1986.

No-Self(J. Muga) The teaching of Anatman, oneof the most basic and distinctive teach-ings of Buddhism. The concept of No-Self categorically denies that humanbeings possess a self-existent soul or self(Sk. atman) that is eternal, abiding, andunchanging. Attachment to the conceptof such a false self is the fundamentalcause of human suffering. Realizationthat no such self exists is understood asthe basis for the attainment of nirvana,or release. See Anatman.

No-Thought(J. munen) Detachment from the ordi-nary flow of discursive thought, whichcharacterizes the state of enlighten-ment. No-thought is one of the mostbasic concepts of Zen introduced in thePlatform Sutra. It is roughly equivalentof no-mind. No-thought does not implythe absolute absence of thought, a men-tal state that can be attained using somemeditative techniques. Rather, no-thought describes a heightened state ofawareness, in which one can respondwithout hindrance to any circumstance.No-thought describes the perspective ofthe enlightened mind, in which onerealizes the nature of reality (i.e., onegrasps the concept of emptiness). Thisallows one to think and respond to stim-uli without clinging to thoughts orbecoming attached to phenomena. ThePlatform Sutra says, “No-thought is notto think even when involved in thought. . . If you give rise to thoughts from yourself-nature, then although you see, hear,

perceive, and know, you are not stainedby the manifold environments, and arealways free” (Yampolsky, pp. 138–139).

Yampolsky, Philip B. The Platform Sutraof the Sixth Patriarch. New York:Columbia University Press, 1967.

Novice(J. shami and shamini) A person whohas undergone an initial ordination asa monk or nun, but has not yet takenhis or her final vows. In Buddhism,novices traditionally take refuge (kie) inthe three treasures and accept the tenprecepts as a part of their ordination.In accepting the ten precepts, thenovice promises to refrain from killing,stealing, sexual misconduct, lying,drinking alcohol, eating after noon,enjoying secular entertainment, adorn-ing the body, sleeping on a high (com-fortable) bed, and handling gold andsilver. Novices were accepted into thecommunity under the guidance of apreceptor and a tutor, who respectivelyinstructed the newcomer in the regula-tions of monastic code and theBuddhist teachings. The Buddhistmonastic community did not tradition-ally accept children younger than eight,and in some cases fifteen, as a novices.A young novice had to reach the age oftwenty before being allowed to proceedwith full ordination.

NunA female member of a religiousmonastic order. Given the many simi-larities between Christian andBuddhist monastic practice, the termnun has been adopted for Buddhistclerics. Like their Christian counter-parts, Buddhist nuns typically live acelibate life within a monastic com-munity devoted to religious practice,especially meditation. They share asimilar tradition of taking vows andabiding by a monastic code that gov-erns religious life in the monastery.Unlike Christian nuns, however,Buddhist nuns are ordained and are

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therefore competent to conduct thesame religious rituals as Buddhistmonks. Buddhist nuns traditionallyenter orders by taking on the ten pre-cepts of a novice. A novice may lateraccept full ordination by undertakingthe full set of 500 precepts for women.

NyoiA small curved staff or baton used by aZen master when instructing students orgiving a sermon. The term literallymeans “as one wishes.” Nyoi are usuallycarved from wood or bamboo, and aboutfifteen inches long (35 cm). The mastermay use the nyoi to emphasize a pointwhen speaking, to strike a student dur-ing a private interview (sanzen), or as astaff to rest upon when seated on thefloor. Also known as a kotsu. See kotsu.

Nyorai“Thus Come One,” the Japanese trans-lation of Tathagata. One of the ten epi-thets for the Buddha. The honorifictitle is commonly added to the name ofa buddha, taking the place of the titleButsu, meaning buddha in Japanese.For example, Amida buddha may bealternatively referred to as AmidaNyorai. See Tathagata.

Nyoraizô“Womb of the thus come one” or “Matrix of the Buddha,” the Japanese translation of the Sanskritterm Tathagata Garbha. See Tathagata Garbha.

NyûganLaying a corpse in the coffin, one of the nine ritual acts (kubutsuji) performed when a prominent Buddhistmonk or nun dies. The deceased is placed in a round coffin in an upright seated position, as if he or shewere meditating.

NyûinThe installation of a new abbot at a Zen temple or monastery. The term literally means “to enter the temple.” It is alternatively pronounced juen. In some cases, it may refer to the entry of a new novice to a Zenmonastery. See shinsanshiki.

NyusshitsuPrivate instruction with the Zenmaster in the abbot’s quarters.Sometimes pronounced Nisshitsu. Theterm literally means “entering the (master’s) room.” An alternative expression for shôeki.

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OObaku-banThe Obaku edition of the ChineseTripitaka, composed by the Obakumonk Tetsugen Dôkô (1630–1682) inthe late seventeenth century. Known asthe Tetsugen edition, the Obaku-banwas Japan’s first complete wood blockversion of the Chinese Buddhist scrip-tures. It was used as a standard editionin Japan until the modern TaishôDaizôkyô edition replaced it. Tetsugentraveled Japan raising funds for hisTripitaka project by preaching and col-lecting small donations from ordinarycitizens. Meanwhile, craftsmen carvedmore than 60,000 blocks to complete theset of 6,956 bound volumes. The entireproject took twelve years, from 1668 to1680. Every volume of the set records theindividuals, village associations, andBuddhist organizations who con-tributed to the effort.

According to popular legend,Tetsugen raised funds for the Obaku-ban project three times before the workwas completed. First, a flood devastatedthe city of Osaka, and Tetsugen decidedto spend the collected funds on disasterrelief. The second time, he had almostraised the necessary amount when afamine struck the Kyoto-Osaka area.Tetsugen once again used his funds tofeed the destitute. The third time, he col-lected donations and was able to com-plete his intended project. Tetsugen isknown for both his work on the Tripitakaproject and his participation in large-scale relief work.

Obaku Kiun(d. 850) Japanese transliteration ofHuang-po Hsi-yün (d. 850), one of the

most important Chinese Zen masters ofthe T’ang dynasty (618–907). SeeHuang-po Hsi-yün.

Obaku SectThe smallest of the three sects of ZenBuddhism in Japan. Obaku wasfounded by Yin-yüan Lung-ch’i(1594–1673) and a group of his discipleswho emigrated from China, beginningin 1654. Obaku did not exist as an inde-pendent sect of Zen in China. Yin-yüanand his disciples descended from theYang-ch’i lineage of the Rinzai sect ofZen. Its inclusion of Pure Land beliefand practice, typical of all Zen lineagesin China by the time of the Ming dynasty(1368–1644), is cited as one reason thatObaku became an independent sect dis-tinct from Rinzai in Japan.

The main monastery for the Obakusect is Obaku-san Mampuku-ji in thecity of Uji, located to the south of Kyoto.Yin-yüan founded the monastery in1661 with the permission and patronageof Tokugawa Ietsuna, the fourthTokugawa shogun. The monastery inJapan bears the same name as Yin-yüan’s home monastery in the Fukienprovince of southeastern China. Thesect has approximately 462 temples andclaims some 353,500 adherents. See alsoYang-ch’i school.

Obaku Shingi“The Monastic Code for the ObakuSect,” a text consisting of one sectioncommonly attributed to Yin-yüanLung-ch’i (1594–1673). The text, com-piled by Kao-ch’üan Hsing-tun, was firstpublished in 1673, the year of Yin-yüan’sdeath. It governs the life and practice atthe sect’s main monastery, Mampuku-ji,as well as at other Obaku temples.

ObonThe Japanese version of the Festival ofthe Dead, celebrated during summerthroughout Buddhist East Asia. The fes-tival is based upon the ullambana cere-mony, which traditionally closes the

summer rainy season retreat on the fif-teenth day of the seventh lunar month.The ceremony includes a feast offeredup to the monastic community for thoseliving beings suffering in hell as hungryghosts. Since hungry ghosts cannotreceive assistance directly, offerings offood are made to the sangha, and themerit is said to be transferred to thehungry ghosts to alleviate their suffer-ing. As a part of Obon, Buddhist templesand many families in Japan continue toset up special altars and make offeringsfor the sake of hungry ghosts and otherspirits who have no family to care forthem. The festival has expanded toinclude many local folk traditions aswell. In Japan, the focus of Obon nowhas more to do with honoring the spiritsof the ancestors than with feeding hun-gry ghosts. The festival is usuallyobserved from August 13 throughAugust 15 and is the most importantBuddhist festival of the year.

Traditionally, the Japanese travelback to their native villages for the Obonseason, welcoming the spirits of theirancestors back to the world of the living.According to folk tradition, the spirits ofthe ancestors are said to travel back tothe land of the living at Obon to visittheir living descendants. To welcomethe spirits and guide their passage, thecelebrants light lanterns on the firstevening of the festival. In preparationfor the visit, families will carefully cleantheir Buddhist altar (J. Butsudan) andset out fresh flowers and incense. Theymay also set up a spirit altar, especially ifthey have suffered a loss since the lastObon festival. They participate in thecustoms of dancing, or Bon odori,intended to entertain both the livingand the dead. At the end of the festival,people light farewell fires and say theirgoodbyes to the spirits, usually invitingthem to return next year. Lantern boats,bearing the names of recently deceasedindividuals, may be lighted as a specialsend-off for the spirits who died withinthe last year. They are released on a riveror dropped directly into the ocean andallowed to float out to sea.

Smith, Robert. Ancestor Worship in Con-temporary Japan. Stanford, CA:Stanford University Press, 1974.

OfferingsBuddhist practitioners make ritual offer-ings as a regular part of their religiouspractice. Monks, nuns, and lay peoplealike may place offerings of incense,flowers, food, and other items beforeimages of the buddha and bodhisattvasto express reverence and devotion. It isalso traditional for lay people to makeofferings to the monastic communityand to individual monks and nuns as ameans to build good merit and progressalong the religious path of Buddhism.See also four offerings and lay believer.

OganeThe largest temple bell on Buddhistmonastery grounds. Ogane is the morepopular transliteration of the charactersthat are formally pronounced “daishô.”The ogane, which is usually made of cast

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Ogane, the largest temple bell on the grounds of aBuddhist monastery, is usually made of cast

bronze and is intricately detailed.

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bronze, hangs in a detached structure orbell tower (J. shôrô) specially designedfor its display and ringing. Each one hasa distinctive voice. They are prized asworks of art for the deep, resonantsound they produce and the intricatedesigns in the casting. The large bell canbe heard from afar when it is rung to sig-nal events to the temple community. Onthe eve of the new year, most Buddhisttemples ring the ogane 108 times tomark the passing of the old year. Eachtoll represents one of the 108 passions(or afflictions) that afflict human beings,and they are symbolically cast off in prepa-ration for the new year.

Ogino Dokuon(1819–1895) Japanese monk of the Rinzaisect of the late Tokugawa (1600–1867) andMeiji (1868–1912) periods who resistedgovernment oppression of Buddhism.Born in Bizen province (OkayamaPrefecture), Dokuon became the discipleof Daisetsu Shôen at Shôkoku-ji. He even-tually became Daisetsu’s Dharma heir andsucceeded him as abbot in 1879. In 1872,as the official head of the combined Zenschools, Dokuon protested the Meiji gov-ernment’s policies toward Buddhism.

Oji GoiThe five ranks of princes. One of severalformulaic expressions of the five ranks,originally developed by Tung-shan Liang-chieh (807–869) and Ts’ao-shan Pen-chi(840–901). In this version of the formula,titles of differing ranks of heirs to thethrone are used allegorically to express thefive ranks. The five-part formula may betranslated as: 1) the crown prince, 2) anillegitimate son born to the ruler’s concu-bine, 3) a vassal, 4) a military general, and5) the king’s younger brother. See fiveranks.

Ojin“Transformation body,” the Japanesetranslation of the Sanskrit term nir-manakaya. Within the MahayanaBuddhist doctrine of the three bodies of

the Buddha (J. sanshin), the nirmanakayaare the historical buddhas, manifestationsof the eternal Buddha (J. hosshin; Sk.Dharmakaya) in this world. See nir-manakaya.

OjôThe Japanese term for the ongoing cycle ofbirth and death that continues throughnumerous lifetimes. In the context of PureLand Buddhist teachings, the term refersspecifically to rebirth in Amida’s WesternPure Land. See also rebirth.

OjôyôshûThe Essentials of Salvation, a JapanesePure Land text in three or six sections,composed by Genshin (942–1017) in 985.The Ojôyôshû, the first Pure Land text writ-ten in Japan, provided a theological basisfor the later development of Japanese PureLand sects.

Old-Woman ZenUsed in reference to the teaching style ofsome Zen masters who take great care inthe training of students. The expressionmay be a form of praise, indicating thatthe master skillfully deals with disciples,or it may be derogatory, suggesting thatthe master is overly gentle with disciplesor overly fastidious in his concern fordetail. Zen texts abound with relatedexpressions, such as grandmotherlyconcern (J. rôba shinsetsu and rôbatekkon), employed in much the samemanner. See also Rôba Zen.

One-Finger Zen(J. Tenryû isshitô or Isshitô Zen) A refer-ence to the teaching style of the T’angdynasty Zen master T’ien-lung (J. Tenryû)and his disciple Chü-chih (J. Gutei).According to tradition, when Chü-chiasked T’ien-lung to explain the essence ofBuddhism, the master simply raised onefinger. At that moment, Chü-chih wasenlightened. From that time on, Chü-chihused this teaching device himself when-ever disciples asked him questions about

the Dharma. “One-finger Zen” is the topicof a famous case that appears in theMumonkan and other kôan collections.

One Hand Kôan(J. Sekishu kôan) The most famous kôan,attributed to the Rinzai master HakuinEkaku (1685–1768). The basic form of thekôan is, “What is the sound of one handclapping?” Hakuin developed this kôan tobe used by beginners as their first kôan. Hebelieved that the One Hand kôan and theMu kôan were the most effective medita-tive devices for attaining the initial experi-ence of enlightenment (J. kenshô). Seealso Rinzai sect.

One Mind(J. Isshin) The mind of enlightenmentthat perceives ultimate reality and transcends the dualism of ordinarythought and perception. The concept of“One mind” is presented in theAwakening of Faith, a Mahayana treatiseattributed to Ashvaghosha. See alsoMahayana Buddhism.

One Vehicle(J. ichijô) The single path of Buddhism,encompassing all forms of Buddhism.The image of the one vehicle is presentedin the Lotus Sutra, contrasted with ear-lier notions of the three vehicles. TheLotus Sutra teaches that all forms ofBuddhism are paths to enlightenment,and together comprise the one greatvehicle, or Mahayana.

One-Word BarrierA Zen teaching device, which entailed amaster using only one word in the orig-inal Chinese. See ichiji kan.

OrategamaA Japanese Zen text in three or four divi-sions, comprised of various letters (kanahôgo) composed by Hakuin Ekaku(1685–1768). The first edition, publishedin 1749, included three letters: one toLord Nabeshima, one to a sick Zen

monk, and one to a Nichiren nun. Alater edition from 1751 appended addi-tional letters in the Orategama Zokushû.

OrdinationA religious ritual symbolizing formal entryinto a monastic community or religiousprofession. In Buddhism, ordination ritu-als marking the entry into monastic life asa monk or nun generally involve shavingthe head to signify departure from ordi-nary lay life, reception of monastic robes,and the formal acceptance of the preceptsthat govern monastic life. In many schoolsof Buddhism, there are two levels of ordi-nation: the initial ordination as a noviceand full ordination as a monk or nun.Novices typically accept a smaller set ofeight or ten monastic precepts, while fullyordained Buddhist monastics undertakethe 250 precepts for monks or 500 preceptsfor nuns as set out in the vinaya. In Japan,many schools of Buddhism use a muchshorter set of precepts known as the bod-hisattva precepts at ordinations. See alsolay believer.

Ordination PlatformIn East Asia, Buddhist ordinations takeplace on specially constructed three-stepplatforms. See kaidan.

Original Enlightenment(J. hongaku) The Mahayana teaching thatall sentient beings innately possess theBuddha Nature and are capable of attain-ing enlightenment. Some schools ofBuddhism teach that the seed of originalenlightenment is gradually nurtured untilone attains enlightenment, but in the Zenschool, original enlightenment means thatsince we are already buddhas, it is only nec-essary to realize that within the self. This isthe teaching of sudden enlightenment.

Original Face(J. honrai no menmoku) A Zen expressionfor the original state of enlightenment,which Zen teaches that we all possess. Thephrase Original Face is also commonly

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used in Zen texts to express the attain-ment of enlightenment (J. satori). Forexample, Zen Master Tetsugen Dôkô(1630–1682) wrote in his Kana hôgo,“Therefore, when the [proper] timecomes and the causes [are ripe], you willsuddenly overcome the darkness ofignorance [that has surrounded you] forinnumerable kalpas. For the first timeyou will wake up from the long night ofdreaming. You will clap your hands andlaugh out loud. You will reveal yourOriginal Face and illuminate the land-scape of the original state.”

Original Mind(J. Honshin) A Zen expression used forone’s true nature or Buddha Nature,which everyone possesses. The term iscontrasted with the deluded mind ofordinary beings. Zen teaches thatalthough everyone possesses theOriginal Mind of enlightenment, formost of us it is clouded by delusions.Through meditation, it is possible torealize the Original Mind or attainenlightenment.

Oryô Enan(1002–1069) The Japanese name forHuang-lung Hui-nan, a Chinese Rinzaisect master of the Sung dynasty(960–1279). The name may also be alter-natively transliterated Oryû Enan inJapanese. See Huang-lung Hui-nan.

Oryô SchoolThe Japanese name for the Huang-lungschool, a lineage of Chinese Rinzai. Thecharacters are also transliterated Oryûin Japanese. In China, the Huang-lungschool, active during the Sung dynasty(960–1279), was founded by the ChineseZen master Huang-lung Hui-nan(1002–1069; J. Oryô Enan). In the latetwelfth century, a Japanese Zen monknamed Eisai traveled to China andbecame the Dharma heir of Hsü-anHuai-chang, an eighth generation mas-ter in the Huang-lung lineage. He thenreturned to Japan and transmitted the

lineage to his disciples there. In Japan,the Oryô school is regarded as one of thetwenty-four lines of Japanese Zen.However, the school did not survive forlong after Eisai’s generation in eitherChina or Japan. See also Rinzai sect.

OshikuTwo days each month observed as daysof rest at Zen monasteries, when the res-ident monks and nuns do not follow theregular schedule of meditation and rit-ual services. In the morning of oshikudays, monks and nuns help one anothershave their heads and clean themonastery buildings and grounds. Inthe afternoon, they are free to attend topersonal business. Oshiku are usuallyobserved on the fourteenth and last dayof each month.

OshôA title of respect used for senior Zenmonks in Japan. Used in previous agesfor any high-ranking monk, today theterm oshô applies more specifically toabbots. In the Sôtô school, oshô indi-cates a monk who has already inheritedthe Dharma (J. shihô) from his master.Other schools of Japanese Buddhismuse the same title for senior monks butmay pronounce the characters differ-ently. Tendai pronounces the wordKashô, whereas Ritsu, Shingon, and JôdoShinshû (True Pure Land sect) say Wajô.

Historically, the oshô was the PreceptMaster responsible for guiding anovice’s practice, especially regardingthe monastic code. Oshô is the Japanesetranslation of the term Upadhyaya, asthe Precept Master was called inSanskrit texts. In the ancient tradition,novices needed three teachers whenthey accepted the precepts at ordina-tion. Of the three, the oshô was the per-son most directly responsible for thedevelopment of the new monk or nun.To serve as Precept Masters, monks ornuns were required to have practiced forten full years beyond their full ordina-tion. See also Shingon sect, Sôtô sect,and Tendai sect.

Other Power(J. Tariki) Reliance upon the merit of abuddha or bodhisattva to attain spiri-tual progress on the path to enlighten-ment. Other Power is closely associatedwith the teachings of Pure LandBuddhism, encouraging faith in Amidabuddha as the basic or solitary meansfor spiritual advancement. Other Poweris contrasted with Self Power (J. Jiriki),the reliance on one’s own merit andeffort to attain enlightenment, which ischaracteristic of the Zen school.

Otôkan SchoolThe Japanese Rinzai lineage centered atthe monastery Daitoku-ji and Myôshin-ji in Kyoto. The name Otôkan derivesfrom the honorific titles of its first threepatriarchs: The ô from Daiô Kokushi(Nampô Jômyô; 1235–1309), the tô fromDaitô Kokushi (Shûhô Myôchô), and thekan from Kanzan Kokushi (KanzanEgen). Nampô founded the lineage dur-ing the Kamakura period (1185–1333),and under the Second and ThirdPatriarchs it became the dominantRinzai lineage in Japan. The Tokugawaperiod (1600–1867) reformer HakuinEkaku (1685–1768) descended from thislineage. See also Rinzai sect.

OutflowsAn alternate English translation for theSanskrit term ashrava. See defilements.

Ox CartAn image used for MahayanaBuddhism as the one path to enlighten-ment, drawn from the parable of theburning house recounted in the LotusSutra.

Oxhead School(J. Gozu-shû) The Chinese Niu-t’ouschool of Zen, an important lineage ofearly Chinese Zen founded by Fa-jung(594–657), a Dharma heir of the FourthPatriarch Tao-hsin (580–651). The namederives from Ox-head Mountain (C.Niu-t’ou-shan) in Chiang-su where theheadquarters of the school was located.The lineage thrived throughout the earlycenturies of the T’ang dynasty(618–907), continuing for eight or ninegenerations before it faded in the lateninth century. The Oxhead Zen teach-ings are said to have been transmitted toJapan by Saichô (767–822), the founderof the Japanese Tendai sect.

Oxherding PicturesA series of ten drawings of an ox and anoxherder (J. jûgyûzu), which describethe process of Zen practice and enlight-enment. The oxherder represents theZen practitioner seeking enlightenment,while the ox represents the true self. Theoriginal pictures are attributed to thetwelfth century Chinese Zen monkK’uo-an Shih-yuan (J. Kakuan Shion; d.1234). The ten pictures are interpretedas graphic representations of ten stagesof Zen practice: 1) seeking the ox, 2)finding its footprints, 3) seeing the ox, 4)catching the ox, 5) herding the ox, 6) rid-ing the ox home, 7) forgetting the ox, butnot the self, 8) forgetting both the ox andthe self, 9) returning to the true self, and10) entering the marketplace to bestowblessings on others.

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PPagoda(J. tô or tôba) A Buddhist religious structure found throughout East Asiacharacteristically possessing several stories with distinct rooftops forming a towerlike structure. The pagoda originally derived from the Indianstupa. Like stupas, pagodas are traditionally used to enshrine relicsof the historical Buddha or other prominent holy men and women.

Pai-chang Ch’ing-kuei(J. Hyakujô Shingi) The Monastic Code of Pai-chang Huai-hai, a Zen text traditionally regarded as the earliest Zen monastic code. The text, attributedto the T’ang master Pai-chang Huai-hai(720–814), exists in name only. There isno historical evidence that Pai-changever authored a monastic code,although references to a text by that title date back to the Sung dynasty(960–1279). In some cases, the term refers to the Ch’ih-hsiu Pai-changCh’ing-kuei, a Yuan dynasty synthesis of major Zen monastic codes of the Sung dynasty.

Pai-chang Huai-hai(720–814; J. Hyakujô Ekai; alternativelytransliterated Po-chang) Chinese Zenmonk of the T’ang dynasty (618–907)and one of the most prominent mastersof the day. Pai-chang is the disciple andDharma heir of Ma-tsu Tao-i (709–788).His disciples include Huang-po Hsi-yün(d. 850). He is traditionally known as theauthor of the first Zen monastic code,the Pai-chang Ch’ing-kuei, althoughscholars no longer believe that he

authored such a text. Tradition main-tains that Pai-chang systematized themonastic practice of Zen Buddhism in amanner distinctive from other forms ofChinese Buddhism of his day. He alsoestablished the requirement for dailymanual labor, coining the rule, “A daywithout labor, a day without food.”

Pali CanonAn alternative name for the TheravadaBuddhist scriptures, better known asthe Tripitaka. The earliest version wascomposed in the Pali language, hencethe name. See Tripitaka.

P’ang Yun(J. hô koji) Chinese lay practitioner ofZen, better known as Layman P’ang(740–803). See Layman P’ang.

Pao-lin Chuan(J. Hôrinden) A Chinese Zen text in tensections, recounting the lineage of Zenmasters from the T’ang dynasty(618–907). The monk Hui-chu Chu-lingcompiled the work in 801. It representsthe traditional standard version of theZen lineage.

Papiyas(J. Hajun) An evil deity who reigns in the highest of the six heavens in the realm of desire. Papiyas is an enemy of Buddhism, determined to prevent the Buddha and his followers from practicing Buddhism andattaining enlightenment.

Parajika(J. haraizai) Offenses entailing defeat;actions of a Buddhist monk or nun thatare punishable by expulsion from thesangha. Parajika is the most serious cat-egory of offenses set out in the vinaya,the monastic code developed within theTheravada tradition. The vinaya identi-fies four parajika offenses for monks andeight for nuns. Monks are prohibited

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East pagoda at Yakushi-ji (Medicine Buddha Temple),which was founded in Nara in 718 C.E.

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from: 1) engaging in sexual intercourse,2) stealing another person’s belongings,3) killing a human being, and 4) lyingabout one’s spiritual accomplishments.Nuns, in addition, are prohibited from:5) touching a man’s body, 6) engaging ina forbidden activity with a man whenfilled with desire, 7) concealing thefaults of another person at the assembly,and 8) breaking the rules of the assem-bly. See also Theravada Buddhism.

Wijayaratna, Mohan. Buddhist MonasticLife: According to the Texts of the Theravada Tradition. Trans.Claude Grangier and Steven Collins.New York: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1990.

Parinirvana(J. hatsu nehan) Final or perfect nir-vana, the ultimate release attainedwhen an enlightened person dies. Theterm parinirvana most often refers tothe death of the historical Buddha,although it can be used more generally.When people attain enlightenment inthis life, they are said to have reachedthe state of nirvana with residue. Thismeans that although free from the work-ings of karma, they continue to live outthe remainder of the present life. Suchindividuals are no longer subject to theongoing cycle of birth and death, and atdeath attain complete release.Parivirnana is sometimes called nirvanawithout residue.

Parishioner SystemA social system devised by the militarygovernment during the Tokugawaperiod (1600–1867) to control theJapanese populace. See danka seido.

Patriarch(J. so, soshi, or sobutsu) An importantleader recognized within a religious tra-dition as a founding figure. Although theBuddhist tradition rarely relies uponblood lineage for its leadership, the tra-dition makes wide use of familial terms,

including the concept of patriarchs.Many Buddhist schools and sectsacknowledge several historical teachersas their patriarchs. Zen Buddhismplaces an especially strong emphasis onthe lineage of early patriarchs who cre-ated the Zen school and transmitted itsDharma. The Zen school acknowledgesa lineage of patriarchs extending backfrom Hui-neng (638–713), the SixthChinese Patriarch, to the historicalBuddha and beyond. According to Zenteaching, Shakyamuni (SiddhartaGautama) transmitted the Dharma toMahakashyapa, the first Indian patri-arch. The Dharma was then transmittedthrough twenty-eight Indian patriarchs.Bodhidharma, who traveled to Chinaand passed on the Dharma there, iscounted as the twenty-eighth Indianpatriarch and the First Patriarch in China.Six Chinese patriarchs are acknowledgedby all surviving Zen lineages. Later Zenteachers may also be known as patri-archs, for example, Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253) of the Japanese Sôtô sect.

Patriarch’s HallA hall within a Zen monastic complexdedicated to the early Zen patriarchsand founders. See soshidô.

Pei-shan(J. Hokusan) Mount Pei, literally MountNorth, a mountain in modern day Hang-chou province, China. The mountainwas the site for the Zen monastery Ling-yin-ssu and became known as one ofthe Five Mountains (C. Wu-shan; J.Gozan temples), traditional religioussites and locations of the most presti-gious Zen monasteries in China.

Pei-yung Ch’ing-kueiAbbreviated title for the Ch’an-lin Pei-yung monastic code, a Chinese Zen monastic code in ten sections. Also known as the Zenrin Biyô Shingi,Biyô Shingi, or the Shidai Shingi, it was written by Tse-shan I-hsien andpublished in 1311.

Perfection of Wisdom Sutra(J. Daihannya Haramitsukyô) An entireclass of Mahayana literature comprisedof approximately forty texts originallycomposed in Sanskrit. The Heart Sutraand the Diamond Sutra are two impor-tant texts in the Perfection of Wisdomliterature that emerged in India betweenthe second and sixth centuries C.E.Tibetan and Chinese translations alsoexist. The Perfection of Wisdom litera-ture discusses the Mahayana conceptthat emptiness characterizes all of exis-tence. In some cases, the title Perfectionof Wisdom Sutra may refer specifically tothe Perfection of Wisdom in EightThousand Lines, which is among theearliest examples of the Wisdom litera-ture. See also Mahayana Buddhism.

Pien-wenTales of marvelous events, a genre ofChinese literature used to popularizestories from the life of the Buddha andfrom various sutras.

PilgrimageTraveling for religious purposes hasbeen a part of the Buddhist traditionsince the ancient period in India, andpilgrimage is still an important form ofBuddhist ritual practice. As do pilgrim-ages in other religious traditions,Buddhist pilgrimages serve a number ofpurposes: they offer entertainment, thehistorical sites visited are educational,and the pilgrims may use the opportu-nity to reaffirm their commitment toBuddhism. For those less capable ofundertaking the inward pilgrimage ofmeditation, the physical pilgrimagemay represent a meaningful step on theBuddhist path.

In ancient Buddhism, pilgrimage wasespecially characteristic of lay Buddhistpractice. Lay Buddhists traveled to twoprimary types of pilgrimage site—stu-pas constructed to house relics of theBuddha, and locations associated withcrucial events in the Buddha’s life.According to scriptural accounts, theBuddha himself made arrangements to

have his cremated remains distributedfor the sake of lay devotion. Relics,including not only portions of the ashand bits of bone, but also personaleffects such as the Buddha’s robes andbegging bowl, were eventually distrib-uted throughout the Buddhist world.Pilgrimage routes also honored centrallocations from the Buddha’s life, espe-cially the wooded grove in Lumbiniwhere he was born, the bodhi treeunder which he attained enlighten-ment, the deer park outside Benareswhere he gave his first sermon, and thegrove of shala trees in Kushinagarawhere he passed away.

Chinese and Japanese monks under-took long and often hazardous pilgrim-ages in search of the Dharma. Chinesemonks like Hsüan-tsang (ca. 600–664)made the arduous trek across thedeserts of Central Asia to visit India,where they could study Buddhism withIndian masters and acquire the writtenscriptures to carry home. A few genera-tions later, the Japanese looked to Chinaas the source of the Dharma in much thesame way. Japanese monks risked thedangers of ocean crossings to visitChina, where they could studyBuddhism and acquire the texts andimplements needed to transmit the tra-dition back to Japan.

Other forms of Buddhist pilgrimagealso took root within East Asia, buildingupon the previously existing indigenoustraditions. For example, the five peaks ofMount Wu-t’ai, originally a Taoist pil-grimage site, became closely associatedwith the cosmic bodhisattva Manjusri(J. Monju). Similarly, the Kumano andKôya mountains in Japan, once associ-ated with the powerful practices ofindigenous asceticism, became holysites for Japanese Buddhism, where holymen known as Yamabushi developed asyncretic asceticism based on the com-bination of Buddhist practice andindigenous beliefs.

The Japanese later developed junrei,a distinctive form of Buddhist pilgrim-age that involves visiting a series of reli-gious sites, usually a number of temples

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dedicated to a single buddha or bod-hisattva. The most famous junrei cir-cuits are the eighty-eight temples dedi-cated to Kôbô Daishi (J. Kûkai) on theisland of Shikoku and the thirty-threeKannon temples in Saikoku. Even today,junrei pilgrims don the traditional garbof the religious traveler—white shirt,straw hat, and walking staff, which setsthem apart from the ordinary world.Today, however, few Japanese pilgrimstravel on foot. Most take buses thatguide them along the set pilgrimageroute. Junrei remains extremely popu-lar; thousands of Japanese every yearundertake a pilgrimage for religious andenjoyment purposes. Many say thattheir basic purpose is to acquire somepractical benefit (J. genze riyaku) fromthe experience, the majority specificallyhoping to resolve health concerns.

Zen pilgrimage, known as angya inJapanese, is a traditional part of the Zenmonastic life. See also lay believer.

Pillow SutraA deathbed Buddhist service performedas a customary part of Japanese funeralrituals. See Makuragyô.

Pindola(J. Binzuru) The first of the sixteenarhats venerated in East AsianBuddhism. Pindola, depicted withwhite hair and long eyebrows, devel-oped supernatural powers—accordingto the tradition—and exhibited themrashly to impress ordinary people. TheBuddha rebuked him for this and, forhis inappropriate behavior, orderedhim to postpone his own entrance intonirvana to assist sentient beings. InChina, beginning in the early T’angperiod (618–907), images of Pindola,called Pin-t’ou-lu in Chinese, wereenshrined in temple dining halls as theholy monk of the hall ( J. shôsô).Monks made an offering of food to himbefore every meal. In Japan, Pindola,known as Binzuru, is venerated for hishealing powers. It is said that a personcan be healed by touching the image.

Small images of Pindola are oftenfound outside the main image hall.According to popular Japanese lore,Pindola sits outside the hall because hewas expelled from the company of theother arhats for an act of indiscretion.It is said that he once admired a beau-tiful woman and commented on herappearance to others, an act of sexualmisconduct for a monk. To request hisassistance with health problems,Japanese supplicants touch the imagesof Binzuru and adorn him with knittedcaps and bibs.

Pi-yen LuThe Blue Cliff Record, one of the mostpopular collections of classical Zenkôan, compiled by the Chinese Rinzaimaster Yüan-wu K’o-ch’in (1063–1135;J. Engo Kokugon) in 1125. The text ismore commonly known by its Japanesetitle, Hekiganroku. See Hekiganroku.

Platform SutraThe Platform Sutra of the SixthPatriarch, an important early Zen text,purporting to be the teachings of Hui-neng (638–713), the Sixth ChinesePatriarch of Zen. The Platform Sutra isthe only Buddhist text called a sutra yetnot considered to be the words of theBuddha. However, according to Zenunderstanding, an enlightened Zenmaster is no different from a buddha,and therefore the sermon may beregarded as a sutra. The Platform Sutrais divided into two sections, an autobio-graphical account of the Sixth Patriarch’searly life and enlightenment and ser-mons presented by the patriarch to hisdisciples. The autobiographical sectionincludes the famous account of thepoetry contest that convinced the FifthPatriarch to designate Hui-neng as hisDharma heir and the Sixth Patriarch.

The earliest extant version of thesutra (T. 48, no. 2007) is a ninth-centurytext discovered among the Tun-huangmanuscripts in 1906. Its full title is TheSouthern School Sudden TeachingSupreme Mahayana Great Perfection of

Wisdom: The Platform Sutra Preachedby the Sixth Patriarch Hui-neng Ta-shihat Ta-fan Temple in Shao-chou (J.Nanshû Tongyô Saijô Daijô MakahannyaHaramitsu Kyô: Rokuso Enô DaishiShôshû Daibon-ji Ni Oite sehô Suru NoDankyô). Philip Yampolsky translatedthis version into English under the title,The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch(New York: Columbia University Press,1967).

The version of the sutra traditionallyused within the Zen school is a Yuandynasty text (T. 48, no. 2008) compiledby Tsung-pao in 1291. It is known as theLiu-tsu Ta-shih Fa-pao T’an-ching (J.Rokuso Daishi Hôbô Dankyô), or TheTreasure of the Dharma Platform Sutraof the Sixth Patriarch. This version con-tains additional materials, including sixepilogues by later masters. It is approxi-mately twice the length of the earlierTun-huang manuscripts.

Po-chang Huai-haiAlternative transliteration of Pai-changHuai-hai (720–814). See Pai-changHuai-hai.

Posthumous NameAccording to Japanese Buddhist practice, lay Buddhists receive aBuddhist name as a part of the funeraland memorial services following death. The Japanese terms kaimyô andhômyô, commonly translated as“posthumous name,” actually denotethe Buddhist names monks and nunsreceive at ordination.

PostulantA person who requests ordination froma monastic community. In some cases, aperson requesting ordination must livethe monastic life for a designated periodof time and abide by a specified monas-tic code of conduct before beingaccepted by the community. In this case,the postulancy serves as a probationaryperiod during which the communityobserves the newcomer to evaluate his

or her suitability for monastic life. Inother cases, postulants are underageindividuals living in a monastery andpreparing for ordination when theyreach the minimum age.

In Buddhism, male candidates arenot required to undergo a probationaryperiod before ordination unless they areunderage. If a young man is at leasttwenty years of age, he may receive fullordination immediately after beingordained as a novice. Although manyyoung monks do spend some time prac-ticing as a novice before undertaking fullordination, this is technically optional.In contrast, female novices are requiredto pass a two-year postulancy, regard-less of age, before being permitted tomove on to full ordination. The femalenovice is required to abide by the first sixprecepts of the novice during postu-lancy, a confusing requirement, sinceshe will have already undertaken the fullten precepts to become a novice.

Wijayaratna, Mohan. Buddhist MonasticLife: According to the Texts of the Theravada Tradition. Trans.Claude Grangier and Steven Collins.New York: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1990.

Prajapati(J. Hajahadai, Makahajahadai) The auntand foster mother of SiddhartaGautama, also known as Mahaprajapati.Siddharta’s mother Maya died shortlyafter his birth, and his fatherSuddhodana married Prajapati to raisethe child. Later, Prajapati became a laydisciple of the Buddha and requestedpermission to become a nun. Accordingto traditional accounts, the Buddha initially rejected her request and only conceded to her pleas after Ananda interceded on her behalf. Seealso lay believer.

Prajna(J. chie or hannya) Wisdom, theBuddhist concept of the absolute orperfect wisdom, which allows one to

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understand reality and perceive thingsas they really are. In TheravadaBuddhism, prajna is the third part of theBuddhist training leading to nirvanaand is built upon the training in moral-ity (Sk. sila) and meditation. InMahayana Buddhism, prajna refersspecifically to the intuitive understand-ing of emptiness (Sk. shunyata). It is lastof the six perfections (Sk. paramitas),which define the path of the bod-hisattva toward enlightenment. Seealso Perfection of Wisdom Sutra.

Prajna SamadhiThe samadhi of perfect wisdom; thestate of consciousness in which onerealizes the reality of emptiness throughwisdom. The realization of emptiness isregarded within the Buddhist traditionas the moment of enlightenment. Uponrealizing that all things are ultimatelydevoid of any eternal, abiding, andunchanging quality, one can be said tounderstand things as they are ratherthan through a deluded mindset. Seealso Perfection of Wisdom Sutra.

Pratyeka Buddha(J. engaku) A self-enlightened being;one that attains enlightenment solelythrough personal effort, without thebenefit of hearing the teachings of abuddha. Pratyeka buddhas are solitarypractitioners who have learned theDharma on their own by contemplatingthe twelve-link chain of causation. Theycompletely lack the ability to teach oth-ers. In the tradition of MahayanaBuddhism, pratyeka buddhas andshravakas are the two vehicles associ-ated with Hinayana Buddhism, andthey are regarded as inferior to the bod-hisattva. See also three vehicles.

Precepts(J. kai) The generic term for the ethicalnorms that govern the life and practiceof religious individuals, especiallyBuddhists. Within Buddhism, distinctsets of precepts apply to different

members of the Buddhist community.Lay Buddhists typically follow a set offive precepts: 1) not to kill living beings;2) not to steal another’s belongings; 3) toabstain from sexual misconduct; 4) notto lie; and 5) not to take intoxicants.These lay precepts, the first five of theten precepts undertaken by ordainednovices, are understood somewhat dif-ferently for lay people than for monksand nuns, although they are worded inthe same way. In particular, the thirdprecept against sexual misconduct isinterpreted to preclude premarital andextramarital sexual contact for laypeople, while it precludes all sexualconduct for monks and nuns. The tenprecepts of the Buddhist novice con-tinue with: 6) not to eat after noon; 7)not to adorn the body with perfume,flowers or jewelry; 8) not to participatein public entertainment such as danc-ing, plays, or singing; 9) not to use a lux-urious bed; and 10) not to handlemoney. Although all of these preceptsare worded in the negative form, theyare understood to include positiveaction as well. For example, the first pre-cept advocates actively protecting andcaring for living beings.

Most fully ordained Buddhist monksand nuns also follow the vinaya, whichcomprise a much longer set of monasticprecepts. The full list includes approxi-mately 250 precepts for monks and 500for nuns. These detailed rules, designedto govern all aspects of the shared lifewithin the monastery, are not allregarded as being of equal importance.Violation of the most serious preceptsmight involve expulsion from the com-munity, while a lesser offense mightrequire temporary suspension, penance,or simple confession.

In Mahayana Buddhism, the bod-hisattva precepts (J. bosatsukai) weredeveloped, deriving from the BrahmaNet Sutra (J. Bonmôkyô). The ten heavyprecepts and forty-eight light preceptsare intended to serve as the guidingprinciples of practice for a bodhisattva.All Mahayana Buddhists, monastic andlay, are enjoined to follow the ten heavy

precepts, which include prohibitionsagainst: 1) killing, 2) stealing, 3) sexualmisconduct, 4) lying, 5) using intoxi-cants, 6) finding fault in others, 7) boast-ing about oneself, 8) envy, 9) anger andill will, and 10) slandering the threetreasures. The so-called light preceptsinvolve a longer list of less seriousoffenses. In some schools of JapaneseZen, monks and nuns are ordainedusing the bodhisattva precepts ratherthan the precepts of the vinaya. See alsolay believer.

Preta(J. gaki) A hungry ghost. The Sanskritword literally means a dead person, but the term is used specifically in the Buddhist tradition for one of the six possible realms of existence intowhich a person may be reborn afterdeath. Preta suffer perpetual hungerthat they cannot alleviate. See gaki andhungry ghost.

Prince Shôtoku(574–622) Japanese regent who promoted Buddhism in Japan. SeeShôtoku Taishi.

P’u-chi(651–739; J. Fujaku) Chinese Buddhistmonk known both as a Zen master andas a master of the Hua-yen school. P’u-chi was the Dharma heir and mostimportant disciple of Shen-hsiu(606?–706), leader of the Northernschool. Texts of his time often refer tohim as the Seventh Patriarch, a title thatseems to have been used for him duringhis lifetime. P’u-chi taught a large num-ber of disciples, and the Northern schoolflourished under his direction.

P’u-hua(J. Fuke) An eccentric Chinese Zenmonk of the T’ang dynasty (618–907)about whom little is known. P’u-hua wasthe Dharma heir of P’an-shan Pao-chi.After P’an-shan died, P’u-hua traveled

around China. For a time he joined Lin-chi I-hsuan’s assembly and became thefamous master’s friend, offering himassistance. Stories about him appear inthe Sayings of Lin-chi (J. Rinzai-roku).P’u-hua is traditionally regarded as thefounder of the Fuke sect of Zen.

Pure Land(J. jôdo) Mahayana Buddhist concept ofa celestial world or paradise created by abuddha. Buddhas are said to be capableof purifying a place and removing allhindrances for Buddhist practice bymeans of their limitless merit. TheBuddha Lands they create are envisioned as ideal places for ordinarysentient beings to hear the Buddhistteachings and to practice and attainenlightenment. Rebirth in a Pure Landmay be the immediate religious goal of aBuddhist believer, since attainingenlightenment there is far less difficultthan on earth. Rebirth in a Pure Land isdependent not on the individual’s meritor good karma, but on that of theBuddha or an associated bodhisattva.Having faith in the appropriate buddha,chanting his name, or meditating onhim and his world may lead to rebirth inhis land. In most contexts, the term PureLand applies specifically to the WesternPure Land of Amida buddha, the mostpopular of the celestial buddhas.

In the Zen school, the concept of thePure Land reflects an internal state ofmind rather than a literal external place.That is, when one sees through the eyesof enlightenment, the ordinary world istransformed into a Pure Land.

Pure Land of the Mind Only(J. yuishin no jôdo) A Mahayana teach-ing that the Pure Land does not literallyexist as an actual world outside the self.According to this teaching, the ordinaryconcept of the Pure Land is reinter-preted as reflecting an internal state ofmind. According to this understanding,the ordinary world, when seen throughthe eyes of enlightenment, is trans-formed into a Pure Land. The concept of

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the Pure Land of the Mind Only is sharedby several schools of MahayanaBuddhism, including Zen.

Pure Land SchoolA form of Mahayana Buddhism thatpromotes faith in Amida buddha andteaches that individuals can attain sal-vation by being reborn in Amida’sWestern Pure Land. The scriptural basisfor Pure Land teachings are the threePure Land Sutras: the Larger Pure LandSutra (J. Daimuryôjukyô), the SmallerPure Land Sutra (J. Amidakyô), and theMeditation Sutra (J. Kammuryôjukyô).Although many Pure Land texts andconcepts originated in India, the schooldid not develop there. Pure Land devo-tion took on distinct form as a school inEast Asia, giving rise to several sects inChina, Korea, and Japan. The primarypractice of Pure Land devotion is chant-ing the name of Amida buddha, knownin Japanese as the nembutsu.

Zen Buddhism and Pure Landbecame the two dominant schools ofBuddhism in China. The first sects ofPure Land devotees took shape there inthe fifth century C.E. Several prominentChinese Buddhist monks are regardedas patriarchs of the Pure Land school,including Hui-yuan (344–416), T’an-luan (476–542), Tao-cho (562–645), andShan-tao (613–681). Pure Land devotionwas transmitted to Japan in the Heianperiod (794–1185). During theKamakura period (1185–1333), it gaverise to several distinctive sects, includ-ing the Jôdo-shû founded by Hônen(1133–1212), the Jôdo Shinshû foundedby Shinran (1173–1262), and the Ji sectfounded by Ippen (1239–1289). The sev-eral Pure Land sects of JapaneseBuddhism together represent the largestschool of Buddhism in Japan.

Pure Land SectA sect of Japanese Buddhism foundedby the monk Hônen (1133–1212) duringthe Kamakura period (1185–1333),known in Japanese as Jôdoshû. Theteachings and practices of the sect are

based on Hônen’s understanding of thePure Land Sutras, the sect’s principalscriptures. Hônen was originally aTendai sect monk, until he left MountHiei to establish a form of exclusive PureLand practice. Pure Land Buddhismencourages placing one’s faith in Amidabuddha and achieving salvationthrough rebirth in his Western PureLand. The primary practice of the sect ischanting the name of Amida, using thesimple formula “Namu Amida Butsu.”

Pure Land Sutras(Sk. Sukhavati-vyuha Sutra; J. Daimuryô-jukyô) Three Mahayana sutras thatform the scriptural basis for the PureLand teachings. The three scripturesinclude the Larger Pure Land Sutra;the Smaller Pure Land Sutra, orAmitabha Sutra (J. Amidakyô); and theMeditation Sutra (Sk. AmitayurdhyanaSutra; J. Kammuryôjukyô).

Purna(J. Furuna) One of the ten outstandingdisciples of Shakyamuni buddha(Siddharta Gautama), renowned for hiseloquence and ability in debate. Purnawas a Brahmin and a teacher of reputebefore he met Shakyamuni. His firstencounter with the Buddha took placewhen he became determined to chal-lenge Shakyamuni to debate, confidentthat he would defeat him. The Buddhaquietly convinced Purna of the futility ofdebate, and Purna joined the sanghaand became the Buddha’s disciple.

Ishigami, Zenno. Disciples of theBuddha. Trans. Richard L. Gage andPaul McCarthy. Tokyo: KoseiPublishing Co., 1989.

Purple Robe(J. shie) An honorific monastic robebestowed on high-ranking monks, usu-ally awarded by a reigning emperor. Thecolor purple was not traditionally usedfor Buddhist monastic robes, but inChina, the imperial court established a

hierarchy of honorific robes classified bycolor for individuals who had performedmeritorious service. Purple robes wereranked the highest. Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253) and Myôan Eisai, thefounders of the Japanese Sôtô sect andRinzai sect respectively, were the first toreceive imperial purple robes in Japan.Unlike honorific titles, which are com-monly granted posthumously, the pur-ple robe is given to living masters.

Pu-tai(d. 916; J. Hotei) An eccentric ChineseZen monk who lived during the T’angdynasty (618–907). Pu-tai lived the life ofa homeless wandering monk in what isnow Chekiang province. His actual fam-ily name is unknown, but he called him-self Ch’i-tz’u. The name Pu-tai literallymeans “cloth sack” and was given to himby the people of the day, who took tocalling him Master Cloth Sack becausehe always carried a large sack over hisshoulder. It is said that he carried all ofhis worldly possessions in the sack andoften stuffed in bits of leftover food hehad received when begging.

He is always depicted as a humbleperson with a large, naked stomachprotruding from his robes and carryinghis staff and sack. In many cases, he issurrounded by children. Figures of Pu-tai, called the Laughing Buddha, aresometimes used in China and Japan asimages of the future buddha Maitreya(J. Miroku). Obaku-san Mampuku-ji,the main monastery for Obaku Zen, hasa statue of Pu-tai as Maitreya enshrinedas the main image (J. honzon) in theTennô-den. See also Obaku sect.

P’u-t’i-ta-moThe Chinese rendering of Bodhidharma,commonly shortened to Ta-mo. SeeBodhidharma.

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RRagoraJapanese transliteration for Rahula,the son of the Buddha. See Rahula.

Rahula(J. Ragora) Siddharta Gautama’s sonwith his wife Yashodhara, born shortlybefore Siddharta determined to leavethe home life and seek enlightenmentas an ascetic. The name Rahula means“fetter” and suggests that Siddhartawas already inclined toward religiouslife. Rahula, said to have joined thesangha at age nine and to have beenfully ordained at age twenty, laterbecame one of Shakyamuni’s(Siddharta Gautama) leading disciples.He is numbered among the ten out-standing disciples of the Buddha.Rahula is reknowned for his dedicationto training new monks and novices.

Ishigami, Zenno. Disciples of theBuddha. Trans. Richard L. Gageand Paul McCarthy. Tokyo: KoseiPublishing Co., 1989.

Rainy Season Retreat(J. ango) A three-month period duringthe summer months when Buddhistmonks and nuns retire to a temple ormonastery for an intensive practicesession. Traditionally the summerretreat was observed from the middleof the fourth lunar month through themiddle of the seventh lunar month,roughly corresponding to the mon-soon season on the Indian subconti-nent. The custom dates back to thetime of the historical Buddha, beforethe establishment of permanentmonastic dwellings, when the Buddha

and his disciples traveled throughoutthe year, taking only temporary shelterin the areas they visited. They only set-tled down for an extended period oftime when the annual rainy seasonmade travel inconvenient. Eventually,the Buddhist monastic code (Sk.vinaya) forbade travel during the rainyseason, specifying that it be observedfor a period of ninety days.

Zen monastic communities observethe rainy season retreat as one of twoannual retreats. The other retreat fallsduring the severe winter months.Many monasteries now follow aWestern calendar and keep the sum-mer retreat from April 16 through July15. During this retreat, monks andnuns observe a very strict version ofthe Zen monastic rules (J. shingi) andconcentrate their efforts on makingprogress in meditation. Up to fourteenhours of the day are dedicated toseated meditation, and travel outsidethe temple is strictly limited for theduration of the retreat.

RakusuA small five-strip kesa that is com-monly worn on a strap around thenecks of Zen monks and nuns in Chinaand Japan. This modification of thetraditional kesa is worn over clothingto symbolically represent the patchedrobe of the Buddha. The design is nottraditional to Indian Buddhism; it wascreated in China to allow more free-dom of movement for Buddhist monkswhen they went begging or engaged in manual labor. Today, lay practitionersof Zen sometimes receive this garmentwhen they take the precepts. See alsolay believer.

Rankei DôryûThe Japanese name for Lan-ch’i Tao-lung (1213–1278), a Chinese Rinzaimaster who helped to establish theRinzai sect in Kamakura, Japan. SeeLan-ch’i Tao-lung.

RantôAn oval-shaped stupa, or memorialstone, used to honor deceased Zenmonks and nuns. The oval stone,shaped like a bird’s egg, rests upon a six-or eight-sided stone base. The termrantô literally means “egg stupa.” Theyare also known as mûhôtô, or “seamlesspagoda.” In classical Zen literature,when the T’ang Zen master Nan-yangHui-chung (d. 776), better known asChung Kuo-shih, was near death, theemperor Tai-tsung (r. 762–779) askedhow the master would like to be honored. The old monk responded thatthe emperor should build for him aseamless stupa.

RebirthBelief in a cycle of birth and death thatcontinues through numerous lifetimes.The concept is shared by many religioustraditions, including Buddhism. Theterm is sometimes used to translate the

Sanskrit word samsara (J. rinne). InBuddhist contexts, it is a more accuratetranslation than reincarnation, since itdoes not necessarily imply the existenceof an eternal soul.

Recorded SayingsOne of the most important and distinc-tive genres of Zen literature that devel-oped first in China, where they areknown as yu-lu, and continued inJapan, where they are called goroku.Recorded sayings preserve sermons,encounters with disciples, anecdotes,and other teachings of prominent Zenmonks and nuns that disciples havecollected and published after the mas-ters’ deaths.

ReiA hand bell used in Zen monasteriesduring some sutra chanting services.Also pronounced rin. See shôkei.

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ReincarnationBelief that an eternal soul or essence isreborn in successive bodies. The con-cept of reincarnation is shared by manyreligious traditions. In the Indian tradi-tions of Hinduism and Jainism, whichaccept the notion of a soul or eternalself, reincarnation is sometimes used toexpress the concept of samsara, theongoing cycle of birth and death.Although the term is sometimes usedsimilarly in a Buddhist context, it is notcompletely accurate, since Buddhismdoes not accept the concept of a soul.

ReitakuLarge and small handbells used by theabbot or another monk in leading vari-ous rituals. They are used, for example,while reading sutras during mealtime.Reitaku are played by shaking them.Small handbells are called rin or rei. Seealso shôkei.

Relative TruthConventional reality; the view of existence from which things may be saidto exist in a relative sense and to be distinguished one from another.Relative Truth is generally contrastedwith Ultimate Truth, the view of existence from which things are perceived to be empty. In Mâdhyamakaphilosophy, for example, reality is spoken of at two levels, relative and ultimate. At the level of RelativeTruth, or mundane reality, one may discuss things as having transitory existence. They arise due to causes and eventually pass away, leavingbehind various effects. They cannot be said to have independent existenceor to be permanent and unchanging.See also emptiness.

Relics(J. sharira) Objects such as pieces ofbone, hair, monastic robes, bowls, andother implements associated with reli-gious figures and therefore regarded asin some sense sacred or powerful. Relics

are a common feature in religious tradi-tions throughout the world. In theBuddhist tradition, relics from the his-torical Buddha and other importantBuddhist figures have been treated asobjects of Buddhist veneration, espe-cially among lay believers. The practicedates to the death of the Buddha, whenpieces of bone collected from theBuddha’s funeral pyre were distributedthroughout the existing Buddhist com-munity. Buddhist relics are commonlyenshrined in special structures knownas stupas, or pagodas as they are calledin East Asia.

RengaLinked verse, a genre of Japanese poetryindirectly associated with Zen. Rengaare composed of alternating stanzaswith 5-7-5 and 7-7 syllable lines, respec-tively. The first stanza of 5-7-7 syllablesis known as the hokku. It developed intoan independent genre known morecommonly as haiku.

Restricted AreaMonastery grounds that are boundedand thereby restricted to practitionersonly, especially ordained members ofthe Buddhist community. The conceptderives from the practice in TheravadaBuddhism of designating an ordinationground by setting up stone markers,known as sima stones. Sima stones may also be found at monasteryentrances to designate monasterygrounds in which the monastic code isobserved as distinct from the secularworld. In Japan, the term kekkaijiapplied especially to Buddhistmonastery complexes, such as those onMount Hiei and Mount Kôya, wherewomen were not allowed to enter.

RichiUltimate Truth; wisdom that perceivesultimate reality. The term is a combina-tion of characters which literally mean“reality” and “wisdom.” In the Zenschool, the term is sometimes used for

the first level of a three part system ofkôan practice in which Richi precedeskikan and kôjô.

RinA small hand bell used in Zen monaster-ies during some sutra chanting services.Also pronounced rei. See shôkei.

Rin’i MonjinBowing with one’s hands held in gasshôto greet the people on one’s right and leftin the meditation hall before beginninga session of seated meditation. The bowis performed facing one’s own medita-tion cushion, not toward the other med-itators; they bow in greeting in return.

RinkaAn expression for Japanese Zen monas-teries and temples not affiliated with theGozan system. The term literally means“below the grove” and was coined tocontrast affiliated and unaffiliated temples. Monasteries within the Gozansystem were commonly designatedsôrin, literally, “grove” or “thicket.” Theywere gradually associated more with lit-erary and artistic pursuits than with Zenpractice. Rinka monasteries, on theother hand, included almost all Sôtô secttemples and many Rinzai sect monas-teries that remained independent. Rinkamonasteries remained dedicated to thereligious pursuit of meditation andenlightenment.

RinneSamsara, the ongoing cycle of birth,death, and rebirth. The term rinne is the Japanese translation of the original Sanskrit term, often translatedas transmigration or rebirth in English.See samsara.

Rinsen KakunThe Rinsen-ji House Code, a Zenmonastic code devised by Musô Sôseki(1275–1351) for Rinsen-ji temple in1339. The Rinsen kakun is among the

first Zen monastic codes (J. shingi) writ-ten in Japan. It is an important resourcefor understanding Rinzai practicewithin the Gozan system during theAshikaga period (1392–1568). A com-plete English translation appears inMartin Collcutt’s Five Mountains. Seealso Rinzai sect.

Rinyû“The entrance through reason,”Japanese term for one of the Two Entries(J. Ninyû) to Buddhist enlightenment.The entrance through reason refers tostudying the teachings of Buddhism asset out in the scriptures. It is the oppo-site of gyônyû, or the entrance throughpractice. See also two entrances.

Rinzai Gigen(d. 867) The Japanese pronunciation for Lin-chi I-hsuan, the T’ang dynasty (618–907) Chinese monk whofounded the Rinzai school of Zen. SeeLin-chi I-hsuan.

Rinzai-rokuJapanese abbreviated title for the Lin-chi Ch’an-shih Yu-lu, the recorded say-ings of Ch’an master Lin-chi. SeeSayings of Lin-chi.

Rinzai SectOne of three major sects of JapaneseZen, along with the Sôtô sect and theObaku sect. Rinzai Zen is named for itsfounding patriarch Lin-chi I-hsuan(d. 867), one of the most famous ChineseZen masters of the T’ang dynasty(618–907). Lin-chi is pronounced Rinzaiin Japanese. The predominant Rinzaistyle of practice makes use of kôan asthe focus of attention during seatedmeditation (J. zazen). The Rinzai style isalso traditionally associated with the useof slapping and shouting (J. katsu!) asteaching devices to encourage the expe-rience of enlightenment.

The Lin-chi school was establishedas a distinct lineage and sect in Chinaand numbers among the five houses of

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Chinese Zen of the T’ang dynasty. Sincethe Sung dynasty (960–1279), it has beenthe dominant form of Zen practice inChina. During the Sung dynasty, the Lin-chi school divided into two majorbranches, the Yang-ch’i line (J. Yôgi-shû)and the Huang-lung line (J. Oryô-shû).Lin-chi Zen was transmitted to Japanduring the Kamakura period(1185–1333). Traditionally, the sectregards the monk Eisai (1141–1215) asthe founder in Japan, although the his-tory is far more complex.

Today the Rinzai sect in Japan com-prises fourteen lineages (J. ha), whichare registered as independent institu-tions. These include: Buttsû-ji Ha,Daitoku-ji Ha, Eigen-ji Ha, Engaku-jiHa, Hôkô-ji Ha, Kenchô-ji Ha, Kennin-ji Ha, Kôgaku-ji Ha, Kokutai-ji Ha,Myôshin-ji Ha, Nanzen-ji Ha, Shôkoku-ji Ha, Tenryû-ji Ha, and Tôfuku-ji Ha.See also Huang-lung school and Yang-ch’i school.

Rinzai-shûJapanese for Rinzai sect of ZenBuddhism. Alternatively, it may refer to the Chinese Lin-chi school of Zen Buddhism. See Rinzai sect and Lin-chi school.

RitsuVinaya, the monastic code of Buddhismwhich governs the lives of Buddhistmonks and nuns. The Japanese wordritsu literally means laws, and the term isalso used for secular legal codes. As agenre of Buddhist literature, ritsu textsform one portion of the Sanzô, orTripitaka. The Sanskrit term vinayarefers specifically to the Theravadamonastic codes, but the Japanese termritsu is used in a general way to refer tomore specialized Mahayana monasticcodes, especially the bodhisattva pre-cepts and Zen monastic codes (J.shingi), which in some cases supple-mented and in others supplanted thetraditional Theravada vinaya codes. Seealso Theravada Buddhism.

RoDefilements, outflows, or binding influences; the Japanese translation forthe Sanskrit ashrava. Any mental activity that hinders one’s attainment of enlightenment is a defilement.Sensual desires and attachment to false views are the most basic defilements to be extinguished throughBuddhist practice. Ro is closely relatedto the concept bonnô (literally, “afflictions and delusions”).

Rôba ZenOld-Woman Zen or Grandmother Zen,an expression used for Zen teachingstyles demonstrating the master’s con-cern for his disciples. Just as a grand-mother showers her grandchildren withaffection, the master expresses compas-sion for his students. The compassionmay be such that the master refrainsfrom the harsher teaching methodsoften associated with Zen, yet a sharpblow may just as well be said to embodygrandmotherly concern. Zen textsemploy a number of expressions forgrandmotherly concern, such as RôbaShinsetsu and Rôba Tekkon. While RôbaZen generally reflects a positive evalua-tion of a master, in some cases the termis used in a derogatory manner to criti-cize a master who is overly gentle.

Robe of TransmissionA Dharma robe passed from a Zen mas-ter to a disciple as a symbol of Dharmatransmission. Bodhidharma bestowedthe original robe of transmission on hisheir, Hui-k’o (487–593), designating himas the Second Chinese Patriarch of Zen.

Rock GardenDry landscape gardens constructed ofstone, sand, and moss, which are a formof Zen art. Known in Japanese as karesansui (dry mountains and water), rockgardens are a common feature in Zenmonasteries. The most famous examplesinclude the gardens at Ryôan-ji andKokedera, both in Kyoto. See Kare sansui.

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RôhatsuThe eighth day of the twelfth lunar month. Rôhatsu is the day EastAsian Buddhists celebrate as Bodhi Day, the day on which the historicalBuddha attained enlightenment. InJapan and other parts of the Buddhistworld, Rôhatsu, also commonly pronounced rôhachi, is now celebratedon December 8.

Rôhatsu SesshinAn intensive period of seated medita-tion (sesshin), traditionally from thefirst day of the twelfth lunar month tothe eighth day. Rôhatsu literally meansthe eighth day of the twelfth lunarmonth. The Rôhatsu sesshin commem-orates the enlightenment ofShakyamuni (Siddharta Gautama), thehistorical Buddha, which East AsianBuddhists believe occurred on Rôhatsu.During the sesshin, monks and nunsstrive to imitate the determinationshown by the Buddha when he sat downwith the intention of meditating until hereached his goal of enlightenment. Onthe final night of the sesshin, partici-pants sit up through the night withoutlying down to sleep (J. tetsuya). They dothis in imitation of the Buddha, who satin meditation through the night andattained enlightenment with the dawn.In some monasteries, monks refrainfrom lying down to sleep throughout allseven nights of the sesshin.

Buswell, Robert E., Jr. The Zen MonasticExperience: Buddhist Practice inContemporary Korea. Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 1992.

RokkonThe six sense organs: eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind. These are paired with the six objects of perception (J. rokkyô), form (color and shape), sound, odor, taste, texture,and mental objects. The term rokkonliterally translates as the six bases. The pairings of the six sense organs and their objects constitute the first six

consciousnesses in the Yogacharaschool psychological system of the eightconsciousnesses. See six sense organs.

Roku Chiji(J. tôhan) The six stewards; the sixsenior monks at a Zen monastery who assist the abbot in managing theadministrative aspects of the commu-nity, particularly economic matters.Together, they are known as the Easternrank since their duties keep them largelyin the eastern part of the templegrounds. The stewards include theoffices of bursar (J. tsûbun), prior (J.tsûsu), supervisor (J. kansu), assistantsupervisor (J. fûsu), cook (J. tenzo),labor steward (J. shissui), and supervi-sor of trainees (J. ino). Their counter-parts in the Western rank (J. seihan) areknown as the six prefects (J. roku chôsu).See tôhan.

Roku Chôsu(J. seihan) The group of six seniormonks who assist the abbot in the spir-itual aspects of the monastic commu-nity. These prefects help train the com-munity in meditation, monastic disci-pline, ritual procedures, and the study ofreligious texts. The prefects include theoffices of chief seat (J. shuso), scribe (J.shoki), sutra prefect (J. zôsu), guest pre-fect (J. shika), bathkeeper (J. chiyoku),and prefect of the Buddha hall (J. chi-den). They are also referred to as theWestern rank because they work in thewestern area of the monastery. Theircounterparts in the Eastern rank (J.tohan) are called the six stewards (J. roku chiji). See seihan.

RokudoSix Paramitas or the six perfections; analternative Japanese term for roppa-ramitsu. See six perfections.

RokudôThe six paths; the six realms of existenceinto which sentient beings are born.They include the realms of hell dwellers 267

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(J. jigoku), hungry ghosts (J. gaki), ani-mals (J. chikushô), human beings (J.ningen), evil demi-gods (J. ashura), andheaven dwellers (J. tenjô). See six paths.

RokujinThe six dusts or defilements. A syn-onym for the six objects of perception(rokkyô). See six dusts.

Roku JizôSix Jizô, a grouping of six images of thebodhisattva Jizô. These figures repre-sent Jizô’s special willingness to enterany realm of samsaric existence to assista sentient being. The six Jizô are: 1)Danda, who holds a human skull andsaves those in hell; 2) Hôju, who holds amani jewel and saves hungry ghosts; 3)Hôin, who saves animals; 4) Jiji, whosaves ashura; 5) Jogaishô, who saveshuman beings; and 6) Nikkô, who savesheaven dwellers. See also samsara.

RokumonSix gates, also known as rokkonmon, aJapanese Buddhist expression for the sixsense organs. See six sense organs.

RokumotsuThe six items that monks are tradition-ally allowed as personal property. Theseinclude the outer robe with a lining, theunlined inner robe worn in toga fashion,the undergarment, a filtering bag usedto filter out insects from drinking water,the begging bowl, and the zagu, a ritualsitting cloth.

Rokuso DankyôJapanese title for the Platform Sutra ofthe Sixth Patriarch. See Platform Sutra.

RonJapanese term for a commentary on a Buddhist sutra or a Buddhist philosophical treatise. Ron and Ronzôare standard translations for theSanskrit term Abhidharma.

RonenYear of the Donkey in Japanese.Something that will never occur, sincethere is no Year Of The Donkey in thetraditional calendar used in East Asia.See Year of the Donkey.

RopparamitsuSix paramitas or perfections; six prac-tices that describe the bodhisattva’spath toward enlightenment. InJapanese they are: 1) fuse haramitsu(charity or giving); 2) jikai (observingthe precepts); 3) ninniku (persever-ance); 4) shôjin (energy); 5) zenjô (med-itation); and 6) chie (wisdom; Sk. pra-jna). See six perfections.

RoshiA respectful form of address for a Zenmaster, usually translated as “old master.” However, the translation “venerable master” better suggests theoriginal connotations of respect. In Zen,the meaning of the term differs accord-ing to time period and sect. It usuallyapplies to any Zen master certified toguide others in meditative practice. InWestern Zen contexts, male and femalemasters may be roshi.

In its broadest sense, Japanese mayuse the title roshi to refer to any senioror older monk. In the Sôtô sect today, itis often used in this manner, especiallyby younger monks as a polite form ofaddress for the senior monks holdingofficial positions at a monastery. In thecontemporary Rinzai sect, only theabbot of a major monastery isaddressed as roshi. The most limitedapplication of the title roshi can befound within the Rinzai sect; here it maydesignate only the most exceptional Zenmasters who have attained deep levelsof enlightenment and are thus deemedqualified to guide the practice of others.Achieving this status normally requiresthirty or more years of practice.

Kraft, Kenneth, ed. Zen, Tradition andTransition. New York: Grove Press,1988.

Ryôan-jiAn important Rinzai Zen temple,located in northwestern Kyoto andfamous for its lovely Zen garden. Thetemple was built under the patronage ofthe daimyô, or military leader,Hosokawa Katsumoto (1430–1473) in1450. Hosokawa invited Giten Genshô(1396–1465) to serve as its foundingabbot. For many generations it was asignificant branch temple of nearbyMyôshin-ji, but the temple sufferedserious fire damage in the late eigh-teenth century and never recovered itsformer prominence. The Abbot’sGarden, attributed to Sôami (d. 1525), iscommonly regarded as the finestexample of a Zen dry landscape garden(J. kare sansui). Its deceptively simple

construction includes only fifteen oddlyshaped stones and raked white sand; itis devoid of vegetation except moss. It issometimes pronounced Ryûan-ji. Seealso Rinzai sect.

RyôgakyôJapanese title for the LankavataraSutra, “Sutra When Entering Lanka.” SeeLankavatara Sutra.

RyôgenThe head monk of the reading room(shuryô) at a Zen monastery. The ryô-gen is responsible for supervisingmonks’ conduct in the reading room,where they read, study, and have teaafter meals. Also called ryôshuso.

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Ryôan-ji is a Zen temple famous for its dry landscape garden containing fifteen stones, raked sand, and moss.

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Ryôgon-gyôAbbreviated Japanese title for theShuramgama Sutra (T. 19, no. 945). Thefull Japanese title is Daibutchô NyoraiMitsuin Shushô Ryôgi ShobosatsuMangyô Shuryôgon-Gyô. See Shuram-gama Sutra.

Ryôgon-juThe Shuramgama dharani, a spellderived from the seventh division of the Shuramgama Sutra, which wasused to exorcise evil spirits and ward offcalamities. Its full title in Japanese isDaibutchô mangyô shuryôgon darani. It is alternatively abbreviated as the Daibutchô-ju. The Shuramgamadharani is one of the most commonlyused dharani in the Zen school. It often appears as a part of Zen rituals,including memorial services and funerals. See Shuramgama dharani.

Ryôkan(1758–1831) Japanese Sôtô monk of theTokugawa period (1600–1867), bestknown for his Zen poetry, and popularlyknown as Daigu (sometimes spelledTaigu), or Great Fool. Born in Izumozaki,in Echigo province (now Niigata), theoldest son of a village headman, hebegan to study Zen at about sixteen andtook the tonsure at a local Zen temple atage seventeen. In 1779, he moved to alarger Sôtô monastery in Bitchû andbecame the disciple of Kokusen. AfterKokusen died, Ryôkan left themonastery, lived as a pilgrim monk fortwenty years, and then returned to hisnative Echigo, where he lived in a her-mitage on Mount Kugami. Translationsof his poetry can be found in Great Fool,by Ryuichi Abe and Peter Haskel(University of Hawaii Press, 1996) andOne Robe, One Bowl, by John Stevens(Weatherhill, 1988). See also Sôtô sect.

Ryôkan(2) Second Barrier, the second of threesets of kôan used by some Zen monas-teries in medieval Japan (1185–1600).The three sets were known as the first (J.shokan), second, and third barriers (J.sankan). The ryôkan were derived fromthe Sayings of Lin-chi.

Ryônen Myôzen(1184–1225) Japanese Rinzai monk, adirect disciple of Eisai, best known as theteacher of Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253).Born in Ise, Myôzen was orphaned at ageeight. He entered monastic life on MountHiei, where he studied Tendai Buddhistthought. After full ordination in 1199, hejoined Eisai at Kennin-ji. There he prac-ticed Zen meditation and eventuallybecame Eisai’s Dharma heir. Dôgen stud-ied with him at Kennin-ji from 1217 to1223, when the two traveled together toChina. In China, Myôzen went to Ching-te-ssu on Mount T’ien-t’ung, where hismaster Eisai had likewise practiced. Hebecame ill and died there in 1225. See alsoRinzai sect and Tendai sect.

RyôzenMount Gridhrakuta, or Vulture Peak.Ryôzen is the common Japanese abbrevi-ation for Ryôjusen, which is more accu-rately translated “Mount of the NuminousEagle.” Ryôzen is important within theZen tradition as the place where theBuddha transmitted the Dharma toMahakashyapa. See Mount Gridhrakuta.

Ryûtaku Kaiso Jinki DokumyôZenji Nempu“The Chronological Biography of ZenMaster Jinki Dokumyô, Founder ofRyûtaku-ji,” a biography of HakuinEkaku (1685–1768) in two parts, com-posed by Tôrei Enji (1721–1792), one ofhis leading disciples.

SSabaA few grains of rice set aside at dailymeals in Zen monasteries for the sakeof hungry ghosts ( J. gaki). Before eat-ing the meal, Zen monks and nunsperform a brief ritual called shussan,in which they remove a small amountof rice and recite a short verse. Inother temples, the kitchen staff poursoff the waste liquid used to rinse theeating bowls as an offering to the gaki.The tiny particles of food remaining inthe water are said to be the perfectsize for hungry ghosts’ narrow throats.

SabiLoneliness, valued in traditionalJapanese culture as an aesthetic qual-ity. Art forms inspired by Zen, such aspottery, poetry, and drama, embodythe styles of sabi and wabi (austeresimplicity).

Sagan ButsujiClosing the coffin lid. The sagan is one ofnine ritual actions (J. kubutsuji) per-formed when an abbot or other promi-nent Buddhist monk or nun dies. Seealso kubutsuji.

SaiThe noontime meal at a Zen temple ormonastery. Sai, the largest meal of theday, typically consists of rice, miso soup,pickles, and vegetables. Silence isobserved at mealtimes; only chantingcan be heard. At this meal, monks andnuns recite a five-part vow before theyeat, remembering the labor that produced the food and the purpose forpartaking of the meal.

The term was originally used for theSanskrit uposatha, the twice-monthlyobservance days when monks and nunsreflected on their behavior and con-fessed any transgressions (violations) ofthe monastic code. In other contexts, itreferred specifically to the monasticpractice of abstaining from eating mealsat inappropriate times.

Saichô(767–822) Japanese Buddhist monk,founder of the Tendai sect of JapaneseBuddhism. Saichô traveled to China in804 and studied T’ien-t’ai teachings onMount T’ien-t’ai. Returning to Japan, heestablished a major religious center onMount Hiei where he transmitted T’ien-t’ai thought and other styles of ChineseBuddhist practice, such as esotericBuddhism, various forms of medita-tion, and Pure Land teachings. He intro-duced the practice of ordaining monksusing only the bodhisattva precepts.Saichô, commonly known by hisposthumous title, Dengyô Daishi, wasthe first Japanese monk to receive thetitle “Daishi” (Great Teacher), an honorbestowed on him by the Emperor Seiwa.See also T’ien-t’ai school.

Saku“Tea drum,” the drum used in theDharma hall (J. hattô) and the monks’hall (J. sôdô) at Zen monasteries to callthe monks to tea. In the Dharma hall,the saku, which sits in the northwestcorner, is sounded once at the begin-ning of the tea ceremony (J. chanoyû)and three times when tea is finished.

Samadhi(J. sammai) Concentration; an intensestate of mental concentration achievedthrough meditation in which the dis-tinctions between subject and object aretranscended. Smadhi is the Sanskritterm used in several religious traditions,including Hinduism, Jainism, andBuddhism. In Buddhism, samadhirefers to a state of “one-pointedness”

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achieved through the practice of medi-tation. Although samadhi is not the ulti-mate goal of Buddhist practice, it isregarded as the most conducive mentalstate for attaining nirvana, or enlight-enment. The term samadhi is also usedto describe Buddhist meditative train-ing, one of the three traditional divisionsof the Eightfold Path of Buddhism. Inthis case, it refers to the final three stagesof the path: Right Effort, RightMindfulness, and Right Concentration.

SamantabhadraA cosmic bodhisattva representing themercy, meditation, and practice of allthe buddhas. Known as Fugen inJapanese. See Fugen.

Sambhogakaya(J. hôjin) “Bliss Body” of the Buddha.According to Mahayana understanding, itis one of the three aspects, or bodies, ofthe Buddha. Sambhogakaya are manifes-tations of the eternal Buddha and theylive and teach in other worlds. Variouscelestial buddhas, such as Amidabuddha, who dwell in their own BuddhaLands and guide sentient beings bornthere are considered sambhogakaya. Seealso Mahayana Buddhism and threebodies of the Buddha.

SambôSee three treasures.

SambôeSee Sanbôe.

Sambô KyôdanSee Sanbô Kyôdan.

SammaiConcentration; an intense state of mental concentration achieved duringmeditation. Sammai, also written sanmai or zammai, is the Japanesetransliteration of the Sanskrit termsamadhi. See samadhi.

SamsaraThe Sanskrit religious term for the beliefin transmigration or rebirth, the ongo-ing cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.Samsara is a common teaching withinseveral religious traditions originating inIndia, including Hinduism, Buddhism,and Jainism. The process of samsaradepends upon the workings of karma,the actions one takes, and the moralconsequences of those actions. Karmanot only affects one’s future in the pre-sent life, but also determines one’sfuture rebirths. Since samsara was tradi-tionally viewed as a relentless cycle ofre-death, Indian religious traditions for-mulated means to escape from this cycleof suffering.

SamuManual labor, a regular part of the Zenmonastic life. The word samu literallymeans “strenuous work” and typicallyinvolves working in the fields, sweepingthe yard, or gathering firewood. Seemanual labor.

SamuraiJapanese warrior; the Japanese warriorclass as a whole. The samurai classeventually replaced the nobility (J. kuge)as the ruling class in Japan. They gainedmilitary and political control of Japan during the Kamakura period(1185–1333) and maintained poweruntil the modern period. According to the Confucian political and philosophical system, which prevailedduring the Tokugawa period(1600–1867), the samurai class is designated as the highest of four socialclasses. The class system was abolishedafter the Meiji Restoration in the latenineteenth century.

Samurai leaders of the Kamakuraperiod became generous patrons ofZen masters and built monasteries andtemples throughout the country.Samurai governments continued topatronize Zen monasteries throughoutthe Kamakura (1185–1333), Ashikaga(1392–1568), and Tokugawa (1600–1867)

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The Japanese warrior or samurai replaced the nobility as the ruling class of Japan. They remained in poweruntil the modern period, when the class system was abolished.

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periods. Yet few samurai seriouslyundertook the practice of meditationunder the guidance of a Zen master.Many, however, called upon Zenmonks as ritual specialists, especiallyfor funeral services. Many samuraifamilies were affiliated with a Zen sectand sponsored a Zen temple as theirfamily temple (J. ujidera).

San’akudô(J. akudô) The three evil paths, includ-ing hell, the realm of hungry ghosts,and the realm of animals. See evil paths.

SanbôJapanese for the three treasures: theBuddha, the Dharma, and the sangha.In Japanese they are Butsu, Hô, and Sô.See three treasures.

Sanbôe“Illustrations of the Three Treasures,” acollection of Buddhist stories in threeparts, composed by MinamotoTamenori (d. 1011) in 984. Tamenoridesigned the text to serve as an intro-duction to Buddhism for the imperialprincess Enyûinnyôgo Takako-naishinnô after she took the tonsure asa nun. The text is divided into three sec-tions, one for each of the three treasures.“The Buddha” relates Jataka tales, sto-ries of the previous lives of the historicalBuddha Shakyamuni (SiddhartaGautama). “The Dharma” includes sto-ries of famous Japanese Buddhist fig-ures. “The Sangha” relates the Buddhistcalendar of rituals and festivals as theywere observed in Japan at that time.Edward Kamens published a completeannotated translation of the text entitledThe Three Jewels.

Kamens, Edward. The Three Jewels: AStudy and Translation of MinamotoTamenori’s Sanbôe. Ann Arbor, MI:Center for Japanese Studies,University of Michigan, 1988.

Sanbô KyôdanFellowship of the three treasures, amodern Zen movement for lay practi-tioners, established in Japan by HaradaSogaku (1871–1961) and his Dharmaheir Yasutani Hakuun (1885–1973) in1954. Sanbô Kyôdan, now an indepen-dent organization, was at one time affiliated with the Sôtô sect. The Zenstyle of the movement combines features from the Rinzai sect into itsSôtô style of practice. Despite its relatively small size in Japan, SanbôKyôdan has deeply influenced Zen inthe West, especially in America. Zenteachers active in the West who havestudied with the Sanbô Kyôdan includeRobert Aitken, Philip Kapleau, BernardGlassman, Maureen Stuart, and RichardBaker. See also lay believer.

SanbukkiThree memorial days commemoratingthe historical Buddha SiddhartaGautama’s birth, enlightenment, anddeath. In Japanese, the birth of theBuddha is formally called Kôtan-e but ismore popularly known as Hana Matsuri,or Flower Festival. It was traditionallyobserved on the eighth day of the fourthlunar month, but in Japan it is now cele-brated on April 8. The festival celebratingthe Buddha’s enlightenment under thebodhi tree is known as Jôdô-e, orRôhatsu. It was traditionally observedon the eighth day of the twelfth lunarmonth but is now on December 8 inJapan. The Nirvana Festival, or Nehan-e,commemorating the Buddha’s entry intothe final nirvana at his death, was tradi-tionally observed on the fifteenth day ofthe second lunar month and is now cele-brated on February 15 in Japan. In SouthAsia and South East Asia, Buddhists cele-brate the three events on a single day,usually in May.

SanbutsujiThree Buddhist ritual actions performedas a part of funerals and memorial services. They are 1) tencha butsuji,offering hot tea; 2) tentô butsuji,

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offering hot sweetened water; and 3)ako, the symbolic starting of the crema-tion fire with a torch.

Sanbyakusoku“Three Hundred Cases,” a collection ofthree hundred kôan, compiled by theSôtô master Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253).The text is more widely known as theSanbyakusoku Shôbôgenzô. It is com-posed in Chinese and may have originallybeen entitled simply Shôbôgenzô. In theSanbyakusoku, Dôgen brings togethertraditional kôan materials that he col-lected in China while practicing under theChinese master Ju-ching (1163–1228). Itis possible that Dôgen composed themore famous Shôbôgenzô in Japanese as acommentary on the Chinese text.

Lost for several centuries, theSanbyakusoku was discovered during theTokugawa period (1600–1867) by EinShigetsu (d. 1764). Shigetsu’s disciple,Honkô Katsudô, published the work,with a brief commentary on each case byhis master. The text, published under thename Nempyô Sanbyakusoku Funô Go,caused some controversy in Japan. Sôtôscholars had long maintained that Dôgencompletely rejected the use of kôan, sothey initially denounced theSanbyakusoku text as a forgery. Thus, thetext does not usually appear in moderneditions of the collected works of Dôgen.Scholars now accept the theory thatDôgen compiled the Chinese text, andthey study it as a part of Dôgen’s works.

In order to reduce confusion and dis-tinguish between the ChineseSanbyakusoku Shôbôgenzô and theJapanese language text, the former issometimes called the Shinji Shôbôgenzô,the “Shôbôgenzô in Proper Characters,”while the latter is known as the KejiShôbôgenzô, the “Shôbôgenzô inTemporary Characters.” See also Sôtô sect.

Sandai SôronThird Generation Schism, a sectarian dis-pute within the early Sôtô sect in Japanover who legitimately served as the thirdabbot at Eihei-ji, the main monastery. The

various traditional accounts posit a seri-ous conflict between Tettsu Gikai(1219–1309) and Gien (d. ca. 1313), twoprominent disciples of Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253). Dôgen, founder and firstabbot at Eihei-ji, appointed his discipleEjô to serve as the second abbot. Ejôseems to have appointed Gikai to succeedhim. Gikai assumed the post but facedserious difficulties during his tenure asabbot, and was eventually forced out ofEihei-ji. Gien then assumed leadership atthe monastery. Gikai’s departure is said tohave created a schism within the nascentsect, which left Eihei-ji in decline for manyyears. In traditional versions of the schism,Gikai is often portrayed as a progressivewho tried to popularize Sôtô by introduc-ing new styles of ritual, while Gien is pre-sented as a conservative who sought tomaintain the traditional Sôtô practice.

Bodiford, William M. Sôtô Zen inMedieval Japan. Honolulu, HI:University of Hawaii Press, 1993.

SandokuJapanese for the three poisons: greed,anger, and ignorance. See three poi-sons.

San’e“Three robes,” the three types of kesa (Sk.kashaya) worn by monks and nuns. Theseinclude the five-strip robe (J. gojôe), origi-nally an inner garment, the seven-striprobe (J. shichijôe), originally an outer gar-ment worn inside monastery grounds,and the nine-strip robe (J. kujôe), origi-nally an outer formal garment worn out-side the monastery. See kesa.

San’e Ippatsu“Three robes, one bowl,” the most basicpossessions of a Buddhist monk or nun.The term refers to the three types of kesaand the begging bowl, the only posses-sions monks and nuns were tradition-ally allowed to own. An alternatetransliteration is sanne ippatsu. Seethree robes, one bowl.

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SangaiThree realms or three worlds of ordi-nary, unenlightened existence. InJapanese these are: 1) yokkai, the realmof desire; 2) shikikai, the realm of form;and 3) mushikika, the realm of no form.See three realms.

Sangai Yui IsshinThe three realms (of desire, form, andformlessness) are mind only. MahayanaBuddhism teaches that all phenomenaexperienced in ordinary life are actuallythe products of the mind. SeeConsciousness Only.

SangakuThe Three Learnings. A Japanese expres-sion for the threefold training of wisdom(J. egaku, Sk. prajna), morality (J. kaigaku,Sk. sila), and concentration (J. jôgaku,Sk. samadhi) in Buddhism. These threeareas of learning are said to encompassthe whole of Buddhist teaching andpractice. Zen masters accept this basicBuddhist formula, identifying Zenmeditation as the fundamental formof training in concentration. See three-fold training.

SangeRepentance for one’s evil thoughts andactions. The Japanese translation of theSanskrit term kshama.

SangedatsumonThree gates to emancipation, a refer-ence to three kinds of meditation, orgedatsu. In Japanese these are: 1) kûgedatsu, release through meditation onemptiness; 2) musô gedatsu, releasethrough meditation on no-attributes;and 3) mugan gedatsu, release throughmeditation on no desire. See Threegates to emancipation.

SangemonRepentance verse, a verse taken fromthe Avatamsaka Sutra and used torepent for evil deeds. The verse reads:

“All the karmic hindrances I have accu-mulated originated from passion,hatred, and ignorance. They are theproduct of my own physical, verbal, andmental misconduct. I confess them all.”

Sangha(J. sôgya or shu) The community ofBuddhist believers, which includes thefour assemblies of monks (J. bhikkhu),nuns (J. bhikkhuni), laymen (J.upâsaka), and lay women (J. upâsikâ).The community dates back to the lifetime of the Siddharta Gautama, thehistorical Buddha, who accepted layand monastic followers during his forty-five years of traveling and teaching. The sangha is regarded as oneof the three treasures, along with the Buddha and the Dharma, theBuddha’s teachings. The sangha strivesto live by the Buddha’s teachings and toperpetuate them.

Many of Siddharta Gautama’s follow-ers venerated the Buddha and his teach-ings, but chose to continue to live as laybelievers in the secular world. Theypracticed a modified form of the disciplein the monastic community. Other disci-ples abandoned their ordinary life towholly dedicate themselves to the prac-tice of Buddhism as monks and nuns.

In the early period of Buddhism’sdevelopment, monks and nuns lived anitinerant life patterned on that of thehistorical Buddha, traveling much of theyear from village to village, teaching oth-ers and seeking to fully realize for them-selves the Buddhist goal of nirvana.They settled down only during thethree-month rainy season (approxi-mately July to October), because it madetravel impractical. As a sign that theyhad completely abandoned ordinaryattachments to material possessions,monks and nuns owned nothing otherthan their robes, begging bowl, and afew other minor items they could carrywith them. Their other material needswere supplied by lay Buddhists.

In the early stage, the monastic com-munity had no permanent dwellings,only temporary shelters. Over time, the

monastic community developed pat-terns of returning to the same areas,building relationships with the local layBuddhist community. Lay believersgradually built more permanent struc-tures that the monks and nuns could usefor the rainy season retreat. Thesestructures were precursors to the majormonasteries that lay devotees eventu-ally built when the monastic communitymodified the practice of perpetual travelto allow for permanent residence.

The two parts of the sangha, lay andmonastic, traditionally remain in closecontact and support each other in a reci-procal relationship. Lay believers providefor the material necessities of monks andnuns by donating food, clothing, andshelter. Monks and nuns reciprocate byproviding for the spiritual needs of the laypeople, teaching them the BuddhistDharma and allowing the lay people tobuild their merit through donations.

SanjiThree Ages, a Japanese term for theThree Ages of the Dharma, three periods of progressive deterioration ofthe Buddhist teachings, practice, andattainment of enlightenment, whichfollow the death of the historicalBuddha. The first age is Shôhô, the Age of the True Dharma; the second isZôhô, the Age of the SemblanceDharma; and the third is Mappô, theLatter Age of the Dharma. See ThreeAges of the Dharma.

SanjôThe three vehicles, in Japanese. Theyare the vehicles of shômon (Sk.shravaka), engaku (Sk. pratyekabuddha), and bosatsu (Sk. bodhisattva).See three vehicles.

SanjujôkaiThe three pure precepts, representingthe ideals of Mahayana Buddhism thatbodhisattvas strive to realize. The pre-cepts are: 1) do no evil, 2) do good, and3) benefit all sentient beings. In

the Sôtô Zen sect, monks and nuns takethe three pure precepts as part of theirordination. The sanjujôkai constitutethree of the sixteen bodhisattva precepts of Sôtô Zen (J. jûrokujôkai).See also Sôtô sect.

SankanThird barrier, the last of three sets ofkôan used by some Zen monasteries inmedieval Japan (1185–1600). The firstand second barriers were known asshokan and ryôkan, respectively. Thesankan, derived from the Mumonkan,were preceded by kôan sets from theHekiganroku (Blue Cliff Record) and theSayings of Lin-chi.

SankikaiTo take refuge (J. kie) in the three trea-sures: the Buddha, the Dharma, and thesangha. Literally, the term sankikaimeans the precepts of the three refuges,which are precepts in the context of Zenordination rituals in the Sôtô sect. Sôtômonks and nuns take the three refugesas the first three precepts of the sixteen(J. jûrokujôkai) received at ordination.The formula “I take refuge in theBuddha; I take refuge in the Dharma; Itake refuge in the sangha” is repeatedthree times.

Sanku“The three phrases,” a formulaicexpression developed as a teachingdevice by Lin-chi I-hsuan, the founderof the Rinzai school of Zen. The term sanku is a Japanese rendering of the Chinese word san-chu. See three phrases.

Sanku(2) Three sufferings. The three kinds ofhuman suffering arise from sickness orhunger (J. kuku), separation from plea-sure (J. eku), and the impermanence ofthings (J. gyôku). See Three sufferings.

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Sankyô Itchi“The three teachings are one,” a tradi-tional religious concept first developedin China, maintaining that Buddhism,Confucianism, and Taoism are essen-tially compatible and unified. The concept was widely accepted by ChineseZen masters beginning in the Sungdynasty (960–1279) and spread through-out East Asia. In Japan, the same expres-sion sometimes is interpreted to includeBuddhism, Confucianism, and Shintô,the indigenous religion of the Japanesepeople.

Sankyû NembutsuThe use of the nembutsu, that is, chant-ing the name of the Buddha, as a kôan.The so-called Nembutsu kôan generallytakes the form of a question such as,“Who chants the nembutsu?”

San-lun School“Three Treatises” school of ChineseBuddhism, the Chinese Mâdhyamikaschool that arose during the Southernand Northern dynasties. The school’sname derives from the threeMadhyamika texts on which its teach-ings are based: the Mâdhyamaka Karika(Treatise on the Middle; C. Chung-lun),Dvadashadvara-shastra (Treatise inOne Hundred Verses; C. Po-lun) ofNagarjuna, and the Shata-shastra(Treatise of Twelve Categories; C. Shih-erh-men) of Aryadeva. Kumarajivatransmitted these texts to China, trans-lating them into Chinese. AmongKumarajiva’s Chinese disciples wasSeng-chao (374–414), who wrote trea-tises on San-lun thought. The teachingswere later systematized by the Koreanmaster Chi-tsang (549–623). They weretransmitted to Japan in the seventh cen-tury, where the school became known asthe Sanron school.

SanmaiSee sammai.

SanmiThree levels, term used for a traditionalthree-part schema of kôan in the Sôtô school. The three levels are knownas Richi (Ultimate Truth), kikan(devices), and kôjô (reality itself). Seealso Sôtô sect.

Bodiford, William M. Sôtô Zen inMedieval Japan. Honolulu, HI:University of Hawaii Press, 1993.

SanmonThe large gate that serves as the mainentryway into a Zen monastery, one ofseven buildings forming the basic coreof a Zen monastery ( J. shichidôgaran). The word sanmon is writtenwith characters meaning either“mountain gate”—a reference to thefact that every Zen monastery regard-less of location includes a mountainname as part of its full, formal name—or “triple gate.” The typical architec-tural form is a two-story building witha tile roof, divided into three sections,hence the name triple gate. Massivedoors hang in the center section, andimages of the Two Guardian Kings (J.Niô) are usually displayed on the outersections of the gate.

At Rinzai sect and Obaku sect monasteries in Japan, the gatestands independently, without any connections to other buildings or passageways. In medieval monasteries,the gate was incorporated into the outer wall of the monastery, making itthe primary entrance for visitors andmonks alike. Either way, the gate isregarded as the formal entrance to themonastery grounds.

The sanmon is the site for a numberof formal Zen rituals, such as the installation ceremony for a new abbots and the formal greeting offeredto visiting dignitaries.

Sanne-in YuikaiThe final instructions for Sanne-in, a setof admonitions composed by MusôSôseki (1275–1351) in 1339 for his

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descendants at Sanne-in, a subtemple(J. tatchû) of Rinsen-ji. Also writtensan’e-in ikai.

SanpaiThree lacquered wood tablets arrangedin front of the main image (J. honzon) inthe Buddha hall (J. Butsuden) at a Zentemple. Inscribed characters wish goodfortune on the imperial family and otherpowerful patrons of the temple. Thepractice of using Sanpai originated inChina during the Sung dynasty(960–1279). It was transmitted to Japanin the fourteenth century along withother Zen practices.

The inscriptions on the Sanpai differfrom one period of Zen history toanother. Sung dynasty tablets bore theinscriptions “Long Live the Emperor” onthe center tablet and “Prosperity andGood Fortune to Patrons” and “Hail tothe Lord of Fire” on the side tablets.Later, during the Yüan dynasty(1260–1368), the tablets read “Long Livethe Emperor” in the center, “GraciousYears to the Empress” on the left, and “AThousand Autumns for the CrownPrince” on the right. The Sung dynastyinscriptions were the norm in JapaneseZen temples, but during the Tokugawaperiod (1600–1867), the dedication tothe fire deity was sometimes supplanted

The sanmon is a large gate at the entrance of a Zen monastery.

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by a tablet with the inscription “LongLife and Prosperity for the Shôgun.”

Collcutt, Martin. Five Mountains: TheRinzai Zen Monastic Institution inMedieval Japan. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press, 1981.

Sanpai(2) Three bows or prostrations performedto indicate one’s respectfulness in all actions, using the gotai tôchi, a full prostration on the floor. Repeating thebow three times is said to symbolize thethree kinds of action (J. sango), those ofbody, speech, and mind. Monks and nunstypically perform sanpai before and afterreciting the sutras at morning and after-noon services and on other occasions.

Sanron School“Three Treatises” school, one of the SixSchools of Japanese Buddhism duringthe Nara period (710–794). This schoolof thought derived from the San-lunschool of Chinese Buddhism, a systembased on Mâdhyamaka philosophicalwritings. This name derives from thethree Madhyamika texts on which itsteachings are based: the MâdhyamakaKarika (Treatise on the Middle; J.Chûron), Dvadashadvara-shastra (Treatisein One Hundred Verses; J. Hyakuron) ofNagarjuna, and the Shara-shastra(Treatise of Twelve Categories; J.Jûnimonron) of Aryadeva. Kumarajivatransmitted these texts to China, trans-lating them into Chinese. The Koreanmonk Ekan (d. 1251), a disciple of Chi-tsang, transmitted the teachings toJapan in 625.

SansammaiThree samadhi, three levels of samadhi,or realization. In Japanese these are: 1)kûzanmai, samadhi of emptiness; 2)musô zanmai, samadhi of no attributes;and 3) mugan zanmai, samadhi of nodesire. See three samadhi.

SanshinThree bodies of the Buddha, aMahayana Buddhism concept of theBuddha. In Japanese the three arehosshin (Dharmakaya), hôjin (samb-hogakaya), and ojin (Sk. nirmanakaya).See three bodies of the Buddha.

Sanshu SambôThree ways of understanding the threetreasures, as taught by MahayanaBuddhism. They are genzen sambô, jûjisambô, and ittai sambô, or the threetreasures as manifest, as enduring, andas one. See three treasures.

SantaiThe Threefold Truth, the Japanesename for the Tien-t’ai teaching. SeeThreefold Truth.

SanzenGoing to see the Zen master for instruc-tion. In the Rinzai school, the term isoften used synonymously with the worddokusan, for the private interviews stu-dents have with the Zen master.Literally, sanzen means “practicingmeditation.” It may include zazenmediation, or to contemplate a kôanunder the instruction of a Zen master.See also Rinzai sect.

SanzôThe Japanese title for the Tripitaka, thethree part scriptures of TheravadaBuddhism. The term literally means“three storehouses,” the rough equiva-lent of the “Three Baskets,” indicated bythe Sanskrit name. The three parts of theSanzô include: 1) kyô (Sk. sutras), thesermons of the Buddha; 2) ritsu (Sk.vinaya), the monastic rules of disci-pline; and 3) ron (Sk. shastras), com-mentaries on the Buddha’s teachings.

Sanzô(2) Mountain monk; a humble term usedby Zen monks referring to themselves.Sometimes pronounced sansô, the term

is used in much the same self-deprecat-ing spirit as expressions like “this foolishmonk” (sessô) or “this rustic monk”(yasô). Since all Zen monasteries havemountain names, all Zen monks can becalled mountain monks, regardless oftheir monastery’s location.

Historically, the term designated amonk living and practicing in the moun-tains. At one time, the Tendai sectmonks from Mount Hiei were called“sanzô” to distinguish them from thetemple monks living a more comfort-able life in the capital city of Nara.

Sarei(J. chanoyû) A tea ceremony held rou-tinely at Zen monasteries. Sarei is helddaily in the monks’ hall (J. sôdô) orzendô (meditation hall) after themonks or nuns return from breakfast. Atthe morning tea service, attendance ischecked to see that all monks or nunsare present. Daily tasks are assigned atthe end of the sarei.

Sasaki Shigetsu(1882–1945) Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe modern period who was influentialin spreading Zen in the United States.Shigetsu is better known by his teachingname Sôkei-an Roshi, although his for-mal religious name is actually SôshinTaikô. Shigetsu practiced as a lay personwith Shaku Sôkatash and became hisDharma heir. He took the tonsure onlyafter he had already received inka, orDharma transmission. He traveled tothe United States and in 1931 estab-lished The First Zen Institute of Americain New York City. See also Rinzai sect.

SatoriEnlightenment, the immediate experi-ence of reality. Satori, regarded as thegoal of Zen Buddhist practice, is typi-cally described as a state of understand-ing that transcends differentiation andduality. The term satori is the most com-mon Japanese expression used forenlightenment within Zen texts. It is

often used as a synonym for kenshô.The character is alternatively pro-nounced “go” in Japanese. The Chinesepronunciation is “wu.”

Sayings of Lin-chiA text in one division (T. 47, no. 1985, pp.495–506), which preserves the teachingsof the T’ang dynasty Zen master Lin-chiI-hsuan (d. 866), the founder of theRinzai sect school of Zen Buddhism.The Sayings of Lin-chi (J. Rinzai-roku) isamong the most important classical Zentexts. It is comprised of three sections,the recorded sayings and sermons,interactions with disciples, and pilgrim-age accounts. Some versions of the textinclude a biographical sketch appendedat the end. The full Chinese title is Chen-chou Lin-chi Hui-chao Ch’an-shih Yu-lu,the “Recorded Sayings of Zen MasterLin-chi Hui-chao of Chen-chao.” It ismost often abbreviated as Lin-chiCh’an-shih Yu-lu or simply Lin-chi Lu.The original text was compiled by Lin-chi’s disciple San-sheng Hui-jan. A lateredition, with a preface by Ma Fang, wascompleted by Yuan-chueh Tsng-yen in1120. Complete English translations ofthe text include Ruth Fuller Sasaki’s TheRecord of Lin-chi (Institute for ZenStudies, 1975) and Burton Watson’s TheZen Teachings of Master Lin-chi(Shambhala, 1993).

Second BarrierThe second of three sets of kôan used bysome Zen monasteries in medievalJapan (1185–1600). See ryôkan.

Second PatriarchUsually refers to Hui-k’o (487–593) Ta-shih (487–593), the second ChinesePatriarch of Zen, who, tradition says,directly inherited the Dharma fromBodhidharma. In rare cases, the titleapplies to Mahakashyapa, the secondIndian patriarch, who received theDharma from Shakyamuni (SiddhartaGautama), the historical Buddha. SeeHui-k’o and Mahakashyapa.

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SegakiA Buddhist ritual offered for the sake ofhungry ghosts (J. gaki). Segaki is thecommon Japanese abbreviation forsegaki-e, which literally means “ritualfor offering alms to hungry ghosts.” Theritual is held at Buddhist temples andmonasteries throughout East Asia, par-ticularly during the Festival of the Dead(J. Obon). Special altars are constructed,and monks and nuns chant sutras andoffer rice and water to the beings suffer-ing in hell. Segaki is regarded as animportant ritual for those deceasedsouls who have no living relative to offerservices for them. See ullambana.

SeianThe western retreat. An alternativeexpression for seidô. See seidô.

SeidôLiterally, the western hall, sometimescalled seian, or western retreat. Seidô is a title of respect for former abbotsresiding at a temple other than the oneat which they served as abbot. They aredistinguished from tôdô, or the easternhall, which are the retired abbotsremaining at the temple where theyserved. Traditionally, these namesderive from the halls where these high ranking monks lived. Today, theterm seidô is used in the Sôtô sect as atitle of respect for any high-rankingmonk residing in a temple where he is not the abbot.

SeihanThe “Western rank,” a group of monasticofficers who assist the abbot with mat-ters related to meditation and spiritualtraining of the community. Within everyZen monastery, administrative aspectsof temple management are handledseparately from spiritual aspects ofmonastic life. The distinct duties areentrusted to two sets of officers, referredto as the Western ranks and Easternranks (J. tôhan). Both ranks fall underthe direction of the abbot, who is

responsible for the operation of thecommunity as a whole.

The Western rank of officers have thisname because their primary duties arein monastic halls that are traditionallyon the western side of the grounds.Officers of the Western rank, referred tocollectively as the prefects (J. chôshu),include the chief seat (J. shuso), thescribe (J. shoki), the sutra prefect (J.zôsu), the guest prefect (J. shika), thebathkeeper (J. chiyoku), and the prefectof the Buddha hall (J. chiden).

Seiza“Quiet sitting,” an expression used forsitting calmly in meditation. It is alter-natively pronounced jôza. Seiza mayoccasionally refer to Zen meditation, ormore often, to the meditative practicesof Sung or Neo-Confucianism. The termalso refers to the traditional Japaneseposture of sitting with buttocks restingon heels.

SeizanWest Mountain, the Japanese name for Hsi-shan, the monastery of theFourth Zen Patriarch Tao-hsin(580–651). See Hsi-shan.

Sekiri DarumaOne Sandal Bodhidharma, Japanesereference to the story of Bodhidharmareturning to India after his death whilecarrying a single straw sandal. See alsoStraw Sandal Bodhidharma.

Sekishu KôanThe Kôan of One Hand, the mostfamous kôan created by Hakuin Ekaku(1685–1768). The basic form of the kôan is the question, “What is the soundof one hand clapping?” See One Hand kôan.

SekkaiThe explanation of the precepts given as a part of the ordination ceremony.On this occasion, the precept master

explains the sect’s configuration ofmonastic precepts. In most cases, thesewill include the three refuges and eitherthe ten precepts from the Theravadatradition or the bodhisattva preceptsof the Mahayana. In earlier usage, theterm sekkai referred to the practice of reading or reciting the entire monastic code aloud twice each monthat the uposatha assemblies. See also Mahayana Buddhism andTheravada Buddhism.

SekkanA flagpole located at the monastery gatefrom which a temple flag or Dharmabanner (J. setsuban) is hung. The flagindicates that the resident abbot orhead monk will be holding a sermonopen to the public. The twenty-secondcase of the Mumonkan is entitled“Kashyapa’s Flagpole.” “Ananda onceasked Kashyapa, ‘Other than the goldenrobe, did the World-Honored Onetransmit anything else to you?’Kashyapa called to him, ‘Ananda!’Ananda responded. Kashyapa said,‘Knock down the flag pole at the templegate!’” This episode is used as a teachingdevice called a kôan, a cryptic passagefrom Zen literature that students use in meditation.

Sekkô Sôshin(1408–1486) Japanese Rinzai monkof the Ashikaga period (1392–1568) who reinvigorated the Zen style atMyôshin-ji and restored its buildingsand grounds after the devastation ofthe Onin War. He served as abbot atMyôshin-ji, Daitoku-ji, and othermajor Rinzai monasteries. He receivedthe posthumous title ButsunichiShinshô Zenji (Zen Master True Lightof the Buddha’s Sun). His four primarydisciples were Gokei Sôton (1416–1500),Keisen Sôryû (1425–1500), TokuhôZenketsu (1419–1506), and Tôyô Eichô(1438–1504). See also Rinzai sect.

Self Power(J. Jiriki) The endeavor to attain enlight-enment through one’s own efforts andmerit, especially through the practicesof Buddhism, including meditation.Self power is contrasted with OtherPower (J. Tariki), the reliance on themerit of another being, such as a buddha or bodhisattva, for spiritualgrowth and advancement towardenlightenment. Zen Buddhism is amongthe schools of Buddhism that expectindividuals to rely on their own efforts in order to attain enlightenment. Zen encourages believers to turn inwardin meditation to seek realization of their true nature, rather than outwardtoward external objects of devotion.Other schools of Buddhism, mostnotably the Pure Land schools, encour-age faith in a buddha as the basic meansfor spiritual advancement, recommend-ing complete reliance on the power ofthe Buddha rather than on one’s ownreligious practice.

Sembutsujô(J. zendô) The meditation hall at a Zenmonastery. Sembutsujô literally means“the place where buddhas are selected.”Since most Zen practitioners attainenlightenment while practicing seatedmeditation, this term has come to beanother name for the zendô.

Semmon DôjôThe training hall at a Zen monastery; a Zen training monastery. The term usually refers to a place designated forthe practice of zazen or other training in the practice of Buddhism. In theRinzai sect, the term is most commonlyused for its large training monasteries,including Daitoku-ji in Kyoto, Kenchô-ji and Engaku-ji in Kamakura,and Myôshin-ji, Nanzen-ji, and Tenryû-ji. In the Sôtô sect, the termmay be used for the monks’ hall (J. sôdô)at one of the main monasteries, Eihei-jiand Sôji-ji, where monks in trainingpractice zazen.

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Most local Zen temples in Japan are too small to include a training hall,and Zen meditation is not a regular part of the daily routine. These templesserve the surrounding community, providing services at festival times, as well as funeral and memorial services for member families. The largermonasteries, where monks receive theirtraining, have daily Zen meditation and training. In some cases, interestedlay people may have the option to join.See also lay believer.

SendaiShortened form of issendai. TheJapanese rendering of the Sanskriticchantika, a sentient being without the capacity to attain enlightenment.See icchantika.

Seng-chao(374–414) Chinese Buddhist monk ofthe early Chinese Mâdhyamaka or San-lun school, one of the most impor-tant Buddhist thinkers of his day. Hisbiography says that he came from apoor family and studied Taoist textsbefore turning to Buddhism. Seng-chaowas the leading Chinese disciple ofKumarajiva, and together they trans-lated Buddhist scriptures into Chinese.Seng-chao wrote the four-essay collec-tion Chao-lun. His various works werehighly influential among the Zen mas-ters of the T’ang (618–907) and Sung(960–1279) dynasties.

SengeA polite term commonly used to indi-cate the death of a monk or nun, espe-cially a prominent individual. The termliterally means “to move away.” It canrefer to the movement of a bodhisattvafrom one place (or lifetime) to anotherto save sentient beings trapped in thesix realms of existence. This makes it afitting euphemism for the passing of aBuddhist monk or nun.

Seng-ts’an(d. 606; J. Sôsan) The Third ChinesePatriarch of Zen, according to tradition.Although nothing is known for certainabout Seng-tsan, traditional Zenaccounts maintain that Hui-k’o(487–593) designated him as hisDharma heir by presenting him with acopy of the Lankavatara Sutra, and thathe, in turn, designated Tao-hsin(580–651) as his heir. See also Hsin-hsin-ming.

Senju“Exclusive practice,” a Japaneseexpression describing forms ofBuddhism that stress a single form ofpractice to the exclusion or near exclu-sion of all others, especially the prac-tice of chanting the nembutsu. Senjunembutsu is the exclusive practice pro-moted within some schools of PureLand Buddhism. It rejects the efficacyof any other practice, such as readingsutras or meditation. Zen itself hasbeen described as a form of exclusivepractice stressing meditation over allother forms of practice.

Senju DaraniA Buddhist spell or dharani extolling themerits of the Senju Kannon, theThousand-armed Kannon. The dharani,which includes eighty-two phrases andderives from the Senjukyô, is widelyused in the esoteric schools ofBuddhism and in the Zen sects. Senjudarani is one common abbreviation forthe Senju sengen kanzeon bosatsuemman muge daihishin darani. Alsoknown as the Daihi darani or Daihi ju.See also esoteric Buddhism.

Sen No Rikyû(1521–1591) Sôeki Rikyû, a Japanese Zenmonk of the late Ashikaga period(1392–1568), best known as the fore-most tea master of his time. Rikyûserved as advisor and tea master toboth Oda Nobunaga and ToyotomiHideyoshi. Two schools of the tea

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ceremony (J. chanoyû), the Ura-senkeand Omote-senke, continue to practiceRikyû’s style.

Sentient BeingsLiving beings. Although the term usu-ally refers to human beings, Buddhismalso recognizes sentient beings residingin six paths (J. rokudô), or levels of existence. The six realms encompasshuman beings, animals, heavenlybeings, hell dwellers, hungry ghosts,and ashura, loosely translated as evildemi-gods. All sentient beings, eventhose dwelling comfortably in heaven,are caught in the cycle of reincarnation(Sk. samsara) and thus suffer and needto attain release through the practice ofBuddhism. Since progress towardrelease can only be made by humanbeings, the focus of Buddhism remainson the human world.

Senzaki Nyogen(1876–1958) Japanese monk of theRinzai sect influential in spreading Zento the West. Nyogen, the Dharma heir ofShaku Sôen (1859–1919), traveled to theUnited States and taught Zen toAmerican disciples in both SanFrancisco and Los Angeles.

Seppô Gison(822–908) Japanese transliteration ofHsüeh-feng I-ts’un (822–908), ChineseZen monk of the late T’ang period(618–907). See Hsüeh-feng I-ts’un.

SermonsThere are several styles of sermons char-acteristic of Zen monastic practice inJapan, from formal, ritualized presenta-tions to informal instruction. At daisan,or Great Assemblies, the abbot of a Zenmonastery addresses the entire monas-tic community in the main hall, giving aformal Dharma lecture and allowing forsubsequent questions and discussion.This formal sermon, known in Japaneseas a teishô, usually includes the master’s

commentary on a particular kôan or ashort passage from another classic Zentext. Abbots traditionally give less for-mal talks in their quarters to smallgroups of disciples; these are known asshôsan, or “Small Assemblies.”

In addition to sermons presentedorally to an audience, there are also Zensermons preserved in written form. Thegeneral Japanese term for written sermons is hôgo, or “Dharma words.”Hôgo likewise include a range of formaland colloquial styles. In general, formalhôgo are short texts in classical Chinese,while colloquial instructions, known askanahôgo, are written in Japanese.

SesonWorld-Honored One, the Japanesetranslation for the Sanskrit wordBhagavat, most commonly used in ref-erence to Shakyamuni (SiddhartaGautama). See World-Honored One.

Sesshin(“encountering the mind,” “collectingone’s thoughts”) Period of intensivemeditative practice, traditionally sevendays and nights, held periodically at Zenmonasteries. During the sesshin, partic-ipants devote the entire day to medita-tion, nearly ceasing all their regularactivities, such as manual labor andstudy. It is common for a monastic community to reduce the hours of sleepallowed each night during the sesshin.In some cases, the participants foregosleep altogether throughout the sesshin.Participants typically have the opportu-nity to visit with the Zen master for dokusan at least daily duringsesshin. The master also traditionallygives sermons, or teishô, during the sesshin. In many monasteries,sesshin are held twice each year, in winter and in summer.

Setchô Jûken(980–1052) Japanese transliteration of Hsüeh-tou Ch’ung-hsien (980–1052), Chinese Zen monk of the

Yun-men school from the early Sungdynasty (960–1279). See Hsüeh-touCh’ung-hsien.

SetsubanA temple flag hung by the monasterygate to announce an upcoming lectureor service to the public. The temple flagwill fly during retreat periods when aresident abbot offers regularly sched-uled talks (J. teishô) or when there arespecial events, such as a visiting lecturer.In the Sôtô sect, the banner is used toannounce the opening of the summer orwinter retreats. The practice of using abanner to announce the location of asermon is said to date back to IndianBuddhism. The temple flag is alsoknown as Hôdô, or Dharma banner, andthe flagpole is called a sekkan.

The twenty-ninth case of theMumonkan involves a discussion of asetsuban flapping in the wind. Twomonks were arguing about it; one saidthat it was the flag that moved, while theother maintained that it was the windmoving. Overhearing their discussion,the Sixth Patriarch stepped in and set-tled the matter, saying, “It is not thewind that moves, nor is it the flag thatmoves. It is your mind that moves.”

SetsuwaShort didactic stories or legends. Theseform a genre of Japanese literature thatis closely associated with Buddhism.Setsuwa are usually placed in collec-tions, such as the Konjaku Monogatari.Scholars believe that Buddhist monksand nuns used setsuwa in their popularpreaching to teach lay people basicBuddhist concepts and virtues. See alsolay believer.

Seven Buddhas of the Past(J. kako shichibutsu) The seven buddhasfrom previous ages enumerated at thebeginning of the Transmission of theLamp (C. Ching-te Ch’üan-teng Lu; J.Keitoku Dentôroku) and other traditionalaccounts of the history of Zen Buddhism.

The group of seven buddhas includesVipashyin buddha, Shikhin buddha,Vishvabhu buddha, Krakucchandabuddha, Kanakamuni buddha, Kashyapabuddha, and Shakyamuni buddha(Siddharta Gautama). The first three aresaid to have lived during the previous eonand the latter four in the present eon.Shakyamuni, an honorific name forSiddharta Gautama, who was presentedas the most recent in a line of innumer-able historical buddhas, serves as the piv-otal figure who transmits the Dharmadirectly to Mahakashyapa, the firstIndian patriarch of Zen. The account ofthe Seven Buddhas of the Past thus servesas a pre-history to the story of Zen proper.

With the exception of Shakyamunibuddha, the Transmission of the Lampdoes not include stories recounting thelives of the buddhas of the past. The sec-tions related to the first six buddhas fol-low a stylized format, including only a fewstandard biographical details, such as theplace of birth, family name, and leadingdisciples. The text also provides a poemattributed to each buddha. Zen scholarsregard the Shakyamuni buddha as theonly historical figure in the list.

The opening passage of the Trans-mission of the Lamp indicates that theauthor selected seven individuals from theone thousand buddhas who appeared inrecent eons. By portraying Shakyamunibuddha as the most recent in a line of his-torical buddhas, the text seeks to validateZen not merely as a venerable traditionand an authentic school of Buddhism, butas the authentic form of Buddhism.

Sohaku, Ogata, trans. The Transmission ofthe Lamp: Early Masters. Wolfeboro,NH: Longwood Academic, 1989.

Seven Lucky GodsShichifukujin, seven deities revered inJapan as gods who bring good fortune.The deities are also understood asembodiments of various virtues. They areusually depicted sailing in a treasure ship(J. takarabune). Originally worshippedindividually, they were eventuallygrouped together and became an object286

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Depiction of the Seven Lucky Gods, who bring good fortune.

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of popular devotion starting in the fif-teenth century. Now popularly identifiedas patron deities for a variety of occupa-tions and trades, they include Daikokuand Ebisu, gods of business; Bishamon,the patron of doctors and travelers;Benten (or Benzaiten), the patron of thearts; Fukurokuju and Jurojin, the gods oflearning; and Hotei, the patron of fortunetellers and liquor merchants.

Benzaiten, Bishamon, and Daikokuare from Indian mythology, while Hotei,Fukurokuju, and Jurojin are from Chinesemythology. Hotei was a historical person,the Zen monk Pu-tai (d. 916). Ebisu is anindigenous Japanese deity (J. kami). TheSeven Gods of Fortune are associatedwith the New Year, when they are said tosail down from heaven to distribute goodfortune for the coming year.

Seven Schools(C. ch’i-tsung, J. shichishû) The seven lin-eages of Chinese Zen active during theSung dynasty (960–1279). The sevenschools include the earlier T’ang dynastyZen lineages known as the five houses,along with two new Rinzai lineagesfounded during the Sung dynasty. Theoriginal five houses include the Yun-menschool (J. Ummon-shû), the Kuei-yangschool (J. Igyô-shû), the Ts’ao-tungschool (J. Sôtô-shû), the Lin-chi school (J.Rinzai-shû), and the Fa-yen school (J.Hôgen-shû). The two additional branchesof the Lin-chi school were the Yang-ch’ischool (J. Yôgi-shû) and the Huang-lungschool (J. Oryô-shû). These lineages arecommonly referred to as the five housesand seven schools. See individual entriesfor more information. See also Rinzai sect.

SexualityTraditional Zen views of human sexualityfall comfortably within the broader realmof Buddhist morality. That is to say,human sexual behavior, especially sexualdesire, is not regarded as inherently evil orgood, but it is seen as one of the mostpowerful hindrances to religious practiceand the attainment of enlightenment.Thus, for example, the vinaya texts

specifically forbid all forms of sexualbehavior for monks and nuns. The vinayacodes called for the automatic expulsionfrom the monastic community of anymonk or nun who engaged in sexualintercourse. Although the Zen monasticcodes are not an exact replication of theolder vinaya codes, celibacy has been theexpected norm in traditional Zen monas-teries. Traditionally, appropriate sexualbehavior for Buddhist lay practitionersincludes sexual intercourse only withinthe confines of marriage.

Throughout the history of the Zentradition, some masters have rejectedsome aspects of the Zen monastic code,including the traditional understandingof sexuality, eating meat, and drinkingalcohol. Taking the view that all distinc-tions such as good and evil, moral andimmoral are dualities that are tran-scended in enlightenment, certain Zenteachers have regarded sexual relationsas permissible. This approach has beenseverely criticized by other Zen teachersas a misunderstanding of “Zen free-dom” that leads to degenerate behavior.

Zen monasticism in Japan has under-gone a significant change since the latenineteenth century. Within the varioussects of Zen Buddhism in Japan today,most priests marry and raise families,although nuns continue to practicecelibacy. In this regard, modern JapaneseZen differs from other modern forms ofZen in East Asia. In the West, where mostZen practitioners and teachers are laypeople, marriage among the leadership iscommon. Indeed, the understanding ofappropriate sexual behavior in WesternZen circles is changing so that it is notuncommon for Zen teachers in the Westto accept committed sexual relationsbetween unmarried couples, includinghomosexual relationships.

ShabaThis world; the world in whichShakyamuni buddha (SiddhartaGautama) teaches the Dharma. Shabais a Japanese transliteration of theSanskrit word sahâ, meaning“endurance,” since in the ordinary world

all sentient beings must endure suffer-ing and samsara, the ongoing cycle ofdeath and rebirth.

ShakaJapanese pronunciation of Shakya, theclan from northern India into which thehistorical Buddha Siddharta Gautamawas born. In many contexts, the termShaka is used as an abbreviated refer-ence for the Buddha himself. SeeShakya Clan.

ShakamuniJapanese pronunciation of Shakyamuni,an honorific title for SiddhartaGautama, the historical Buddha. SeeSiddharta Gautama.

Shaka Nyorai“Shakya Tathagata” or “Thus Come OneShakya,” referring to the BuddhaShakyamuni (Siddharta Gautama).Shaka Nyorai is a commonly usedJapanese name for Siddharta Gautama,the historical Buddha. The Buddha wasborn to the Shakya clan in India, whichis pronounced “Shaka” in Japanese. SeeSiddharta Gautama.

Shakuen Eichô(d. 1247) A Japanese Rinzai monk of theKamakura period (1185–1333), one ofthe leading disciples of Eisai. Eichô wasoriginally a Tendai monk and studiedesoteric Buddhism. He became Eisai’sdisciple in Kamakura and practicedmeditation under his guidance. Eisairecognized him as a Dharma heir in theZen tradition, but Eichô remained com-mitted to the esoteric tradition. He con-tinued to practice a mixed form ofBuddhism, combining Zen meditationwith many elements of esoteric ritualand thought, placing heavier emphasison esoteric practice. His primary contri-bution to the Rinzai sect of Zen wasthrough his disciples. He foundedChôraku-ji, a Tendai temple in the Kantôregion, where Jinshi Eison (1195–1272),Muhon Kakushin (1207–1298), andEnni Ben’en (1202–1280) became hisstudents and were first introduced toZen. See also Tendai sect.

ShakuhachiA long bamboo flute with five fingerholes associated with the Fuke sect ofZen Buddhism. According to Fuketeachings and practice, playing theshakuhachi and hearing its music areconducive to attaining enlightenment.

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The shakuhachi is a thin bamboo flute; its music is used to enhance the path to enlightenment.

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Shakuniku Danjô“A lump of red flesh,” the graphicexpression used by the Zen master Lin-chi I-Hsuan for the human body or thehuman mind. Lin-chi distinguishes thelump of red flesh from the BuddhaNature innate within the self. See lumpof red flesh.

Shaku Sôen(1859–1919) Japanese Rinzai monk, alsoknown by his religious name KôgakuSôen, one of the most important Zenmasters of the modern period. He wasthe disciple and Dharma heir of KôsenSôon (1816–1892) who sent him to KeiôGijuku (later to become Keiô University)so that the young monk would receivean education appropriate for the newera of modern Japan. After Sôen com-pleted his practice under Kôsen, he trav-eled to Ceylon to study TheravadaBuddhism. He also visited Siam (nowThailand) and China. Shaku inheritedthe position of abbot at Engaku-ji whenhis master died in 1892. The next year,he attended the World Conference ofReligions in Chicago. He was the firstmonk from the Rinzai sect to visit theWest, and he visited two more times.Three of Sôen’s disciples also were influ-ential in introducing Rinzai to the West:Shaku Sôkatsu (1870–1954), D.T.Suzuki (1870–1966), and SenzakiNyogen (1876–1958).

Shaku Sôkatsu(1870–1954) Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe modern period, also known by hisreligious name Tetsuô Sôkatsu. Sôkatsuwas the adopted son and primaryDharma heir of Shaku Sôen(1859–1919). Sôkatsu originally prac-ticed Zen as a lay person under the guid-ance of Kôsen Sôon (1816–1892). AfterKôsen died, he took the tonsure andbecame the disciple of Sôen. When hehad received inka, or the Dharma trans-mission, Sôkatsu made a pilgrimagethroughout Japan, Burma, and Siam(now Thailand). Sôkatsu never lost hisinterest in promoting Zen practice

among lay people. He revived theRyômô Kyôkai, a lay organization of Zenpractitioners, and dedicated his careerto guiding its members. In 1907, he trav-eled to California with a group of disci-ples to establish a Zen center there, butdecided that the time was not yet ripefor transmitting the Dharma to America.He returned to Japan in 1910. One of hisDharma heirs, Sasaki Shigetsu(1882–1945), later completed the mis-sion to the United States. See also laybeliever and Rinzai sect.

Shakya ClanFamily from which Siddharta Gautamadescended. The Shakya clan were war-rior class (kshatriya) and the rulingfamily of a small republic in the north-eastern region of the Indian subconti-nent, now Nepal. At the time of theBuddha, they remained self-governing,with Kapilavastu as their capital.

Shakyamuni“The Sage of the Shakya Clan,” an honorific title for the historical Buddha, Siddharta Gautama, whofounded Buddhism. The Buddha wasborn to the Shakya clan, a people from northern India (now Nepal).Buddhists commonly refer to Siddhartaas the Shakyamuni buddha. SeeSiddharta Gautama.

Shala Trees(Vatica robusta) According to theBuddhist tradition, the historicalBuddha lay down to die in the town ofKushinagara between two shala trees,commonly referred to as twin shalatrees; that is, trees with two trunks. TheBuddha’s death is known as parinir-vana, or perfect nirvana. The trees wereblooming out of season, and the Buddharequested that his disciple Ananda pre-pare a couch between two of them. Insome accounts, the blossoms fell andthe trees withered when he died. Thegrove of shala trees is called the cranegrove (J. kakurin) because in other

accounts, the tradition says that thetrees blossomed with pure white flowersafter the Buddha died, as if a flock ofcranes had landed.

ShamiThe Japanese term for a male novicewho has received the initial ordination,based on the ten precepts of the novice.A shami has received the tonsure,meaning that he shaves his head andwears monastic robes. He will continueto train at a monastery until prepared toaccept full ordination. In the past, mostnovices were teenagers who were tooyoung to qualify for full ordination, nor-mally allowed at age twenty. In medievalJapan (1185–1600), the term shami wasalso used for lay Buddhists and self-ordained monks who practiced outsidethe confines of monastic Buddhism. Seealso lay believer.

ShamikaiThe novice precepts based on themonastic code (Sk. vinaya) ofTheravada Buddhism. See ten precepts.

ShaminiThe Japanese term for a female novicewho has received the ten precepts of thenovice at an initial ordination cere-mony. She shaves her head and wearsnovice’s robes until prepared to acceptthe full ordination.

ShamonJapanese for shramana, an ascetic monkor nun. In Japanese, the word mostoften simply denotes a Buddhist monkor nun. See shramana.

Shao-lin-ssu(J. Shôrin-ji) The Chinese Buddhistmonastery on Mount Sung, near the former capital city of Lo-yang, where the Indian monk Bodhidharma is traditionally said to have remained fornine years seated in meditation facing awall at Shao-lin-ssu.

ShariRelics, especially of the historical Buddhaor another important Buddhist figure.Shari is the Japanese transliteration of theSanskrit term sharira. See relics.

SharihotsuJapanese for Shariputra, one of the ten distinguished disciples of theBuddha, known for his deep wisdom.See Shariputra.

Shariputra(J. Sharihotsu) One of the ten outstand-ing disciples of the Buddha andreknowned as foremost in wisdom.Shariputra was born to the brahminclass and, along with his boyhood friendMaudgalyâyana, left the home life tobecome a follower of the skepticSanjaya. Shariputra met a disciple of theBuddha and determined from a shortexchange that the Buddha’s teachingwas the wisdom he had been seeking.The two friends then decided to becomedisciples of the Buddha and joined thesangha. They brought with them scoresof Sanjaya’s other disciples as well.Because of his brilliance, Shariputrasoon distinguished himself as one of theBuddha’s leading disciples. Many yearslater, when the Buddha was nearingdeath, Shariputra asked the Buddha forpermission to die. He died shortly beforethe Buddha’s passing.

Ishigami, Zenno. Disciples of theBuddha. Trans. Richard L. Gage andPaul McCarthy. Tokyo: KoseiPublishing Co., 1989.

ShariraRelics, especially of the historicalBuddha or another important Buddhistfigure. Sharira is the Sanskrit term. See relics.

ShasekishûCollection of Sand and Stone, a text inten sections compiled by the Japanese

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Rinzai monk Mujû Dôgyô (1226–1313)and completed in 1283. The text con-tains a series of popular Buddhist storiesor setsuwa, many of them humorous intone. Robert E. Morrell has published anEnglish translation under the title Sandand Pebbles (SUNY Press, 1985). See alsoRinzai sect.

ShashuHand position used in Zen monasterieswhen entering and leaving the medita-tion hall. The left hand forms a fistaround the thumb, and the right handcovers the left. The hands are held, fisttoward the chest, in front of the bodywith forearms straight.

Shastra(J. ron) A genre of religious instructionalliterature common to all the religioustraditions of Indian origin, includingBuddhism. In a Buddhist context, ashastra is a commentary on a Buddhistsutra or a Buddhist philosophical trea-tise. Shastras compose a major portionof the Buddhist scriptures.

Shaven-Headed LaymanA Zen monk who focuses on literary orartistic pursuits as the primary concernof his practice. Although the monk maypursue Buddhist literature and art, theapproach to the material is usually secu-lar. The Rinzai master Musô Sôseki(1275–1351) used the expression“shaven-headed laymen” in contrast tothe three grades of disciples that he hadencountered: those of high, medium,and low ability. He asserted that shaven-headed laymen were not worthy ofbeing classified as disciples at all; evendisciples with low capacities for Zenpractice were superior to those with asecular mind set. See also Rinzai sect.

Shen-hsiu(606?–706; J. Jinshû) Chinese Zen monkof the early T’ang dynasty (618–907),commonly regarded as the founder of

the Northern school of early Zen.Contemporary scholars conclude thatShen-hsiu was a leading disciple ofHung-jen (601–674), the FifthPatriarch, and one of the most impor-tant Zen masters of his day. Born inHunan province to an aristocratic fam-ily, he renounced the home life at anearly age. At age twenty, he took the fullprecepts at T’ien-kung ssu in Lo-yang.In 651, he traveled to Huang-mei andpracticed with Hung-jen for severalyears. Scholars believe that after Hung-jen’s death in 674, Shen-hsiu becamethe leader of the East Mountain school.Shen-hsiu spent the majority of histeaching career at Tu-men ssu inChing-chou, where he led a large com-munity of monks. In 701, he traveledback to Lo-yang and spent the lastyears before his death working thereand in Chang-an. The community thathe founded in Ching-chou remainedactive for several generations. It wouldlater become known (and disparaged)as the Northern school, so designatedby Ho-tse Shen-hui (670–762).

However, these historical accounts ofShen-hsiu’s role in early Zen differ sig-nificantly from traditional accounts. Thetraditional account is based on a sectionof the Platform Sutra, which explainshow Hui-neng (638–713), rather thanShen-hsiu, became the rightful SixthPatriarch. In the biographical section ofthe sutra, Shen-hsiu is portrayed as thehighest ranking disciple in Hung-jen’sassembly, but one who does not fullygrasp the Dharma. On one occasion, theFifth Patriarch asked his disciples to pre-sent him with verses demonstratingtheir understanding of the Dharma sothat he could designate an heir as theSixth Patriarch. Shen-hsiu wrote a versethat the master deemed insufficient.When another member of the assembly,Hui-neng, responded to Shen-hsiu’sverse with one of his own, Hung-jensecretly named him the Sixth Patriarch.This account became the orthodox ver-sion of early Zen history, and Shen-hsiufell into obscurity.

McRae, John R. The Northern School andthe Formation of Early Ch’anBuddhism. Honolulu, HI: Universityof Hawaii Press, 1986.

Shen-hui(670–762; J. Jinne) Chinese Zen monk ofthe T’ang dynasty (618–907). His fullname is Ho-tse Shen-hui (670–762). SeeHo-tse Shen-hui.

Shichi“The four wisdoms,” the Japanesetranslation of the Sanskrit term catvarijnanani. Within the context of earlyBuddhist texts, shichi refers to the real-ization of the four noble truths. Thiscan be obtained by the arhat, the idealpractitioner of Theravada Buddhism.Within the Mahayana tradition, bod-hisattvas strive to attain shichi, which

characterize a Buddha. The four wis-doms are: 1) Daienkyôchi, Great PerfectMirror Wisdom; 2) Byôdôshôchi,Universal Nature Wisdom; 3)Myôkansatchi, Marvelous ObservingWisdom; and 4) Jioshosatchi, Perfectingof Action Wisdom. See four wisdoms.

ShichibutsujiSeven Buddhist ritual actions performedas a part of the funeral of a prominentBuddhist monk or nun. They are: 1)nyûgan, laying the corpse in the coffin;2) igan butsuji, moving the coffin to thelecture hall; 3) sagan butsuji, closing thecoffin lid; 4) kigan, carrying the coffin tothe cremation grounds; 5) tencha but-suji, offering hot tea; 6) tentô butsuji,offering hot sweetened water; and 7)ako, starting the cremation fire with atorch. See also kubutsuji.

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Cremation is one of the shichibutsuji, or seven ritual actions,performed at the funeral of a prominent Buddhist monk or nun.

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Shichidô GaranThe seven monastic halls that form thebasic core of all Zen temples andmonasteries. These seven include: theDharma hall (J. hattô), which serves asthe main assembly hall for sermons; theBuddha hall (J. butsden), in which theprimary Buddha image is enshrined; themonks’ hall (J. sôdô), where the monksor nuns sleep, eat and meditate; thekitchen-office (J. ku’in), where mealsare prepared and the senior monasterystaff have offices; the latrines (J. tôsu);the mountain gate (J. sanmon), whichserves as the formal entrance to themonastic compound; and the bath-house (J. yokushitsu). According toMujaku Dôchû (1653–1744), aTokugawa scholar monk, the traditionallayout of the seven halls can be repre-sented graphically in the shape of ahuman body. The buildings are con-ceived in anthropomorphic fashion,with the Dharma hall as the head, theBuddha hall as the heart, and so forth, asshown in the diagram. This layout wasprobably a Ming Chinese style of Zenmonasteries, introduced into Japan bythe Obaku sect.

The term shichidô garan may alsorefer generically to any Buddhistmonastery from any Buddhist school.The Zen list differs somewhat from thebasic buildings found in other monaster-ies. A typical list from another Buddhistschool would include a golden hall (J.kondô), a lecture hall (J. kyôdô), a stupa(J. tô), a dining hall, a bell tower (J.shôrô), a storehouse for sacred texts (J.kyôzô), a separate meditation hall (J.zendô), a founder’s hall (J. kaisandô),and the monks’ hall (J. sôdô).

ShichifukujinThe seven lucky gods revered in Japan.See seven lucky gods.

Shichijôe“Seven-strip robe,” one of three basictypes of kesa, or monastic robes, wornby Buddhist monks and nuns. The

seven-strip robe was originally called theuttarasangha in Sanskrit. It is alterna-tively known in Japanese as the uttarasô.The shichijôe is designed to be worn asan outer garment and was originally thebasic robe that monks and nuns woreinside the monastic community.

Shichishû(C. ch’i-tsung) “Seven school,” aJapanese expression used to describethe seven lineages of Zen active duringthe Sung dynasty (960–1279) in China.In other contexts, the expression mayrefer to seven sects and schools ofJapanese Buddhism, including theRitsu sect, the Hossô school, the Sanronschool, the Kegon school, the Tendaisect, the Shingon sect, and the Zen sect.See seven schools.

ShidaiThe four great elements: earth, water,fire, and wind. See four great elements.

ShidôHall within a Buddhist temple ormonastery in which mortuary tablets (J.ihai) for deceased lay members areenshrined. Sutras are chanted dailywithin the shidô (a practice known asshidô fugin in Japanese), and otherofferings are made periodically to com-memorate anniversaries of specific indi-viduals’ deaths. See also lay believer.

Shidô Bu’nan(1603–1676) Japanese Rinzai monk andZen master of the early Tokugawa period(1600–1867). Bu’nan was born to a com-moner family in Sekigahara, in Minoprovince, where his father ran an inn.Although he became familiar with Zenpractice as a young man, he did notbecome a monk until 1654, when he wasalready fifty-one years old. His teacherwas Gudô Tôshoku (1579–1661). Hisonly Dharma heir was Dôkyô Etan(1642–1721), the teacher of HakuinEkaku (1685–1768). See also Rinzai sect.

ShiePurple robe, Japanese term for an hon-orific monastic robe bestowed on highranking monks. See purple robe.

Shigu seiganThe four great vows of a bodhisattva.Various versions of the vows are used indifferent schools of Buddhism. The ver-sion used by the Zen school is basedupon a passage from the Tun-huang edi-tion of the Platform Sutra. In Japanese itreads: 1) Shujô muhen seigan do(Sentient beings are innumerable, I vowto save them all); 2) Bonnô muhenseigan do (The afflictions are innumer-able, I vow to extinguish them all); 3)Hômon muhen seigan gaku (TheDharma is immeasurable, I vow to mas-ter it all); and 4) Mujô butsudô seigan jô(The Buddhist Way is unsurpassed, Ivow to attain it). Zen monks and nunsrecite these vows daily as a part of morn-ing and evening services.

ShihokkaiFour realms of reality, an alternateexpression for shishu hokkai. See fourrealms of reality.

Shiji No KuyôJapanese for “four offerings,” which onemay appropriately offer to a buddha,monk, or nun. See four offerings.

Shiji Zazen“Four periods of meditation,” which aretraditionally observed daily in a Zenmonastery. (Alternately rendered Shijino zazen.) Although they are not men-tioned in the Zen’en Shingi, both Eisaiand Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253) mentionthat the four periods of Zazen wereobserved in the Chinese Zen monaster-ies of the Sung dynasty (960–1279) thatthey visited. The custom was then trans-mitted and preserved in Japanese Zenmonasteries. The times and duration ofthe periods differ somewhat from

Shichidô garan, Nanzen-ji.

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monastery to monastery. The tradi-tional names for the four periods are:1) Goya zazen, held early in the morn-ing before daybreak; 2) Sôshin zazen,held later in the morning, after break-fast; 3) Hoji zazen, held in the after-noon; and 4) Kôkon zazen, held in thelate evening.

ShijûhachikyôkaiThe forty-eight light precepts. Thesecondary set of bodhisattva precepts,as presented in the Bonmôkyô (Sk.Brahma Net Sutra). The forty-eightlight and ten heavy precepts ( J.Jûjûkinkai) together comprise thecomplete set of bodhisattva precepts.For a full listing of theShijûhachikyôkai, see John Stevens,The Marathon Monks of Mount Hiei(Shambhala, 1988. pp. 24–25.)

Shijûzai“Four grave offenses” in Japanese. Seefour grave offenses.

ShikaThe Guest Prefect at a Zen monastery,one of the six offices (J. chôsu) of theWestern rank held by a senior monk.The guest prefect’s responsibilitiesinclude the entertainment of officialvisitors and the care of itinerant monks(J. unsui). Because pilgrimage is a tra-ditional part of the Zen monastic life,Zen monasteries maintain guestaccommodations (J. kakusu) to housevisiting monks. The shika sees to thevisitor’s material needs during his stay.In addition, since all new arrivals seek-ing entry to the monastery come underhis supervision, the shika plays a veryimportant role within the monasticcommunity. During a newcomer’s pro-bation period ( J. tanga zume), theshika observes and evaluates the can-didate to determine his suitability forentering the monastery. Also called thetenkaku or tenbin.

Shikai“Dead ashes,” a metaphoric expres-sion used to describe the mental stateof a person who has extinguished all harmful passions and attachments.The word often applies to TheravadaBuddhism masters who attain the meditative level of extinction (J. met-sujinjô). See dead ashes.

Shikan“Tranquility and contemplation,” theJapanese translation for chih-kuan, theform of Buddhist meditation devisedby the T’ien-t’ai school master Chih-i(538–597). The term derives from theSanskrit words samatha (tranquillity)and vipashyana (contemplation).Shikan was transmitted to Japan bySaichô (767–822) and is the character-istic Tendai sect style of meditation.

Shikan TazaStyle of seated Zen meditation withoutthe use of a kôan, the style characteris-tic of the Sôtô sect of Zen. The expres-sion literally means “earnest medita-tion,” or “seated meditation only.”Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253), the founderof Japanese Sôtô, advocated shikantaza as the ideal form of Buddhist prac-tice. He identified shikan taza withenlightenment itself.

Shikatsu“Four shouts,” the Japanese renderingof the Chinese expression ssu-ho. Thefour kinds of shouts is a formulaicexpression developed by Lin-chi I-hsuan, founder of Rinzai Buddhism,which explains how he used loudshouting (katsu!) as a teaching devicefor his disciples. See four shouts.

Shike GorokuJapanese title for the Ssu-chia Yu Lu,the Recorded Sayings of the FourHouses. See Ssu-chia Yu Lu.

ShiketsuAn implement made from soft bambooor wood that was traditionally used inplace of toilet paper. It translates literallyas “outhouse stick.” The term appears inseveral Zen texts, including Case 21 ofthe Wu-men Kuan (J. Mumonkan). Inthat passage, a monk asks master Yun-men Wen-yen (864–949), “What isBuddha?” Yun-men replies, “A driedouthouse stick.” Yun-men’s answer isshocking not only because the imple-ment was generally regarded as defiled,but also because of the vulgarity of theexpression itself. Like a loud shout or asharp slap on the face, the Yun-men’sshocking reply cuts off the discursiveand discriminatory thought suggestedby the student’s question.

Shikhin BuddhaOne of the seven buddhas of the pastwhose biographies appear at the beginning of the Transmission of theLamp (C. Ching-te Chüan-teng Lu; J.Keitoku Dentôroku) and other traditional accounts of the history ofZen Buddhism through the ages.Shikhin (J. Shiki) is second on the listand is identified as the 999th Buddhaof the previous eon.

ShikunichiDays of the month containing thenumerals 4 or 9; that is, the 4th, 9th,14th, 19th, 24th and 29th of eachmonth. At Zen monasteries, these daysare observed as free days on whichmonks and nuns help one another toshave their heads, wash their clothing,take a bath, and attend to other chores.See also oshiku.

ShilaSanskrit pronunciation of the morecommonly used Pali word sila. See sila.

Shinbun Ritsu(C. Ssu-fen Lu) The Vinaya in FourCategories of Dharmagupta, the version

of the vinaya that became the standardin East Asian Buddhism. The text wastranslated into Chinese and transmit-ted to Japan in the eighth century. TheJapanese Ritsu school was based onthe study and careful observance ofthis version of the Theravada monasticcode. See Ssu-fen Lu.

Shinchi“Mind ground,” a Zen expression forone’s mental state. The mind is com-pared to a field or the ground becauseit is regarded as the source of allthoughts and experiences, includingperceptions of all external phenom-ena. In some cases, the term refers tothe mind of enlightenment. Alter-natively pronounced “Shinji.” Seemind ground.

Shinchi KakushinSee Kakushin.

ShingiZen monastic codes, which set out theproper conduct for life and practicewithin the Zen monastic community.Shingi may be literally translated as“pure regulations.” It is the Japanesepronunciation of the Chinese termching-kuei. Shingi represent a distinc-tive genre of Zen literature. Zen tradi-tion maintains that the T’ang masterPai-chang Huai-hai (720–814) com-posed the earliest shingi, the Pai-chang Ch’ing-kuei (J. Hyakujô Shingi),in the eighth or ninth century.Scholars no longer believe that thistext ever existed. Recent scholarshipsuggests that the earliest Zen monasticcodes actually date to the Sungdynasty (960–1279). Chinese codeswere transmitted to Japan beginningin the twelfth century. Many Japaneseshingi were likewise composed,including the Eihei Shingi written byDôgen Kigen (1200–1253). In somecases, shingi are written to governconduct within a particular mona-stery. In other cases, they are designed

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for more general use within a sect orschool of Zen.

Shingon SectJapanese school of esoteric Buddhismfounded by Kûkai (774–835) duringthe Heian period (794–1185). EsotericBuddhism first developed in India andwas transmitted to China in the eighthcentury. Although this school did notgive rise to a separate school ofBuddhism in China, Kûkai was initi-ated into its teachings and practicewhen he studied in China. When hereturned to Japan, he established anindependent sect and systematizedthe teachings. The primary texts forthe school are the MahvairochanaSutra ( J. Dainichikyô) and theVajrashekhara ( J. Kongôchôkyô).Shingon literally means “true word,”and is the Japanese translation formantra. Shingon ritual makes use ofmantra, mudra and mandala.

ShingyôHeart Sutra, the common, abbrevi-ated Japanese title for the PrajnaParamita Hrdaya Sutra. The most pop-ular Chinese translation (T. 8, no. 251)is that completed by Hsüan-tsang (ca.600–664) in 648. The Japanese version of the text is composed of only 268 characters. The full title in Japanese isMaka Hannya Haramitta Shingyô. SeeHeart Sutra.

Shin’in“Seal of the mind,” a Zen expressionfor transmission of the Dharmabetween master and disciple. Shin’inis a common abbreviation for bussh-in’in (inka), “seal of the Buddha’smind.”

Shinji IkeHeart-shaped pond; a pond created toresemble the Chinese character for“heart.” Shinji ike are sometimesfound in monastery gardens, such as

the gardens at Tenryû-ji and Saihô-ji,both located in western Kyoto.

Shinjin Datsuraku“Dropping off body and mind,” anexpression used in Sôtô Zen for theexperience of enlightenment, whichDôgen Kigen (1200–1253) identifiedwith the practice of seated medita-tion. The expression derives from tra-ditional accounts of Dôgen’s enlight-enment experience during an inten-sive summer retreat at a Chinese Zenmonastery where he resided for a time.Dôgen and his fellow monks were sit-ting in meditation when the manbeside him fell asleep. Dôgen sud-denly attained enlightenment when heheard his master Ju-ching (1163–1228)shout at his sleepy neighbor, “Whenyou study under a master, you mustdrop off the body and mind. What isthe use of single-minded, intensesleeping?”

Scholars now believe that the orig-inal expression employed by Ju-chingmay have actually been “Dropping offdust from the mind.” Although theyare not homonyms in the originalChinese, in Japanese, the two expres-sions are pronounced identically. It istheorized that Dôgen either cleverlyreinterpreted the verse or fortuitouslymisheard it. See also Sôtô sect.

Kodera, Takashi James. Dôgen’sFormative Years in China: AnHistorical Study and AnnotatedTranslation of the Hokyo-ki.Boulder, CO: Prajña Press, 1980.

ShinjinmeiJapanese title of the “Hsin-hsin-ming,” a verse attributed to Seng-ts’an(d. 606), the Third Chinese Patriarch.See Hsin-hsin-ming.

ShinninTrue person, the Japanese pronuncia-tion of the Chinese word chen-jen.The concept derives from the Taoist

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tradition, and the Taoist philosopherChuang-tzu who used the term as anexpression for a Taoist expert who per-fectly understands the Tao. Theexpression was later adopted byChinese Buddhists to translate theSanskrit word “arhat,” the idealBuddhist practitioner who has realizednirvana. See true person of no rank.

Shinnyo“True Thusness,” the Japanese trans-lation for the Sanskrit term tathata.See True Thusness.

Shinran(1173–1262) Japanese Buddhist monkwho founded the True Pure Land sect( J. Jôdo Shinshû). Shinran was born toa branch of the Fujiwara family andwas the son of Hino Arinori. He beganhis Buddhist training at age nine as aTendai monk and spent twenty yearson Mount Hiei, where he first becameacquainted with Pure Land teachings.He left Mount Hiei in 1201 when hewas twenty-nine to become a discipleof the Pure Land teacher Hônen(1133–1212). A few years later, he mar-ried Eshin-ni. In 1207, when Honenoffended the emperor, Honen and hisdisciples, including Shinran, wereexiled from Kyoto. Shinran was sent toEchigo province, where he remaineduntil he was pardoned in 1211. He continued to teach in rural areasfor many years, spreading the PureLand faith in the Kantô region. Hereturned to Kyoto in 1235 and livedthere until his death in 1262. See alsoTendai sect.

ShinsanshikiOrdination ceremony for a new abbotat a Zen monastery. An announcementof the ceremony is posted outside themain monastery gate. The newlyappointed abbot first rests in a roomprepared for his use (J. angesho) andthen is greeted formally there by thesenior temple officers and lay sponsors,

with whom he exchanges bows andshares tea. The supervisor of the med-itation hall (J. ino) rings a bell to sum-mon the entire monastic assembly, atwhich time the new abbot, monasteryofficers, and assembled monks form aprocession and enter the monasterygate. Inside the gate, the abbot gives abrief Dharma sermon (J. hôgo) andoffers incense. The group proceeds tothe monks’ hall ( J. sôdô), where theabbot once again speaks a few wordsand lights incense. He then formallyhangs up his staff, symbolic of takingup residence in the monastery, andmoves on to the Buddha hall, wherehe again gives a brief sermon andoffers incense. Here he lays out a ritualcloth (J. zagu) and prostrates himselfthree times (J. sanbai). He stops at theshrine for the local guardian deity (J.dojijin) and says some words of theDharma. He then proceeds to thefounder’s hall where he gives his finalsermon, offers incense, and bowsthree times. Finally, he enters theabbot’s quarters, where he formallyaccepts the room and receives themonastery’s seal. See also lay believer.

ShinshinThe “True Mind,” a Zen expression for one’s true or original nature, which is said to be Buddha Nature. The realization of Shinshin is synonymouswith enlightenment.

ShinshûThe common abbreviation for JôdoShinshû, the True Pure Land sectof Japanese Buddhism. The sect is generally referred to as Shinshû inJapan, as well as in Western countries to which it has been transmitted. SeeTrue Pure Land sect.

ShionThe four obligations or the four debtsof gratitude. See four obligations.

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ShippeiBamboo staff used as a ritual imple-ment by Zen masters. The shippei ismade from a split piece of bamboo,which is bound with wisteria vine andthen lacquered. It is bent like a bowand measures approximately sixty toone hundred centimeters in length.Chinese Zen masters would use theshippei to strike students as a teachingdevice. It is now used primarily as asymbol of the Zen master’s authority.

Shiroku BenreitaiSee shiroku no bunshô.

Shiroku No BunshôA Chinese style of composition dating tothe Southern and Northern dynasties(5th–6th c.) with alternating lines of fourand six characters. It is known formallyin Japanese as Shiroku benreitai. Thestyle was used by Zen masters in bothChina and Japan.

ShiryôkenThe four discernments (C. ssu-liao-chien), a teaching device used by theChinese master Lin-chi I-hsuan, founderof the Rinzai sect of Buddhism. The fourviewpoints are: 1) datsunin fudakkyô, thenegation of subject and the affirmation ofobject; 2) dakkyô fudatsunin, the nega-tion of object and the affirmation of sub-ject; 3) ninkyô ryôgudatsu, the negationof both subject and object; and 4) ninkyôgufudatsu, the affirmation of both subjectand object. See four discernments.

Shishiku“Lion’s roar,” the Japanese translation of the Sanskrit expression simha nada.See lion’s roar.

ShishôThe four manners of birth: from a womb, from an egg, from moisture,and from metamorphosis. See fourkinds of birth.

The shippei was traditionally used to discipline meditating monks, but today is considered mostly symbolic.

ShishoSuccession certificate, a document pre-sented to a Zen disciple by his or hermaster to certify transmission of theDharma. Documents of succession typ-ically include a listing of the lineage ofthe newly certified teacher, providingthe names of founding patriarchs andmore recent descendants, down to themaster and new Dharma heir. In somecases, shiso may trace the lineage backto Bodhidharma or Shakyamunibuddha (Siddharta Gautama). In prac-tical terms, the shiso certifies that therecipient is qualified to train studentsand to serve as abbot or head monk at aZen temple or monastery. Shiso is alsothe title of one essay in Dôgen Kigen’s(1200–1253) Shôbôgenzô.

Shishu Hokkai“Four realms of reality,” the Japanesename for the Hua-yen school conceptthat describes reality using four levels ofexistence or Dharma realms. In Japanese,the four realms are: 1) jihokkai, the realmof phenomena; 2) rihokkai, the realm ofreality; 3) rijimuge hokkai, the realm ofinterpenetration of phenomena and real-ity; and 4) jijimuge hokkai, the realm ofinterpenetration of phenomena and phe-nomena. The school is also known asShihokkai. See four realms of reality.

ShisôFour aspects of phenomenal existence.Buddhist thought includes several suchlistings of aspects of existence. Shisômay refer to birth (J. shô), old age (J. rô),sickness (J. byô), and death (J. shi)—thebasic kinds of suffering endured by allliving beings. It may refer to four phasesof change that characterize everythingthat exists: coming into existence orbirth (J. shô), continuing (J. jû), chang-ing (J. i), and passing out of existence ordeath (J. metsu). Shisô may also refer tofour erroneous views of the self men-tioned in the Diamond Sutra: existenceof a real self (J. gasô), an individual self(J. ninsô), a sentient soul (J. jushasô),and an eternal soul (J. shujôsô).

ShissuiThe labor steward at a Zen monastery,one of the six administrative offices ofthe monastic community. The shissuiposition is held by a senior monkresponsible for organizing manuallabor crews and assigning specifictasks. He oversees all construction,maintenance, and repair of templebuildings (J. shichidô garan); all large-scale cleaning operations; and all fieldwork related to planting and harvest-ing crops. In most cases, the shissuimanages labor done by lay workers,attendants, and novices. When a pro-ject is more labor intensive, such asplanting or harvesting crops, the shissui may call upon the entiremonastic community to participate inthe project. The post generally rotateson a yearly basis. See also lay believerand temple positions.

ShitennôJapanese for the four guardian kings.See four guardian kings.

ShizaDead sitting, a derogatory expressionused to describe incorrect or ineffectiveforms of seated meditation. See dead sitting.

ShôbôgenzôThe Treasury of the Eye of the TrueDharma, a Zen expression for the essen-tial truth of Buddhism. According to tra-ditional Zen accounts of the first trans-mission of the Dharma from Shakya-muni buddha (Siddharta Gautama) tohis disciple Mahakashyapa, such asfound in the sixth case of theMumonkan, the Buddha declared thathe possessed the Shôbôgenzô and thathe entrusted it to Mahakashyapa.Shôbôgenzô is also the title that DôgenKigen (1200–1253), founder of the Sôtôsect of Zen in Japan, chose for his mag-num opus (greatest written work).

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Shôbôgenzô(2) Treasury of the True Dharma Eye, themaster work of Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253), the founder of the Sôtôsect in Japan. The text is comprised ofninety-five separate essays (ninety-twoin some editions), composed over aperiod of twenty-two years, from 1231 to1253. Dôgen wrote the essays inJapanese, a departure from the norm atthe time, which was using classicalChinese for writings on Buddhism.Dôgen intended the work to eventuallyinclude 100 essays, but he died beforecompleting the project. In addition tothe Japanese language text, Dôgen com-piled a second text in Chinese, alsocalled the Shôbôgenzô. The latter text’sfull title is Shôbôgenzô Sambyakusoku,and it is a set of three hundred kôan thatDôgen collected while he was in China.

There are several partial translationsof the Shôbôgenzô in English, includingHow to Raise an Ox (Center Publica-tions, 1978) and Sounds of ValleyStreams (State University of New York,1989), both by Francis Cook; Zen MasterDôgen, by Yûhô Yôkoi (Weatherhill,1976); and Moon in a Dewdrop byKazuaki Tanahashi (North Point Press,1985). A complete translation in severalvolumes has been published under thetitle Master Dôgen’s Shôbôgenzô byGudo Waju Nishijima and Chodo Cross(Windbell Publications, 1994).

A second text, written by the ChineseRinzai master Ta-hui Tsung-kao(1089–1163), also bears the Shôbôgenzôname in Japanese. Its Chinese title isCheng-fa Yen-tsang.

Shôbôgenzô BenchûA commentary on Dôgen Kigen’sShôbôgenzô in twenty-two parts, writ-ten by the Tokugawa monk TenkeiDenson (1647–1735). The Benchû wasthe first line-by-line commentary on theShôbôgenzô. Tenkei rejected some of theoriginal chapters and made substantialchanges to several others. He criticizedDôgen’s ungrammatical reading ofChinese passages in many places and

disagreed with Dôgen on many substan-tive issues. He rejected, for example,Dôgen’s tendency to criticize great Zenmasters of the past. Tenkei worked onthe study for a period of about fouryears, from 1726 to 1729, but it was notpublished until 1881.

Shôbôgenzô ZuimonkiA collection of Dôgen Kigen’s Dharmatalks and instructions given to his disci-ples. The material was recorded andedited by Dôgen’s leading disciple, KounEjô (1198–1280). Dôgen gave the talksbetween 1235 and 1237 while he was stillat Kôshô-ji in the Kyoto area. TheZuimonki, as it is often abbreviated, isextremely popular in the Sôtô sectbecause of its easy literary style. It repre-sents the earliest Japanese example ofthe Zen genre known as “recorded say-ings” (J. goroku), first developed inChina. Ejô recorded Dôgen’s talks inJapanese, but he did not translate theminto formal Chinese, as was the norm inJapan. Instead, he left the text in collo-quial Japanese. The text was first printedin 1651, and the scholar monk MenzanZuihô (1683–1769) published animproved edition in 1769. MatsunagaReihô published an English translationunder the title A Primer of Sôtô Zen.

Matsunaga, Reihô, trans. A Primer ofSôtô Zen: A Translation of Dôgen’sShôbôgenzô Zuimonki. London:Routledge and K. Paul, 1972.

Shodô“The Way of Writing,” a Japanese termfor the art of calligraphy. It is alsoknown as Shojutsu. See calligraphy.

Shôdô“Holy path,” or the steep path, anexpression used for those forms ofBuddhism, especially Zen, whichencourage personal striving towardenlightenment through the practices ofmeditation and observance of precepts.See steep path.

ShôekiPrivate instruction with the Zen masterin the abbot’s quarters. The term liter-ally means “asking for instruction.” It isanother expression for nisshitsu ornyusshitsu. See nyusshitsu.

Shôgen SûgakuThe Japanese pronunciation for Sung-yüan Chung-yueh (1132–1202), aChinese Rinzai master. See Sung-yüanChung-yueh.

Shogo KôtenThe sounding of a wooden gong (J. han)to announce the twenty-five divisions ofthe night, from sunset to daybreak. Thiswas traditionally done throughout thenight in Zen monasteries.

ShôgunA military general or commander; mostoften used as a shortened form of Seii-Tai-Shôgun, a title conferred by theJapanese imperial court on a militaryleader who serves as the acting head ofstate. Seii-Tai-Shôgun literally meansthe “General who quells barbarians,”reflecting its origins. In the eighth century, the title was bestowed by thereigning emperor upon military leaderswho fought for the imperial courtagainst the indigenous Ainu people.Later, the title was borne by military dic-tators who only theoretically wieldedpower delegated to them by theemperor, since during the Kamakura(1185–1333), Ashikaga (1392–1568), andTokugawa (1600–1867) periods, Japaneseemperors were largely figureheads. Theshôguns ruled through authority based

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The Japanese shôgun or military general acts as the head of state.

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on their own military power. They pos-sessed the title for life and passed it onto hereditary successors, creatingdynastic governments called bakufu, orshogunates. Many shôgun maintainedstrong relations with Zen Buddhism aslay sponsors and, in a few rare cases, aslay practitioners. See also lay believer.

ShôhôThe True Dharma, in Japanese; the firstof the Three Ages of the Dharma thatfollow the death of the historicalBuddha. During the Age of TrueDharma, the Buddha’s teachings remainintact, as perfect as they were during hislifetime. Throughout the age, Buddhistscontinue to practice and follow theBuddhist path, and some individualsattain enlightenment. According tosome versions of the theory of the Three Ages, including those most popularly accepted in China, the firstage lasts for 500 years. Other interpreta-tions, including the most prevalent inJapanese Buddhism, set the time spanat 1,000 years.

Shôichi HaA Japanese Rinzai lineage founded byEnni Ben’en (1202–1280), which wasclosely associated with the Tôfuku-jimonastery in Kyoto. The lineage wasone of the dominant lineages within theGozan system of Rinzai Zen. The nameof the lineage derives from ShôichiKokushi (National Teacher SagelyUnity), the posthumous title bestowedon Ben’en by the Emperor Hanazono(1297–1348). See also Rinzai sect.

Shôjô“Lesser Path” or “Small Path,” theJapanese translation for Hinayana. SeeHinayana Buddhism.

Shôju Dôkyô Etan Anju Anroku“The Biography of Hermitage MasterShôju Dôkyô Etan,” composed by TôreiEnji. The short text is a biography ofDôkyô Etan, known more popularly as

Shôju Rôjin. Dôkyô was a Dharma heirof Shidô Bu’nan (1603–1676) and isregarded as the most important Zenteacher for Hakuin Ekaku (1685–1768).See also Dôkyô Etan.

Shôjurin ShingiA study of Sôtô and other Zen monasticcodes prepared by Manzan Dôhaku, theTokugawa period (1600–1867) reformer,between 1680 and 1691. Manzen basedhis work on traditional Sôtô sect codes,including the Eihei Shingi attributed toDôgen Kigen (1200–1253), and theKeizan Shingi, attributed to KeizanJôkin (1268–1325). He also made use ofcodes from the Tokugawa period, suchas the Undo Jôki, composed by his mas-ter Gesshû, and the Obaku Shingi of theObaku sect.

Shôju Rôjin“The Old Man of Shôju Hermitage,” anickname for Dôkyô Etan (1642–1721).See Dôkyô Etan.

Shojutsu“The art of writing,” a Japanese term forthe art of calligraphy. It is also known asshodô. See calligraphy.

ShokanFirst barrier, the first of three sets ofkôan used by some Zen monasteries inmedieval Japan (1185–1600), whichwere known as the first, second (J.ryôkan), and third barriers (J. sankan).The first shokan were derived from theHekiganroku (Blue Cliff Record), thesecond from the Sayings of Lin-chi, andthe third from Mumonkan.

ShôkeiA percussion instrument used in Zentemples to accompany chanting duringBuddhist services. The shôkei is a muchsmaller version of the keisu, without aseparate wooden stand. Like the keisu,the shôkei is cast in bronze and shapedlike a begging bowl. It rests on a small

cushion and is played by striking the rimwith a wooden stick. Unlike the largerkeisu, which is played throughout sutrachanting, the shôkei is used to signalspecific transitions during the service.For example, it signals the end of sutrachanting and marks the transition to cir-cumambulating inside the Buddha hallduring a service. Also called rin or rei.See also reitaku.

Shôken(J. dokusan) A Zen practitioner’s firstinterview with the Zen master, at whichtime he or she is officially accepted as adisciple. The shôken occurs after thestudent has passed an initial probation-ary period in the temple, known as thetanga zume. At the shôken, the discipleformally meets with the master, requestsguidance, and, traditionally, makes asmall monetary donation, or “incensemoney,” to establish the master-disciplerelationship. If the master finds the stu-dent’s request sincere, the individualwill be formally accepted as a disciple.

ShokiA clerical officer or scribe, one of the sixprefects (J. chôshu) of a Zen monastery.The prefects, known collectively as the Western rank (J. seihan), aid theabbot in managing the spiritual direction of the monastic community.The scribe’s duties include the prepara-tion of all official monastic documentsand correspondence. For this reason,the scribe needs familiarity with Zen documentary styles and a goodhand at calligraphy. Traditionally, theshoki handled both internal and exter-nal correspondence, but today the post is generally divided between two individuals. The shoki handles formaldocuments and external matters, whileone of the jisha serving the abbot handles informal and internal matters.

Shôkoku-jiA major Rinzai sect temple located inKyoto. Its formal name is Mannen-zan

Shôkoku-ji. Ashikaga Yoshimitsu(1358–1408), the third Ashikaga shôgun,built the temple in 1382 as a symbol ofhis power. Musô Sôseki (1275–1351) wasposthumously named the foundingabbot. Although originally conceived asa branch of Tenryû-ji, it later becameindependent and was ranked as one ofthe Five Mountains, or Gozan templesof Kyoto. It was completely destroyedduring the Onin War (1466–1477) andlater restored. It now serves as the head-quarters for the Shôkoku-ji branch ofRinzai Zen.

Shôkoku-ji HaThe Shôkoku-ji branch of Rinzai, one ofthe fourteen contemporary branches ofthe Japanese Rinzai sect. The mainmonastery for the branch is theShôkoku-ji temple, located in Kyoto.Musô Sôseki (1275–1351) is regarded asthe branch founder. The branch has 119temples throughout Japan and claimsapproximately 53,750 adherents.

Shômon“Voices hearers,” the Japanese transla-tion for the Sanskrit term shravaka.Shômon refers to the immediate disciples of the historical Buddha whohad the opportunity to hear the Buddhapreach firsthand. The MahayanaBuddhism tradition also uses the termfor those individuals who study the Buddha’s teachings and contem-plate them in an attempt to attainenlightenment for themselves, in contrast to bosatsu (Sk. bodhisattvas),who strive to aid others as well as themselves. See shravaka.

ShômyôTo chant verses from the sutras. Theterm originally referred to one of fivetraditional forms of linguistic study inIndia, sabda-vidya in Sanskrit. In EastAsian Buddhism, it came to refer to amelodic style of ritual chanting set tomusic. Shômyô is usually performed bymonks in front of an image of the

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Buddha. The chanting style is alsoknown in Japanese as bonbai. Shômyôwas first introduced to Japan in theninth century by the monk Ennin(793–864), who learned the practice in China. It became popular in the eso-teric schools of Japanese Buddhism,the Shingon sect, and the Tendai sect. Shômyô styles also exist inJapanese Zen.

Matsunaga, Daigan, and AliciaMatsunaga. Foundation of JapaneseBuddhism. 2 vols. Los Angeles, CA:Buddhist Books International, 1976.

ShonanThe first seventh day service, a memor-ial service held seven days after death,according to Japanese Buddhist custom.The shonan is the first of seven memor-ial services, which are held at seven-dayintervals throughout the primary periodof mourning (J. chûin) following adeath. For lay Buddhists, the shonan istraditionally the occasion on which thedeceased receives a posthumousBuddhist name (J. kaimyô) from thefamily temple. It includes an ordinationceremony, in which the presiding monksymbolically confers the precepts on thedeceased. See also lay believer.

Shôrin-jiShao-lin-ssu, the Chinese Buddhistmonastery on Mount Sung. See Shao-lin-ssu.

ShôrôThe bell tower that houses the ogane,the largest temple bell. Shôrô are openstructures of support beams covered bya tile roof. The ogane hangs under theroof, with a swinging beam (J.shumoku) hanging horizontally besidethe bell. The bell is sounded by pullingback the beam with the attached guideropes and allowing it to strike the out-side of the bell. The shôrô becomes thefocus of the monastic community andthe neighboring lay members on New

Year’s Eve when, just before midnight,a service is held beside the shôrô andthe ogane is struck 108 times, one foreach of the 108 human failings. Eachsounding of the bell symbolicallyexpels the previous year’s failures inpreparation for the new year. See alsolay believer.

Shôsan“Small assembly,” informal instructiongiven by the Zen master to a small number of disciples in the abbot’squarters. The shôsan are distinguishedfrom the daisan, the large formal assemblies which include all residentmonks or nuns.

Shôshitsu RokumonA collection of six Zen essays, all ofwhich are traditionally attributed toBodhidharma (T. 48, no. 2009). Theword Shôshitsu (C. Shao-shih) refers tothe hermitage on Mount Sung whereBodhidharma practiced meditation,and it is often used as another name forBodhidharma. The title therefore can betranslated as “The Six Gates ofBodhidharma.” Scholars believe that thesix texts are later compositions, proba-bly written during the T’ang dynasty(618–907). They were originally writtenas independent texts and later collectedunder a single title. Exactly when thecollection was put together is unknown,but the oldest extant copy is a Japaneseedition published in 1647.

The first essay is written in verse andcalled the Hsin-ching Sung (J. ShingyôJu), or “Verses on the Heart Sutra.” Theother five are prose texts, entitled P’o-hsiang Lun (J. Hasô Ron), “On BreakingThrough Form”; Erh-chung-ju (J.Nishu’nyû), “Two Ways of Entrance”; An-hsin fa-mên (J. Anjin Hômon), “TheGate of Peaceful Mind”; Wu-hsing lun (J.Goshô Ron), “On Awakened Nature”;and Hsüeh-mo lun (J. KetsumyakuRon), “On the Blood Lineage.” Three of the six essays are translated into English in Red Pine’s Zen Teachingof Bodhidharma.

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ShôsôAn image of a buddha or bodhisattvaenshrined in the middle of the medita-tion hall, the monks’ hall (J. sôdô), andother buildings in a Zen monastery. Theterm literally means “holy monk” inJapanese. The practice of enshrining holymonks seems to have originated in China.By the early T’ang period (618–907),images of the arhat Pindola were com-monly enshrined in the dining hall atBuddhist temples. Today, the figure mostoften enshrined in the meditation hall isthe bodhisattva Manjusri (J. Monju).Other images, such as Mahakashyapa,Pindola, and Subhuti are sometimes alsoused. In the shuryô, or reading room,Kannon usually serves as the shôsô.

Shôsô JishaThe formal name for the attendantmonk (J. jisha) assigned to care for theshôsô (“holy monk”), the image of abuddha or bodhisattva enshrined in themonks’ hall (J. sôdô) or meditation hall.

Shôtoku Taishi(574–622) Prince Shôtoku, a Japaneseimperial regent of the Asuka period whois regarded as the founder of Buddhismin Japan. Shôtoku was the second son ofEmperor Yômei. He served as regentfrom the age of nineteen, during thereign of his aunt, Empress Suiko.Shôtoku is said to have written and promulgated the Seventeen ArticleConstitution (Jûshichijô Kempô), astatement about good government that mentions Buddhist principles asone basis for political and social life, although the actual authorship ofthe Constitution remains in doubtamong scholars. He is also known as aBuddhist scholar in his own right and asa patron of the Buddhist clergy.Tradition credits Shôtoku with writingthree commentaries on Buddhist sutras (the Lotus Sutra, the ShrimalaSutra, and the Vimalakirti Sutra), thefirst Buddhist texts composed in Japan.He is also known for sponsoring theconstruction of seven major Buddhist

The shôrô is the tower that houses the ogane, or temple bell, and is the site of a special New Year’s Eve bell-ringing ceremony.

temples, including Shitennô-ji in Osaka and Hôryû-ji near Nara. After hisdeath, Shôtoku was regarded as an incarnation of the bodhisattvaKannon, and he is often portrayedaccordingly in iconography.

ShoutingZen masters, especially in the Rinzaischool, characteristically make use ofpowerful, sudden shouts as an expres-sion for a state of perception beyondanalytical thought. The shout was firstused as a teaching device by the ChineseT’ang dynasty master Ma-tsu Tao-i(709–788) but is most closely associatedwith Lin-chi I-hsuan, founder of theRinzai school. Zen masters may use aloud shout to push a disciple beyond theweb of discursive and analyticalthought. In other cases, a disciple mayrespond to the master with a shout toindicate comprehension that goesbeyond words. See katsu!

ShôyôrokuThe Japanese title for the T’sung-jung Lu,a collection of one hundred classicalZen kôan with prose commentary andverses. It was first published in 1224 (T.48, no. 2004) under the long title Wang-sung Lao-jên P’ing-ch’ang T’ien-t’ungChüeh Ho-shang Sung-ku Ts’ung-jung-an Lu. The text consists of a series of ser-mons on classical kôan and relatedverses given by the Chinese Sôtô sectmaster Wang-sung Hang-hsiu (1166–1246; J. Banshô Gyôshû). Wang-sungbased his commentaries on the Sung-kuPo-tsê (J. Juko Hyakusoku), an earliercollection of one hundred kôan com-piled by Hung-chih Cheng-chüeh(1091–1157; J. Wanshi Shôgaku), aChinese Sôtô master from the same lin-eage. The abbreviated title means “Therecord of the [hermitage of] serenity,”referring to the hermitage where Wang-sung gave his lectures.

The Shôyôroku represents Wang-sung’s second lecture series on theSung-ku Po-tsê. He gave the first series

early in his teaching career, but themanuscript of those sermons was lostduring the confusion of the Mongolinvasion. Later in his life, his disciplesrequested that he give his commentary asecond time. They recorded his sermonsand published the text. For each kôancase, the Shôyôroku includes five parts:Wang-sung’s introduction, the originalkôan, Wang-sung’s prose commentaryon the case, Hung-chih’s verse, andWang-sung’s commentary on the verse.

Although Sôtô Zen may not focus onkôan practice as intently as Rinzai, theShôyôroku holds an important placewithin the Sôtô tradition. It is often saidthat it enjoys a high status in the Sôtôschool, comparable to that of theHekiganroku in the Rinzai school.Indeed, Wang-sung, who gave his lec-tures a hundred years after the publica-tion of the Hekiganroku, styled his ownwork on its general format. In terms ofthe cases included, the Shôyôroku showssignificant overlap with both theHekiganroku and the Mumonkan.These three are the classic collections ofZen kôan. Thomas Cleary published afull translation of the text in Englishunder the title The Book of Serenity. Seealso Rinzai sect.

Cleary, Thomas. The Book of Serenity.Boston, MA: Shambhala, 1998.

Shozan“Various mountains,” the designationfor the lowest rank of temples within theGozan system of Chinese and JapaneseZen monasteries. In the original Chinesesystem, the lowest tier was a group ofapproximately thirty-five provincialtemples known as chia-ch’a, or “majortemples.” In Japan, the number of shozan temples rose to more than 250 temples throughout the country.Unlike temples in the higher tiers, theshozan were not formally ranked, nordid they receive government funding.They were primarily smaller regionaltemples, housing no more than forty tofifty monks.

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ShôzômatsuThe Japanese term for the Three Ages of the Dharma, three periods of progressive deterioration in theBuddhist teachings, practice, andattainment of enlightenment, whichfollow the death of the Buddha. The firstage is Shôhô, the Age of the TrueDharma; the second is Zôhô, the Age ofthe Semblance Dharma; and the third isMappô (written with characters readseparately as “matsu” and “hô”), theLatter Age of the Dharma. See ThreeAges of the Dharma.

ShramanaAn ascetic monk or nun who strives forenlightenment. Shramana (J. shamon)have left the home life and taken on thelife of a wandering holy person. Theyavoid evil and do good, not in the hopeof a better rebirth, but as a part of theirpractice to attain release from samsara,the ongoing cycle of birth and death.Ascetics practice equanimity; that is,controlling their emotions and reducingtheir attachments to material and spiri-tual aspects of life. They practiceahimsa, or non-injury to other sentientbeings. The Sanskrit term has been usedby both Buddhists and Jains for theirmonks and nuns.

Shravaka(J. shômon) Those who hear the teach-ing of the Buddha and attain enlighten-ment by contemplating the Dharma.The Sanskrit word literally means “onewho hears.” It originally applied to theimmediate disciples of the historicalBuddha who heard him teach directly,and it may still be used in that limitedfashion. It may also apply to any individ-ual striving to follow the path forged bythe historical Buddha. Shravakas aim atbecoming arhats, that is, individualswho become enlightened by their ownstrenuous efforts. To reach that end,shravakas contemplate on the fournoble truths and practice the EightfoldPath. In Mahayana teaching, shravakas

are one of the two vehicles of theHinayana tradition, which are con-trasted with the one vehicle of theMahayana tradition. Since shravakas aresaid to strive only for themselves, theyare regarded as inferior to bodhisattvas.See also three vehicles.

Shrimala SutraShort name for the ShrimaladeviShimhanada Sutra, the sutra of thelion’s roar of Queen Shrimala, aMahayana sutra comprised of one sec-tion (T. 12, no. 353). The sutra presentsitself as the teachings of QueenShrimala, a lay Buddhist. The textteaches about the Tathagata Garbhatheory, concerning the potential inher-ent in each sentient being to attain bud-dhahood. See also lay believer.

ShuAssembly, the entire community livingin a Buddhist monastery; sometimesused as an alternative Japanese transla-tion for sangha. See sangha.

ShûJapanese term which may be translatedas school, sect, denomination, or lin-eage, depending on the context. Shû istypically appended to the name of a reli-gious institution, such as Rinzai-shû(Rinzai sect) or Sôtô-shû. See lineage.

ShugendôA form of Japanese religious asceticpractice that draws upon Buddhist andShintô teachings. Practitioners, knownas Yamabushi, undertake austerities inthe mountains in order to accumulatemystical powers. The legendary moun-tain ascetic En-no-Gyôja, also known asEn-no-Ozunu, is regarded as thefounder. Shugendô first emerged as anorganized tradition during the Heianperiod (794–1185). Throughout its his-tory, the movement has been closelyassociated with the Tendai sect andShingon sect of esoteric Buddhism.

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Shûhô Myôchô(1282–1337) A Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe Kamakura period (1185–1333), betterknown by his honorific title DaitôKokushi. Myôchô is regarded as one ofthe founders of the Otôkan school whichbecame one of the most important in thedevelopment of Japanese Rinzai Zen. Hewas born in Harima province (modernday Hyôgo Prefecture) near Osaka. At ageten, he entered Buddhist orders at aTendai temple. In 1301, he traveled toKamakura where he became a disciple ofKôhô Kennichi (1241–1316) at Manju-ji.He later became the disciple of NampôJômyô (1235–1309), whom he had fol-lowed to Kamakura. He received inka, orthe transfer of Dharma, from Nampô atthe early age of twenty-five. AfterNampô’s death, Myôchô returned toKyoto where he established a small her-mitage and gathered disciples. Withimperial patronage, the hermitage waseventually expanded to a full monasteryand named Daitoku-ji. His most impor-tant Dharma heirs were Kanzan Egenand Tettô Gikô (1295–1369). Myôchôreceived several imperial honors, includ-ing the honorific title Kôzen DaitôKokushi (National Teacher Great LampThat Propogates Zen) from EmperorHanazono (1297–1348), bestowed duringthe master’s lifetime, and the title DaijunKyôshin Kokushi from Emperor Go-Daigo (1287–1339), conferred posthu-mously. The monastery, Daitoku-ji, andMyôchô’s lineage through Kanzan Egenproduced one of the most influentialRinzai lines in Japan. See also Rinzai sectand Tendai sect.

ShujôWalking staff used by Zen monks andnuns when traveling on pilgrimages.See walking staff.

ShukkeTo leave the home life; a Japaneseexpression for the process of becominga member of the Buddhist monasticcommunity. When a lay person (J. koji)is ordained as a monk or nun, the

individual leaves behind the ordinarylife and responsibilities of the house-holder and accepts the precepts ofmonastic life. See also ordination.

ShukuRice gruel, one of the main dietary sta-ples at traditional Zen temples andmonasteries. According to Buddhistmonastic codes, monks and nuns aretechnically allowed only one full mealeach day, generally eaten at the noonhour. In East Asian monasteries, ricegruel has long been used as a supple-ment to maintain bodily strength andalleviate unnecessary discomfort. Shukuis served to resident monks or nuns inthe morning and again in the evening.Rice gruel preserves the simple lifestyleappropriate to the monastic life andrepresents a frugal use of templeresources. It is also said to have manymedicinal benefits. Since shuku isserved for breakfast, the term some-times is used synonymously with breakfast. Shuku is the more formal term; it is more commonly called kayu or okayu. The ten benefitsone receives from eating shuku arecalled shukuyûjûri.

Shukuha FuginSutra chanting which is performed afterthe morning meal.

ShukushinPrayer services held regularly on the firstand fifteenth day of each month at Zenmonasteries for the health and well-being of the secular authorities. Onthese occasions, the abbot ascends thehigh seat in the main hall and addressesthe assembly, giving a sermon on theDharma. He also burns incense andprays for the health of the emperor andprosperity for the nation.

ShukuyûjûriThe ten benefits associated with eatingshuku, or rice gruel. According to a tra-ditional Zen verse, rice gruel improves

one’s complexion, builds stamina, pro-motes longevity, provides comfort, puri-fies one’s speech, is easily digested, doesnot cause gas, alleviates hunger, allevi-ates thirst, and is simple to prepare.

ShumidanThe raised platform in the buddhahall or Dharma hall on which the imageof the Buddha is enshrined. The term literally means “platform of MountSumeru” and symbolizes the center of the cosmos.

ShumisenMount Sumeru, in Japanese. Oftenabbreviated as Shumi or Misen. SeeMount Sumeru.

ShûmitsuJapanese rendering of Tsung-mi(780–840), a Chinese Buddhist monk.See Tsung-mi.

ShumokuA large wooden beam used to sound thelarge monastery bell, the ogane. Thebeam hangs, suspended horizontallywith ropes, beside the bell. To sound thebell, the shumoku is drawn back, oftenwith guide ropes, and brought forwardto strike the side of the bell. The termmay also be used for smaller woodenmallets used to strike smaller templebells and gongs.

Shûmon KattôshûA Zen kôan collection in two sections,compiled in Japan during the Tokugawaperiod (1600–1867). The compiler anddate of first publication are unknown.The text includes 272 kôan, primarilyfrom classical Chinese Zen sources. Afew are of Japanese origin. The workremains a basic resource within theJapanese Rinzai sect today.

Shûmon Mujintô Ron“On the Eternal Lamp of Zen,” a text in twosections (T. 81, 581a–605b) composed

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Shuku, or rice gruel, is a dietary staple of Buddhist monks and nuns.

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by Tôrei Enji under the pen name Fufu-an. The preface is dated 1751 by theauthor, but the text was first publishedin 1800. Tôrei wrote the text while hewas living in Kyoto, where he undertookan intense period of solitary meditationafter his initial enlightenment experi-ence. As a result of his severe disciplinehe became ill, contracting tuberculosis.Told that his condition was terminaland that he would not live long, Tôreiwrote in the preface that he regrettedbeing unable to lead others to enlight-enment. He therefore decided to recordthe basic teachings of Zen Buddhism asthey were taught to him by HakuinEkaku (1685–1768). The text is dividedinto ten sections that describe the pro-gressive system of Zen practice designedby Hakuin. The text became highly influ-ential in the Rinzai sect, which contin-ues to use it as an introduction toHakuin Zen.

Shûmon Rentô EyôJapanese title for “The T’ien-shengRecord of the Widely Extending Lamp,”(C. Tsung-men Lien-teng Hui-yao). SeeTsung-men Lien-teng Hui-yao.

Shun’ô Reizan(d. 1399) Japanese Rinzai monk of the late Kamakura period (1185–1333).He was the Dharma heir of BassuiTokushô (1327–1387). He worked in theKantô area and founded Kôon-ji in Hachioji, near present day Tokyo. He is best known for publishing theauthoritative Japanese edition of theWu-men Kuan (J. Mumonkan) in 1405.See also Rinzai sect.

Shunyata“Emptiness,” the fundamental Maha-yana Buddhist concept regarding ulti-mate reality and one of the definitiveconcepts within Mahayana thought. TheSanskrit term is also rendered “Void” or“Nothingness.” Shunyata asserts that allphenomena, including sentient beings,inanimate objects, and ideas, are empty

of self-nature. This teaching denies asfalse the ordinary perception that thingsin the phenomenal world possess anindependent existence that is unchang-ing and eternal. The teaching is basedon the realization of DependentCoorigination; that all phenomena arerelative and dependent on causation. Tosay that all things are empty means thatthey are interdependent, arise out ofcausal factors, and are continually sus-ceptible to change. See emptiness.

Shuramgama DharaniA dharani, or spell, derived from theseventh section of the ShuramgamaSutra. One of the most commonly useddharani in the Zen school, it oftenappears as a part of rituals, includingmemorial services and funerals. Thedharani may be used to exorcise evilspirits and ward off calamities and istherefore sometimes used to pray forrain, for recovery from serious illness,and the like. It is known in Japanese asthe Ryôgon-ju or the Daibutchô-ju,alternate abbreviations for Daibutchômangyô shuryôgon darani.

Shuramgama SutraHeroic Valour Sutra, a title shared by twodistinct Mahayana sutras. The earliertext, more properly known as theShuramgama Samadhi Sutra (T. 15, no.642), is a work in two sections thatdescribes a form of meditation knownas shuramgama samadhi. This text wastranslated into Chinese by Kumarajiva.The later sutra, a text of ten sections (T. 19, no. 945), is an apocryphal scripture originally composed inChinese. It is a discourse on the work-ings of the mind and includes somedescription of esoteric practices. Thelatter Shuramgama Sutra was widelyinfluential in the Zen school.

ShuryôThe Reading Room in a Zen monasterywhere monks study and have tea aftermeals. The word shuryô literally means

“monks’ quarters,” but the hall is notused for sleeping or meditating. It typi-cally has an image of Kannon enshrinedin the center as the shôsô, and desks arearranged around the perimeter of thehall on raised tatami platforms for read-ing and study. Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253)composed a brief set of regulations forconduct in the shuryô, called theKisshôzan Eiheiji Shuryô Shingi.

Shohei, Ichimura. Zen Master EiheiDôgen’s Monastic RegulationsWashington, DC: North AmericanInstitute of Zen and Buddhist Studies, 1993.

Shuryôgon-gyôJapanese title for the ShuramgamaSutra (T. 19, no. 945), often abbreviatedto Ryôgon-gyô. The full Japanese title isDaibutchô Nyorai Mitsuin Shushô RyôgiShobosatsu Mangyô Shuryôgon-Gyô.See Shuramgama Sutra.

Shuso“Chief Seat,” the highest ranking offi-cer in a Zen temple after the abbot.The shuso is one of six monastic offi-cers, or prefects (J. chôshu), knowncollectively as the Western rank (J. sei-han). Together, the prefects assist theabbot in managing the spiritual direc-tion of the monastic community.However, the shuso directs all activi-ties within the monks’ hall ( J. sôdô)and meditation hall. He is entrustedwith guiding the meditation practiceof the other resident monks. Thus, tobe qualified for appointment as shuso,a monk must have many years of expe-rience in the practice of Zen medita-tion, usually more than ten years.

The word shuso literally means “headseat” or “chief seat,” a reference to theshuso’s place beside the abbot on themeditation platform. There are severalother terms used for the same office,including daiichiza, jôza, shushu, rissô,zagen, and zentô.

ShussanA daily ritual performed at mealtime inZen temples for the sake of hungryghosts (J. gaki). Before eating, eachmonk or nun sets aside a few grains ofrice or a small amount of another fooditem (J. saba) as an offering to the hun-gry ghosts who suffer perpetual hunger.The offering is accompanied by a briefverse. According to Ichimura Shohei inhis translation of Dôgen Kigen’s monas-tic code, monks at Eihei-ji today chantthe verse, “Oh, host of hungry ghosts,Now I make an offering of food for you.This food is offered widely in all tenregions, For all those of ghost spirits.”(Shohei, p. 120).

Shohei, Ichimura. Zen Master EiheiDôgen’s Monastic RegulationsWashington, DC: North AmericanInstitute of Zen and Buddhist Studies,1993.

ShutaraA Japanese transliteration of sutra. See sutra.

Shûtô FukkôRestoration of the lineage system, areform movement within the JapaneseSôtô sect during the Tokugawa period(1600–1867) to restore Dôgen Kigen’soriginal system of Dharma succession.In the centuries before the Tokugawaperiod, it became common practice forSôtô monks to accept Dharma seals (J.inkas) from several masters, oftenswitching lineages when they changedtemple residence. The seventeenthcentury Sôtô reformer ManzanDôhaku objected to the practice andargued strenuously for a return to isshiinshô. Manzan and Baiyû jikushin(1633–1707) petitioned the Japanesegovernment to mandate the restorationof isshi inshô. In 1703, their petitionwas accepted and Dharma successionin Sôtô temples was regularized.

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ShuyaNightly fire watch, traditionally per-formed after sunset and again at bed-time each night at Zen monasteries. Theperson responsible for acting as watch-man walks around the temple grounds,beating wooden clappers and chantinga special dharani to ward off fire andother calamities.

Siddharta GautamaIndian religious teacher who becameknown as the Buddha, regarded as thefounder of Buddhism. SiddhartaGautama was born around 586 B.C.E. ina small kingdom in the northwesternregion of the Indian subcontinent, inwhat is now Nepal. Little has beenestablished about his life with histori-cal certainty, but traditional biogra-phies abound. The most important tra-ditional account of the Buddha’s life isthe Buddhacharita, a text written sev-eral centuries after his death. What fol-lows is a summary of traditionalaccounts of his life.

Tradition maintains that Siddhartawas born the son and heir ofSuddhodana, the king of Kapilavastu ofthe Shakya clan. His mother, Maya,conceived the child when she saw awhite elephant enter her body during adream. When the time for her deliveryapproached, she traveled home to herown people. She gave birth to Siddhartain a grove called Lumbini; the childemerged miraculously from her sidewithout causing his mother any pain.The child immediately took seven stepsand declared that this was to be his finalbirth. Within a few days, Maya passedaway, and Siddharta was raised by hismaternal aunt Prajapati.

Ashita, a seer and interpreter ofsigns, visited the newborn and informedSuddhodana that his son was destinedto renounce the world and become agreat religious teacher. The father wasdetermined to protect the child fromany awareness of suffering and by doingso steer him away from a religious quest.Siddharta grew up within the protective

confines of the court. When he came ofage, he married a woman namedYashodhara, who bore him a son namedRahula. At about this time, Siddhartadecided to leave the court and travel outinto the city to experience something ofthe world. His father, concerned thatSiddharta would be distressed by evi-dence of poverty and disease among thepopulace, cleared the streets of the old,the poor, and the infirm. Siddharta ven-tured out with his charioteer four times,and on each occasion encountered apart of life his father had hoped to con-ceal. On the first venture, Siddharta sawan old person and learned that allhuman beings age. On the second out-ing, he met a person riddled with dis-ease and learned that all people sufferillness. Next, he encountered a corpsebeing carried to the cremation groundsand realized that all who are born willeventually die. Finally, he encountered awandering mendicant who had for-saken ordinary life to seek release fromsuffering. The young prince determinedto do the same.

At the age of twenty-nine, Siddhartaleft his home and family to become ahomeless wanderer, seeking a solutionto the problems of human suffering. Hepracticed different forms of meditationunder various teachers, mastering eachtechnique thoroughly but finding that itwas not the solution he sought.Deciding that meditation itself is not thegoal, Siddharta began to practice asceti-cism. He joined a group of five asceticsand practiced increasingly severe aus-terities for several years. Emaciatednearly to the point of physical collapse,Siddharta concluded that asceticismalone is insufficient, and, at age thirty-five, he began to follow a path of his owndevising.

First, Siddharta accepted foodoffered to him by a woman who tookhim to be the incarnation of a deity. Theother mendicants rejected him as a fail-ure in religious practice. Eventually,when he had recovered his strength,Siddharta sat down under a tree tomeditate, determined to continue

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This scroll depicts the death of Buddha (Siddharta Gautama). It is located in the Kannon building of the Bukkokuji Zen temple in Japan.

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until he reached his goal. First he with-stood the temptations and attacks ofMara, the god of desire and death,who sensed that Siddharta wouldsoon escape the power of death.Siddharta remained firm and medi-tated throughout the watches of thenight, attaining increasingly higherstates of awareness. During the firstwatch, he became aware of the cyclesof his former births. In the secondwatch, he gained an understanding ofthe life and death of all sentientbeings in the universe. During thethird watch, he realized the conceptsnow known as the basic teachings ofBuddhism. Finally, as the morningstar rose at the end of the fourthwatch, Siddharta attained nirvana,the state of complete enlightenment.

The Buddha, as he now could becalled, remained in mediation forseven days. He reflected on the truthshe had realized and decided that theywould be too difficult for others tograsp. Indra and Brahma, two popularIndian deities, visited him and beggedhim to reconsider. The Buddha thendecided to teach others and began alengthy career as a wandering religiousteacher. His first disciples were the fivemendicants, who attained enlighten-ment during his first sermon. He wenton to teach several members of hisfamily, including his father, his auntand foster mother Prajapati, whobecame the first nun, and his sonRahula, who became a monk.

The Buddha taught for the rest ofhis life, spending forty-five years wan-dering throughout the Ganges Riverregion. He gathered hundreds of disci-ples who formed the basis of theBuddhist order. When he was abouteighty years old, the Buddha died.Some accounts say that his death wascaused by tainted pork offered to himby a lay disciple. Before his death, hedesignated no successor to lead theorder. Instead, he asked his disciplesto continue to live according to histeachings and to “be each his ownlight.” The Buddha instructed his

disciples to cremate his corpse anddistribute the ashes as relics through-out the Buddhist community. See alsolay believer.

SilaMorality, ethics, and conduct con-ducive for progressing towardenlightenment. In some cases theterm may refer to religious precepts,such as those undertaken by Buddhistlay people, monks, and nuns. InBuddhist contexts, sila (morality,ethics, and conduct) is one part of thethreefold training; prajna (wisdom)and samadhi (concentration) are theother two parts. Sila is the first andmost basic of the three types of train-ing. In terms of the Eightfold Path,sila is associated with right speech,right action, and right livelihood. Forlay people, sila implies undertakingthe five precepts of the laity; forBuddhist monks and nuns, it implieskeeping the ten precepts of novices(and the entire monastic code for thefully ordained). In the Mahayana tra-dition, sila is closely associated withthe six perfections of the BodhisattvaPath. See also lay believer.

Silent Illumination ZenStyle of seated meditation character-istic of the Sôtô school of Zen, whichrefrains from kôan as the focus ofmeditation. See mokushô Zen.

Silver Mountain, Iron Wall( J. ginzan teppeki) Zen expression forenlightenment. The mind of enlight-enment is compared to a mountain orwall that cannot be climbed by ordi-nary means, since it cannot beattained through ordinary, discrimi-nating thought. For example, case 57of the Hekiganroku says, “When youhave not penetrated it, it standsbefore you like a silver mountain or aniron wall. When you have penetratedit, you yourself are the silver moun-tain and iron wall.”

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Silver PavilionGinkaku-ji, the popular name for theRinzai Zen temple Jishô-ji, located ineastern Kyoto in the Higashiyama area.The temple was originally designed andconstructed by the eighth Ashikaga shô-gun Yoshimasa (1436–1490) as a retire-ment villa in 1482. It was designed to bea match for the Golden Pavilion innorthwestern Kyoto, and Yoshimasa’soriginal plans called for the pavilion tobe covered in silver leaf, hence the popu-lar name. Yoshimasa never actually com-pleted this portion of the plan becausehe was unable to raise the necessaryfunds. The villa was constructed imme-diately following the devastating OninWar (1466–1477), and the economy hadnot yet recovered to support such anambitious project. The villa was con-verted to a Zen temple after Yoshimasa’sdeath in 1490, and Musô Sôseki

(1275–1351) was posthumously namedthe founding abbot. The Golden Pavilionand the Silver Pavilion are regarded asthe finest examples of Gozan architec-ture from the Ashikaga period(1392–1568). See also Rinzai sect.

SinAn action or mental state that alienatesa person from God; a theological con-cept common to several religious tradi-tions in the West, including Judaism,Christianity, and Islam. Buddhism doesnot have any concept directly analogousto Western notions of sin. In particular,Buddhism does not accept the premisethat a personal and omnipotent deitydetermines proper conduct or metesout reward and punishment. Instead,Buddhism teaches the concept ofkarma, which functions as an imper-sonal law, like the laws of nature.

Silver Pavilion, Kyoto, Japan.

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According to the Buddhist understand-ing of karma, good actions necessarilyproduce good effects and evil actionsnecessarily produce bad effects.

Six DustsA common synonym for the six objectsof perception (J. rokkyô), which includeform (color and shape), sound, odor,taste, texture, and mental objects. Theyare referred to as the six dusts (J. rokujin)or defilements because attachment tothem defiles the originally pure mind. Inthe Platform Sutra, the Sixth Patriarchsays, “The Dharma of no-thoughtmeans: even though you see all things,you do not attach to them . . . Eventhough you are in the midst of the sixdusts, you do not stand apart from them,yet are not stained by them. . .”(Yampolsy, p. 153)

Yampolsky, Philip B. The Platform Sutraof the Sixth Patriarch. New York:Columbia University Press, 1967.

Six Gates(J. rokumon) The six sense organs: theeyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, andmind. See six sense organs.

Six Paths(J. rokudô) The six realms of existenceinto which sentient beings caught inthe ongoing cycle of samsara may bereborn. The realms are arranged hierar-chically from best to worst: heavendwellers, ashuras, human beings, ani-mals, hungry ghosts, and hell dwellers.The realms are depicted as existing ondifferent levels of the cosmos. Hell isunderstood to be an extensive regionbeneath the earth where sentientbeings undergo a variety of punish-ments. Hell has many regions,descending from cold hells to progres-sively hotter hells. Hungry ghosts sufferfrom perpetual and insatiable hunger.They are said to live either on the out-skirts of hell or as invisible beings onthe periphery of the human world. The

earth is the location for the animal andhuman realms, while ashuras, deities,and other heaven dwellers live in theatmosphere above the earth or in theheavens above that.

Rebirth into one of the six realms isdetermined by the karma accumulatedduring the previous lifetime, that is, byan impersonal law of cause and effect.The three higher destinies reward goodbehavior and are regarded as good out-comes. The three lower destinies involvevarying degrees of suffering as punish-ment for wicked behavior. These are theso-called evil paths. Despite the recog-nition that some destinies are betterthan others, all six are equally part of theongoing cycle of samsara, characterizedby suffering. This means that no exis-tence is permanent, and imperma-nence itself is seen as a form of suffer-ing. For example, individuals born intoheaven, despite the pleasures of theircurrent existence, are subject to deathonce their good karma has beenexhausted. They will then inevitably fallinto a lower rebirth.

Of the upper three realms, thehuman is the most important becauseonly human beings can make spiritualprogress toward enlightenment, whichentails escape from the cycles of samsara. Being born as a human beingis regarded, therefore, as a rare and precious opportunity. The realm of the ashuras has ambiguous status in the tradition. Ashuras are demi-godswho fight continually with other deities.Although they rank higher on the scalethan humans, the tradition sometimesinterprets their violent nature as a form of punishment.

The Zen tradition often interpretsthe six realms in a metaphoric sense andsees the various realms as creations ofthe human mind in the present exis-tence. Individuals who are pugnaciousand eager to fight transform themselvesinto ashuras. People who greedily graspat possessions and refuse to practice thevirtue of generosity are already hungryghosts, and those who kill others havealready fallen into hell.

Six Perfections(J. ropparamitsu) The six paramitas,which can be understood as virtues orpractices undertaken by bodhisattvas asthey progress toward enlightenment.Bodhisattvas undertake the practice ofthe six perfections in order to buildmerit, which they then transfer to othersentient beings. The six paramitasinclude: 1) charity or giving (Sk. dana),which includes the sharing of materialgoods, Dharma instruction with others,and the willingness to give up one’s lifefor the sake of another; 2) observing theprecepts (Sk. sila), which includes con-trolling one’s body, speech, and mind; 3)patience or perseverance (Sk. kshanti),which means endurance of pain andhardship and forgiveness of injury with-out anger or agitation; 4) vigor (Sk.virya), which refers to boundless energyand willingness to overcome one’s faultsand cultivate virtues; 5) meditation (Sk.dhyana), in which the bodhisattvaenters various meditative states butdoes not accept rebirth in a heaven orPure Land; and 6) wisdom (Sk. prajna),the stage at which the bodhisattva fullyrealizes Buddhist teachings of reality,including emptiness, codependentorigination, and No-Self (Sk. Anatman).

Six Sense Organs(J. rokkon) The eyes, ears, nose, tongue,body, and mind; also called the six gates(J. rokumon). The senses are comparedto gates, since it is through the sensesthat we perceive the stimuli of form,sound, smell, taste, texture, andthought. According to the Buddhistunderstanding of perception, the sensesinclude not only the five senses nor-mally recognized in Western thought,but the mind as well. Just as the eyesperceive shape and color and the earssound, the mind perceives mentalimages and thoughts.

Sixth PatriarchThe title usually refers to Hui-neng(638–713), the Sixth Chinese Patriarchof Zen. Tradition says Jui-neng directly

inherited the Dharma from the FifthPatriarch Hung-jen (601–674). In someclassical texts deriving from theNorthern school, the title may refer toShen-hsiu (606?–706), another Dharmaheir of Hung-jen. See Hui-neng.

Skandha(J. un) Literally, a heap. Buddhismuses the term in reference to the component parts that comprise all existent things, including the humanself. See the five skandhas.

Skillful MeansSee expedient means.

Small Vehicle(J. Shôjô) Literal English translation ofHinayana, a derogatory name forancient and Theravada Buddhism. Theterm was coined by proponents ofMahayana Buddhism, to contrast itwith their own “great vehicle.” SeeHinayana Buddhism.

So“Patriarch,” a founder of a school, sect,or lineage of Buddhism. See patriarch.

SôanA grass hut or hermitage used for soli-tary Zen life and practice. Sôan aresometimes located in rural or moun-tainous areas, where individual monksand nuns practice far from the distrac-tions of urban life and a large monasticcommunity. In other cases, sôan arebuilt on monastery grounds, sometimesin the middle of a city.

Sôan(2) Departing from the monastery; seeingoff a Zen monk or nun who is leavingon pilgrimage.

SobutsuThe patriarchs and the Buddha whotransmit the Dharma. When translated 319

Sobutsu

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as Patriarch-Buddha, it refers specifi-cally to Shakyamuni buddha (SiddhartaGautama). Zen masters sometimes usethe term sobutsu to emphasize the Zenteaching that all human beings are orig-inally enlightened beings and that anenlightened person is no different froma buddha or patriarch. For example, theChinese Zen Master Lin-chi I-Hsuanexplained in one of his sermons, “Bringto rest the thoughts of the ceaselesslyseeking mind, and you’ll not differ fromthe Patriarch-Buddha. Do you want toknow the Patriarch-Buddha? He is noneother than you who stand before me lis-tening to my discourse.” (Sasaki, p. 7)See also busso.

Sasaki, Ruth Fuller. The Record of Lin-chi. Kyoto, Japan: The Institute forZen Studies, 1975.

SôdôThe monks’ hall, one of the seven pri-mary buildings (J. shichidô garan) thatform the core of a Zen temple ormonastery. Traditionally, the sôdô wasthe central spiritual center of a Zenmonastery, where the monastic com-munity ate, slept, and practiced seatedmeditation together. In traditional lay-outs, it is located to the left of theBuddha hall. Inside the monks’ hall,meditation platforms line the walls andare grouped in the central areas. InChina, the platforms are covered withrush matting in summer and rugs inwinter. In Japan, they are covered withtatami matting. Resident monks ornuns are traditionally assigned a smallmat on one of the meditation platformsin the hall. There they sit in meditation,take their daily meals, and sleep. At thecenter of the inner hall is a raised altarwith an image of the halls’ patron, the“holy monk” (J. shôsô), usually the bod-hisattva Manjusri (J. Monju). Facing the“holy monk” at the entrance is theabbot’s chair. The outer part of monks’hall includes space for walking medita-tion (J. kinhin) and platforms foradministrative officers, attendants, andother staff to take meals and meditate.

The sôdô was one of the most char-acteristic halls of Zen monasteries inChina and became characteristic ofearly Japanese Zen monasteries as well.Traditional use of the monks’ hall fellout of common practice in Japan duringthe Ashikaga period (1392–1568), whenit became common for monks and nunsto reside and practice in separate sub-temples. Despite efforts to revive com-munal living and practice in the sôdô byrestoration movements within Rinzaiand Sôtô Zen during the Tokugawaperiod (1600–1867), few monks’ hallsoperate in the traditional manner today.Most monasteries have adopted theObaku custom of maintaining a sepa-rate meditation hall (J. zendô). See alsoObaku sect, Rinzai sect, and Sôtô sect.

SôgyaSangha, the community of Buddhistpractitioners. See sangha.

SôgyariThe nine-strip outer garment worn byBuddhist monks and nuns. Sôgyari isthe Japanese transliteration of theSanskrit term samghati. See Kujôe.

SôheiWarrior monks, the Japanese term usedfor armed Buddhist monks who servedas soldiers within a monastic army.Sôhei were a common feature for manycenturies in Japanese Buddhism,despite the fact that bearing arms andgoing into battle are strictly forbiddenby the Buddhist monastic code.Throughout the medieval period(1185–1600), powerful Buddhist monas-teries in Japan raised and maintainedarmies from among the ranks of resi-dent monks. These armies protected themonastery’s interests against rivalBuddhist institutions, the imperialcourt, military government (J. bakufu)forces, and other competitors. The prac-tice began in the early Heian period(794–1185) and continued until the earlymodern period (1600–1867). In the late

sixteenth century, the last warriormonks were defeated and disarmed byOda Nobunaga and ToyotomiHideyoshi. Monasteries subsequentlyhad no opportunity to rearm becausethe Tokugawa military governmentestablished and enforced strict monas-tic codes prohibiting monastic armies.

Sôhei were drawn from the lowerranks of the monastic community,including low-ranking monks and unor-dained servants residing on templegrounds, but not including the scholarmonks. Sôhei generally came from thelower social classes. They not onlyserved as soldiers in times of need, butalso were responsible for carrying outmuch of the regular manual labor nec-essary to keep a large monastic commu-nity in operation.

Sôji-jiA major Sôtô Zen monastery inYokohama and one of two main monas-teries for the Sôtô sect in Japan. Theoriginal Sôji-ji was located in what isnow Ishikawa Prefecture. It was foundedby the Hossô monk Gyôgi (668–749) andwas called Shogaku-ji. In 1321, the Sôtômaster Keizan Jôkin inherited Shogaku-ji, then a Ritsu sect temple. Keizan con-verted it into a Sôtô monastery andrenamed it Sôji-ji. The Emperor Go-Daigo (1287–1339) raised Sôji-ji’s rank toa main monastery (J. honzan), making itequal to Eihei-ji. The monastery grew inprominence under the direction of itssecond abbot, Gasan Jôseki, attracting agreat many resident monks and buildinga large network of branch templesthroughout rural Japan. The originalmonastery was completely destroyed byfire in 1898, and Sôji-ji was then estab-lished at its present location inYokohama. See also Hossô school.

SôjôThe Japanese pronunciation for Seng-chao (374–414), an early ChineseBuddhist scholar-monk. See Seng-chao.

SôkeiThe Japanese pronunciation for Ts’ao-hsi, an alternative name for Hui-neng(638–713), the Sixth Patriarch. SeeHui-neng.

Sôkei-an(1882–1945) The teaching name of Sasaki Shigetsu, the Japanese Rinzai master who was influential inintroducing Zen to the West. Hefounded The First Zen Institute ofAmerica in New York City in 1931. Seealso Sasaki Shigetsu.

Sokkô Roku Kaien FusetsuA text comprised of one section thatrecords a series of sermons (J. teishô)given in 1740 by Hakuin Ekaku(1685–1768) on The Recorded Sayings ofMaster Hsu-t’ang Lu (J. Kidô Roku). Thesermons were recorded and revised bytwo of Hakuin’s disciples. The text wasfirst published in 1743. Sokkô Roku wasthe title Hakuin used for The RecordedSayings of Master Hsu-t’ang Lu. TheFusetsu is one of Hakuin’s most impor-tant works and serves as a basic intro-duction to his understanding of Zenteaching and practice. In the sermons,Hakuin promotes the traditional use ofkôan (J. kanna Zen) as a means to attainenlightenment and sharply criticizessilent illumination Zen (J. mokushôZen). Norman Waddell published anEnglish translation of the text under thetitle The Essential Teachings of ZenMaster Hakuin (Shambhala, 1994).

Sôkô ShinsaiTsao-kung, the Chinese god of thehearth who protects the kitchen fire.This Chinese folk deity came to beenshrined in the kitchens of ChineseZen temples, and the practice was latertransmitted to Japanese Zen temples.Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253) specificallyrequired that a ritual of chanting versesfrom the sutras be offered on a dailybasis to Sôkô Shinsai by the kitchen staffbefore the noon meal.

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The worship of Sôkô Shinsai is anancient practice in China, dating backto the second century B.C.E. SôkôShinsai, sometimes called the kitchengod, is a popular and important deityfor ordinary Chinese, since he is asso-ciated with personal longevity andwith the kitchen fire, a potent symbolof family unity. He sits above thehearth throughout the year observingthe words and deeds of family mem-bers. Once each year he visits heavento report on the family’s actions, thusdetermining the longevity of individualfamily members. On the twenty-thirdday of the twelfth lunar month, thefamily sends Sôkô Shinsai off toheaven by burning the paper image ofhim that hangs above the stovethroughout the year. Traditionally, theysmear his mouth with something sweetso that he will make a pleasant reportabout their behavior. On New Year’sEve, they paste up a new image to markthe beginning of the New Year.

Shohei, Ichimura. Zen Master EiheiDôgen’s Monastic Regulations.Washington, DC: North AmericanInstitute of Zen and Buddhist Studies, 1993.

Thompson, Laurence G. ChineseReligion, An Introduction. FifthEdition. Belmont, CA: WadsworthPublishing Co., 1996.

Sokuhi NyoichiThe Japanese name for Chi-fei Ju-i(1616–1671), an Obaku monk who emi-grated from Ming China to Japan. SeeChi-fei Ju-i. See also Obaku sect.

SômonThe outer gate of a Zen monastery. Thesômon is much smaller than the sanmon, the main monastery gate. Inearlier periods, monasteries had threegates, with the sômon being the outer-most of the three.

SôrinA Zen monastery or temple. The wordliterally means “thicket” or “grove.” Itderives from an Indian expression, pin-davana, which was used for an assemblyof religious mendicants. In Japan, sôrinwas used as a common designation forall of the Japanese Zen monasteries thatcomprised the Gozan system. Zen tem-ples that were not part of the Gozan sys-tem were designated rinka, literallymeaning “below the grove.”

Sôsan(d. 606) The Japanese pronunciation forSeng-ts’an, the Third Chinese Patriarchof Zen. See Seng-ts’an.

Sôsan(2) A general form of sanzen in whichdisciples gather as a group to receiveinstruction from the Zen master.

Sôsan(3) Morning instruction, a sermon givenin the morning after breakfast. Thesôsan takes place in the Dharma halland is addressed to the entire assembly.

Soshi“Patriarch,” a founder of a Buddhistschool, sect, or lineage. Sometimes usedin Zen texts as a reference forBodhidharma, traditionally regarded asthe founder of Zen Buddhism.

SoshidôPatriarch’s hall, a monastery buildingin which images and/or mortuarytablets of the founder of the sect or themonastery are enshrined. In somecases, images of earlier patriarchs, suchas Bodhidharma or Lin-chi I-Hsuan,may also be enshrined in the soshidô.

Sôshin ZazenMorning session of meditation, one ofthe four periods of zazen (J. shiji zazen)observed daily in Zen monasteries.

Although the exact hours differ bymonastery, sôshin zazen is held afterbreakfast, sometime between nine andeleven o’clock in the morning.

Sôtô SectOne of three major sects of JapaneseZen. The Rinzai sect and Obaku sect arethe other two. Sôtô Zen developed fromthe Chinese Ts’ao-tung school (J. Sôtô)of Zen. Its name derives from two of itsfounding patriarchs, Tung-shan Liang-chieh (807–869; J. Tôzan) and Ts’ao-shan Pen-chi (840–901; J. Sôzan), whowere active during the T’ang dynasty(618–907). The predominant style ofSôtô focuses on single-minded devotionto seated meditation (J. zazen) withoutthe use of kôan or other devices.

The Ts’ao-tung lineage was estab-lished as a distinct lineage and sect inChina and numbered among the fivehouses of Chinese Zen of the T’angdynasty. During the Sung dynasty(960–1279), Ts’ao-tung was one of twomajor forms of Zen practice in China.Unlike the Lin-chi lineage which cham-pioned kôan practice, Ts’ao-tung mas-ters preferred a style of meditationknown in Japanese as shikan taza,“earnest meditation,” or “seated medi-tation only.” The Ts’ao-tung style of Zenwas transmitted to Japan during theKamakura period (1185–1333) by theJapanese monk Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253), who established Eihei-jias the main monastery for the new sect.After his death, the sect developed fur-ther under the guidance of KeizanJôkin, sometimes known as the SecondPatriarch. Keizan and other Sôtô monkssuccessfully established Sôtô as a popu-lar form of Buddhism, especiallyamong the warrior class. Today, Sôtôremains among the largest sects inJapan, with almost 15,000 temples and over six million members. See alsoLin-chi school.

Sôtô-shûJapanese for Sôtô sect of ZenBuddhism. It also may refer to

the Chinese Ts’ao-tung school of Zen Buddhism. See Sôtô sect and Ts’ao-tung school.

Southern SchoolAn early school of Chinese Zen, gener-ally regarded by the tradition as theorthodox lineage of Hui-neng(638–713), the Sixth Patriarch, fromwhich all surviving lineages of Zenclaim descent. Ho-tse Shen-hui(670–762), a disciple of Hui-neng,adopted the name Southern school todistinguish his master’s lineage fromthe so-called Northern school of Shen-hsiu (606?–706). The names of the twoschools derive from the relative geo-graphical location of the two lineages.Shen-hsiu and his lineage were active in the area north of the Yellow River and the cities of Lo-yang and Ch’ang-an, while Hui-neng and his group wereactive in the south. According to Shen-hui and the later tradition, theSouthern school preserved the SixthPatriarch’s teaching of sudden enlight-enment, as opposed to the Northernschool’s preference for gradualenlightenment. Recent scholarship hasquestioned the historical accuracy ofthis story of the doctrinal schismbetween the two schools.

Sôzan HonjakuThe Japanese pronunciation for Ts’ao-shan Pen-chi (840–901), a Chinese Zenmonk and co-founder of the ChineseSôtô school. See Ts’ao-shan Pen-chi.

Ssu-chia Yu LuRecorded Sayings of the Four Houses, atext in six sections containing therecorded sayings of four famousChinese Zen masters of the T’ang(618–907) dynasty: Ma-tsu Tao-i(709–788), Pai-chang Huai-hai(720–814), Huang-po Hsi-yün (d.850), and Lin-chi I-hsuan (d. 866).The compiler and date of the originalpublication are unknown, but a sub-sequent edition was published by

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Chieh Ning in 1607. The text is alsoknown as the Ma-tsu Ssu-chia Lu.

Ssu-fen Lu(J. Shinbun Ritsu) The Vinaya in FourCategories of Dharmagupta, one of several versions of the monastic code ofTheravada Buddhism translated intoChinese, and the version that became thestandard in East Asian Buddhism. Thetext explains the general regulations formonks and nuns in the first section; theregulations for receiving the preceptsand for preaching in the second section;the regulations for retreats, repentance,clothing, and medication in the third sec-tion; and the regulations related to hous-ing and miscellaneous items in the fourthsection. The text was transmitted toChina in the fifth century C.E, and trans-lated into Chinese by Buddhayashas. TheChinese Buddhist monk Tao-hsuan(596–667) founded the Lu school, orVinaya school, based on the study andcareful observance of this text.

Steep Path(J. shôdô) Also known as the holy path,an expression used for those forms ofBuddhism, especially Zen, whichencourage personal striving towardenlightenment through the practices ofmeditation and observance of precepts.The steep path contrasts with the easypath of faith, characteristic of PureLand Buddhism, in which the individualrelies upon the merit of a buddha orbodhisattva. Nagarjuna is said to haveoriginated the distinction between theeasy and steep paths in a chapter oneasy practice in the Shih-chu-p’i-p’o-sha-lun (J. Jûjûbibasharon).

Storehouse ConsciousnessThe alaya consciousness, part of theYogachara (J. Hossô) system of humanpsychology. In this schema, the store-house consciousness (J. arayashiki) isthe fundamental level of human con-sciousness that stores previous experi-ences and constitutes the lense through

which all other experiences are evalu-ated. The storehouse is the eighth (J.hasshiki) and deepest level of con-sciousness. The Zen school has gener-ally accepted and adopted theYogachara view of human psychology asthe theoretical basis for its own thought.See alaya consciousness.

Straw Sandal BodhidharmaRefers to the story of Bodhidharmareturning to India after his death withone straw sandal. According to the leg-end preserved in the Ching-te Ch’üan-teng Lu (J. Dentôroku), some three yearsafter Bodhidharma had died and beenburied in China, a Chinese official namedSung Yun was returning to China from amission to India and encountered themaster somewhere in Central Asia. Themaster carried a single straw sandal in hishand. When the emissary asked where hewas going, the master replied that he wasreturning to India. The official reportedthis encounter to the emperor on hisreturn to the capitol. The emperorordered Bodhidharma’s grave opened forinspection. They found the coffin com-pletely empty, save for a single straw san-dal. Because of this story, Bodhidharmaoften appears in Zen art carrying a singlesandal (J. sekiri daruma).

StupaBuddhist structure used to enshrinerelics of the historical Buddha oranother important religious figure, or tomark a religiously significant location.In early Buddhism and still today inTheravada communities, stupas sym-bolically represent the historicalBuddha and serve as the principalobjects of worship for lay Buddhists.While Theravadan believers understandthat the Buddha passed into nirvanaand that he is not present to be worshipped in the sense that a deity is, stupa worship nevertheless serves as a reminder of the founder and histeachings. The structures are notdesigned for worshippers to enter.Believers circumambulate the stupa in

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the clockwise direction; they may alsoprostrate themselves before it or makeofferings of flowers.

Traditional stupas are derived in formfrom the burial mounds constructed forIndian royalty. They are dome-shapedstructures resting on a square or circularbase. From the top of the dome, a metalpole rises, supporting umbrella-shapeddiscs, which symbolize the Buddha’sspiritual royalty. They may also repre-sent the bodhi tree, under which theBuddha attained enlightenment. Somestupas include covered or enclosed walk-ways around the exterior designed forcircumambulation. In China, the tradi-tional form of the stupa underwent sig-nificant change. The East Asian form ofthe stupa, known as a pagoda (J. tô ortôba), is a multistoried tower with dis-tinct rooftops for each level. The mostcommon style of pagoda has three or fivestories. See also lay believer.

Subhuti(J. Shubodai) One of the ten outstandingdisciples of the Buddha, renowned forhis understanding of No-Self (Sk.Anatman) and emptiness (Sk. shuny-ata). Before becoming a disciple of theBuddha, Subhuti is said to have beenplagued by a constant state of anger,causing him to perpetually lash out atothers. Under the Buddha’s guidance,Subhuti practiced meditation on lovingkindness and attained enlightenment,making him an arhat. Because of hisdeep understanding of the teaching ofAnatman, Mahayana sutras oftendepicted Subhuti expounding the teach-ing of shunyata.

Ishigami, Zenno. Disciples of theBuddha. Trans. Richard L. Gage andPaul McCarthy. Tokyo: KoseiPublishing Co., 1989.

The stupa is a Buddhist shrine used to preserve relics of the historical Buddha, or to mark a religiously significant site.

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SubtempleA Buddhist temple that is built within alarger monastery complex and does nothave legal status independent of themonastery. Large Japanese Zen monas-teries often have a number of smallersubtemples, known in Japanese astatchû. In most cases, subtemples wereoriginally constructed by leading Zenmasters as personal residences aftertheir retirement. See tatchû.

Succession CertificateThe document that a qualified Zen mas-ter presents to a disciple to certify theindividual as a designated Dharma heir.The succession certificate indicates thatthe recipient is qualified to train stu-dents and to serve as abbot or headmonk at a Zen temple or monastery.Documents of succession generally takethe form of lineage charts, presentingthe Dharma ancestors of the newly cer-tified teacher. See shisho.

Sudden EnlightenmentZen understanding that enlightenmentis attained immediately and not gradu-ally through stages. The teaching of sud-den enlightenment (J. tongo or tongaku)appears in the Platform Sutra of theSixth Patriarch and is associated withthe Southern school of Chinese Zen. Itcame to be regarded as the orthodoxposition. The teaching of gradualenlightenment is traditionally associ-ated with the Northern school,although scholars have shown that thisis not historically accurate.

Suddhodana(J. Jôbonnô) The personal name ofSuddhodana Gautama, the father ofSiddharta Gautama, the historicalBuddha. Suddhodana was the ruler ofKapilavastu, a small republic in north-ern India, during the sixth century B.C.E.This country, the land of the Shakyaclan, was at the time a semi-autonomous part of the larger kingdomof Koshala. The region is now part of

Nepal. Suddhodana and his wife, Maya,had a son named Siddharta, who laterbecame known as Shakyamuni Buddha.Since Maya died shortly after givingbirth, Suddhodana married her sisterPrajapati to raise the young prince.According to traditional accounts of theBuddha’s life, Suddhodana objected tohis son pursuing a religious life and triedto preclude that possibility by limitinghis son’s exposure to the harsher reali-ties of human life. Later in life, hebecame a devoted lay disciple of theBuddha. See also lay believer.

SufferingAccording to the Buddhist understand-ing of reality, suffering characterizes allaspects of ordinary existence. The pri-mary goal of Buddhist practice is nir-vana, or enlightenment—the elimina-tion of all suffering. Suffering (Sk.dukhha; J. ku) is one of the three marksof existence, along with impermanence(Sk. anitya) and No-Self (Sk. Anatman).

The Buddhist understanding of suf-fering is closely associated with thefour noble truths. The first of the nobletruths, called the teaching of suffering(Sk. duhkha), states that all life is suf-fering. Birth, death, old age, illness,separation from what one loves ordesires, and contact with what onedespises are all forms of suffering. Evenaspects of life that may be seen as plea-surable involve the eventual sufferingof loss or separation due to the transi-tory nature of existence. The secondand third noble truths indicate thatdesire is the cause of suffering and thatcutting off desire leads to the elimina-tion of suffering. The fourth noble truthteaches that the way to eliminate desireand end suffering is to follow theEightfold Path of Buddhism.

SugyôrokuJapanese title for the Tsung-ching Lu, byYung-ming Yen-shou (904–975). SeeTsung-ching Lu.

SuibokugaBlack ink painting, or ink drawing; astyle of monochromatic painting com-monly used by Zen monks and nuns toexpress their understanding of theDharma. The paintings may be land-scapes or may depict famous Zen patri-archs and stories from the past.

SumieBlack ink painting, or ink drawing. See suibokuga.

Sunface Buddha, Moonface Buddha(J. Nichimen Butsu Gatsumen Butsu)Two buddhas named in chapter seven-teen of the Sutra of the Buddhas’ Names(J. Butsumyôkyô; T. 14, nos. 440–442), alisting of three thousand buddhas of thepast, present, and future. According tothe sutra, the life span of the Sunfacebuddha is 1,800 years, while theMoonface buddha survives only one dayand one night. Just before he died, theChinese Zen master Ma-tsu Tao-i(709–788) is said to have spoken thewords “Sunface buddha, Moonfacebuddha.” This account takes the form ofa kôan in case 3 of the Hekiganroku.

Sung-shan(J. Sû-zan) Mount Sung, a mountain inHonan province, China, near the oldcapital city of Lo-yang, which was thesite of many Buddhist monasteries.According to Zen legend, the founderBodhidharma sat in meditation fornine years at Shao-lin-ssu, a Buddhistmonastery on Mount Sung.

Sung-yüan Chung-yueh(1132–1202; J. Shôgen Sôgaku) ChineseRinzai monk of the Sung dynasty(960–1279). Sung-yüan became theDharma heir of Mi-an. Although Sung-yüan died without naming a successor,one of his disciples was designated ashis heir after his death. His lineage thusextended to that of Nampô Jômyô(1235–1309) and Shûhô Myôchô

(1282–1337), an important lineage inJapanese Rinzai. Sung-yuan appears incase 20 of the Wu-men Kuan (J.Mumonkan). See also Rinzai sect.

Sung YunChinese government official of the sixthcentury who plays a small role in the traditional biography of Bodhidharma.According to legend, Sung Yun encoun-tered Bodhidharma in Central Asia as he was returning home to China fromIndia. He noticed that Bodhidharmawas carrying a single sandal in his hand.On reporting on his mission, Sung Yunrealized that he had seen Bodhidharmaon the very day of his death. WhenBodhidharma’s tomb was opened, all that was found inside was a single sandal. See also Straw Sandal Bodhidharma.

Susoku-kanBreath-counting contemplation, anintroductory form of meditation inwhich one calms the mind by countingone’s breaths. Susoku-kan is generallyregarded as a Theravada Buddhismpractice, derived from anapana sati.Although it is explicitly rejected by someZen teachers, many Zen students firstlearn to meditate by counting theirinhalations and exhalations. There aredifferent styles, but the most common isto count one on the inhalation, two onthe exhalation, three on the inhalation,and so on up to ten. One then begins theprocess again with one inhalation.

SutrasSermons or discourses of a buddha,especially sermons attributed toShakyamuni (Siddharta Gautama), thehistorical Buddha. The sutras are a genreof Buddhist literature and one of thethree basic divisions in the TheravadaBuddhist scriptures (Sk. Tripitaka).According to the Buddhist tradition, thesermons of the historical Buddha werepreserved as the sutras by Ananda, whowas able to recite them from memory

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after the Buddha’s death. The earlysutras were first recorded in Pali andSanskrit and later translated intoTibetan and Chinese. The Mahayanasutras were composed later by otherBuddhist masters, but like theTheravadan sutras, are generally attrib-uted to the historical Buddha. In a fewcases, Mahayana sutras present them-selves as the discourse of anotherbuddha. The Zen text known as thePlatform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch isthe only text referred to as a sutra butnot attributed to a buddha.

Suzuki, Daisetsu Teitaro(1869–1966) Daisetsu Teitaro Suzuki, aJapanese Zen scholar and teacher of themodern period who was instrumental inintroducing Zen to the West. Suzuki wasborn in Kanazawa to a samurai family.His father was a physician who diedwhen Suzuki was only six, leaving thefamily in poverty. While attending col-lege, he studied Zen as a lay personunder the Rinzai master Imakita Kosenand his Dharma heir Soyen Shaku atEngaku-ji in Kamakura. Because ofSuzuki’s ability to speak and write inEnglish, Soyen sent him to the UnitedStates in 1897, where he lived andworked for a number of years. He laterreturned to Japan, and there marriedBeatrice Erskine Lane in 1911. Togetherthey founded The Eastern Buddhist, anEnglish-language journal. After WorldWar II, Suzuki returned to the UnitedStates and taught at several Americanuniversities, including the University ofHawaii, Claremont College, andColumbia University. He again returnedto Japan and continued to write until hisdeath at age 96. His many books inEnglish include Essays in Zen Buddhism(in three volumes), An Introduction toZen Buddhism, The Training of the ZenBuddhist Monk, and The Zen Kôan as aMeans of Attaining Enlightenment.Suzuki also contributed many scholarlytranslations of Buddhist texts, especiallythose important for Zen Buddhism. Seealso lay believer and Rinzai sect.

Suzuki Shôsan(1579–1655) Japanese Zen monk fromthe early Tokugawa period (1600–1867),loosely associated with Sôtô Zen.Shôsan was born in Mikawa (Aichi pre-fecture), to a samurai family. As a youngman he fought for Tokugawa Ieyasu atthe crucial battles at Sekigahara (1600)and Osaka Castle (1614–1615). He tookthe tonsure and became a monk late inlife, at age forty. He continued to servethe Tokugawa bakufu in his new capac-ity as a Buddhist monk. In particular, heparticipated in establishing methods forcontrolling Christianity, which wasbanned at that time.

Shôsan was not a part of the SôtôZen institutional structure, nor anyother established Buddhist sect. Henever established his lineage or createdan independent school to carry on histeachings after his death. He acted as afreelance agent, promoting his ownbrand of Buddhist practice among thewarrior and commoner classes. Hestrongly advocated Buddhist practicewithin the confines of ordinary life,stressing the religious character of one’sinherited profession. The style of Zenmeditation that he recommended issometimes known as Niô Zen. He alsopromoted chanting nembutsu as anappropriate religious practice for com-moners. His writings include Roankyô(Donkey-Saddle Bridge), Ha-kirishitan(Christianity Crushed), Môanjô (ATrustworthy Staff for the Blind),Banmin Tokuyô (Meritorious Way ofLife for All), and Nembutsu Zôshi(Nembutsu Notes). See also Sôtô sect.

King, Winston L. Death Was His Kôan:The Samurai-Zen of Suzuki Shosan.Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1986.

Ooms, Herman. Tokugawa Ideology: EarlyConstructs, 1570–1680. Ann Arbor,MI: Center for Japanese Studies,University of Michigan, 1998.

Tyler, Royall, trans. Selected Writings ofSuzuki Shosan. Ithaca, NY: China-Japan Program, Cornell University,1977.

Suzuki Shunryû(1904–1971) Japanese Sôtô master of themodern period who taught Zen in theUnited States. Although Shunryû’sfather was a Zen priest, he did notbecome his father’s heir. Instead, he lefthome and became the disciple ofGyakuju So-on. Shunryû first came tothe United States in 1959 to serve as thepriest for a Japanese immigrant com-munity at the Sôtô Zen Mission templein San Francisco. He began to attract

American disciples and later foundedthe San Francisco Zen Center in 1962.His American Dharma heirs includeRichard Baker. A collection of Shunryû’sDharma talks is published under thetitle Zen Mind, Beginner’s Mind. See alsoSôtô sect.

Suzuki, Shunryû. Zen Mind,Beginner’s Mind. New York:Walker/Weatherhill, 1970.

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TTa-hsiu Cheng-nien(1215–1289; J. Daikyû Shônen) ChineseRinzai master of the late Sung dynasty(960–1279) who helped to transmitRinzai Zen to Japan. In China, Ta-hsiubecame the Dharma heir of Shih-chiHsin-yueh. In 1269, he came to Japan atthe invitation of Hôjô Tokiyori(1227–1263). He served as abbot at sev-eral Kamakura Zen temples, includingJufuku-ji, Kenchô-ji, and Engaku-ji,and was the founding abbot at Jôchi-ji.He received the posthumous titleButsugen Zenji (Zen Master Buddha’sSource). See also Rinzai sect.

Ta-hui Tsung-kao(1089–1163; J. Daie Sôkô) ProminentChinese Rinzai master of the Sungdynasty (960–1279) who was a leadingRinzai teacher of his day. He is said tohave taught more than 2,000 disciples.Ta-hui became the Dharma heir ofYüan-wu K’o-ch’in (1063–1135), astrong proponent of kôan practiceand author of the kôan collection theHekiganroku. Despite his own dedi-cation to the use of kôan and his mas-ter’s connection with the text, Ta-huiwas responsible for destroying theoriginal version of the Hekiganroku.Ta-hui collected all the printed copiesof the text that he could find andburned them, and also destroyed theoriginal woodblocks. Some scholarsbelieve that Ta-hui did this becausehis disciples became too reliant on thewritten word.

Ta-hui is best known in the Zen tradi-tion for his emphasis on the use of kôanrather than what he called “silent illumi-nation Zen” (J. mokushô Zen). He andhis friend Hung-chih Cheng-chüeh

(1091–1157), a leading Sôtô master ofthe day, entered into a famous contro-versy about the proper approach to Zenmeditation. While Ta-hui favored thecontemplation of kôan during seatedmeditation as the best approach forachieving enlightenment, Hung-chihpreferred meditation without the use ofkôan. Ta-hui’s style of meditation, whichhas become known as “kôan gazing Zen”(J. kanna Zen), still characterizes prac-tice within the Rinzai school. Ta-huireceived the posthumous title Pu-chuehCh’an-shih (Zen Master Deep Insight).See also Rinzai sect and Sôtô sect.

Cleary, Christopher, trans. SwamplandFlowers: The Letters and Lectures of Zen Master Ta Hui. New York: GrovePress, 1977.

Taikô Gyôyû(1163–1241) Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe early Kamakura period (1185–1333)and a leading disciple of Eisai. Gyôyûwas born and raised in the Kamakuraarea. He became a Buddhist monk at anearly age in the Shingon tradition of eso-teric Buddhism, and he served for atime as an attendant at the TsuruokaHachiman Shintô shrine in Kamakura.Gyôyû was already advanced in agewhen he became Eisai’s disciple atJufuku-ji; however, he succeeded Eisaias abbot at Jufuku-ji when the masterdied. He did not forsake the Shingonteachings and practice, but advocated a mixed form of Zen and esoteric Buddhism. See also Rinzai sect andShingon sect.

T’ai-p’o-shan(J. Taihaku-zan) Mount T’ai-p’o, amountain in China’s modern day Che-chiang province, which was traditionallyan important religious site for Zen.Mount T’ai-p’o was the site for the Zenmonastery Ching-te-ssu, home to suchfamous Zen masters as Hung-chihCheng-chüeh (1091–1157) and Ju-ching(1163–1228). The Japanese Zen mastersEisai, Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253), and

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Ryônen Myôzen (1184–1225) visited themountain and practiced at Ching-te-ssu. T’ai-p’o-shan became known as oneof the Five Mountains (C. wu-shan; J.Gozan temples), the most prestigiousZen monasteries in China.

TaireishôsanA brief sermon on the Dharma given as apart of the funeral services for a promi-nent Buddhist monk or nun. It is tradi-tional for sermons to mark virtuallyevery stage of the funeral process forprominent members of the monasticcommunity. The taireishôsan is the ser-mon given in the lecture hall in front ofthe coffin on the taiya, the night beforethe funeral. It is one of nine ritual actions(kubutsuji) comprising the funeral ser-vices for prominent individuals.

TaishakuShort form for Taishakuten; Japanese forIndra, an ancient Indian god of war.Indra reigns in a palace above MountSumeru, from which he serves as aguardian for Buddhist teachings andbelievers. See Indra.

TaishakutenJapanese for Indra, an ancient Indiangod of war. Often shortened to Taishaku.See Indra.

Taishô DaizôkyôModern Japanese edition of theMahayana Buddhist scriptures, anextended version of the ChineseTripitaka. The full name of the editionis the Taishô Shinshû Daizôkyô, theNewly Revised Tripitaka of the TaishôEra. The project was first started in 1924during the Taishô period and was com-pleted in 1932. The Taishô Daizôkyôincludes 100 volumes which incorpo-rate several types of text: 1) translationsfrom the early Theravada traditionwhich formed the original SanskritTripitaka; 2) translations of Mahayanasutras originally composed in Sanskrit;3) apocryphal texts composed in

Chinese but represented as transla-tions; 4) texts composed by and attrib-uted to Chinese authors; 5) texts com-posed by Japanese authors; 6) indices;and 7) iconography and illustrations.

TaiyaThe evening before a Buddhist funeralor memorial service. The term taiyaalso refers to the rituals performed onthat night. When a prominent Buddhistmonk or nun dies, for example, a briefsermon known as the taireishôsan isaddressed to the monastic community.Thus the taireishôsan is one example ofa taiya.

Taiza MonjinBowing with one’s hands held in gasshôto greet the people on the opposite sideof the meditation hall before beginninga session of seated meditation. The bowis performed with one’s back to one’sown meditation position after one hasalready greeted the meditators to one’sright and left (J. rin’i monjin). The med-itators on the other side, in turn, bowtogether in greeting.

Taizôkai MandaraThe Japanese title for the Womb-RealmMandala, one of the two primary man-dala used in esoteric Buddhism, espe-cially the Shingon sect. The WombMandala consists of a series of twelveconcentric rectangles. The central por-tion of the mandala depicts an openlotus blossom with eight petals. Thebuddha Dainichi (Sk. Mahavairochana)sits in the center of the lotus, sur-rounded by four buddhas and bod-hisattvas. Other Buddhist deitiesinhabit the other rectangular halls. Thesecond primary mandala is theKongôkai Mandara (Diamond-RealmMandala). See Womb-Realm Mandala.

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deep personal commitment. In a reli-gious context, refuge does not imply aplace to hide but rather a source ofstrength. See Kie.

Takuan Sôhô(1573–1645) Japanese Rinzai master ofthe early Tokugawa period. (1600–1867)Takuan was born into a samurai familyin Hyôgo province. Although his familywere Pure Land Buddhists and he beganhis education at a Pure Land temple,Takuan soon moved to a Zen temple tocontinue his education. He eventuallyfollowed his Zen teacher to Kyoto, wherehe practiced under Shun’oku Sôen atDaitoku-ji. He received inka, theDharma transfer, from Ittô Shôteki.Takuan was appointed abbot at severalmonasteries, including Daitoku-ji. In1628, he was exiled to Yamagata by theTokugawa military government for hisrole in the so-called purple robe affair(when the military government strippedaway imperial honors that they had notauthorized). He was pardoned in 1632and returned to Kyoto. The thirdTokugawa shôgun Iemitsu named himfounding abbot for Tôkai-ji inShinagawa, near Edo. Takuan is perhapsbest known for his writings on the rela-tionship between swordsmanship (J.kyûdô or kyûjutsu) and Zen. See alsoRinzai sect.

TakuhatsuTo seek alms; a basic part of the practiceof monastic Buddhism. The term liter-ally means to take up the begging bowl.The practice originated in ancient India,where various religious groups, includ-ing that of the historical Buddha, sub-sisted on the food they received asdonations from lay people. Takuhatsumay refer to monks and nuns beggingfor prepared food on a daily basis, aswas the norm in the early tradition. Itmay also refer to begging for alms inother forms, as is more commonly donein East Asia. Zen monks typically beg insmall groups, walking through thestreets, announcing their presence with

the word Hô, or Dharma. They mayalso chant sutras for the sake of theirbenefactors. Lay believers offer themdonations, usually money or uncookedrice. In the autumn, monks and nunsgo out into the countryside to beg fordaikon, which are Japanese radishes,during the harvest season. Takuhatsuis also known as Jihatsu or Kotsujiki.See also begging alms.

Takujû Kosen(1760–1833) Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe Tokugawa period (1600–1867) whois regarded as the founder of theTakujû school of Japanese Zen. Takujûwas the Dharma heir of Gasan Jitô(1727–1348), a leading disciple of thereformer Hakuin Ekaku (1685–1768).He and his Dharma brother Inzan Ien(1751–1814) are credited with complet-ing the process of systematizing kôanpractice within the Rinzai sect. Takujûwas born in Tsushima, near the city ofNagoya. He became a Buddhist monkat Sôken-ji in Nagoya at age fifteen andbegan a pilgrimage looking for a suit-able master at age nineteen. He visitedGasan at Tôki-an and decided to joinhis assembly. Takujû requested permis-sion to live separately and to berelieved of all of his monastic duties inorder to concentrate exclusively onmeditation. His request granted, heattained kenshô in a matter of ninetydays. He then resumed his normalduties and practiced under Gasan forfourteen years. Gasan acknowledgedhim as a Dharma heir. Takujû thenreturned to his home temple Sôken-jiwhere he lived quietly for twenty years.He was appointed abbot at Myôshin-jiin 1813 and received a purple robe.This spread his reputation and he gath-ered a community of disciples atSôken-ji. He also attracted many laybelievers. He is especially known forthe quality of his lectures on the Zencorpus. He received the posthumousname Daidô Enkan Zenji (Zen MasterRound Mirror of the Great Way).

Takujû SchoolOne of two major forms of JapaneseRinzai Zen founded by Takujû Kosen(1760–1833), a second generationdescendent of Hakuin Ekaku(1685–1768). All active lineages of RinzaiZen in Japan today descend from eitherthe Takujû or the Inzan schools. Theteaching methods and Zen style of thetwo schools are nearly identical.Together they encompass what is often known as “Hakuin Zen.” See alsoRinzai sect.

TanThe assigned place on the raised plat-form in the monks’ hall (J. sôdô) or themeditation hall (J. zendô) where a resi-dent monk or nun sits in meditation,takes daily meals, and sleeps. The termalso refers to the platform as a whole.Tan generally line the interior walls ofthe hall and may also be placed in thecentral area. The platform is usually twoto three feet high and covered with rush

or tatami mats. The depth of the tandepends upon its use. In the monks’hall, the tan measures approximatelythree and one-half by seven feet, deepenough to accommodate a personstretched out to sleep. In the meditationhall, the tan are typically more shallow.The term also refers to the individualnameplates designating the occupant ofeach position on the raised platform.

Tanbutsu“Paying homage to the Buddha,” usuallyby a verse of praise. Zen monks andnuns pay homage to the Buddha at cer-tain meals, by reciting a verse of tenBuddha names. There are also specialrituals known as tanbutsu-e, in whichthe names of 3,000 Buddhas recorded inthe Sutra of the Buddhas’ Names (J.Butsumyôkyô; T. 14, nos. 440–442) arechanted. The tanbutsu-e is observed atsome Zen monasteries.

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Takuhatsu is the process of monks and nuns seeking alms, such as money or rice.

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TandenThe lower abdomen, specifically theregion between the navel and the pelvis.The word tanden literally means “Fieldof Cinnabar.” Various systems of Asianmeditation identify the tanden as thecentral core of the individual, one of thebody’s natural energy centers. In Taoismand Zen Buddhism, the tanden is said to be the location of one’s vitalbreath, or ki. One method of Zen concentration focuses the attention onthe tanden, especially its movementwhile breathing. It is known more popularly as the hara.

Tanden(2) Simple or direct transmission; thetransmission of the Dharma from a Zenmaster to a disciple.

TangaLiterally meaning to pass the night, theterm denotes the practice of travelingmonks taking lodging for a single nightat a time at various monasteries alongtheir route. Zen monasteries maintain aguest hall, administrated by the guestprefect (J. shika), for the sake of offeringsuch lodging. Newly admitted traineesalso spend a period of time in the guesthall. See also tanga zume.

Tanga ZumeA probationary period lasting a fewdays, when a new Zen postulant is firstaccepted by a monastery for training.During the tanga zume, the trainee isnot yet admitted into the monasteryproper to practice with the rest of theassembly. For a few days, the postulantresides alone in a guest hall specificallydesigned and maintained for tempo-rary lodging. The term tanga literallymeans “to pass the night” and is theword used for the practice of travelingmonks stopping at a temple for anight’s lodging in the guest room.Before being admitted to the monasteryfor the tanga zume, the trainee under-goes another initial waiting period,

known as the niwa zume. During thatperiod of time, the trainee is left wait-ing in the entryway.

During the three to seven days of thetanga zume probation, the postulantremains alone, passing the days in quietmeditation, isolated from other monks.The probation period is a further test ofthe postulant’s determination to practice Zen. It provides the administra-tor of the temple an opportunity toobserve the candidate and evaluate hisor her suitability to monastic life. At theend of the probation period, the postu-lant is given formal permission to enterthe monastery and instructed in therules of the monastic community.

Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro. The Training ofthe Zen Buddhist Monk. New York:Globe Press Books, 1991

Tan-iThe place within the monks’ hall (J.sôdô) or the meditation hall (J. zendô)assigned to a particular monk or nun.Each tan-i is marked with a sign bearingthe occupant’s name. Positions withinthe hall are assigned based upon senior-ity determined by the date of entry intomonastic orders.

TanjôgeThe birthday verse of SiddhartaGautama, who would later become theBuddha. According to the Buddhist tra-dition, immediately after his birth in theLumbini Garden, the newbornSiddharta is said to have taken sevensteps in each of the four cardinal direc-tions, pointed his right hand to heavenand his left to the earth, and declared hisintention to attain enlightenment.There are several different versions ofthe verse. The most popular version ofthe birthday verse in East Asia is the fol-lowing: “In the heavens above and onthe earth below, I alone am worthy ofrespect. The triple world is filled withsuffering; I will ease that suffering.”

Tanka“Short verse,” a genre of Japanese poetry;one of two standard forms of waka.Tanka are composed of five lines of verse,having 5-7-5-7-7 syllables, respectively.

TanpyôThe nameplate hanging above theraised platform in the monks’ hall (J.sôdô) or the meditation hall (J. zendô)indicating the individual monk or nunassigned to occupy that spot. Also calledthe tanban or simply tan.

Tao“Way” or “path,” a Chinese term usedextensively in East Asian religious andphilosophical traditions. On the sim-plest level, the term Tao (J. dô) desig-nates different religious and philosophi-cal traditions. Buddhism, for example,may be referred to as the Way of theBuddha. Used alone, the word Wayoften suggests the most appropriatestyle of human life or the most effectivecourse of human action. In Buddhistcontexts, Tao has two basic meanings. Itmay be used to describe the practice ofBuddhism, that is, the way to attainenlightenment. Alternatively, in rareexamples, it is used as a term for enlight-enment itself.

Tao-che Ch’ao-yüan(d. 1660; J. Dôsha Chôgen) ChineseRinzai master of the Ming dynasty(1368–1644) who was among the earliestChinese monks to travel to Japan duringthe early Tokugawa period (1600–1867).Tao-che served as head monk for aChinese Zen monastery in Nagasaki,and he also attracted many Japanesestudents interested in practicing with aChinese master. His most prominentJapanese disciple was Bankei Yôtaku(1622–1693). Tao-che came from thesame lineage as Yin-yüan Lung-ch’i(1594–1673), the founder of Obaku Zen, and is commonly regarded as aforerunner of the Obaku Zen move-ment. He returned to China shortly

before his death. See also Obaku sectand Rinzai sect.

Tao-hsin(580–651; J. Dôshin) The Fourth ChinesePatriarch of Zen, according to traditional accounts. Tao-hsin was aChinese Zen master of the Sui dynastyand founder of the East Mountainschool of early Zen. According to traditional biographies, he was born inHo-nei in Hunan province. He practicedunder Seng-ts’an (d. 606) on Mount Huan-kung for eight or nine years and became his Dharma heir. He even-tually settled on Mount Shuang-feng inHuang-mei, where the Fifth PatriarchHung-jen (601–674) numbered amonghis disciples.

McRae, John R. The Northern School andthe Formation of Early Ch’anBuddhism. Honolulu, HI: Universityof Hawaii Press, 1986.

TarikiOther Power, the Japanese term forseeking enlightenment throughreliance on the merit of a buddha orbodhisattva. See Other Power.

Ta Sheng Ch’i-hsin-lunThe Awakening of Faith in Mahayana (J.Daijô kishinron), a treatise in MahayanaBuddhism traditionally attributed toAshvaghosha. The text survives only inChinese, and scholars now believe it wasoriginally composed in Chinese ratherthan Sanskrit. Two Chinese versionsexist, said to be translations completedby Paramartha (T. 32, no. 1666) around550 C.E. and by Shiksananada (T. 32, no. 1667) around 700 C.E. SeeAwakening of Faith.

TassuThe Zen monk charged with conductingmemorial services for a Zen patriarchor founder. Services are generally held inthe presence of a portrait of the master,

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another sort of image, or the memorialtablet (J. ihai). They may also be con-ducted at the grave site or a stupa espe-cially dedicated to the master. In laterusage, the term tassu sometimes refersto the head monk at a subtemple withinthe complex of a large monastery.

TatamiFloor matting made from straw or rush,used as the traditional flooring inJapanese structures, including familyhomes and monastery buildings. Eachtatami mat is approximately three andone-half feet by seven feet. Rooms areoften measured in terms of tatami mats.

In Zen monasteries, the raised platforms(J. tan) in the monks’ hall (J. sôdô) andthe meditation hall are covered withtatami. Each resident monk or nun isassigned one full tatami mat in themonks’ hall for living space; this allowseach person sufficient space to stretchout to sleep. The tatami mats in themeditation hall are generally more shal-low, since practitioners do not need tolie down in the meditation hall.

TatchûA small subtemple within a larger Zenmonastery complex. Subtemples are aunique feature of Japanese Zen

Floors covered with tatami mats in a building near Mount Haguro, Japan.

monasteries, not based upon anyChinese model. During the Kamakura(1185–1333) and Ashikaga (1392–1568)periods, it became common for seniorZen monks to build tatchû within theprecincts of the monastery in which theyhad served as abbot. After retiring fromoffice, they used the tatchû as personalresidences. Often the masters’ disciplesalso took up residence at the tatchû andcontinued to practice under the master’simmediate supervision. In some cases,the tatchû functioned as monasteries intheir own right with numerous monks inresidence, drawing the focus away fromthe original main monastery. After themaster’s death, Dharma heirs inheritedthe subtemple as a part of the master’spersonal possessions. In this way, sub-temples typically remain within the lin-eage of the founding master. Before themodern period, tatchû were not treatedas independent temples. For this reason,they did not generally have formalmountain names typical of Zen temples.Since the Meiji period (1868–1912), manyof them have acquired legal status asindependent branch temples.

The term tatchû may also refer to thegrave site of the founder of a monasteryor another leading master. After a seniormonk died, it was traditional for his orher disciples to construct a memorialpagoda or another small structurewithin the precincts of the monastery.This tatchû was then used as the site formemorial services offered for the sakeof the deceased master.

Tathagata(J. nyorai) Thus Come One, in Sanskrit.One of the ten epithets used for theBuddha. The Sanskrit word can also beunderstood to mean “Thus Gone One,”but it is rarely rendered that way in theEnglish translation. The tathagata is anindividual who has attained perfectenlightenment and gone to or comefrom a realization of truth. Having fol-lowed the path of the buddhas, thetathagata understands Thusness, orthings as they really are. Siddharta

Gautama, the historical Buddha, appar-ently referred to himself after hisenlightenment using this title.

Tathagata Garbha(J. Nyoraizô) “The womb of the thuscome one,” or the “matrix of buddha-hood,” a Mahayana Buddhist concept.The term has two basic meanings in thetradition. First, it may refer to the poten-tial inherent in each sentient being toattain buddhahood, the seed of enlight-enment which may be perfected. Usedin this sense, it is identical with the con-cept of Buddha Nature. Second, theterm may refer to the matrix or environ-ment in which enlightenment develops.In this latter sense, it is closely associ-ated with the concept of the alaya (orstorehouse) consciousness.

Tea CeremonyA Japanese art form closely associatedwith Zen Buddhism. See chanoyû.

TeihatsuTonsure, shaving the head. Buddhistmonks and nuns initially shave off theirhair at ordination as an indication oftheir break from ordinary secular lifeand their dedication to monastic prac-tice. See tonsure.

TeishôExpounding the principles of theDharma. The term is most commonlyused for the formal Zen sermons givenby the Zen master for his or her disci-ples during periods of intensive Zenpractice (J. sesshin). Teishô typicallytake place in the Dharma hall (J. hattô)with the entire assembly present. Themaster speaks from the high seat (J.hôza) set up on the central dais (raisedplatform). The sermon itself takes theform of a commentary on a classicalZen text, such as the Sayings of Lin-chior the Wu-men Kuan (J. Mumonkan).Teishô are not, however, lectures in theacademic sense; they are immediate

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presentations of the master’s under-standing of the Dharma. Alternateterms include teiyô and teikô.

Temple BuildingsThere are seven monastic halls whichform the basic core of any Zenmonastery. The seven include theDharma hall (J. hattô), the Buddha hall(J. Butsuden), the monks’ hall (J. sôdô),the kitchen-office (J. ku’in), the latrines(J. tôsu), the mountain or triple gate (J.sanmon) and the bathhouse (J.yokushitsu). These seven halls areknown collectively as shichidô garan inJapanese. See shichidô garan.

Temple PositionsThe highest ranking monk or nun at alarge training monastery is the abbot (J.jûji or chôrô), who is responsible for themanagement of the monastery as awhole. This means that the abbot servesas both the senior administrator whooversees the monastery staff and theZen master who directs the monastictraining of the resident monks or nuns.In order to fulfill these responsibilities,the abbot of a major monastery reliesupon a large staff of senior officers whoassist with either the administrativeaspects of management or the spiritualaspects of monastic training. These twotypes of responsibility are entrusted totwo distinct sets of officers, referred toas the Eastern rank (J. tôhan) andWestern rank (J. seihan).

The Eastern rank is the group ofmonastic officers who assist the abbotwith matters related to the secularadministration of the community.Officers of the Eastern rank, referred tocollectively as the stewards (J. chiji),include the bursar (J. tsûbun), who isthe chief financial officer; his threeassistants, the prior (J. tsûsu), the super-visor (J. kansu), and the assistant super-visor (J. fûsu); the cook (J. tenzo), whooversees the kitchen staff; the laborsteward (J. shissui), who oversees con-struction projects, repair, maintenance,and farm work; and the supervisor of

trainees (J. ino), who manages activitiesin the monks’ hall (sôdô).

The “Western rank” is the group ofmonastic officers who assist the abbotwith matters related to meditation andtraining of the community. Officers ofthe Western rank, referred to collectivelyas the prefects (J. chôshu), include: thechief seat (J. shuso), who is second onlyto the abbot and directly responsible forguiding the other resident monks intheir meditation practice; the scribe (J.shoki), who handles official correspon-dence and prepares formal documents;the sutra prefect (J. zôsu or chizô), whoserves as the librarian and cares for themonastery’s book collection; the guestprefect (J. shika), who receives guestsand admits novices seeking entry intothe community; the bathkeeper (J.chiyoku); and the prefect of the Buddhahall (J. chiden), who cleans the hall andprepares it for ritual use.

Temple RegulationsRegulations from two sources, themonastic community and externalauthorities, which govern life and prac-tice within a Zen Buddhist temple ormonastery. First, there are the internalregulations created by the communityitself. There are Zen monastic codes, aspecial genre of Zen literature known asshingi in Japanese. There also may beinternal regulations written by thefounder of a monastery or sect to governhis or her own community. In additionto internal regulations, Zen communi-ties often must answer to externalauthorities. In many parts of theBuddhist world, secular governmentscreate official regulations to controlBuddhist monastic communities.During the Tokugawa period(1600–1867) in Japan, for example, theTokugawa military government (J.bakufu) enacted a special series of regu-lations related to Buddhist temples andmonasteries. These regulations, knownas jiin hattô, were designed to controlBuddhist growth and the activities ofmonks and nuns.

Tenbôrin“Turning the Wheel of the Dharma,” in Japanese, an image used for theBuddha teaching the Dharma. See alsoWheel of the Dharma.

Tencha ButsujiA Buddhist ritual in which hot tea isoffered in veneration to the Buddha, thepatriarchs, or a deceased individual.Tencha is performed as one of the nineritual actions (J. kubutsuji) making up the funeral services for an abbotor another prominent member of the monastic community. It is also one of the three ritual actions whichcharacterize Buddhist funerals for ordinary monks and lay believers. Seealso sanbutsuji.

Tendai SectSect of Japanese Buddhism founded bySaichô (767–822) in the early ninth cen-tury. Its headquarters is the Enryaku-jimonastery on Mount Hiei, just east ofKyoto. Tendai teachings draw heavilyupon those of the T’ien-t’ai school ofChinese Buddhism, from which it drewits name. As in T’ien-t’ai, the primarytextual base of Tendai Buddhism is theLotus Sutra. The Chinese T’ien-t’ai andJapanese Tendai systems are not identi-cal, however, because Tendai teachingsincorporate elements from other formsof Buddhism, including esoteric Bud-dhism rituals, Pure Land meditation,and the bodhisattva precepts. Tendaiwas among the most active schools ofJapanese Buddhism throughout theclassical and medieval periods. All of thefounders of the so-called Kamakuraperiod (1185–1333) schools of Bud-dhism, including Rinzai and Sôtô Zen,emerged from the Tendai school. Seealso Rinzai sect and Sôtô sect.

Ten DirectionsThe term literally refers to the four car-dinal directions (east, west, north, andsouth), the four intermediate directions

(northeast, northwest, southeast, andsouthwest), and up and down. Theexpression ten directions appears fre-quently in Buddhist texts as a generalreference for the entire world or theentire cosmos.

Tendoku“Revolving reading,” a method of speedreading the sutras by turning the pages.In tendoku, one does not read or recitethe entire sutra word for word. Rather,one recites a few lines from the begin-ning, middle, and end of the text, andthen fans the pages to complete theprocess. Using this method, it is possiblefor a small group of monks to “read” theentire Chinese Tripitaka in a singleshort ceremony. Japanese Zen templestoday continue to hold tendoku cere-monies at specified times of year. Inmany temples, for example, monksrecite the 600 sections of the GreatPerfection of Wisdom Sutra (J.Daihannya Kyô) at New Year’s assem-blies, using the tendoku method. AtMampuku-ji, the main monastery ofObaku Zen, the monks read the entireChinese Tripitaka in a dramatic NewYear’s Eve service. In addition, tendokuservices may be offered at irregulartimes as an extraordinary means tobuild merit for special purposes, such aswhen someone is seriously ill. Tendokuis regarded as the opposite of Shindoku,or “true reading.” See also Obaku sect.

Ten Epithets for the BuddhaTen honorific phrases (J. jûgô) used toexpress the qualities of the BuddhaShakyamuni (Siddharta Gautama): 1) Tathagata, or Thus Come One; 2)Arhat, or a Holy One Worthy ofVeneration;3) Fully enlightened one; 4)Possessor of Wisdom and Practice; 5)Well Gone One; 6) Knower of the World;7) Unsurpassed; 8) Guide for HumanBeings; 9) Teacher of Gods and HumanBeings; and 10) the Buddha, the World-Honored One.

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Ten Evil ActsThe ten most serious offenses of body,speech, and mind (J. jûaku). They are: 1)killing a living being, 2) stealing, 3) sex-ual misconduct, 4) lying, 5) slander, 6)using language that causes dissensionamong others, 7) idle talk, 8) greed, 9)giving way to anger, and 10) holdingwrong views. The first three are the evilacts of the body, four through seven arethe evil acts of speech, and eightthrough ten are the evil acts of the mind.They are the opposite of the ten goodacts (jûzen).

Ten Good ActsThe ten good actions related to body,speech, and mind (J. jûzen). Most oftenthey are presented in negative terms asrefraining from the ten evil acts (J.jûaku): 1) not killing, 2) not stealing, 3)not engaging in sexual misconduct, 4)not lying, 5) not slandering, 6) notusing language that causes dissensionamong others, 7) not engaging in idletalk, 8) not acting out of greed, 9) notgiving way to anger, and 10) not hold-ing wrong views. They can also beinterpreted in positive terms. The threegood actions of the body are savingsentient beings, giving generously, andabiding by sexual norms. The four goodactions of speech are truthfulness (thiscounts as two, since it is the positiveinterpretation of not lying and not slan-dering), gentle speech, and using lan-guage to reconcile disputes. The threegood actions of the mind are havinggenerosity, having loving kindness, andholding right views.

Ten Great Disciples of the BuddhaThe most prominent of SiddhartaGautama’s immediate disciples ( J.Jûdai Deshi), each traditionally hon-ored for special aptitude in one aspectof Buddhist practice: Ananda, fore-most in hearing the Dharma;Anuruddha, foremost in divine insight;Katyayana, foremost in analyzing theteachings; Mahakashyapa, foremostin ascetic practice; Maudgalyâyana,

foremost in psychic powers; Purna,foremost in debate; Rahula, foremostin training young novices; Shariputra,foremost in wisdom; Subhuti, foremostin understanding the teaching ofemptiness; and Upali, foremost inkeeping the precepts.

Of these ten, the Zen school holdsMahakashyapa and Ananda in specialregard as the first two Indian patri-archs of Zen. According to traditionalaccounts, Shakyamuni transmitted theDharma to Mahakashyapa mind tomind, without reliance on verbalteaching, on Vulture Peak. TheBuddha held up a flower to his assem-bled disciples and Mahakashyapaalone responded with a smile.Mahakashyapa then transmitted theDharma to Ananda. See individualentries for further information.

Ishigami, Zenno. Disciples of theBuddha. Trans. Richard L. Gage andPaul McCarthy. Tokyo: KoseiPublishing Co., 1989.

TenguA fantastical creature from Japanesefolklore, described as appearing halfhuman and half bird. The tengu has along nose or beak, wings, glittering eyes,and a human body with arms and legs.Many stories about tengu appear inpopular literature from the medievalperiod through the modern period. The tengu is closely associated with the mountains and may be regarded as the special guardian of forests andlarge trees. Perhaps for this reason,when tengu assumes a human form itdisguises itself as Yamabushi, aJapanese mountain ascetic who wearsdistinctive robes.

The tengu is generally understood tobe an enemy of Buddhism. It is oftendepicted setting fire to Buddhist tem-ples or kidnapping Buddhist monks.While holding monks captive, tengucorrupt them by offering them sumptu-ous food which is actually dung. Tengualso kidnap children, carrying themaway from ordinary human existence.

Even when the children escape andreturn home, they are damaged by theexperience and never fully recover.

Blacker, Carmen. The Catalpa Bow.Boston, MA: Unwin, 1989.

Ten Heavy Precepts(J. jûjûkai or jûjûkinkai) The primaryprecepts of the Bodhisattva Path,derived from the Bonmôkyô (Sk.Brahma Net Sutra). The ten heavy pre-cepts include prohibitions against 1)killing, 2) stealing, 3) sexual misconduct,4) lying, 5) using intoxicants, 6) findingfault in others, 7) boasting about one-self, 8) envy, 9) anger and ill will, and 10)slandering the three treasures. The tenheavy precepts differ from the ten pre-cepts in that they were not originallyused for ordination of monks and nuns,but were to be observed by all Buddhistsincluding lay people. A secondary set offorty-eight light precepts fill out the fullbodhisattva precepts which guide thosepracticing Mahayana Buddhism. Seealso lay believer.

Tenjô Tenge Yuiga Dokuson“In the heavens above and on the earthbelow, I alone am worthy of respect.”According to the Buddhist tradition,Siddharta Gautama, who would laterbecome the Buddha, spoke these wordsimmediately after his birth in theLumbini Garden. The entire verse isknown in Japanese as the Tanjôge, orthe birthday verse.

Tenkei Denson(1648–1735) Japanese Sôtô monk of theTokugawa period (1600–1867) who wasone of the leading early modern schol-ars of Dôgen Kigen’s writings. Tenkeiwas born in Kii, present-day WakayamaPrefecture, and became a Buddhistmonk at age eight. He became theDharma heir of Gohô Kaion and servedas abbot at Sôji-ji and other importantSôtô monasteries. He opposed Manzan’sreform efforts to restore the practice ofisshi inshô, receiving inka, or Dharmatransfer, from only one master. Tenkeidefended the in’in ekishi system ofchanging Dharma lineage according to

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The tengu, a half-human, half-bird creature of Japanese folklore, is thought to be the special guardian of forests.

the temple at which one serves as abbot.His literary works include theShôbôgenzô Benchû, the first earlymodern commentary on Dôgen’s masterwork. See also Sôtô sect.

Ten PreceptsThe most important precepts in thevinaya, the Buddhist monastic code for-mulated by the Theravada Buddhismtradition. Male and female novicesaccept the ten precepts (J. jikkai) at theirinitial ordination. The ten precepts are:1) not to kill living beings, 2) not to steal,3) to abstain from sexual misconduct; 4)not to lie, 5) not to take intoxicants, 6)not to eat after noon, 7) not to adorn thebody with perfume, flowers, or jewelry,8) not to participate in public entertain-ment including dancing, plays, orsinging, 9) not to use a luxurious bed,and 10) not to handle money. These pre-cepts form the basis for all monasticpractice, providing the foundation uponwhich monks and nuns add training inmeditation and wisdom.

The ten precepts of the novice aresometimes compared with the TenCommandments found in Judaism andChristianity. The basic rationales for thetwo codes, however, differ significantly.While the Western traditions under-stand their moral code to be the ethicalnorms determined by God and revealedin scripture, the Buddhist monasticcode is not based on any form of divinerevelation. The ten precepts representbehavior in keeping with the BuddhistDharma and describe a lifestyle which isconducive to the attainment of enlight-enment. Alcohol, perfume, and secularentertainments are not precludedbecause they are in any sense wrong orevil in and of themselves. Rather, theyare regarded as distractions that mayinterfere with meditative concentration.Likewise, the Buddha recommendedthat monks and nuns not eat after thenoon hour in order to maximize theirpowers of concentration.

Not all Zen monks and nuns areordained with the ten precepts based onthe Theravada vinaya, since Chinese

ordination practices underwent somealteration in the context of JapaneseBuddhism. Sôtô monks and nuns inJapan, for example, receive the bod-hisattva precepts based on Mahayanatexts in place of the ten precepts. TheChinese and Korean Zen traditions andthe Obaku school in Japan continue touse the ten precepts for novices. See alsoObaku sect and Sôtô sect.

Ten RealmsThe ten levels of living beings recog-nized by the Mahayana tradition. Theten realms (J. jikkai) include 1) helldwellers, 2) hungry ghosts, 3) animals,4) human beings, 5) ashura, 6) heavendwellers, 7) shravakas, 8) pratyeka bud-dhas, 9) bodhisattvas, and 10) buddhas.The lower six realms, from hell dwellersthrough heaven dwellers, constitute therealms of ordinary sentient beings,while the upper four are the realms ofenlightenment. Ordinary sentientbeings do not understand the world as itreally is and are thus caught in the cycleof samsara. Based on their behavior,they are reborn within the six lowerrealms. Shravakas and pratyeka buddhas have made progress by realiz-ing the concept of emptiness. They havenot perfected their Buddhist practice,since they do not embody compassionfor other sentient beings. Bodhisattvasnot only understand emptiness; theypractice compassion. Buddhas haveattained perfect enlightenment andunderstand the world as it actually is.See also six paths.

Swanson, Paul L. Foundations of T’ien-T’ai Philosophy: The Flowering of theTwo Truths Theory in ChineseBuddhism. Berkeley, CA: AsianHumanities Press, 1989.

Tenrinnô“The Wheel-Turning King,” Japanese forCakravartin, the ideal monarch inIndian mythology. See Cakravartin.

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Tenryû-jiA major Rinzai sect monastery locatedin western Kyoto. Its formal name isRyôkin-zan Tenryû-ji. It was founded byMusô Sôseki (1275–1351) in 1339, as amemorial to the recently deceasedEmperor Go-Daigo (r. 1318–1339). Itwas constructed on the site of an imper-ial villa donated by retired emperorKôgon (r. 1332–1333). Musô received thesupport and patronage of the Ashikagabakufu, including the shôgun Takauji(1305–1358). The project was funded, inpart, by the proceeds of a trading mis-sion to China undertaken by the bakufuin 1342 specifically to raise funds for thetemple. Tenryû-ji was ranked among theGozan temples (Five Mountain temples)of Kyoto. It contains some of the loveli-est landscape gardens in Kyoto, one saidto have been designed by Musô himself.The temple serves today as the head-quarters for the Tenryû-ji branch ofRinzai Zen.

Tenryû-ji HaThe Tenryû-ji branch of Rinzai, one ofthe fourteen contemporary branches ofthe Japanese Rinzai sect. The mainmonastery for the branch is Tenryû-ji,located in the Saga area of Kyoto. MusôSôseki (1275–1351) is regarded as thebranch founder. The branch has 103temples throughout Japan and claimsapproximately 82,600 adherents.

Tenshô KôtôrokuJapanese title for the T’ien-shengKuang-teng Lu, “The T’ien-shengRecord of the Widely Extending Lamp.”See T’ien-sheng Kuang-teng Lu.

Ten Stages of a BodhisattvaTen stages in the development ofbuddha-wisdom which are used todescribe the bodhisattva’s progressalong the path toward completeenlightenment (J. jûji or jucchi). Thestages are set out in one chapter of theAvatamsaka Sutra. They are: 1) the stageof joy in benefitting oneself and others

(Sk. pramudita bhumi); 2) the stage offreedom from all defilement (Sk. vimalabhumi); 3) the stage of emitting the lightof wisdom (Sk. prabhakari bhumi); 4)the stage of radiance with wisdom (Sk.arcishmati bhumi); 5) the stage of beingdifficult to conquer (Sk. sudurjayabhumi); 6) the stage at which reality ismanifested before one’s eyes (Sk.abhimukhi bhumi); 7) the stage of goingfar (Sk. duramgama bhumi); 8) the stageof immovability (Sk. acala bhumi); 9) thestage of attaining of expedient wisdom(Sk. sadhumati bhumi); and 10) thestage of the cloud of the Dharma (Sk.dharmamegha bhumi).

Ten Thousand DharmasAn expression for all things in existence,the entire phenomenal world. In thiscase, the Sanskrit word Dharma doesnot refer to the teachings of Buddhismbut has a meaning similar to the Englishword “things.” The earlier Buddhist tra-dition used the word Dharma to refer toa limited number of building blocks ofphenomenal existence, which we expe-rience as a multitude of mental andphysical entities. In East Asia, the termcame to refer to the things of the phenomenal world itself, includingphysical and mental objects. In Chinesethought, the number 10,000 is used toexpress completion, all-inclusiveness.Hence, the phrase “ten thousand things”(J. manbô) is better understood to mean “all things.”

Tentô ButsujiA Buddhist ritual in which hot, sweet-ened water is offered in veneration tothe Buddha, the patriarchs, or adeceased individual. Tentô is performedas one of the nine ritual actions (J.kubutsuji) comprising the funeral ser-vices for an abbot or another prominentmember of the monastic community. Itis also one of the three ritual actionswhich characterize Buddhist funeralsfor ordinary monks and lay believers.See also sanbutsuji.

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TenzoChief cook, or kitchen head, at a Zenmonastery, one of the six administra-tive offices of the monastic commu-nity whose role is to oversee the prac-tical administration of the monastery.The tenzo oversees the monasterykitchen and is responsible for allaspects of food preparation and pro-curement. He or she generally has alarge staff of assistants to aid in mealpreparation and service. The role ofchief cook is crucial to the smoothoperation of the monastery and istherefore a position reserved for asenior member of the community.Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253) wrote the“Tenzo Kyôkun,” a famous essay onthe responsibilities of the tenzo whichis included in the Eihei Shingi. Seealso temple positions.

Tenzo Kyôkun“Instructions for the Cook,” a text inone section by Dôgen Kigen(1200–1253). Dôgen composed thisessay in 1237, when he was residing atKôshôji near the city of Kyoto. It con-tains Dôgen’s reflections on the respon-sibilities of the head kitchen monk, ortenzo, one of the most important offi-cials within a Zen monastery, and sto-ries from Dôgen’s travels to China. The“Tenzo Kyôkun” was published as thefirst section of the Eihei Shingi. Thereare two recent English translations, inDôgen’s Pure Standards for the ZenCommunity, by Taigen Daniel Leightonand Shohaku Okamura (StateUniversity of New York Press, 1996),and in Zen Master Eihei Dôgen’sMonastic Regulations, by IchimuraShohei (North American Institute ofZen and Buddhist Studies, 1993).

TeraThe Japanese term for temple, whichcommonly refers to Buddhist templesand monasteries. When used as a partof a temple’s name, the same wordmay be pronounced “dera.” An alternate

transliteration of the same character,“ji,” generally appears as a part of anyBuddhist temple’s name. Tera mayrefer to a small local temple with onlyone building or a large monasterycomplex with several subtemples con-sisting of numerous structures.

Te-shan Hsuan-chien(782–865) Chinese Zen master of theT’ang dynasty (618–907). Te-shan wasthe Dharma heir of Lung-t’an Ch’ung-hsin. His lineage encompasses boththe Yun-men school and the Fa-yenschool of Zen, through his discipleHsüeh-feng I-ts’un (822–908). Te-shan is best known for striking stu-dents with a stick as a means to pro-voke an enlightenment experience.He appears in many traditional kôancases in the large kôan collections.

Tetsugen Dôkô(1630–1682) Japanese Obaku monk ofthe Tokugawa period (1600–1867), bestknown for producing the Obaku-ban,the first complete woodblock edition ofthe Chinese Tripitaka produced inJapan. Tetsugen was born in Kumamotoprovince on Kyûshû to a Shinshû (TruePure Land sect) family. He enteredBuddhist orders at age twelve andtrained as a Shinshû monk. He laterconverted to Zen at age twenty-six,when he met Yin-yüan Lung-ch’i(1594–1673), the founder of Obaku Zen.He eventually became the Dharma heirof Mu-an Hsing-t’ao (1611–1684), thesecond Obaku patriarch. Tetsugen diedof a fever he contracted while feedingthe hungry during a famine in Osaka.See also Obaku sect.

Tetsugen-banAn alternative name for the Obaku-ban, the Obaku edition of the ChineseTripitaka produced through theefforts of the Obaku monk TetsugenDôkô (1630–1682). See Obaku-ban.

Tettô Gikô(1295–1369) Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe late Kamakura (1185–1333) andearly Ashikaga (1392–1568) periods.Tettô was born in Izumo and becamea Buddhist monk at age six. He beganhis practice of Zen at Kennin-ji,where he took the precepts at agenineteen. Dissatisfied with the Gozanstyle of Zen, he became a disciple ofShûhô Myôchô (Daitô Kokushi) atDaitoku-ji. Tettô was one of the mas-ter’s leading Dharma heirs, and heassumed the position as second abbotat Daitoku-ji when Daitô passed awayin 1338. His leading disciples includedGongai Sôchû. He received theposthumous titles Daiso Shôbô Zenji(Zen Master Great Patriarch of theTrue Eye) and Tennô Daigen Kokushi(National Teacher Great Manifestationof Heavenly Response). See alsoRinzai sect.

Theravada Buddhism“The Way of the Elders,” the nameused to designate the school ofBuddhism, which flourishes today inSouth Asia and South East Asia, aswell as a general term for the teach-ings of early Buddhism. TheTheravada school, one of several earlyBuddhist sects, was originallyfounded in Sri Lanka in the third cen-tury B.C.E. At that time it was oneamong several early sects ofBuddhism. Scholars now apply theterm more broadly, since it was theonly sect in the region which survivedinto the modern period. TheravadaBuddhism is sometimes calledHinayana, a pejorative term meaningLesser Vehicle ( J. Shôjô). The school iscontrasted with the MahayanaBuddhism tradition, or Great Vehicle,which developed later and spreadthroughout East Asia.

Third BarrierThe last of three sets of kôan used bysome Zen monasteries in medievalJapan (1185–1600). See sankan.

Third Generation SchismA sectarian dispute within the earlySôtô sect in Japan over who legiti-mately served as the third abbot atEihei-ji, the sect’s main monastery.See Sandai Sôron.

Third PatriarchThe title usually refers to Seng-ts’an(d. 606), the Third Chinese Patriarchof Zen who, tradition says, directlyinherited the Dharma from theSecond Patriarch Hui-k’o (487–593).See Seng-ts’an.

Thirty-two Marks of a BuddhaDeveloped from a pre-Buddhist con-cept of the physical marks that distin-guish a cakravartin, or universalmonarch, from ordinary human beings.The thirty-two marks ( J. sanjûnisô)were associated with the Buddha, andBuddhist art often portrays him pos-sessing some of these marks. Someslight variation exists in different texts.A typical list would include: 1) a cone-shaped protrusion on top of the head,2) curly hair, 3) a smooth forehead, 4) awhite tuft of hair between the eye-brows, 5) blue eyes with lashes like abull, 6) forty teeth, 7) perfectly eventeeth, 8) pure white teeth, 9) four whitecanine teeth, 10) saliva that makes allfood taste good, 11) a proud jaw like alion, 12) a long, slender tongue, 13) abeautiful voice, 14) full, strong shoul-ders, 15) well-formed hands, feet,shoulders, and head, 16) full armpits,17) golden skin, 18) long arms whichreach his knees, 19) an upper body likea lion’s, 20) armspan equal to hisheight, 21) body hair that curls to theright, 22) body hair that stands up, 23)penis concealed in a sheath, 24) full,rounded thighs, 25) well-arched feet, 26) soft hands and feet, 27) webbed fingers and toes, 28) soles marked with the thousand-spoked Wheel of the Dharma, 29) slender fingers, 30) flat soles that rest firmly on the ground, 31) long legs, and 32) slenderlegs like a deer.

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Three Ages of the Dharma

Three Ages of the Dharma( J. Sanji) The Buddhist concept,developed in India, that the Dharmataught by the historical Buddhawould begin to degenerate over timeafter his death. The concept coincideswith other Indian conceptions ofcyclical decline over periods of timeleading to the emergence of a newage. According to the concept, theDharma passes through three ages,the Age of the True Dharma, theSemblance Dharma, and theDegenerate Dharma. After theDharma of the Buddha has com-pletely degenerated and disappearedaltogether from the world, a newbuddha will emerge to teach theDharma. The degenerative processthen begins anew.

While the concept of the ThreeAges ( J. Sanjji or Shôzômatsu) tookinitial shape in India, it was only fullydeveloped and systematized in EastAsia. The T’ien-t’ai school masterHui-ssu (515–577) was among the firstto clearly define the ages and deter-mine the time spans involved. OtherBuddhist thinkers altered the timespans somewhat, but the basic systemthat became widely acceptedthroughout the East Asian Buddhistworld can be outlined as follows:

1) During the Age of True Dharma,the Buddha’s teachings remain intact asthey were during his lifetime. Buddhistscan practice and follow the Buddhistpath, and some highly advanced indi-viduals attain enlightenment. By Hui-ssu’s reckoning, this age lasts for 500years. Other interpretations popular inJapanese Buddhism set the time span at1,000 years.

2) During the Age of SemblanceDharma, the teachings have begun todeteriorate. What remains has theappearance of the true Dharma but isno longer perfect. In this intermediatestage, people continue to practiceBuddhism as they did in the earlierage, but the full realization of theteachings and the attainment of

enlightenment are no longer possible.This period lasts for 1,000 years.

3) Finally, during the Age ofDegenerate Dharma, the Dharma hasdeteriorated so thoroughly that even thepractice of Buddhism becomes impossi-ble. All that remains are the teachings,which can neither be truly followed norfully realized. This Latter Age of theDharma (J. Mappô), as it is commonlycalled, lasts for 10,000 years.

Since East Asian Buddhists tradi-tionally accept the year 949 B.C.E. asthe date of the Buddha’s death, theybelieved that the Age of theDegenerate Dharma (Latter Age of theDharma) began in 550 or 1050 C.E.,depending on their interpretation ofthe time span of the first age. (Thedate 949 B.C.E. is historically inaccu-rate. The Buddha actually died circa560 B.C.E. However, the earlier dateserved an important purpose for EastAsian Buddhism, since it placed theBuddha several centuries beforeConfucius, rendering Buddhism themore venerable tradition!) The beliefin the Three Ages was so widespreadin China and Japan that almost allschools of East Asian Buddhismresponded to it in some way.

The Zen school most commonlyrejects the notion that practice andenlightenment are inaccessible in thepresent age. Zen teaching maintainsthat the Dharma, transmitted frommind to mind throughout the genera-tions starting with ShakyamuniBuddha (Siddharta Gautama),remains the True Dharma.

Matsunaga, Daigan, and AliciaMatsunaga. Foundation ofJapanese Buddhism. 2 vols. LosAngeles, CA: Buddhist BooksInternational, 1976.

Three BasketsLiteral translation of the Sanskrit“Tripitaka,” the Buddhist scriptures.See Tripitaka.

Three Bodies of the BuddhaThe Dharma body (Sk. Dharmakaya),the bliss body (Sk. sambhogakaya),and the transformation body (Sk. nir-manakaya) of the Buddha. The con-cept of the three bodies (Sk. trikaya; J.sanshin) is a Mahayana understand-ing of the Buddha, formulated to clar-ify the various and often confusingteachings related to the differenttypes of buddhas that developedwithin the tradition. AncientBuddhism and the Theravada tradi-tion recognize Shakyamuni(Siddharta Gautama), the historicalBuddha, as the one and only Buddha,who, with his death, passed out ofexistence. Over time the Mahayanatradition not only developed alterna-tive understandings of Shakyamunihimself, it came to recognize numer-ous other historical and cosmic bud-dhas. In addition, the Mahayana tra-dition regarded all of these historicaland cosmic buddhas as manifesta-tions of an eternal Buddha.

First, the Dharma or truth body isunderstood to be the eternal Buddhathat represents the source of all themanifestations of the Buddha in vari-ous times and places. The Dharmabody is closely identified with theMahayana concept of emptiness (Sk.shunyata). Second, the bliss body ofthe Buddha is associated with the var-ious celestial buddhas like Amidabuddha who dwell in their ownBuddha Lands and guide sentientbeings born there. Third, the transfor-mation body signifies the manifesta-tions of the Buddha in this world, thehistorical buddhas, of whomSiddharta Gautama is but oneexample. These historical buddhasappear in order to teach the Dharmato ordinary sentient beings.

Three Essentials of Zen( J. sangen san’yô) According to theZen teachers, the sincere practice ofZen requires three essential elements,Great Trust ( J. Daishinkon), Great

Doubt ( J. Daigi), and Great Resolve ( J.Daifunshi). The Three Essentials werefirst discussed by the Yüan dynasty(1260–1368) Rinzai master Kao-fengYüan-miao (1238–1295) in a text enti-tled Zen Essentials (Kao-feng Ho-shang Ch’an-yao; J. Kôhô Ôshô Zen’yô).The Japanese Rinzai master HakuinEkaku (1685–1768) drew upon Kao-feng’s writings and likewise stressedthe Three Essentials for his own disci-ples. First, the Zen practitioner mustplace great trust in the Buddhistteachings, the path of Zen, and his orher own individual teacher. Second,through the practice of seated medi-tation and the use of kôan, the practi-tioner must produce and breakthrough the Great Doubt to attainenlightenment. Third, the practi-tioner must preserve a deep determi-nation to persevere in Zen practice.See also Rinzai sect.

Threefold TrainingWisdom (Sk. prajna), morality (Sk.sila), and concentration (Sk. samadhi).These three areas of learning and prac-tice encompass the whole of the tradi-tional Buddhist path. Wisdom beginswith intellectual training in the teach-ings of Buddhism. Morality is ethicaltraining, which involves keeping theBuddhist precepts and coming tounderstand the premises on which thecode is based. Concentration includesa variety of forms of meditative train-ing. In practical terms, Buddhists, bothlay and monastic, begin with moralityas the basis of practice. Intellectual andmeditative training are most oftenunderstood to be the proper concern ofmonks and nuns.

Buddhists traditionally use thethreefold training (J. sangaku) as anabbreviated formula which encom-passes all the elements of theEightfold Path. In this context, wis-dom is said to be composed of rightviews and intention; morality, of rightspeech, action, and livelihood; and con-centration, of right effort, mindfulness

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and concentration. In Mahayana con-texts, one more often finds referencesto the threefold training than to theEightfold Path.

Threefold TruthA Chinese Buddhist elaboration onthe earlier Mahayana concept ofTwofold Truth. Chih-i (538–597), thefounder of the T’ien-t’ai school ofBuddhism, developed the concept toavoid problems arising from viewingthe Twofold Truth originally set out byMâdhyamaka as though it were anabsolute dichotomy. In addition to thelevels of Ultimate Truth and RelativeTruth, the Threefold Truth (J. santai)adds the perspective of the middlepath. From this perspective, the ulti-mate reality of emptiness and the rel-ative reality of ordinary existence areseen as one.

Three Gates to EmancipationThree kinds of meditation which lead torelease (J. sangedatsumon). These are:1) meditation on emptiness, especiallyas it regards the self; 2) meditation onno-attributes, the concept that all phe-nomena lack ultimate reality; and 3)meditation on no desire, because sincephenomena lack ultimate reality, thereis nothing to desire.

Three MarksBuddhist teaching that all of existence ischaracterized by suffering (Sk. duhkha),impermanence (Sk. anitya), and No-Self(Sk. Anatman).

Three PhrasesA formulaic expression developed byLin-chi I-hsuan, the founder of theRinzai school of Zen, as a teachingdevice. It is based on a passage from theSayings of Lin-chi:

“A monk asked, ‘What is the FirstPhrase?’ The master said, ‘When the sealof the Three Essentials is revealed, thevermilion dots are seen to be merged,

and yet, without resort to discussion,host and guest are distinct.’

‘What is the Second Phrase?’ The master said, ‘How could Miao-chie permit Wu-cho to question him? Howcan skill in the use of expedients goagainst the power to cut through themyriad streams?’

‘What is the Third Phrase?’ The mas-ter said, ‘Look at the puppets playing onthe stage! All their jumps and jerksdepend upon the person behind.’”

These phrases became known inChinese as san-chu and in Japanese assanku. The later Rinzai tradition usedthe formula as a kôan. The traditiondoes not have a unified understandingof the meaning of the phrases. See alsoRinzai sect.

Three Poisons(J. sandoku) Greed, anger, and igno-rance. These are the three fundamentalobstructions to enlightenment, some-times called afflictions (J. bonnô),which can also be identified as the basiccauses of suffering.

Three Pounds of FlaxA famous answer given by the Zenmaster Tung-shan Shou-chu (J. Tôzan Shusho; d. 900) which became apopular kôan in the classical tradition.See Masangin.

Three RealmsThe world of unenlightened beings isdivided into three realms (J. sangai),according to the Buddhist tradition.The lowest level is the realm of desire,which includes hell dwellers, hungryghosts, animals, human beings,ashura, and some heaven dwellers. Inthese levels of existence, sentientbeings experience sexual desire,hunger, thirst, and other forms of sen-sual desire. The realm of form includessome of the higher heavens, in whichthe inhabitants experience no sensualdesires. The realm of formlessness

includes the very highest heavens, inwhich beings have no physical formand exist in meditative states.

Three RobesBuddhist monks and nuns traditionallywear the three types of monastic robes (J.san’e), or kesa (Sk. kashaya). These threeinclude an undergarment (Sk. antarvasa;J. gojôe), an ordinary outer garment (Sk.uttarasangha; J. shichijôe), and a formalouter garment (Sk. samghati; J. kujôe).The first robe served as underwear duringdaytime hours and was worn alone whilesleeping and working on temple grounds.The second robe was worn during the dayinside the temple grounds. The third robewas worn over the others whenever amonk or nun ventured outside monasterygrounds. See kesa.

Three Robes, One Bowl(J. san’e ippatsu) The most basic possessions of a Buddhist monk or nun,which are regarded as symbolic of themonastic life. Traditionally, monks andnuns were allowed to own only threekesa and one begging bowl as their personal property.

Three SamadhiThree levels of samadhi or realization (J.sansammai). These are: 1) samadhi ofemptiness, in which one realizes thatthere is no abiding and unchanging self;2) samadhi of no attributes, in whichone realizes that all phenomena lackultimate reality; and 3) samadhi of nodesire, in which one realizes that sincephenomena lack ultimate reality, thereis nothing to desire.

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Buddhist monks and nuns wear the traditional three robes and carry one begging bowl as they travel about seeking alms.

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Three SufferingsThe three kinds of human suffering( J. sankû) that arise from sickness orhunger, separation from pleasure, andthe impermanence of things.

Three Teachings( J. sankyô) An expression used throughout East Asia for the threemajor religious traditions of theregion, namely, Buddhism,Confucianism, and Taoism. In somecases, Japanese used the term threeteachings in reference to Buddhism,Confucianism, and Shintô, substitut-ing the Japanese indigenous religionfor Taoism. There were many thinkers,including some Buddhist masters,who taught the principle that thethree teachings are one. See alsoSankyô itchi.

Three Teachings as OneA traditional religious concept popu-lar throughout East Asia which main-tains that Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism (or sometimes Shintô) are essentially compatible. See Sankyô itchi.

Three Treasures( J. sambô) The Buddha, the Dharma,and the sangha; that is, the Buddha;his teachings, especially as they arepreserved in the Buddhist scriptures;and the community of believers, espe-cially the community of monks andnuns. These three things function asthe core objects of faith for Buddhistsand serve as resources for Buddhistbelief and practice. All Buddhists,regardless of school or denomination,revere the three treasures. Buddhistsexpress their faith in them through aritual formula known as “taking refuge”(J. kie), a universal practice through-out the Buddhist world. Taking refugein the three treasures is the ritualaction through which one embarksupon the Buddhist path, and it istherefore used as a part of initiation

rituals, including ordinations. Inaddition, Buddhists regularly repeatthe formula as a means of reaffirmingtheir commitment to the tradition.Despite the unifying structure pro-vided by the three treasures through-out the Buddhist world, differences invarious schools’ interpretations natu-rally arise. (For instance, TheravadaBuddhism recognizes only the histori-cal Buddha, Siddharta Gautama,Mahayana Buddhism recognizesmany different Buddhas.)

Mahayana Buddhism teaches thatthere are three ways of understandingthe three treasures ( J. sanshu sambô):as manifest ( J. genzen sambô), asenduring (J. jûji sambô), and as one(J. ittai sambô). The manifest threetreasures refers to the treasures asthey existed during the lifetime of thehistorical Buddha: Shakyamunibuddha (Siddharta Gautama) him-self, his teachings expressed in wordsand sermons, and the community ofhis immediate disciples. The enduringthree treasures refers to the ongoingforms of the treasures as they havecontinued to exist since the Buddha’sdeath: images of the Buddha pre-served in art, the written scriptureswhich convey his teachings, and theexisting Buddhist monastic commu-nity. The conception of the three trea-sures as one affirms that from the per-spective of ultimate reality, the threetreasures transcend distinctions.

The Zen school maintains faith inthe three treasures, including therecognition of the manifest, enduring,and unified perspectives. Zen textstend to stress, however, the need torecognize that the Treasures are notrealities external to the believer, butrather are inherent within the self. Inthe Platform Sutra, the SixthPatriarch admonishes, “Good friends,I urge you to take refuge in the threetreasures in your own natures. TheBuddha is enlightenment, theDharma is truth, and the sangha ispurity.” (Yampolsky, p. 145).

Yampolsky, Philip B. The PlatformSutra of the Sixth Patriarch. NewYork: Columbia University Press,1967.

Three VehiclesThe Mahayana tradition originallyrecognized three paths or vehicles ( J.sanjô) leading to enlightenment:those of shravakas, bodhisattvas, andpratyeka buddhas. Shravaka buddhasrely upon the teachings of the Buddhaand strive to become arhats. That is,they aspire to attain enlightenmentfor themselves. Their practice is basedupon the contemplation of the fournoble truths and the Eightfold Pathas taught by the historical Buddha.Bodhisattvas follow the BodhisattvaPath, striving to perfect their practiceof the six perfections. Their goal is tobecome buddhas and to lead all othersentient beings to the same goal.Unlike the bodhisattvas, who embodycompassion for others, shravakas aresaid to focus selfishly on their ownattainment of enlightenment.Pratyeka buddhas are self-enlight-ened beings who achieved an under-standing of the Law of Causation ontheir own, without the benefits oflearning the Dharma from anotherbuddha. However, pratyeka buddhascannot share what they have learnedwith others. They are completely iso-lated practitioners. The Mahayanatradition deems the vehicles ofpratyeka buddhas and shravakas to beinferior to that of the bodhisattva.

The so-called two vehicles areassociated with the Hinayana tradi-tion. Mahayana uses the pejorativeexpression meaning “Lesser Vehicle”for ancient Buddhism and TheravadaBuddhism. The vehicle of the bod-hisattva is identified as the GreatVehicle, or Mahayana. The LotusSutra took the teachings of the threevehicles one step further and deniedthat three distinct vehicles actuallyexist. By means of the parable of theburning house found in chapter three

of the Lotus Sutra, the Buddhaexplains that all three vehicles can bereduced to the single Great Vehicle,the one vehicle of Mahayana. Ineffect, the Lotus Sutra identifiespratyeka buddhas and shravakas asbodhisattvas who misunderstand theultimate nature of the Buddhist path.

T’ien-sheng Kuang-teng Lu“The T’ien-sheng Record of the WidelyExtending Lamp,“ ( J. TenshôKôtôroku) a chronicle of early Zen his-tory, presented in the biographies,sermons, and anecdotes of prominentZen masters. The biographies beginwith Shakyamuni Buddha (SiddhartaGautama) and continue downthrough the Chinese patriarchs andto the masters of the early eleventhcentury. The text was written by thenobleman Li Tsun-hsu (d. 1038), a laypractitioner of Rinzai Zen, in 1036. Liplaced special emphasis on the Rinzailineage and included the Sayings ofLin-chi (Ch. Lin-chi Lu; J. Rinzai-roku) in its entirety. It is the second ofthe five Zen chronicles known collec-tively as the Five Records of the Lamp( J. Gotôroku). See also lay believerand Rinzai sect.

T’ien-t’ai SchoolChinese school of Buddhism, system-atized by Chih-i (538–597) in the sixthcentury. The school draws its namefrom Mt. T’ien-t’ai in Chekiang, theheadquarters of the school whereChih-i lived and taught. T’ien-t’aithought draws heavily uponNagarjuna’s writings. The school’sprimary teaching of the ThreefoldTruth is a Chinese elaboration ofNagarjuna’s teaching of TwofoldTruth. Chih-i created a synthesis of allthe various Buddhist teachings andsutras by dividing the life of the his-torical Buddha into five time periods.In this system, the Lotus Sutra repre-sents the final and supreme teachingof the Buddha. T’ien-t’ai thought was

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T’ien-t’ung Ju-ching

transmitted to Japan in the ninth cen-tury by Saichô (767–822) where itbecame the primary basis for theTendai sect.

T’ien-t’ung Ju-ching(1163–1228) Chinese Sôtô master bet-ter known as Ju-ching. See Ju-ching.

T’ien-t’ung-shanMount T’ien-t’ung, also an alternatename for Mount T’ai-p’o, in modern-day Che-chiang province, China. SeeT’ai-p’o-shan.

Ti-TsangChinese name for the bodhisattvaKshitigarbha, popularly known by hisJapanese name Jizô. See Jizô.

TôPagoda, or stupa, a Buddhist struc-ture designed to house relics. TheJapanese term tô is the standardtranslation for the Sanskrit wordstupa. Also known in Japanese as tôbaor sotoba. See stupa.

TôanLiterally, the eastern retreat. The termis used as a variant term for tôdô.

TôdôLiterally, the eastern hall; alternately,tôan, the eastern retreat. It is a title ofrespect given to a retired abbot of aZen temple. Retired abbots residing inthe temple where they previouslyserved as abbot are called tôdô,because they traditionally live in theeastern hall. In contrast, retiredabbots who served at a differenttemple are called seidô, or westernhall. In the modern period, the term isused by both the Rinzai sect and theObaku sect to designate one of tenpossible ranks a monk may hold.

Tôfuku-jiA major Rinzai sect monastery,located in the Higashiyama area ofKyoto. Its formal name is E’nichi-zanTôfuku-ji. It was named for the mag-nificent Nara temples Tôdai-ji andKôfuku-ji, which it was intended torival in grandeur. It was founded byEnni Ben’en (1202–1280) in 1239 withthe patronage of the regent KujôMichiie (1193–1252). The monasteryremained closely associated with theFujiwara family for many years.Although it was built to be primarily aZen monastery, the original groundsincluded structures for Shingon andTendai esoteric rituals. It was rankedamong the Gozan temples (FiveMountain temples) of Kyoto. Themonastery suffered damage on sev-eral occasions throughout its history.Various political leaders have fundedrestoration projects, and many of the present structures were built orrestored in 1938. The monasteryserves today as the headquarters forthe Tôfuku-ji branch of Rinzai Zenand is an active monastery in terms ofmeditative practice. See also Shingonsect and Tendai sect.

Tôfuku-ji HaThe Tôfuku-ji branch of Rinzai, one of the fourteen contemporary branches of the Japanese Rinzai sect. The main monastery for thebranch is Tôfuku-ji, located in theHigashiyama area of Kyoto. EnniBen’en (1202–1280) is regarded as thebranch founder. The branch has 372temples throughout Japan.

TôhanThe Eastern rank, a group of monasticofficers who assist the abbot withmatters related to the secular admin-istration of the community. Withinevery Zen monastery, responsibilitiesfor the administrative aspects oftemple management are handled sep-arately from the spiritual aspects of

monastic life, such as meditation andtraining. The distinct duties areentrusted to two sets of officers,referred to as the Eastern and Western( J. seihan) ranks. Both ranks fallunder the direction of the abbot, whois responsible for the smooth opera-tion of the community as a whole.

The Eastern rank of officers are socalled because their primary duties keepthem in the monastic halls traditionallysituated on the eastern side of thegrounds. Officers of the Eastern rank,referred to collectively as the stewards(J. chiji), include the bursar (J. tsûbun),the prior (J. tsûsu), the supervisor (J.kansu), the assistant supervisor (J.fûsu), the cook (J. tenzo), the laborsteward (J. shissui), and the supervisorof trainees (J. ino). See the respectiveentries for the specific duties of eachoffice. See also temple positions.

Tokuhô Zenketsu(1419–1506) Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe Ashikaga period (1392–1568).Tokuhô was born in Mino, in presentday Gifu Prefecture. He was a seventhgeneration descendent of KanzanEgen’s Myôshin-ji line. Sekkô Sôshin(1408–1486) trained Tokuhô to be his Dharma heir and Tokuhô becameone of his four principal disciples. He served as abbot at Daitoku-ji,Myôshin-ji, and other major Rinzaimonasteries. After his death, hereceived the title Daijaku Jôshô Zenji(Zen Master Ever IlluminatingNirvana). See also Rinzai sect.

Tokusan SenkanThe Japanese pronunciation for Te-shan Hsuan-chien (782–865), aChinese Zen monk. See Te-shanHsuan-chien.

Tômyô E’nichiJapanese pronunciation for Tung-mingHui-jih (1272–1340), a Chinese Sôtô Zenmonk. Alternatively pronounced Tômei.See Tung-ming Hui-jih.

TonA measure indicating a certain num-ber of blows with a cane. In secularChinese society, striking with a canewas commonly used to punish crimi-nals. One ton was generally equivalentto forty or sixty blows with the cane.In the Zen school, Zen masters some-times struck disciples with the cane asa teaching device to shock them out ofordinary patterns of discursivethought. This practice was notintended as a punishment for misbe-havior, but as a means to trigger anenlightenment experience. In the Zencontext, one ton is thought to indicateten or twenty blows with the cane.

Tongaku“Sudden teaching,” an alternateexpression for tongo, sudden enlight-enment. See sudden enlightenment.

Tongo“Sudden enlightenment,” the Japanese term for the Zen teaching that enlightenment is achieved immediately rather than gradually or in stages over an extended period of time. The term is contrasted withzengo, or gradual enlightenment. Seesudden enlightenment.

TonsureShaving the head when becoming amonk or nun. One speaks of a persontaking the tonsure when they join amonastic order. The word derives fromthe Roman Catholic monastic practiceof shaving the top of the head and leav-ing a thin outer band of hair. The prac-tice of shaving the head when enteringmonastic orders exists in numerous reli-gious traditions throughout the worldand is generally regarded as a symbol ofleaving behind the ordinary secular life.In the Christian West, monks tradition-ally shaved a portion of their headswhen they first entered orders and con-tinued to do so as a regular part ofmonastic life.

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Throughout the Buddhist world,both monks and nuns completely shavetheir heads at ordination and continueto do so at regular intervals. Men alsoshave all facial hair. At many JapaneseZen monasteries, shaving days areobserved at five-day intervals, falling ondays with a four or a nine (J. shiku-nichi). Shaving days are generally alsocleaning days; monks and nuns do theirlaundry and clean the temple groundsafter assisting one another with shaving.The Buddhist tonsure not only distin-guishes the monastic community fromordinary householders, it effectivelyreduces the worldly distinctionsbetween the genders. In some Buddhist

areas and in some time periods, the tonsure is more a symbolic gesture, and only a portion of the hair is cut,especially for women.

Tôrei Enji(1721–1792) Japanese Rinzai monk ofthe Tokugawa period (1600–1867) whowas a direct Dharma heir of HakuinEkaku (1685–1768). Enji was born inKanzaki, modern-day Shiga Prefecture,to the Nakamura family. His maternalfamily was an important Shintô lin-eage, and Enji maintained connectionsto Shintô practice and thoughtthroughout his life. He enteredBuddhist orders at age nine. He was

When one becomes a Buddhist monk or nun, he or she is given tonsure, the ritual shaving of the head.

later ordained by a Rinzai monk andsoon made his way to Shôin-ji to prac-tice under Hakuin. After an initialenlightenment experience, he spentmany years in solitary practice inKyoto, beginning in 1746. He receivedHakuin’s inka, or Dharma transfer, anda Dharma robe in 1748. Hakuin pur-chased and restored two temples for hisfavorite disciple. In 1755, Hakuinrestored Ryûtaku-ji in the neighboringvillage of Mishima in Izu. Tôrei, as hewas now called, resided at Ryûtaku-jifor twenty years. Hakuin later boughtShidô-an in Edo, which Tôrei usedwhen he lectured in Edo. Tôrei becamea writer and lecturer of high repute. Hisliterary works include the ShûmonMujintô Ron, the Goke Sanshô YôroMon, the Kaisan Shidô Bu’nan AnjuZenji Anroku, the Shôju Dôkyô EtanAnju Anroku, and the Ryûtaku KaisoJinki Dokumyô Zenji Nempu. Hereceived the posthumous title ButsugoJinshô Zenji (Zen Master Guardian ofthe Buddha Illuminator of the Gods).See also Rinzai sect.

Tortoise HairA Zen expression used to undermine orridicule belief in something that doesnot exist. In particular, Zen teachersapply the term tortoise hair (J. kimô) tothe belief that one has an abiding, eter-nal self, or that the phenomena of every-day life have ultimate reality when theydo not. Tortoise hair is often paired as anexpression with rabbits’ horns.

TosotsutenJapanese for Tushita heaven, the current abode of the future Buddha, Miroku (Sk. Maitreya). See Tushita Heaven.

TôsuThe latrine, one of the seven buildings(J. shichidô garan) that form the core ofa Zen monastery. The term literallymeans “the eastern office”, a reference to its traditional location. The Zen

monastic codes provide extensiveinstructions on proper etiquette in thelatrine. Before using the latrine, forexample, monks were enjoined to con-template on the compassion ofUsusama Myôô, a deity willing to purifyeven the foulest place. Images ofUsusama Myôô are often enshrined inthe tôsu as the presiding deity. Incensewas burned in the hall not only tofreshen the air, but as a part of properritual behavior. Traditional latrines areno longer used in Japanese monasteries.

Tôyô Eichô(1438–1504) Japanese Rinzai monkof the Ashikaga period (1392–1568).Tôyô was born in Mino, in present-dayGifu Prefecture. He was a seventh gener-ation descendent of Kanzan Egen’sMyôshin-ji line. He became theDharma heir of Sekkô Sôshin(1408–1486) and was one of his fourprincipal disciples. He served as abbotat Daitoku-ji, Myôshin-ji, and othermajor Rinzai monasteries. The Rinzaireformer Hakuin Ekaku (1685–1768)was a later descendant in Tôyô’s lineage.His literary works include the Ku Zôshi.See also Rinzai sect.

TôzanEast Mountain, the Japanese name for Tung-shan, the monastery of theFifth Zen Patriarch Hung-jen (601–674).See Tung-shan.

Tôzan RyôkaiThe Japanese pronunciation for Tung-shan Liang-chieh (807–869), a Chinese Zen monk, co-founder of the Chinese Sôtô school. See Tung-shan Liang-chieh.

Transformation BodyOne of three bodies of the Buddha according to the Mahayanaunderstanding of the concept of theBuddha. Called nirmanakaya inSanskrit. See nirmanakaya.

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Transmission of the Lamp(J. Keitoku Dentôroku) The Ching-teCh’üan-teng Lu, a collection of Zenbiographies of Indian and Chinese Zenmasters compiled by Tao-yuan andedited by Yang I (968–1024) in 1004, dur-ing the Ching-te era of the Sung dynasty(960–1279). The text provides a tradi-tional version of the authentic Zen lin-eage from the Seven Buddhas of thePast through the Chinese masters of theSung dynasty.

The title Transmission of the Lamp issometimes used to refer to the entiregenre of Zen literature which providesbiographies of eminent mastersarranged to convey the history ofDharma transmission. These textsserve a variety of purposes. They honorthe masters of the past, and therebylegitimate the Zen school as a whole or aspecific lineage. They also give informa-tion about the teaching styles of all theimportant masters of a given period andprovide teaching material Zen masterscan use with their own students. Most ofthe kôan used throughout the Zen tradi-tion derive from this literature. SeeChing-te Ch’üan-teng Lu.

TripitakaThe Buddhist scriptures, especiallythose of early Buddhism and TheravadaBuddhism. The Tripitaka proper, a col-lection of thirty-one Theravadan texts,represents the oldest collection ofBuddhist scriptures, portions of whichdate back to the second century B.C.E.For several centuries, the scriptureswere preserved orally, and there aretherefore different versions. The textswere eventually recorded in Pali andlater translated into Sanskrit, Tibetan,and Chinese. The term Tripitaka(J. sanzô) is sometimes used moreloosely for the later Mahayanacollections of the scriptures which contain many additional Mahayanasutras and commentaries.

Tripitaka literally means “ThreeBaskets,” and the scriptures of the orig-inal are divided into three distinct sec-

tions or baskets, each representing adifferent type of teaching. The first bas-ket is the vinaya, which sets out themonastic code governing the lives ofBuddhist monks and nuns. Accordingto tradition, Upali, a leading disciple ofthe Buddha, recited the entire vinaya atthe first Buddhist council held shortlyafter the Buddha’s death. The secondbasket, known as the sutras or dis-courses, preserves the sermons givenby the historical Buddha. Traditionmaintains that Ananda, another impor-tant disciple, likewise recited the sutrasat the first council. Finally, theAbhidharma basket includes commen-taries on the Buddha’s teachings writtenby later Buddhist scholars. Because theTriptaka was originally preserved inPali, the Theravada collection is com-monly known as the Pali Canon. LaterMahayana collections are sometimesknown as Tibetan or Chinese Tripitaka.The Japanese refer to the ChineseTripitaka as the Daizôkyô or issaikyô.

True MindA Zen expression for one’s true or orig-inal nature, which is said to be BuddhaNature. The realization of True Mind issynonymous with enlightenment.

True Person of No RankAn expression coined by the T’ang Zenmaster Lin-chi I-hsuan for an enlight-ened individual. According to onefamous passage in the Sayings of Lin-chi, the master said, “Here in this lumpof red flesh there is a true person with norank. Constantly he goes in and out thegates of your face. If there are any of youwho don’t know this for a fact, then look!Look!” (Watson, p. 13) Lin-chi used theterm true person in contrast to “thelump of red flesh,” the ordinary humanperson. Like other Zen teachers, Lin-chistressed that every individual possessesan innate Buddha Nature and that oneneeds only to recognize it to be enlight-ened. The enlightened being and theordinary person differ only in the real-

ization of innate enlightenment, so thetrue person is already present in theordinary person.

The concept of the true person (Ch.chen-jen; J. shinnin) derives from con-cepts and terminology from both classi-cal Buddhism and Taoism. Taoists firstused the term true person to describe anideal Taoism adept who had attained ahigh level of wisdom. Chinese Buddhistsoriginally adopted the Taoist concept asa translation for the Sanskrit arhat, aBuddhist practitioner who has attainednirvana. Lin-chi describes the true per-son as “without rank,” suggesting com-plete freedom from external limitationsbased on social classification and otherform of categorization.

Watson, Burton. The Zen Teachings ofMaster Lin-chi:A Translation of the Lin-chi Lu. Boston, MA: Shambhala, 1993.

True Pure Land SectA sect of Japanese Buddhism foundedby the monk Shinran (1173–1262) dur-ing the Kamakura period (1185–1333),known in Japanese as Jôdo Shinshû. Theteachings and practices of the sect arebased on Shinran’s understanding of thePure Land Sutras, which serve as theprincipal scriptures. Shinran was origi-nally a Tendai monk until he left MountHiei to become the disciple of Hônen, a proponent of exclusive Pure Land practice. True Pure Land Buddhismencourages placing one’s faith in theAmida buddha and achieving salvationthrough rebirth in his Western PureLand. The primary practice of the sect ischanting the name of Amida, using thesimple formula “Namu Amida Butsu.”See also Tendai sect.

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Woodblock plate bearing part of the Tripitaka, or Buddhist scriptures, from the Obaku-ban at Hôzô-in.

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True ThusnessThings as they are; absolute reality. Oneof the standard English translations forthe Sanskrit term Tathata (J. Shinnyo). Itis alternately translated as “suchness.”True Thusness is a MahayanaBuddhism concept which came to be akey notion for Zen Buddhism. TrueThusness is beyond the distinctions ofordinary discursive thought and is per-ceived immediately by the enlightenedmind. It is closely associated with theconcept of shunyata, or emptiness; TrueThusness expresses the same reality asthe positive concept of emptiness.

Ts’ao-hsiA mountain in China which is sometimes used as an alternative name for Hui-neng (638–713), the Sixth Patriarch, who resided there. SeeHui-neng.

Tsao-kungSôkô Shinsai, the Chinese God of thehearth who protects the kitchen fire. SeeSôkô Shinsai.

Ts’ao-shan Pen-chi(840–901; J. Sôzan Honjaku) Chinese Zenmaster, who, along with his Dharma mas-ter Tung-shan Liang-chieh (807–869), isknown as a co-founder of the Ts’ao-tungschool (J. Sôtô) of Chinese Zen. Tung-shan entrusted Ts’ao-shan with the doc-trine of the five ranks, a teaching thenexclusive to their lineage, as a sign of hisDharma transmission. Ts’ao-shan issaid to have systematized the teaching.

Ts’ao-tung SchoolOne of two major schools of ChineseZen, along with the Lin-chi school.Ts’ao-tung Zen is named for two of itsfounding patriarchs, Tung-shan Liang-chieh (807–869) and his disciple Ts’ao-shan Pen-chi (840–901), who rankamong the leading Chinese Zen mastersof the T’ang dynasty (618–907). The pre-dominant style of Ts’ao-tung practice

focuses on single-minded devotion toseated meditation (zazen) without theuse of kôan or other devices. The Ts’ao-tung lineage is traditionally numberedamong the five houses of Chinese Zenfrom the T’ang dynasty. It was transmit-ted to Japan during the Kamakuraperiod (1185–1333) by the Japanesemonk Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253). It isknown there as the Sôtô sect.

TsûbunThe bursar at a Zen monastery. Thisoffice was added by the Japanese to theoriginal Chinese list of six administra-tive offices within the monastic commu-nity whose role is to oversee the practi-cal administration of the monastery.(These positions together are called thechiji or tôhan.) The bursar was the chieffinancial officer responsible for theoverall economic welfare of the commu-nity. In that capacity, the bursar super-vised the activities of the other threefinancial officers within the administra-tion, the tsûsu, the kansu, and the fûsu.In some cases, the bursar served as thechief officer in the Eastern Rank andoversaw all six of the chiji. In medievalJapan (1185–1600), the bursar oftenacted as a moneylender to raise addi-tional funds for the upkeep of thetemple. See also temple positions.

TsungChinese term which may be translated asschool, sect, denomination, or lineage,depending on the context. Pronounced“shû” in Japanese. See lineage.

Tsung-ching Lu(J. Sûgyôroku) A Chinese Buddhist text by Yung-ming Yen-shou (904–975), in100 sections and composed in 961. In the text, Yung-ming provides a syncretic overview of various MahayanaBuddhism schools of thought and arguesthat the teachings of Zen are identicalwith those of the “Consciousness Only”school, San-lun school, Hua-yen school,and T’ien-t’ai school.

Ts’ung-jung LuThe Book of Serenity, a classic collectionof one hundred Zen kôan with verses and prose commentaries, firstpublished in 1224. Known more commonly by its Japanese title, theShôyôroku. See Shôyôroku.

Tsung-men Lien-teng Hui-yao(J. Shûmon Rentô Eyô) “A Collection ofEssential Material of the Zen Sect’sSuccessive Records of the Lamp,” inthirty sections. It was compiled by Hui-weng Wu-ming in 1183. It includesmaterial derived from the Ching-teCh’üan-teng Lu, the T’ien-shengKuang-teng Lu, and the Chien-chungChing-kuo Hsu-teng Lu, as well asadditional materials drawn fromrecorded sayings of several Zen mas-ters of the Sung dynasty (960–1279). Itbegins with the Seven Buddhas of thePast and continues down through themasters of the Southern Sung dynasty,the time period of the compiler. Thistext represents the fourth of the fiveZen chronicles of Zen biographiesknown collectively as the Five Recordsof the Lamp (J. Gotôroku).

Tsung-mi(780–840; J. Shûmitsu) ChineseBuddhist monk of the T’ang dynasty(618–907) who is regarded as a Zen mas-ter in the lineage of Ho-tse Shen-hui(670–762) and as the fifth and finalpatriarch of the Hua-yen school ofBuddhism. In Zen contexts, he is morecommonly known as Kuei-feng Tsung-mi because of his residence at Kuei-fengmonastery. Tsung-mi’s writings includethe Yuan-jen Lun (J. Gennin Ron), oftenused as a primer of MahayanaBuddhism teachings, and Ch’an-yuanChu-ch’uan-chi Tu-hsu (J. ZengenShozenshû Tojo), which distinguishesfive styles of meditation and threeschools of early Zen: the Northern,Southern, and Ho-tse schools.

TsûsuChief Supervisory Officer or Prior at aZen monastery, one of the six adminis-trative offices of the monastic commu-nity. Along with the supervisor (J.kansu) and the assistant supervisor (J.fûsu) who are under his direct supervi-sion, the prior is one of three financialofficers responsible for the economicmanagement of temple resources. Seealso temple positions.

Tung-ming Hui-jih(1272–1340; J. Tômyô Enichi) ChineseSôtô Zen monk of the Yüan dynasty who emigrated to Japan in 1309.Although he was himself a Sôtô master,he served as abbot at several Rinzaimonasteries in Kamakura, includingKenchô-ji and Engaku-ji. See alsoRinzai sect and Sôtô sect.

Tung-shanEast Mountain (J. Tôzan), the popularZen name for Mount Feng-mu in present-day Hupeh, where the FifthPatriarch Hung-jen (601–674) estab-lished his monastery. The mountain isalso known as Huang-mei-shan (J. Obai-zan) or Yellow Plum Mountain, and Wu-tsu-shan (J. Goso-zan), or Fifth PatriarchMountain. The name East Mountain wascoined to contrast Hung-jen’s monasteryfrom that of his predecessor Tao-hsin(580–651), whose monastery was knownas Hsi-shan (J. Seizan), or West Mountain.See also East Mountain school.

Tung-shan Liang-chieh(807–869; J. Tôzan Ryôkai) Chinese Zenmaster, who along with his Dharma heirTs’ao-shan Pen-chi (840–901), is knownas a co-founder of the Ts’ao-tung school(J. Sôtô) of Chinese Zen. Tung-shan wasthe Dharma heir of Yun-yen T’an-sheng.Known as a poet, he composed the Wu-wei Sung, the classic verse of five stanzason the five ranks, one of the distinctiveteachings of his lineage of Zen. Tung-shan’s prominent disciples includedTs’ao-shan and Yun-chu Tao-ying.

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Tun-huang CavesCaves located in the Tun-huang ( J.Tonkô) oasis in northwestern China,near the desert. The caves house anumber of Buddhist temples, wherenumerous carved and painted imagesare preserved. The earliest wall muralsdate back to at least 344, and theprocess of painting continued throughthe end of the Sung dynasty(960–1279), leaving an importantrecord of Chinese art through nearly1,000 years. In cave number sixteen, animportant collection of written manu-scripts, mostly Buddhist texts, was dis-covered early in the twentieth century.See also Tun-huang manuscripts.

Tun-huang ManuscriptsA collection of Chinese texts recov-ered from one of the Tun-huang caves( J. Tonkô), in northwestern China. Themanuscripts were first discovered by afarmer in 1900; Western scholars laterremoved several thousand of the textsfor study. There were two majorWestern expeditions to the caves tocollect manuscripts: one led by SirAurel Stein in 1907, the other led byPaul Pelliot in 1908. Portions of thecollection can now be found at theBritish Museum, the BibliothequeNational in Paris, and the NationalLibrary in Peking. Among the manu-scripts found at Tun-huang are a largenumber of important early Zen texts,including the oldest extant copy of thePlatform Sutra.

Turning the Wheel of the DharmaAn image used for the Buddha teach-ing the Dharma. See also Wheel of the Dharma.

Turning WordA word or expression that reveals thespeaker’s depth of understanding of the Dharma, or one that turns orshifts listener’s point of view, thereby

leading to a sudden experience ofinsight or enlightenment. Turningword is a translation of the Japaneseexpression tengo or ittengo.

Tushita HeavenAccording to Buddhist cosmology, thefourth of six heavens in the Realm ofDesire. Tushita heaven (J. Tosotsuten)is currently the abode of the bod-hisattva Maitreya, the future buddha.For this reason, Tushita is sometimesreferred to as Maitreya’s Pure Land.All future buddhas must reside therefor a time while they perfect theirpractice as bodhisattvas in prepara-tion for their final birth into thisworld. Once born in this world, thefuture buddha will attain finalenlightenment, become the Buddha,and preach the Dharma. Traditionalbiographies of Shakyamuni buddha(Siddharta Gautama) generally beginwith accounts of his life in Tushitaheaven before his final rebirth asSiddharta Gautama.

For believers devoted to Maitreya,Tushita heaven may serve as an objectof contemplation just as Amida’s PureLand is contemplated by devotees ofAmida buddha. Tushita heaven isregarded as easily accessible throughmeditative states, because of its closeproximity to this world. Believers mayalso regard Tushita as an other-worldly paradise into which they hopeto be reborn as a reward for meritori-ous life. Rebirth in Tushita heaven issaid to provide the practitioner withan opportunity to attain the bod-hisattva stage of non-reversal. Seealso Maitreya.

Twelve-Link Chain of CausationAn early Buddhist teaching designedto explain the causes for human suf-fering and the reasons for continuedbondage in the cycle of birth, death,and rebirth. The Twelve-Link Chain ofCausation includes a series of interre-lated conditions. A standard rendering

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of the Twelve-Link Chain includes: 1)ignorance, 2) dispositions, 3) con-sciousness, 4) name and form, 5) sixsenses (the five senses plus the mind),6) sensory stimulation, 7) feeling, 8)desire, 9) attachment to things andpersons, 10) becoming, 11) birth, 12)aging, dying, and sorrow.

Ignorance refers specifically to theordinary person’s lack of awareness ofthe four noble truths of Buddhism,which explain reality as it is. This doesnot mean merely an ignorance of theteachings in an intellectual sense, buta failure to perceive the world throughan awareness of them. Ignoranceleads to dispositions; that is, the cre-ation of karmic consequences forone’s mental and physical actions. Thekarmic dispositions create tendenciesof thought and behavior which char-acterize one’s consciousness.

Karmic dispositions can lead toconsciousness in this life and also as alegacy for future lives. Consciousnesstakes shape in a sentient being withboth mental and physical attributes,known as Name and Form. This sen-tient being then makes use of the sixsenses to explore the world throughsensory stimulation. This explorationleads to feelings or responses to sen-sory stimuli, including evaluations ofwhich experiences are pleasant andwhich are unpleasant. These feelingsthen lead to desires, to possess thepleasant and avoid the unpleasant.Desire leads to specific attachments tothings and people. Attachments createthe fuel for the ongoing process ofchange that will lead not to the attain-ment of enlightenment, but to a sub-sequent birth after this life; ultimatelythis continuation of ignorance leads toaging, dying, and sorrow in the nextlife. The chain thus forms a circle.

It is likewise traditional to discussthe chain in reverse order, to discusshow one may bring suffering to an endby cutting off ignorance through thewisdom of the Buddhist teachings.The tradition recognizes two places atwhich one may cut the twelve-link

chain of causation, by cutting offignorance or by reducing desires. TheEightfold Path of Buddhism isdesigned to cut the chain at these twointersections and thus end the cycleof suffering, birth, and death.

Two EntrancesTwo Buddhist paths, or ways, whichallow one to attain an understandingof ultimate reality. The concept isspelled out in the “Discourse on TwoEntries and Four Practices” ( J. NinyûShigyôron), an essay attributed toBodhidharma. The first entrance tothe way of Buddhism is through rea-son, which includes studying theteachings as they are set out in thescriptures. The second entrance isthrough practice. Bodhidharmaexplicitly mentions four types of prac-tice: endurance of hardships, adapt-ing to circumstances, seeking noth-ing, and practicing in conformity withthe Dharma.

Twofold TruthMahayana teaching that reality maybe viewed from two perspectives ( J.Nitai), either the absolute or the rela-tive and conventional. From the per-spective of absolute truth, all thingsthat exist are characterized by empti-ness. This means that nothing pos-sesses an unchanging and eternalessence; all things arise from causesand are conditioned by circum-stances. From this perspective allordinary distinctions dissolve, and allthings appear as equal and undiffer-entiated. From the perspective of rela-tive or conventional truth, however,things do possess a transitory exis-tence, and it is possible to distinguishthem one from the other. The concept of Twofold Truth was devel-oped by thinkers in the Madyamikaschool of Buddhism and expressedmost clearly in the writings ofNagarjuna.

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Two Vehicles( J. nijô) Shravakas and pratyeka bud-dhas, as well as their Buddhist practices.The Mahayana Buddhism tradition rec-ognizes three vehicles leading toenlightenment: those of shravakas,pratyeka buddhas, and bodhisattvas.The first two vehicles are often identi-fied with the Hinayana tradition and aregenerally regarded as inferior to theBodhisattva Path. Shravaka buddhasrely upon the teachings of the Buddhaand strive to attain enlightenment forthemselves. Unlike bodhisattvas,shravakas are said to focus selfishly onthemselves. Pratyeka buddhas are self-enlightened beings who neither learnfrom others nor teach others theDharma they realize for themselves.

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UUdraka RamaputraOne of two Indian meditation masterswith whom Siddharta Gautama, thehistorical Buddha, studied before heattained enlightenment. UdrakaRamaputra taught a form of yogic meditation leading to a state of concentration known as “the attainmentof neither perception nor non-perception.” According to traditionalaccounts, Siddharta masteredRamaputra’s technique and wasdeclared competent to teach. He choseto leave Ramaputra’s communitybecause he found the teaching and themeditative states insufficient.

Ullambana( J. Urabon-e or Obon) A Buddhist cer-emony traditionally held immediatelyfollowing the close of the summerretreat, which ends on the fifteenthday of the seventh lunar month. Theullambana service is offered to easethe suffering of sentient beings livingin hell as hungry ghosts. According tothe traditional accounts based on theUrabon Sutra, the ceremony was firstestablished by the historical Buddha.Maudgalyâyana ( J. Mokuren), one ofthe Buddha’s leading disciples, wasrenowned for the supernatural abili-ties he developed through his medita-tive practices. When his mother died,Maudgalyayana used his abilities tosearch for her and learn her fate in the next rebirth. Maudgalyayanasearched through all the realms ofexistence, and finally discovered thathis mother had been reborn in hell asa hungry ghost. Again relying on hissupernatural powers, Maudgalyayana

traveled down into hell and tried tooffer her food and water to lessen herplight. When she took his offering, itturned to fire in her mouth, and shecould not eat it. Maudgalyayana thenconsulted with the Buddha to ask howhe could effectively help his mother.The Buddha instructed him to feedthe assembly of monks at the end ofthe rainy season retreat, when theyhad accumulated a large reserve ofmerit from their intensive practice.The merit earned from feeding themonastic community and all of themerit accumulated throughout theretreat would be transferred to thehungry ghosts, thus easing the suffer-ing of Maudgalyayana’s mother andall other hungry ghosts.

Ultimate TruthThe absolute view of reality (J. Richi);one of two (or sometimes three) levelsof truth, or perspectives of reality recog-nized by Mahayana philosophicalthought. From the perspective of ulti-mate truth, all things that exist are char-acterized by emptiness. This meansthat nothing possesses an unchangingand eternal essence; all things arisefrom causes and are conditioned by cir-cumstances. From this perspective allordinary distinctions dissolve, and allthings appear as equal and undifferen-tiated. Ultimate Truth is generally con-trasted with Relative Truth. See alsoMahayana Buddhism.

Ummon Bun’en(864–949) Japanese pronunciation ofYun-men Wen-yen, founder of the Yun-men school of early Chinese ZenBuddhism. See Yun-men Wen-yen.

Ummon SchoolThe Japanese name for the Yun-menschool, a lineage of Chinese Zen activeduring the T’ang dynasty (618–907). SeeYun-men school.

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UmpanA flat, bronze gong or sounding board inthe stylized shape symbolic for clouds,used to call monks to meals and to signalother events. The word literally means“cloud plate.” Cloud motifs are commonon monastic implements because theysymbolize freedom from attachment.Umpan hang outside the kitchen (kuri)and the dining hall. They may be soundedto signal meal times or the end of a zazensession. Wooden boards (han) hangingon various buildings throughout thetemple grounds are sounded simultane-ously to alert the members of the com-munity beyond the range of the umpan.

Umpo Zenjô(1572–1653) Japanese Rinzai masterfrom the early Tokugawa period

(1600–1867). Little is known about theteachings of this master, who camefrom the Myôshin-ji lineage. He isfamous primarily for his prominent dis-ciple, Bankei Yôtaku (1622–1693), oneof the best-known figures of the period.See also Rinzai sect.

Waddell, Norman. The Unborn: The Lifeand Teaching of Zen Master Bankei,1622–1693. New York: North PointPress, 2000.

Un“Pile” or “heap,” the Japanese transla-tion of the Sanskrit term skandha. Seefive skandhas.

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An umpan, a sounding board made of bronze, at Zuiryu-ji in Osaka, Japan.

Unborn(J. fushô) A Mahayana expression forabsolute reality, often paired with theterm undying. In contrast to samsara,in which sentient beings are subject toan ongoing cycle of birth, suffering,and death, nirvana is said to be unborn,or non-arising. The term unborn wasoriginally used in the Theravada tradi-tion as an epithet for arhats, who wereno longer subject to the workings ofbirth and death because of theirenlightenment. They were thereforesaid to be unborn and undying. Thisconcept also appears in Mahayana phi-losophy. While all existing things appearto be created and pass away, Mahayanateachings insist that everything is ulti-mately characterized by emptiness,possessing no independent and eternalessence to be created or distorted. Thus,all things are considered unborn andundying. The Tokugawa Zen teacher,Bankei Yotaku, championed the teach-ing that all people innately possess theunborn Buddha mind, which makesthem all buddhas without realizing it.Since his work is closely associated withthe concept of the unborn, his style ofZen is often called “Unborn Zen” (J.fushô zen). See also MahayanaBuddhism and Theravada Buddhism.

Unsei Shukô(1535–1615) Japanese transliteration ofYün-ch’i Chu-hung, a Chinese Buddhistmonk from the Ming dynasty(1368–1644), who advocated the dualpractice of Zen meditation and chant-ing the nembutsu. See Chu-hung.

Unsui(J. kôun ryûsui) Clouds and water; anabbreviation for moving clouds andflowing water. The Japanese term refersspecifically to Zen postulants who seekentry into a monastery and for novicesundergoing training in Zen practice.They seek the Way (Tao) by travelingfrom master to master as freely as pass-ing clouds and flowing water. It mayalso refer to pilgrim monks or nuns,

since they are without permanenthomes and travel without many physi-cal possessions to weigh them down.The term can be applied more broadlyfor any practitioner of Zen, since follow-ers of Zen attempt to move freelythrough life, without the constraintsand limitations of attachment, likefree-floating clouds or flowing water.

Upali(J. Ubari) A barber from Kapilavastuwho became a leading disciple of theBuddha. Upali is counted among theten outstanding disciples of the Buddhadue to his great dedication to themonastic code, the vinaya. At the firstBuddhist council convened after theBuddha’s death, Upali recited all theinstructions formulated by the Buddhato regulate the life of the communityand the circumstances under whichthese rules were created. This becamethe vinaya, one of the three sections ofthe Tripitaka.

Ishigami, Zenno. Disciples of theBuddha. Trans. Richard L. Gage andPaul McCarthy. Tokyo: KoseiPublishing Co., 1989.

UpâsakaThe Sanskrit term for Buddhist laymen,one of the four assemblies of theBuddhist sangha, or community. Tobecome an upâsaka, a man first pledgeshis commitment by taking refuge (kie)in the three treasures: the Buddha, theDharma and the sangha. He thenpromises to live his life by the five precepts. Lay practice dates back to thelifetime of the historical Buddha, whoaccepted lay people as his disciples. Laybelievers remain involved in secular lifeand their practice of Buddhism is usually less extensive than monks andnuns. They keep the precepts and buildmerit by supporting the monastic community through donations. See also Upâsikâ.

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UpâsikâA laywoman who practices Buddhism;the Sanskrit term for one of the fourassemblies of the Buddhist sangha, orcommunity. Like her male counterpart,the upâsaka ( J. ubai), a womanbecomes a lay Buddhist by establishingher connection with Buddhism in theritual act of taking refuge (kie) in thethree treasures: the Buddha, theDharma and the sangha. In addition,she commits herself to keeping the five precepts of the layperson. See alsolay believer.

Upaya(J. hôben) The original Sanskrit termusually rendered in English as expedient means. Upaya refers to anyteaching device employed by a buddhaor another Buddhist teacher to conveyaspects of the Dharma to individuals.The full Sanskrit term is upaya-kaushalya, which may be alternatively translated into English as skillful or expedient means. Seeexpedient means.

Uposatha(J. fusatsu) A meeting of the Buddhistsangha, or community, held twice amonth for reflection and repentance. InIndia, a month was divided into two fif-teen-day periods based on phases of themoon. Uposatha was observed on thelast days of each period at the full moonand the new moon. In TheravadaBuddhist monasteries, the ritualsrelated to the uposatha include readingand explaining the vinaya, the portionof the Tripitaka containing the monas-tic code. In Mahayana monasteries in

East Asia, the bodhisattva precepts orthe Bonmôkyô (Brahma Net Sutra)were sometimes substituted. These rit-uals provide monks and nuns theopportunity to reflect on their actionsover the two-week period and to con-fess any offenses committed during thattime. Lay believers also have the oppor-tunity to participate on uposatha days.The more devout may spend the dayand night at the monastery and take onadditional precepts, temporarily abid-ing by the monastic code for novices.This means that in addition to followingthe five precepts for a layperson, theyabstain from all sexual relations, do noteat after the noon hour, and do notsleep on a comfortable bed.

The observance of uposatha daysremains an important part of TheravadaBuddhist practice for the monastic andlay communities, but it is only rarely observed by Mahayana layBuddhists. The Fusatsushiki, as theuposatha ceremony is known inJapanese, is still a part of Zen monasticpractice. See also Mahayana Buddhismand Theravada Buddhism.

Urabon-eThe full name of the Buddhist festivalmore popularly known as Obon, theJapanese observance of the Festival ofthe Dead. See Obon.

UttarasôThe seven-strip outer garment worn by Buddhist monks and nuns. Uttarasôis the Japanese transliteration of the Sanskrit term uttarasangha. See shichijôe.

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VVairocana BuddhaA common abbreviation forMahavairochana Buddha, the great cos-mic Buddha associated with esotericBuddhism. See Mahavairochana Buddha.

Vajra(J. kongô or konkô) “Diamond” inSanskrit. The diamond represents firm-ness and indestructibility in Buddhism. Itis therefore used as a symbol for theBuddha mind, which can cut throughany obstruction. The term vajra may alsobe used as an abbreviated name for avajra pounder, a religious implementused within the esoteric Buddhist tradi-tion. During rituals, they are held as sym-bolic weapons that can cut through delu-sion. Originally, vajra pounders wereweapons used in ancient India. There areseveral types of vajra pounders: they mayhave a single prong, three prongs, or fiveprongs. The single-pronged vajra repre-sents the singularity of reality; the three-pronged vajra represents the ThreeMysteries, which are practices related tobody, speech, and mind; and the five-pronged vajra represents the FiveWisdom Buddhas, which are the fivebuddhas either at the center of theDiamond-Realm Mandala or the Womb-Realm Mandala.

Vajrayana Buddhism( J. Kongôjô) Diamond Vehicle, aSanskrit name for Tantric or esotericBuddhism. Vajrayana is sometimesregarded as the third major school or vehicle of Buddhism, along withTheravada and Mahayana. Other scholars classify it as a form of MahayanaBuddhism. See esoteric Buddhism.

Vegetarian FeastsThe practice of offering vegetarianfeasts to the monastic community at aBuddhist temple arose as a means forlay Buddhists to build merit. Manylaypeople regularly offer alms to monksand nuns making their daily beggingrounds. In East Asia, where monks andnuns do not usually beg, lay Buddhistssometimes sponsor feasts at themonastery or another location to buildmerit for special occasions. These mayinclude the illness or death of a lovedone, the approaching birth of a child, orthe coronation of a new leader. See alsolay believer and vegetarianism.

VegetarianismThroughout East Asia, it is traditionalfor practicing Buddhists, particularlythe monastic community of monks andnuns, to maintain a strict vegetariandiet. The teaching of ahimsa, or non-injury of all sentient beings, is thephilosophical basis for Buddhists torefrain from eating meat. Buddhists rec-ognize that, like human beings, animalsare sentient beings living and sufferingin one of the six paths of existence(rokudô). The vegetarian diet isintended to reduce the sufferinginflicted on animals and is thus anexpression of Buddhist compassion.

The observance of vegetarianism atBuddhist temples and monasteries isbased on the precepts against killing,but vegetarian practice has changedfrom ancient times. The early monasticcodes (vinaya) still observed inTheravada Buddhism do not strictlyforbid monks and nuns to consumemeat. Rather, the codes instructed themto accept and eat any food which laypeople donate to them on their dailybegging rounds. To express a preferencefor any type of food, including vegetar-ian dishes, was strictly forbidden. Solong as an animal was not killedexpressly to feed the monk or nun, theycommitted no offense by acceptingmeat and eating it. In addition, theearly codes forbid monks and nuns toprepare food in the monastery for 367

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themselves. The bodhisattva preceptsobserved in the Mahayana tradition ofEast Asia, however, explicitly forbid eat-ing animal flesh. As a rule, the monasticcommunities in East Asia do notdepend directly on lay believers forfood preparation. Monasteries main-tain their own kitchens where they pre-pare their own vegetarian meals.

Zen monasteries throughout EastAsia maintain the general Mahayanapractice of strict vegetarianism, in someareas developing a unique Zen cuisine.While the food served in Zen monaster-ies on ordinary days is very simple veg-etarian fare, the monastery food pre-pared for festival occasions may bequite elaborate. Many temples enjoyreputations for the quality of their food.It should be noted that in the modernperiod in Japan (1868–present), manyZen Buddhists, including ordainedclergy, do not maintain a strict vegetar-ian diet outside of the monastic context.Indeed, since the Meiji period

(1868–1912) when the governmentmade observance of the monastic code a matter of personal preference,strict observance of vegetarianism outside the monastery has become the exception rather than the rule. See also Mahayana Buddhism and vegetarian feasts.

Vessel of the DharmaAn expression used to describe an indi-vidual with a deep capacity to masterthe Buddhist Dharma. In the Zenschool, it refers to a Zen practitionerwho is capable of attaining enlighten-ment and is worthy to transmit theDharma. See also hôki.

Vimalakirti(J. Yuima or Bimarakitsu) A wealthy layBuddhist from Vaishali, India, who was acontemporary of Shakyamuni(Siddharta Gautama), the historical

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It is traditional for Buddhist monks and nuns to adhere to a strict vegetarian diet, based upon the principle of ahimsa, or noninjury of all sentient beings.

Buddha, and appears as the leadingcharacter in the Vimalakirti Sutra. In thesutra, Vimalakirti is depicted as the per-fect lay bodhisattva, capable of cleverlyand effectively using expedient means toteach the most profound Mahayana con-cepts. One teaching device thatVimalakirti employs is his own illness;bedridden, he draws visitors into his sick-room, where he instructs them in theDharma. (The words used to describeVimalakirti’s sickroom, “ten-foot-squareroom” or hôjô, is the term employed bythe Zen school for the abbot’s quarters ata Zen monastery.) Hearing of the illness,the Buddha suggests that his most promi-nent disciples go to inquire aboutVimalakirti’s health. One by one, each dis-ciple declines the mission, describing anearlier occasion in which he was bested bythe layman and received a lesson in theDharma, a role reversal for monk and laypractitioner. Finally, Manjusri (J. Monju)agrees to visit Vimalakirti and all of the dis-ciples accompany him. The sutra reachesits climax in their exchange about themeaning of emptiness, in whichVimalakirti surpasses the others byanswering with silence.

Vimalakirti is a popular figurethroughout the schools of East AsianBuddhism precisely because he practiced Buddhism and attainedenlightenment as a lay person.Vimalakirti sometimes appears in Zentexts, including case 84 of theHekiganroku, which recounts his dis-cussion with Manjushri. See also laybeliever and Mahayana Buddhism.

Thurman, Robert A. F., trans. The HolyTeaching of Vimalakirti: AMahayana Scripture. UniversityPark, PA: Pennsylvania StateUniversity Press, 1976.

Vimalakirti SutraThe Vimalakirti Nirdesha Sutra, “Sutra ofthe Teaching of Vimalakirti,” a Mahayanasutra about a wealthy lay Buddhist namedVimalakirti who was a contemporary ofShakyamuni (Siddharta Gautama), thehistorical Buddha. In the sutra, Vimalakirti

is depicted as the perfect bodhisattva,capable of cleverly and effectively usingexpedient means to teach the most pro-found Mahayana concepts. One suchteaching device that Vimalakirti employsis his own illness; bedridden, he draws vis-itors into his sickroom, where he instructsthem in the Dharma. Hearing of the ill-ness, the Buddha suggests that his mostprominent disciples go to inquire aboutVimalakirti’s health. One by one, the disci-ples all decline the mission. Each onedescribes an earlier occasion in which hewas bested by the layman and received alesson in the Dharma, a role reversal formonk and lay practitioner. Finally,Manjusri (J. Monju) agrees to visitVimalakirti, and all of the disciples accom-pany him. The sutra reaches its climax intheir exchange about the meaning ofemptiness, in which Vimalakirti surpassesthe others by answering with silence.

The Vimalakirti Sutra is widely pop-ular in East Asia, where at least sixtranslations were made into Chinese. Itis a favorite sutra in the Zen school,where Vimalakirti’s roaring silencebecame the subject of a traditionalkôan. The most commonly usedChinese translation of the sutra is theWei-mo-chieh So-shuo Ching (J.Yuimakitsu Shosetsukyô), completed byKumarajiva (T. 14, no. 475) in threeparts. A complete English translationwas done by Robert Thurman under thetitle The Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: AMahayana Scripture. See also laybeliever and Mahayana Buddhism.

Thurman, Robert A. F., trans. The HolyTeaching of Vimalakirti: AMahayana Scripture. UniversityPark, PA: Pennsylvania StateUniversity Press, 1976.

Vinaya( J. ritsu or binaya) The Buddhistmonastic code, which governs the livesof Buddhist monks and nuns. Thevinaya texts constitute one portion orbasket of the Theravada Buddhistscriptures, which are known as theTripitaka. According to Buddhist 369

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accounts, the regulations preserved inthe vinaya were actually established bythe historical Buddha to regulate theactivities of the Buddhist sangha, orcommunity, during his lifetime. TheBuddha created new regulations as var-ious problems arose within the commu-nity. The texts typically convey the spe-cific purpose of each rule and the cir-cumstances under which it was created.The tradition maintains that the entirevinaya was recited by the disciple Upaliat the first Buddhist council held shortlyafter the Buddha’s death. The later tra-dition added to the vinaya code as theneed arose, and several versions of thevinaya developed.

The version of the vinaya that becamethe standard in East Asia is the “Vinaya inFour Categories of Dharmagupta” (J.Shinbun Ritsu or Ssu-fen Lu).Dharmagupta is a school of TheravadaBuddhism. The first section outlines theregulations for monks. The secondexplains the regulations for receiving theprecepts and for preaching. The thirddescribes the regulations for retreats,repentance, clothing, and medication.The fourth section explains the regula-tions related to housing and miscella-neous items. Vinaya schools arose inChina and Japan based on this version ofthe code. These included the Lu school inChina and the Ritsu school in Japan.

Traditionally, the vinaya was recitedtwice a month at the uposathaceremony. These readings providedmonks and nuns the opportunity toreflect upon their actions and confess toany major breaches of the code. Thevinaya prescribes the appropriate punishment for various offenses, dividing them into four categories. First were the most serious offensesentailing defeat (Sk. parajika); theserequire immediate expulsion from themonastic community. Second were theoffenses that required temporary suspension and public repentance. The third category requires repentanceand forfeiting the object involved. Thefourth requires simple repentance.

Vipashyin Buddha(J. Bibashi) One of the Seven Buddhasof the Past whose biographies appear at the beginning of the Transmission ofthe Lamp (Ch. Ching-te Ch’ uan-tengLu; J. Keitoku Dentôroku) and other traditional accounts of the history ofZen Buddhism through the ages.Vipashyin is the first buddha namedand is identified as the 998th buddha ofthe previous eon.

Vishvabhu Buddha(J. Bishabu) One of the Seven Buddhasof the Past whose biographies appear atthe beginning of the Transmission of theLamp (Ch. Ching-te Ch’ uan-teng Lu; J.Keitoku Dentôroku) and other traditionalaccounts of the history of Zen Buddhismthrough the ages. Vishvabhu is the thirdbuddha named and is identified as the1,000th buddha of the previous eon.

Vows(J. gan) There are several types of vowsundertaken by Buddhist practitioners.First there are various sets of preceptsundertaken by lay believers, novices,and fully ordained monks and nuns,which are sometimes spoken of as vows. The precepts are common to both Theravada and Mahayana. In addition, followers of MahayanaBuddhism, both lay and ordained, recitethe four bodhisattva vows. See alsoTheravada Buddhism.

Vulture Peak(J. Ryôjusen) Mount Gridhrakuta, amountain in Magadha, India, where theBuddha is traditionally said to have givenmany sermons, including the LotusSutra. Vulture Peak is important withinthe Zen tradition, because it is there thatthe Buddha transmitted the Dharma tohis disciple, Mahakashyapa.

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WWabiPoverty, or austere simplicity, valued inthe Japanese cultural tradition as anaesthetic quality. The various art formsinspired by Zen, such as pottery, poetry,and drama, are said to embody thestyles of wabi and sabi (loneliness).

WakaJapanese poetry, which is written in twostandard forms: tanka and chôka. InJapan, waka is contrasted with kanshi,poetry composed in Chinese.

Walking Staff(J. shujô) Zen monks and nuns tradi-tionally carry a long walking staff whentraveling on a pilgrimage. The walkingstaff is also carried by Zen masters as asymbol of authority at ordinations andis hung on the wall during formal lec-tures given in the Dharma hall ( J.hattô). It is said that the walking staffderives from the classical Buddhist tra-dition. According to the Theravadanmonastic code (vinaya), the Buddhaallowed old and infirm monks and nunsto use a walking stick. See alsoTheravada Buddhism.

Wandering SpiritsA folk concept in Japan referring to spir-its of the dead who wander in search ofrelease from their endless suffering.The Japanese term muen botoke literallymeans “a buddha without attach-ments,” but is more accurately under-stood as the spirit of a dead person(hotoke) caught between worlds,unable to attain release. The spirit mayhave been forgotten or may have died

without surviving family to offer theappropriate memorial services (hôji).It is also said that individuals who diewithout resolving deep emotional problems, such as intense jealousy,rage, or resentment, may be trapped ina similar state. Such spirits are said towander in the world of the living, seeking food and comfort, dependenton the living to ease their suffering.Services such as segaki (ullambana) areoffered for their benefit.

Wanshi Shôgaku(1091–1157) Japanese transliteration ofHung-chih Cheng-chüeh (1091–1157),Chinese Sôtô Zen master of the Sungperiod (960–1279). See Hung-chihCheng-chüeh.

Wan-shou-ssuAn important Chinese Zen monasteryon Chin-shan. The monastery’s fullname was Hsing-sheng Wan-shou-ssu.It was designated as one of the FiveMountains (Ch. wu-shan; J. Gozan tem-ples), the most prestigious Zen monas-teries in China.

Warrior MonksArmed monks, known as sôhei inJapanese, who fought to protect theinterests of Japanese Buddhist monas-teries and temples throughout themedieval period (1185–1600). The prac-tice of monasteries raising armies fromamong their own ranks began in theHeian period (794–1185) and continueduntil the last warrior monks weredefeated and disarmed by the militaryleaders Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582) andToyotomi Hideyoshi (1536–1598), whohelped unify Japan in the late 16th cen-tury. See sôhei.

WasanHymn or devotional verse, usually inpraise of a buddha, a bodhisattva, apatriarch, or some other Buddhist fig-ure. Together, wasan form a genre ofJapanese Buddhist literature, common

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to all schools of Japanese Buddhism. Inthe Zen school, the best known wasan isthe Zazen wasan, composed by HakuinEkaku (1685–1768) in praise of the prac-tice of seated meditation.

WatôThe primary word or expression thatsummarizes a kôan. Watô literallymeans “head of thought.” When a stu-dent contemplates a kôan as a part ofmeditative practice, one word or phrasefrom the original kôan may become theprimary focus of attention. Forexample, when contemplating the “Mukôan,” the first case from theMumonkan, the single sound “mu”becomes the watô for most practition-ers. Sometimes the term is used moregenerally as an alternative expressionfor kôan.

Way(J. Tô or Dô) The most commonly usedEnglish translation for the Chineseword Tao, which may also be rendered“path.” See Tao.

Western Pure LandThe celestial world created by Amidabuddha, where ordinary individualsmay easily attain enlightenment. It iscalled Sukhavati in Sanskrit andGokuraku in Japanese. According to thePure Land scriptures, when Amida wasstill a bodhisattva, he made a series ofvows. Among these was a vow to attainbuddhahood only if he could create apure land were even the weak could bereborn, hear the Dharma, and easilypractice Buddhism. A lengthy descrip-tion of the Western Pure Land is pro-vided in the three Pure Land Sutras,especially the Larger Pure Land Sutra.

Western RankThe monastic officers who guide themeditation practice and training at aZen monastery. See seihan.

Wheel of the DharmaOne of the most common images usedfor the Buddhist Dharma, or teachings,is a wheel. Known as dharmachakra inSanskrit, and hôrin in Japanese, theimage goes back to the most ancientperiod in Buddhist history. By using a wheel to symbolize the Buddha andthe Dharma, the Buddha’s teachings are compared to the Cakravartins’great wheels. Just as the Cakravartin use their wheels to subdue the secular world, the Buddha uses theDharma to crush all delusions and leadpeople to enlightenment.

There are three traditional levels ofmeaning in the image of the Wheel ofthe Dharma based upon its roundness,its power to crush, and its ability toturn. First, the Wheel of the Dharma’sroundness symbolizes its perfectionand completeness; the Dharma isunsurpassed and lacking in nothing.Second, the Dharma crushes the falseviews held by sentient beings in thesame way that the Cakravartin’s wheelcrushes political resistance. Third, justas a wheel can turn and move freely, the Dharma can be transmitted anywhere it is taught.

The Wheel of the Dharma is mostclosely identified with the teachingspresented in the first sermon inBenares, which explains the conceptsof the middle path, the four nobletruths, and the Eightfold Path. InBuddhist iconography, the wheel iscommonly drawn with eight spokes,representing the Eightfold Path. In theearly centuries, before the Buddhist tra-dition used human representations ofthe Buddha, the wheel was a popularimage for veneration.

Wheel of LifeAn image created by the Buddhist tradi-tion to graphically systematize theteachings about existence in the worldof samsara, the ongoing cycle of birthand death. It is called Bhavachakra inSanskrit and Urin in Japanese, literallytranslated as “the wheel of existence.”

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At the center of the wheel, forming thehub, are three animals: a cock, a snake,and a pig, symbolizing greed, anger, andignorance. These three afflictions,known collectively as the three poisons,are the forces that keep the cycles ofsamsara in motion. The spokes of thewheel depict the six realms of existence:the realms of heaven, ashuras (protec-tive spirits), human beings, animals,hungry ghosts, and hell. Individuals arereborn into one of these realmsdepending on the karmic accumulationfrom their previous existence. The outerrim of the wheel represents the twelvecausal links in the chain of codepen-dent origination that are responsiblefor human suffering. Mara, the demonwho represents impermanence anddeath, holds the whole wheel in hismouth and claws.

WhiskA religious implement that Zen teacherscarry as a symbol of their authority.They are known as hossu in Japanese.

Zen whisks are usually made from horsehair attached to a short staff. Originally,Buddhist monks in India carried the whisk to clear the ground in front of them as they walked to avoid inadvertently killing any small insectsin their path.

Womb-Realm Mandala(J. Taizôkai Mandara) One of the two pri-mary mandala used in esotericBuddhism, especially the Shingon sect,to symbolically depict the realm of divin-ity. The Womb-Realm Mandala representsMahavairochana’s enlightenment, whichpervades the entire cosmos and is inher-ent in all sentient beings. Through com-passion, this seed of Buddha Nature thateach sentient being possesses can leadone to enlightenment. The mandaladepicts twelve rectangular halls; the cen-tral hall encompasses an eight-petalledlotus, with the eleven other halls formingconcentric rectangles around it. At thecenter of the lotus sits the buddhaMahavairochana (J. Dainichi Butsu), the

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The Wheel of the Dharma is one of the most common Buddhist images, symbolizing perfection and completeness.

central buddha of esoteric Buddhism.Mahavairochana is surrounded by fourother buddhas, one in each of the petalsin the four cardinal directions, and by fourbodhisattvas in the intermediate petals.Other Buddhist deities inhabit the varioushalls surrounding the central lotus blos-som. Over 400 buddhas, bodhisattvas,and other Buddhist deities are depictedon the mandala. The mandala is basedupon a description from the Maha-vairochana Sutra (J. Dainichkyô), althoughsome variant versions exist. The othermajor mandala is the Diamond-RealmMandala (J. Kongôkai Mandara).

Ishida, Hisatoyo. Esoteric BuddhistPainting. Trans. E. Dale Saunders.New York: Harper & Row, 1987.

Yamasaki, Taiko. Shingon: JapaneseEsoteric Buddhism. Trans. Richardand Cynthia Peterson. Ed.YasuyoshiMorimoto and David Kidd. Boston,MA: Shambhala, 1988.

World-Honored One(J. Seson) An honorific title used for anyworthy religious teacher, especiallyShakyamuni (Siddharta Gautama), thehistorical Buddha. World Honored Oneis an English translation of the Sanskritword Bhagavat. The combined expres-sion “the Buddha, the World-HonoredOne” forms one of the ten epithets forthe Buddha. The Buddha is worthy ofhonor because he attained perfectenlightenment and thereby benefits allsentient beings. Zen literature oftenrefers to the Buddha simply as theWorld-Honored One.

WuNo, not; a Chinese word of negation. See mu.

Wu(2) Enlightenment; satori. Wu is theChinese pronunciation of the samecharacter transliterated as “satori” inJapanese. See satori.

Wu-an P’u-ning(1197-1276; J. Gottan Funei) ChineseRinzai Zen monk of the Yüan dynasty(1275–1368) who helped to establishRinzai Zen in Japan. Wu-an emigratedto Japan in 1260, perhaps to escape theunrest in China. He received the spon-sorship of the regent Hôjô Tokiyori(1227–1263) and served as abbot atKenchô-ji, a monastery in Kamakura.Wu-an eventually recognized Tokiyorias his Dharma heir. He returned toChina after Tokiyori’s death. See alsoRinzai sect.

Wu-chia( J. goke) “Five houses,” a Chineseexpression used to describe the five dis-tinctive styles of Zen characteristic ofthe five different lineages which devel-oped during the T’ang dynasty(618–907) in China. See five houses.

Wu-chun Shih-fan(1177–1249; J. Bushun Shiban) ChineseRinzai monk of the late Sung dynasty(960–1279), a leading master in theYang-ch’i lineage (J. Yôgi) in the thir-teenth century. Although Wu-chunnever visited Japan, he had a strongimpact on the development of RinzaiZen in Japan through his Japanese disciple, Enni Ben’en (1202–1280), andChinese disciples Wu-hsüeh Tsu-yüan(1226–1286) and Wu-an P’u-ning(1197–1276). See also Rinzai sect andYang-ch’i school.

Wu-hsüeh Tsu-yüan(1226–1286; J. Mugaku Sogen) ChineseRinzai monk of the late Sung dynasty(960–1279), who helped establish theRinzai school in Japan. Wu-hsueh wasthe Dharma heir of Wu-chun Shih-fan(1177–1276). He immigrated to Japan in1279 at the invitation of the Japaneseregent Hôjô Tokimune (1251–1284).Wu-hsueh served as the abbot ofKenchô-ji and was the founding abbotof Engaku-ji. See also Rinzai sect.

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Wu-men Hui-k’ai(1183–1260; J. Mumon Ekai) ChineseRinzai monk of the Sung dynasty(960–1279), best known as the compilerof the Wu-men Kuan (J. Mumonkan).Wu-men was the Dharma heir of the Zen master Yueh-lin Shih-kuan ofthe Yang-ch’i lineage ( J. Yôgi). Heattained enlightenment fairly early in life, and began teaching at the age of thirty-six. He developed his collection of classical kôan as an aid in teaching his own disciples. He eventually became the founding abbotat Hu-kuo Jen-wang-ssu in Hangchowby imperial decree. His disciplesinclude the Japanese monk ShinchiKakushin (1207–1298). See also Rinzaisect and Yang-ch’i school.

Wu-men KuanThe Gateless Gate, the most popular col-lection of classical Zen kôan, compiledby the Chinese Rinzai master Wu-menHui-k’ai (1183–1260) in 1228. The text ismore commonly known by its Japanesetitle, Mumonkan. See Mumonkan.

Wu-tsu Fa-yen(d. 1104; J. Goso Hoen) Chinese Rinzaimonk of the Sung dynasty (960–1279), anearly master in the Yang-ch’i lineage. Fa-yen was a native of Szechwan and did notenter monastic orders until he was thirty-five. He initially studied “ConsciousnessOnly” teachings, but later looked for aZen teacher. He first became the discipleof Yuan-chien Fa-yuan, and then Shou-tuan Ch’an-shih, from whom he receivedDharma transmission. He lived formany years as Wu-tsu-shan, the popularname for Huang-mei-shan, from whichhis name derives. See also Rinzai sectand Yang-ch’i school.

Wu-tsu Hung-jen(J. Goso Gunin) “The Fifth PatriarchHung-jen.” See Hung-jen.

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YYabukôjiA kana hôgo written by Hakuin Ekaku(1685–1768) for Ikeda Tsugumasa(1702–1776), the daimyô or lord ofOkayama in 1753. Hakuin describes thepractice of Zen and commends the useof the One Hand kôan (J. Sekishu kôan).The Yabukôji is alternatively known asthe Sekishu No Onjô. A translation ofthe Yabukôji appears in Yampolsky’sThe Zen Master Hakuin: SelectedWritings (Columbia University Press,1971).

YakusekiIn Zen temples, they use the termyakuseki as a euphemism for theevening meal or the last meal of the day.This is a meal that is eaten in theevening in violation of the monasticrule; the term literally means “medicinestone.” The vinaya or Buddhist monas-tic code developed within theTheravada tradition explicitly forbidsmonks and nuns to eat after the noonhour. Medicinal stones originallyreferred to heated stones that monksand nuns held against their abdomensin the evening to ease the sensation ofhunger and to provide warmth in coldweather. In the Mahayana temples ofEast Asia, although Buddhist monksand nuns continued to abide by thesame monastic code, eating an eveningmeal has become common practice inmost monasteries. It has been arguedthat the purpose of allowing an eveningmeal is medicinal in intention, that it isused as a preventive against illnessrather than as a concession to personalcomfort. The term first appears in Zenmonastic codes (shingi) in the early

thirteenth century. See also MahayanaBuddhism and Theravada Buddhism.

Yakushi Butsu(Sk. Bhaishajya-guru Vaidurya-prabha)The Buddha of Healing; known asBhaishajya-guru in Sanskrit. His fullJapanese name is Yakushi Rurikô,meaning the “Medicine Master ofEmerald Light.” Tradition says thatYakushi was a great medicine king whotook twelve vows while still a bod-hisattva; one of the vows was to cure allsentient beings from suffering fromdisease. Yakushi now reigns as thebuddha of the Eastern Pure Land ofPure Emerald. He is venerated as theMedicine Buddha throughout East Asia,where he has enjoyed more popularitythan in India. Worship of him as ameans of curing illness and ensuringlongevity are ancient practices in Chinaand Japan, dating back to the earliestBuddhist period in Japan. Although Zentemples typically enshrine an image ofShakyamuni Buddha (SiddhartaGautama) as the main image (honzon),many smaller Zen temples in the coun-tryside have images of Yakushi.

In Japan, Yakushi is sometimes identified with Pindola, the healingarhat, who is also known as Binzuru in Japanese. Pindola can often be foundoutside the main hall, since accordingto popular Japanese lore he wasexpelled from the company of the other arhats. It is said that he committed an act of sexual indiscretionwhen he admired a beautiful woman.People adorn smaller images of Yakushi or Binzuru with knitted capsand bibs to request his assistance withhealth problems.

In iconography, Yakushi is oftendepicted seated in meditation or stand-ing, holding a medicine bowl in his lefthand while his right hand is raised inthe mudra, indicating that thoseapproaching should have no fear. Hemay be included in a buddha triad,standing on the left with Shakyamuni inthe middle and Amida buddha on

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Yakushi Butsu is the great Buddhist medicine king who vowed to cure all beings of disease and illness.

the right. Alternatively, Yakushi may be depicted standing in the center of his assistants, Nikkô and GakkôBosatsu, the bodhisattvas of sunlightand moonlight.

Getty, Alice. The Gods of NorthernBuddhism: Their History andIconography. New York: DoverPublications, 1988.

Saunders, E. Dale. Mudra: A Study of theSymbolic Gestures in JapaneseBuddhist Sculpture. Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 1985.

Yama(J. Emma) Lord of the realm of the deadin Hindu and Buddhist mythology. InBuddhist mythology, Yama assumesauthority over humans after death andjudges their actions, both good and evil.Based on his review of a person’s deeds,Yama determines whether the individ-ual deserves punishment or rewards,and assigns them to a heaven or hell,accordingly. Yama himself reigns overthe various hells, where souls of thedead are punished until their evilkarma is exhausted.

Yama originally appeared in ancientIndian mythology, where he was abenign deity who cared for the souls ofthe dead in heaven. Yama became theruler of the dead as the first humanbeing to die and discover the path tothat realm. He came to be regarded as adeity, and the guardian of the south, theregion of deceased souls. He was carriedover into Hindu mythology as the kingof hell, a much darker and more fright-ening figure. In Hindu iconography,Yama is depicted as a terrifying figure.His body is green and he wears redrobes. He rides on the back of a buffaloand carries a club and noose to capturesouls when they die. He not only judgessouls after death, but has an army ofassistants to inflict cruel punishmentson those found guilty of wicked acts.Yama also has a female counterpart,called Yamî, who reigns over the femaleresidents of hell. Beliefs about Yama

underwent significant changes in EastAsian Buddhism.

YamabushiMountain ascetics in Japan who practice shugendô, a religious practicethat blends beliefs and practices fromdifferent traditions. Yamabushi com-bine intense physical austerities andmystical practices that build spiritualpower with the teachings and practiceof Buddhism. Yamabushi traditionallyprovide services of healing and exorcism. They display their spiritualpower at religious rituals by walkingacross beds of glowing embers or climbing ladders of sharpened swordblades. Most Yamabushi are affiliatedwith either the Tendai or the Shingonsect of Japanese Buddhism.

Yang-ch’i SchoolA lineage of Chinese Rinzai Zen thatfirst became active during the Sungdynasty (960–1279); it is known as oneof the so-called seven schools of Zen.The lineage was founded by the Zenmaster Yang-ch’i Fang-hui (992–1049; J.Yôgi Hôe), a seventh generationdescendent of Lin-chi I-hsuan. By theend of the Sung dynasty, the Yang-ch’ischool was the dominant lineage ofRinzai in China. It was within thisschool that kôan practice fully devel-oped and flourished. Descendants ofthis lineage include Wu-men Hui-k’ai(1183–1260) the compiler of the Wu-men Kuan (J. Mumonkan); and Ta-huiTsung-kao (1089–1163) author of theHekiganroku. In the thirteenth andfourteenth centuries, several prominentChinese masters and their Japanese disciples transmitted the lineage toJapan, where it became known as the Yôgi school. All active Rinzai lineages in Japan are branches of theYang-ch’i lineage, with the exception ofthe Obaku school. See also Obaku sectand Rinzai sect.

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Yang-shan Hui-chi(807–883; J. Kyôzan Ejaku) ChineseZen master of the T’ang dynasty(618–907) who, along with his Dharmamaster Kuei-shan Ling-yu (771–853),founded the Kuei-yang school ( J.Igyô-shû) of Chinese Zen. The Kuei-yang school is one of the so-called fivehouses (J. goke) of Chinese Zen. Yang-shan founded a temple on MountYang-shan, from which his popularname derives. Yan-shan perfected theuse of the circle, long a symbol of per-fection in Chinese thought, as a Zenteaching device.

Yasen KannaZen treatise composed by HakuinEkaku (1685–1768) in 1757. The text is comprised of one section. The nameis sometimes transliterated as Yasen

Kanwa. In the text, Hakuin addressesthe problem of the “Zen sickness,”which commonly afflicts those who meditate extensively. He describesin detail his own difficulties with meditation-related physical and mentalillness. He recounts his visits to a Taoist master named Hakuyû, whotaught him an effective cure, the introspective practice known as naikan.See also meditation.

YashodharaThe wife of Siddharta Gautama, beforehe renounced his home life and becamethe Buddha. She was also the mother of Rahula. Later in life she became adisciple of the Buddha and joined theorder of nuns.

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At a firewalking ceremony, the Yamabushi walk across the hot, glowing coals first; then laypeople are allowed to cross.

Year of the Donkey(J. Ronen) A Zen expression for some-thing that will never happen. Each yearin the twelve-year cycle of the tradi-tional Chinese calendar is named for ananimal of the zodiac. Since there is noYear of the Donkey, it designates animpossible event.

Yin-yüan Lung-ch’i(1594–1673; J. Ingen Ryûki) Chinesemonk in the Rinzai sect. Yin-yüan livedlate in the Ming dynasty (1368–1644)and founded the Obaku sect of Zen inJapan. Yin-yüan was born in the Fukienprovince in southern China. He enteredmonastic life at age twenty-nine at Wan-fu-ssu monastery. He practiced firstunder the Chinese Rinzai master, Mi-yun Yüan-Wu (1566–1642), and laterbecame the Dharma heir of Mi-yun’ssuccessor, Fei-yun T’ung-Jung(1593–1661). Yin-yüan became theabbot of Wan-fu-ssu in 1637. Heaccepted an invitation from the Chineseémigré community in Nagasaki andimmigrated to Japan in 1654, at the ageof sixty-two. Yin-yüan was the mostprominent Chinese monk to travel toJapan in several generations, and heattracted many Japanese disciples. Yin-yüan eventually received the patronageof the Japanese military governmentand founded Obaku-san Mampuku-ji,the head monastery for the Obaku sect,in the city of Uji. Yin-yüan served as abbot for only a year before retiringin 1664 in favor of his disciple Mu-anHsing-t’ao (1611–1684). Yin-yüan lived out his years of retirement at Mampuku-ji, composing portions of the Obaku Shingi, the monastic code for the Obaku sect, during thattime. He was granted the posthumoustitle Daikô Fushô Kokushi (NationalTeacher Great Illumination ShiningWidely) from retired emperorGomizunoo (1596–1680).

Yogachara SchoolA school of Mahayana Buddhism firstdeveloped in India in the fourth or fifth

century C.E., based on the writing of twoscholar monks, Asanga and his brother,Vasubandhu. The school is oftenreferred to as the “Consciousness Only”school, because it teaches that the phe-nomenal world that we experience isactually a product of our consciousminds. The primary teachings of theschool include the storehouse con-sciousness (alaya consciousness) andthe Three Natures of reality. The first ofthe Three Natures of reality is the mis-taken view that the perceived world ismade of permanent essences or souls.The second nature is the view that allthings are changing or mutually depen-dent. The third nature is the view ofabsolute reality. In the seventh century,the Yogachara school was transmittedto China, where it became known as theFa-hsien school, and to Japan where itis known as the Hossô school.

Yôgi SchoolThe Japanese name for the Yang-ch’ilineage of the Chinese Rinzai sect. InChina, the Yang-ch’i school firstbecame active during the Sung dynasty(960–1279). It was founded by theChinese Zen master Yang-ch’i Fang-hui(992–1049; J. Yôgi Hôe). By the end ofthe Sung dynasty, the Yang-ch’i schoolwas the dominant lineage of Rinzai inChina. In the thirteenth and fourteenthcenturies, several prominent Chinesemasters and their Japanese disciplestransmitted the lineage to Japan, whereit became known as the Yôgi school. Allactive Rinzai lineages in Japan arebranches of the Yang-ch’i lineage, withthe exception of the Obaku sect.

Yôjô Taimitsu(1141–1215) “The Yôjô lineage of Tendaiesoteric Buddhism,” the name used byMyôan Eisai (1141–1215) for his ownlineage of Zen, a combination of RinzaiZen with esoteric practice. Eisai is tradi-tionally regarded as the founder ofRinzai Zen in Japan. He began his careeras a monk in the Tendai sect on MountHiei, and was fully trained in the

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esoteric practices and teachings of the Tendai school. Although Eisai hopedto promote an exclusive practice of Zen in Japan such as he had experi-enced in China, it was not practical in his day. He therefore continued to incorporate esoteric rituals andteachings in his Zen school. He namedhis lineage after the Yôjô valley onMount Hiei. See also Rinzai sect.

Yôkô-jiA Japanese Sôtô monastery in what isnow Ishikawa Prefecture. Around theyear 1313 C.E., the Sôtô master KeizanJôkin (1268–1325) built a small medita-tion retreat on the grounds of Yôkô-ji,then a Shingon temple. Sometime later,perhaps in 1325, Keizan received fundsto restore the temple and convert it intoa Sôtô monastery. He renamed itTôkoku-san Yôkô-ji. See also Shingonsect and Sôtô sect.

YokushitsuThe name for the bathhouse in a Zenmonastery. Yokushitsu is one of theseven buildings (shichidô garan) thatmake up the core of every Zenmonastery. While it is a physical neces-sity to have a bathhouse, in themonastery it is intended to be a place ofcontemplation as well. Zen monasticcodes carefully specify regulations forthe proper behavior and demeanorwhile using the bath. An appropriatesubject for meditation on bath day, forexample, is “the touch of water,” a refer-ence to an episode in case 78 of theHekiganroku. “Long ago, there weresixteen bodhisattvas. At bath time, theyentered the water according to usualorder. They were suddenly enlightenedby the touch of the water. So, Zen wor-thies, do you understand this?”

According to the Zen monastic codes,one day every two weeks is set aside asbath day, a day when the ordinarymonastic routine is not observed. Thebath is heated, and the residents of themonastery enter the bath based on their

order of seniority. While monks and nunswash daily to maintain proper hygiene, inmany monasteries hot water is onlyavailable in large quantities on bath day.Traditionally the fuel used to heat thebath is dead leaves and other refuse gath-ered while cleaning the temple grounds,although many monasteries now usemore modern methods.

Yômyô Enju(904–975 C.E.) Japanese rendering ofYung-ming Yen-shou (904–975). SeeYung-ming Yen-shou.

Yôsai(1141–1215) An alternative pronuncia-tion for Eisai, the Japanese Zen masterof the Kamakura period (1185–1333)traditionally credited with founding theRinzai sect in Japan. Some scholarshave argued that Yôsai was the originalpronunciation that the master usedhimself. Both readings are possible, butEisai is used more commonly in sec-ondary materials. See Eisai.

Yüan-wu K’o-ch’in(1063–1135; J. Engo Kokugon) AChinese Zen master from the Sungdynasty (960–1279) who is best knownas the compiler of the Hekiganroku.K’o-ch’in was a disciple of Wu-tsu Fa-yen (d. 1104), from the Yang-ch’i school(in Japan, the Yôgi school) of the Rinzaisect. He became one of the most popu-lar Zen masters of his day, with disciplesfrom lay and monastic circles. K’o-ch’inreceived several imperial titles and hon-ors, and is also known by the honorifictitle Yüan-wu Ch’an-shih ( J. EngoZenji), bestowed upon him by theemperor Kao-tsung of the SouthernSung dynasty. His most important heirwas the master Ta-hui Tsung-kao(1089–1163). K’o-ch’in based theHekiganroku on an existing kôan col-lection edited by Hsüeh-tou Ch’ung-hsien, to which he added notes andcommentary. See also lay believer.

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YuigeDeath poems, a genre of Zen literature.It is customary for a Buddhist master torecord a final verse before death. Inmost cases, the verse is intended as afinal instruction for the master’s disci-ples and may be an expression of themaster’s understanding of the Dharma.

YuimaThe common abbreviation forYuimakitsu, the Japanese name forVimalakirti, the lay bodhisattva whoplays the leading role in the VimalakirtiSutra. In Japan, he is also sometimesreferred to as Yuima Koji, the LaymanVimalakirti. See Vimalakirti.

YuimakyôThe popular abbreviated Japanese titlefor the Vimalakirti Sutra. The termgenerally refers specifically toKumarajiva’s Chinese translation of thesutra, the Yuimakitsu Shosetsukyô (Ch.Wei-mo-chieh So-shuo Ching; T. 14, no.475). See Vimalakirti Sutra.

Yuishiki“Consciousness Only,” the Japaneseterm for the Mahayana Buddhist teach-ing that all phenomena that one experi-ences as external realities are manifes-tations of one’s consciousness or mind.The doctrine was developed first withinthe Yogachara school in India.Yogachara teachings, especially thetreatises attributed to the Indianscholar monks Asanga and Vasubandu,inspired the Chinese Fa-hsien school.This in turn served as the basis for theHossô school of Nara Buddhism inJapan. See Consciousness Only.

Yuishin No JôdoPure Land of the Mind Only, theJapanese rendering of a teaching sharedby several schools of MahayanaBuddhism, including Zen. See PureLand of the Mind Only.

Yu-luThe Chinese term for recorded sayings,one of the most important and distinc-tive genres of Zen literature. Seerecorded sayings.

Yün-ch’i Chu-hung(1535–1615; J. Unsei Shukô) One of the leading Chinese Buddhist monks of the Ming dynasty(1368–1644). See Chu-hung.

Yung-ming Yen-shou(904–975; J. Yômyô Enju) A ChineseSung dynasty Zen master famous for hissyncretic approach to Buddhism. Yung-ming stressed the basic unity betweenthe doctrines set out in the sutras andthe understanding achieved throughZen meditation (J. kyôzen itchi). Headvocated combining Zen practice with the Pure Land Buddhist practice of the nembutsu (Ch. nien-fo), recita-tion of the name of Amida buddha. He pioneered this form of dual practice, which later became a dominant force in Chinese Buddhism.Yung-ming is regarded as a patriarchin the Pure Land school as well as a Zen master from the lineage ofFa-yen Wen-i (J. Hôgen). Yung-ming’sprimary literary work is the Tsung-ching Lu (J. Sugyôroku).

Yun-men School(J. Ummon-shû) A lineage of ChineseZen active during the T’ang (618–907)and Sung (960–1279) dynasties andknown as one of the so-called fivehouses of Zen. The lineage was foundedby the Zen master Yun-men Wen-yen(864–949). It flourished during the earlySung dynasty, but was later absorbedinto the dominant Lin-chi lineage. Yun-men developed a distinctive teachingstyle, which included sharp blows withthe staff, shouts, and abrupt answers todisciples’ questions, known as “one-word barriers” (ichiji kan). These pithyremarks and longer exchanges between

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Yun-men and his disciples became thesubject of numerous kôan used in thelater Zen tradition. It was a Zen monkfrom the Yun-men school, Hsüeh-touCh’ung-hsien, who first collected andcommented upon the one hundredcases that later became theHekiganroku. Although the Yun-menschool did not survive beyond the Sungdynasty, its literature ensured that ithad an enduring influence on the latertradition. See also Lin-chi school.

Yun-men Wen-yen(864–949; J. Ummon Bun’en) ChineseZen monk of the T’ang dynasty(618–907), founder of the Yun-menschool of early Zen Buddhism. Yun-men was born in Chia-hsing. He tookhis monastic vows at age twenty, andbegan his Buddhist carrier studying thevinaya. A few years later, he went out on

pilgrimage, seeking a master. He prac-ticed under two important Zen mastersof the day. He first attained enlighten-ment under Ch’en Tsun-su (betterknown as Mu-chou), a direct disciple ofHuang-po Hsi-yün (d. 850), and laterbecame the Dharma heir of Hsueh-feng. Yun-men taught in southernChina for thirty years. He first becameabbot at Ling-shu-yuan in 919, underthe patronage of Liu Yan. He later built amonastery on Mount Yun-men, fromwhich his popular name derives. Yun-men became famous for his “one-wordbarriers” (ichiji kan), short, pithyreplies to questions from his disciples.Many of these interchanges became thesubjects for classical kôan. Selectionsfrom Yun-men’s recorded sayings aretranslated by Urs App in MasterYunmen: From the Record of the ChanMaster “Gate of the Clouds” (KodanshaInternational, 1994).

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ZZabutonA square cushion used during seated meditation. Also called zaniku.See zaniku.

ZafuA small, round pillow used duringseated meditation (zazen). Followingthe Sôtô manner of zazen, the medita-tor sits directly on the zafu, which isresting on a larger cushion called a zab-uton or zaniku. When seated in theproper position for zazen, the backbonefalls just above the center of the zafu, so that half of the cushion is behindone’s back. According to Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253), the founder of the Sôtô sect, the zafu is used in conjunction with the larger cushion toraise the backside above the level of theknees, which then rest on the largermat. The practice is still followed withinthe Sôtô sect.

ZaguA square ritual cloth used for sitting andfor making formal prostrations. Thezagu is one of the six personal posses-sions (rokumotsu) of a monk or nun.The size of the cloth was officially deter-mined in the monastic codes, but largermonks are allowed to use a larger sizefor practical reasons.

ZaikeA lay Buddhist. This Japanese term liter-ally means a householder, or someonewho lives at home. Although the wordcan refer to anyone living a secular life,it most often denotes Buddhist laybelievers. The term originated because

of the contrast in the location and man-ner of practice between the lay andmonastic communities in Buddhism.Buddhist monks and nuns leave thehome life (shukke) to join the monasticcommunity, so it became the practice torefer to lay believers as householders.

ZammaiConcentration; an intense state of mental concentration achieved duringmeditation. Zammai, also written zanmai or sammai, is the Japanesetransliteration of the Sanskrit termsamadhi. See samadhi.

ZanikuA square pillow or mat used duringseated meditation (zazen). The zanikuis just large enough to accommodate aperson sitting in the lotus position. Inthe Sôtô manner of meditation, thezaniku rests on the tatami, with thezafu, a smaller, round cushion, placedupon it. It is also called zabuton. Seealso Sôtô sect.

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A zafu is a small pillow used during meditation; it rests upon a zabuton.

Zazen“Seated meditation,” the style ofBuddhist meditation characteristic ofthe Zen school. Zazen is traditionallyperformed while seated cross-legged inthe full lotus or half-lotus position; inKorean monasteries, the quarter lotusposition is more often adopted. In thequarter lotus position, one sits with oneleg pulled up against the bottom of theopposite thigh, with the other leg bentwith the knee pointing upward. In mostcases, the practitioner sits on a thickcushion, wearing loose clothing. Thehands are held in the cosmic mudra,palms up with the left over right andthumbs lightly touching. The body pos-ture is straight, with ears parallel toshoulders, and nose in line with thenavel. Teeth and lips are held shut, butthe eyes remain slightly open, gazingdownward. Breathing may be observed,but is not controlled; nor is an effortmade to empty the mind or control theflow of thought. Thoughts are allowedto arise and pass away.

Zazengi“Manual of Zen Meditation,” theJapanese title for any one of severalmanuals describing the proper methodof seated meditation (zazen). The titlemost commonly refers to the Tso-ch’anI, a Chinese Zen text that appears in theCh’an-yuan Ch’ing-kuei ( J. ZennenShingi) composed by the Chinese Zenmaster, Chang-lu Tsung-tse. It is alsoused as an abbreviated title for DôgenKigen’s (1200–1253) Fukan Zazengi,which forms one chapter in theShôbôgenzô. Dôgen’s essay is based onTsung-tse’s earlier work.

Zazen Wasan“A Hymn to Zazen,” a popular devotionalverse written in Japanese by the eigh-teenth-century Rinzai reformer, HakuinEkaku (1685–1768). Rinzai monks andlay practitioners of Zen continue tochant the verse as a devotional practicetoday. The verse opens with the line,“Sentient beings are intrinsically

Buddha. Just like ice and water—apartfrom water there is no ice; apart fromsentient beings there is no Buddha.” Afull English translation of the verse canbe found in Isshu Miura’s and Ruth FullerSasaki’s Zen Dust (Harcourt, Brace &World, 1966). See also lay believer,Rinzai sect, and zazen.

Zazen Yôjinki“Notebook on Zen Practice,” a com-mentary in one section on the practiceof seated meditation (J. zazen) writtenby Keizan Jôkin (1268–1325), the sec-ond patriarch of the Sôtô sect in Japan.The text was first published in 1680 bythe Sôtô scholar-monk Manzan. TheZazen yôjinki describes the practice ofmeditation following the style devel-oped by the founder of the Sôtô sects,Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253). Keizanbased his text on Dôgen’s earlier Zenmanual, the Fukan Zazengi. The Sôtôsect continues to use the Zazen yôjinkias a beginner’s manual on how to med-itate. Two English translations havebeen published: The Sôtô Approach toZen by Matsunaga Reihô, and TimelessSpring by Thomas Cleary.

Cleary, Thomas. Timeless Spring: A Sôtô Zen Anthology. New York:Weatherhill, 1980.

Matsunaga, Reihô. The Sôtô Approachto Zen. London: Routledge & KeganPaul, 1972.

Zen“Meditation,” the Japanese abbreviationfor zenna, which is the Japanese pronun-ciation for the Chinese word ch’anna.Ch’anna and zenna are the standardtransliterations for the Sanskrit termdhyana. In Japanese texts, the term Zenmay be used broadly for any style ofmeditation, whether Buddhist or not. Itoften refers specifically, however, tozazen, the style of seated meditationpracticed within the Zen school ofBuddhism. In addition, the term Zen isused to designate the Zen school, or Zenteachings and Zen practice in general.

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Zen tradition explains its history interms of simple transmission of theDharma from one master to another,which historians no longer accept asfactually accurate. Tradition maintainsthat the Indian monk Bodhidharmawas the first Zen patriarch to travel toChina to spread Zen practice in EastAsia. He is said to have transmitted theZen teachings and style of practice tohis Chinese disciple, Hui-k’o (487–593),known as the Second Patriarch. Hui-k’othen transmitted the Dharma to his dis-ciple, the Third Patriarch Seng-ts’an (d.606), and so on through Hui-neng(638–713), recognized as the SixthPatriarch. Tradition says thatBodhidharma taught that all humanbeings innately possess the BuddhaNature. He is said to have taught a form of seated meditation designed toallow the individual to grasp the workings of the mind, to recognize one’s own Buddha Nature, and thusattain enlightenment.

The actual history of Zen Buddhism’sdevelopment in China presents a muchmore complex process. Zen first arosein China sometime during the T’angdynasty (618–907), several centuriesafter Buddhism had entered the coun-try. The Chinese had long expressedspecial interest in the Buddhist medita-tive texts that were imported from Indiaand Central Asia and translated intoChinese. Chinese meditation mastersbegan to develop styles of practiceappropriate for the Chinese culturalcontext. In the sixth and seventh cen-turies, before one can accurately speakof Zen Buddhism as an independentschool of Chinese Buddhism, smallcommunities of Buddhist meditatorstook shape at monasteries and her-mitages located in mountainous areas.From these early communities, the pre-cursors of Zen emerged, including theEast Mountain school. By the eighthcentury, Zen took the form of distinctlineages of Zen masters who identified

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Zen cuisine consists of vegetarian food served at Zen Buddhist monasteries to monks and nuns, as well as to the general public.

themselves as the heirs of earlier patriarchs, including Bodhidharmaand Hui-k’o. The latter portion of theT’ang dynasty, the ninth and tenth centuries, are regarded as the goldenage of Zen in China. It was during thisperiod that masters such as Ma-tsu Tao-i (709–788), Pai-chang Huai-hai(720–814), Huang-po Hsi-yün (d. 850),Yun-men Wen-Yen (864–949), Tung-shan Liang-chieh (807–869), andLin-chi I-hsuan were active.

Zen took on a distinctive institu-tional form during the Sung dynasty(960–1279), when Zen monastic codeswere compiled. It was during the sameperiod that most of the classical textualsources, such as the recorded sayings ofthe masters, collections of kôan, andthe compendia of biographies werecompiled. The kôan emerged duringthis period as an important meditativedevice among some Zen masters, espe-cially those in Lin-chi’s Rinzai lineage.By the late Sung dynasty, only a fewmajor Zen lineages survived, out ofwhich came the two primary schools ofChinese Zen, the Rinzai sect and theSôtô sect. Both schools were transmit-ted to Japan during the late twelfththrough the thirteenth century.

The founder of Sôtô Zen in Japanwas Dôgen Kigen (1200–1253), whotraveled to China. In China, he prac-ticed under a Chinese master andbecame his Dharma heir. The trans-mission of Rinzai Zen was much morecomplicated, involving the efforts ofseveral Chinese monks who emigratedto Japan and Japanese monks who vis-ited China. Nevertheless, the Japanesemonk, Eisai, is traditionally recognizedas the founder of Japanese Rinzai. Athird school of Japanese Zen, the Obakuschool, emerged centuries later, duringthe early Tokugawa period (1600–1867).Obaku was founded by the Chinesemonk Yin-yüan Lung-ch’i (1594–1673)and a small group of his disciples, whoimmigrated to Japan in the mid-sixteenth century. In the twentiethcentury, Zen Buddhism has spreadthroughout the Western world, and is

developing new monastic and lay styles of practice appropriate forWestern culture. See also lay believerand Obaku sect.

ZenbyôJapanese for “Zen sickness,” an ailmentthat may arise as a result of practicingZen meditation. See Zen Sickness.

ZenchishikiA good friend in the Dharma. Literallythe term means “good and knowledge-able.” Often used in reference to theperson who first introduced one to thepractice of Buddhism, or someone whoguided one along the Buddhist path.

In Zen literature, the term usuallyrefers to an excellent teacher of theBuddhist way or, more specifically, one’sZen master. The term may also be usedas a polite form of address; in thePlatform Sutra, for example, the SixthPatriarch addresses his audience usingthe expression.

Zen CuisineZen monasteries are sometimes knownfor their vegetarian cuisine. In Japan,monasteries may serve food to the general public in an affiliated restaurantor in the monastery dining hall. Whilethe ordinary diet for Zen monks andnuns is quite simple, fancier food isusually prepared for special occasions.See also vegetarianism.

ZendôThe meditation hall at a Zen monasteryor temple. The term zendô refers to themonks’ hall (J. sôdô), which served asthe traditional location in Chinese andmedieval Japanese Zen monasteries forseated meditation, meals and sleeping;zendô may also refer to a separate hallused exclusively for meditation. The lat-ter are much smaller than the tradi-tional monks’ hall, since residents donot use them for eating meals or sleep-ing. They were introduced in Japan bythe Chinese founders of the Obaku sect

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in the early Tokugawa period(1600–1867) and have since becomecommon throughout all the sects ofJapanese Zen. See meditation hall.

Zen’en Shingi“The Zen monastic code of the Yuandynasty,” the Japanese title for theCh’an-yuan Ch’ing-kuei. Also translit-erated as Zennen Shingi and Zen’onShingi. See Ch’an-yuan Ch’ing-kuei.

ZengaZen painting, a general term thatencompasses several styles or genres,including ink painting (J. suibokuga),landscapes, and portraits of Zen masters (J. chinsô).

Zengen Shozenshû TojoJapanese title for the Ch’an-yuan Chu-ch’uan-chi Tu-hsu, a text by Tsung-mi(780–840). See Ch’an-yuan Chu-ch’uan-chi Tu-hsu.

Zengo“Gradual enlightenment,” the Japanese term for the belief thatenlightenment may be achieved instages over an extended period of time.See gradual enlightenment.

Zengyô“Gradual teaching,” teachings based onthe concept of gradual enlightenment.See gradual teaching.

Zenji“Zen master” or “Meditation master,” aJapanese title of respect used to addressaccomplished Zen monks and nuns. TheChinese pronunciation of the same char-acters is Chan-shih. Originally the termdistinguished masters who instructedothers in meditation from Dharma mas-ters, or hosshi. Historically, Zenji was alsoa formal honorific title bestowed on out-standing Zen monks by the imperial courtin China and Japan.

ZenjôMeditation; the state of mental con-centration achieved while meditatingor the practice associated with it.Zenjô represents the Japanese pro-nunciation of a Chinese word used totranslate the Sanskrit term dhyana.The word zenjô can be used in a num-ber of ways, since its component partsallow for different interpretations. Thecharacter zen can be used alone tomean dhyana, the practice of medita-tion. The character jô can be trans-lated as samadhi, the state of mentalconcentration typically achievedthrough the practice of meditation.While the Sanskrit term dhyana doesnot apply exclusively to the Zen styleof meditation, the word zenjô is some-times used synonymously with zazen,the word for seated Zen meditation.See meditation and zazen.

Zenkai Ichiran“One Wave on the Sea of Zen,” a Zentreatise in one part, which is one of themost important works of Zen literaturewritten in the modern period(1868–present). A monk in the Rinzaisect, Kôsen Sôon (1816–1892), alsoknown as Imakita Kôsen, composed thetext for the daimyô, or military leader, ofthe Iwakuni province in 1862. It arguesfor the basic compatibility betweenConfucianism and Zen. Large portionsof the work provide commentary onConfucian terminology and sayings asseen from the Zen perspective.

Zenkan SakushinJapanese title for the Ch’an-kuan Ts’e-chin (To Encourage Zealous Study of the Zen Barriers). See Ch’an-kuan Ts’e-chin.

ZenkikuA woven ball made of animal hair thatwas used to prevent monks fromfalling asleep during sessions ofseated meditation. The ball would betossed at monks who were nodding off

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to stop them from falling asleep. Thepractice is no longer observed in Zenmonasteries.

Zenmon Kishiki“Zen monastic code,” the Japanese titlefor the “Ch’an-men Kuei-shih.” SeeCh’an-men Kuei-shih.

ZennasuA practitioner or trainee of meditation,a Zen monk or nun. The term zenna isthe Japanese translation of the Sanskritword dhyana, or meditation.

Zennen Shingi“The Zen monastic code of the Yüandynasty,” the Japanese title for theCh’an-yuan Ch’ing-kuei. Also translit-erated as Zen’en Shingi and Zen’onShingi. See Ch’an-yuan Ch’ing-kuei.

Zen’on Shingi“The Zen monastic code of the Yüandynasty,” the Japanese title for theCh’an-yuan Ch’ing-kuei. Also translit-erated as Zennen Shingi and Zen’enShingi. See Ch’an-yuan Ch’ing-kuei.

ZenpanA board used to provide support duringzazen (seated meditation) so that themeditator can rest or even nap whileseated in the lotus position. The boardis long and narrow, measuring approxi-mately 21 inches long (52 cm), 2.4inches wide (6 cm), and less than halfan inch thick (10 mm). The zenpan hasa small, round hole cut toward the top.In some cases, a cord was passedthrough the hole and attached to wallbehind, such that the person meditat-ing could rest on a diagonal against theflat of the board. Today, it is rested flatacross the knees or used as a chin rest toprop up the head.

Zenrin Biyô ShingiJapanese title for the Pei-yung

Ch’ing-kuei, a Chinese Zen monasticcode published in 1311. See Pei-yungCh’ing-kuei.

Zenrin Kushû“A Collection of Phrases from the ZenGarden,” a compilation of 6,000 quota-tions drawn from various Buddhistscriptures, Zen texts, and non-Buddhistsources. At least since the time of theeighteenth-century Rinzai reformer,Hakuin Ekaku (1685–1768), Rinzaimasters and students have relied uponthe Zenrin Kushû as a resource forjakugo, or capping verses, which are used as a regular part of kôanpractice. Portions of the text have beentranslated into English in Sasaki andMiura’s The Zen Kôan and Shigematsu’sA Zen Forest.

The Zenrin Kushû is based upon anearlier anthology of 5,000 Zen phrasesknown as the Ku Zôshi, compiled byTôyô Eichô (1438–1504). Tôyô drew hismaterial from sutras, recorded sayingsof Chinese Zen masters, Taoist texts,Confucian texts, and Chinese poetry. Hearranged the phrases according tolength, beginning with single-characterexpressions, continuing with phrases oftwo characters through eight charac-ters, and interspersing parallel verses offive through eight characters. Tôyô’swork circulated in manuscript form forseveral generations until the seven-teenth century. At that time, a personusing the pen name Ijûshi produced anexpanded version of the text that wasfirst published in 1688 under the titleZenrin Kushû. See also Rinzai sect.

Miura, Isshû, and Ruth Fuller Sasaki.The Zen Kôan. New York: HarcourtBrace & World, 1967.

Shigematsu, Soiku, trans. A Zen Forest:Sayings of the Masters. New York:Weatherhill, 1992.

ZenshitsuThe hall or room at a Zen temple ormonastery in which seated meditation(zazen) is practiced. The term sometimes

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refers to the abbot’s quarters (hôjô) at aZen monastery. By extension, it can alsobe used as an indirect reference to theabbot himself. In other contexts notrelated specifically to the Zen school ofBuddhism, the word zenshitsu may referto small meditation hermitages that indi-vidual monks and nuns built for them-selves to provide a secluded location formeditative practices.

Zen SicknessAn illness of the body or mind that arisesas a result of practicing zazen, especiallywhen practicing without proper guid-ance from a qualified master. Althoughdifferent physical and mental illnessesmay occur, the most common ailment isa form of delusion and hallucination.Meditators routinely experience a vari-ety of phenomena when meditating,which can easily be misunderstood. Ifthe condition goes unchecked, it com-monly leads to false understandingregarding one’s practice and a falsesense of enlightenment. The seven-teenth-century Rinzai master, HakuinEkaku (1685–1768), discusses Zen sick-ness in his Orategama and YasenKanna. See also Rinzai sect.

Dumoulin, Heinrich. Zen Buddhism: AHistory, Vol. 2: Japan. Trans. James W.Heisig and Paul Knitter. New York:Macmillan Publishing Company, 1994.

Yampolsky, Philip B., trans. The Zen MasterHakuin: Selected Writings. New York:Columbia University Press, 1971.

Zensô“Meditation monk,” a Buddhist monk ornun who practices some form of medi-

tation. In many cases, the term refersspecifically to Zen monks or nuns.

ZensuA Zen trainee or Zen monk or nun. Ashortened form of Zennasu. See Zennasu.

ZôhôThe Semblance Dharma, in Japanese;the second of the Three Ages of theDharma following the death of the his-torical Buddha. The Age of SemblanceDharma follows the Age of the TrueDharma, when the Buddha’s teachingsremained perfect. During the secondage, the teachings have begun to deteri-orate somewhat, so that what remainshas only the appearance of the trueDharma. In this intermediate stage,people continue to practice Buddhismas they did in the earlier age, but the fullrealization of the teachings and theattainment of enlightenment are nolonger possible. The period lasts for1,000 years.

ZôsuSutra prefect at a Zen monastery, one ofthe six senior officers from the Westernrank (seihan) of the monastery. Alsoknown as the chief librarian, or chizô.The sutra prefect is responsible for theproper care of the monastery’s collec-tion of books and scrolls, whichincludes the preservation of texts andthe acquisition of new materials. Thezôsu is usually a monk widely educatedin Buddhist literature, especially theZen corpus. In a contemporary Zenmonastery, the position is often held bya highly trained Zen scholar-monk.

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Chên, Kenneth Kuan Shêng. Buddhism in China: A HistoricalSurvey. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964.

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Index

Aabbot, 1–2, 4, 33, 49–50, 52, 54, 58–60, 71, 73,

75, 80, 82, 84, 95, 107, 109, 111–112, 114,117–118, 121–122, 126, 130, 132–133, 135,140, 142, 150, 152–158, 162, 165–168,171–172, 178, 180, 185, 187, 189, 196, 199,201, 204, 216, 218, 222, 227, 229, 232–234,236, 245, 248, 250, 264, 268–269, 272, 275,278, 282–283, 285–286, 290, 299, 301, 303,305–306, 310, 313, 317, 320–321, 326, 330,332, 337–339, 341, 343, 345, 352–353, 355,359, 369, 374–375, 383, 390

Abhidharma, 2, 10, 38, 268, 356Abihidharma literature, 2Acts of the Buddha. See Buddhacharitaafflictions, 2–3, 14, 26, 30, 33, 94, 96, 158,

248, 266, 295, 348, 373Agama Sutras, 3Age of the Degenerate Dharma. See Latter

Age of the Dharmaagyo, 3, 172ahimsa, 3–4, 309, 367. See also lay believerAikuô. See AshokaAitken, Robert, viii, 274ajari, 4, 159. See also Shingon sect, Sôtô sect,

and Tendai sectako, 4, 199, 275, 293. See also sanbutsujiakudô. See evil pathsalaya consciousness, 4–5, 10, 55, 77, 88, 125,

139, 204, 324, 337, 380. See alsoFa-hsien school and Hossô school

alcohol and intoxicants, 12, 78, 93, 111, 125,139, 153, 161, 168, 170, 206, 244,258–259, 288, 341–342

ama no hakkikai, 5Amida buddha, 5–6, 7, 30, 35, 37, 45, 53,

75–76, 108, 114, 124, 129, 136, 138, 165,196, 213, 231, 235, 237, 239, 245, 251,259–260, 272, 347, 357, 360, 372, 376.See also dual practice and koshin mida

Amida’s vows, 5–6. See also Amida buddhaAmitayus. See Amida buddhaAnanda, 7, 22, 167, 257, 283, 290, 327, 340,

356. See also arhatAnatman, 7–8, 14, 55, 82, 109, 152, 211, 229,

244, 319, 325–326, 348Ancestor Worship in Contemporary Japan

(Smith), 40, 151, 247andae. See gojôeandô. See anjadôango, 8. See also Sôtô sectanger, 2–3, 33, 76–77, 148, 168, 180, 259, 319,

340,–341, 348, 373angya, 8–9, 129, 256animals, 4, 13, 19, 66, 81, 86, 133, 139, 191,

208, 223, 226, 229, 234, 251, 314, 318,340, 342, 345, 348, 367, 373, 378, 388

anja, 9, 10, 119, 163, 181

anjadô, 8–9, 10. See also lay believeranroku, 10Anuruddha, 10, 167, 340anuttara samyak sambodhi, 10App, Urs, 150, 383Arada Kalama, 10arayashiki. See Alaya consciousnessarchery. See kyûdôarchitectural styles, 40, 108, 111–112, 115–116,

252, 283, 294, 317, 324–325, 336arhat, 7, 10–12, 24, 27, 47, 55, 64, 91, 96, 100,

167, 171, 182, 210–211, 214, 222, 256,293, 299, 307, 309, 325, 339, 351, 357,365, 376

The Arhats in China and Japan (de Visser), 12arrogance, 2–3, 33art, ix, 149, 12 32, 43–44, 48, 50–51, 65, 82,

100, 102, 107, 115–116, 120–121, 126,167, 170, 179, 226, 228, 248, 251, 271,292, 327, 345, 360, 371, 388

ascetic practices, 12–13, 19, 119Ashikaga period (1392–1568; Japan), 17, 62,

111, 116, 140, 151, 184, 203, 232, 242,265, 272, 283–284, 305, 317, 320, 337,343, 345, 353, 355

Ashita, 13, 182, 314Ashoka, 13, 16, 30, 43, 191. See also lay believerashura, 13–14, 86, 98, 161, 268, 285, 318, 342,

348, 373Ashvaghosha, 14, 16, 35, 58, 249, 335Asuka period (5th–6th c.; Japan), 307atman, 7, 14, 19, 37, 64, 93, 106, 244attachment, viii, 2, 4, 7, 13, 14, 19, 24, 33, 54,

63, 65, 75, 77, 91, 94, 109, 162, 182, 197,228, 241, 244, 266, 276, 296, 309, 318,364–365, 371

Avalokiteshvara, 14–15, 45, 109, 175–176, 198Avalokiteshvara Sutra, 15, 176, 178, 199. See

also lay believerAvatamsaka Sutra, 15–16, 55, 94, 102, 145,

153, 182, 211, 276, 343Avici hell, 16, 91, 110, 229Awakening of Faith, 16, 58, 249, 335. See also

Shingon sectThe Awakening of Faith (Hakeda), 16A-yu-wang-shan, 16, 198

Bbaitô, 17Baiyû Jikushin, 17, 313Baker, Richard, viii, 274bakufu, 1, 17, 140, 159, 234, 304, 320, 328,

338, 343. See also samuraiball of doubt, 17, 56, 109banka, 17Bankei Yôtaku, 13, 17–18, 155, 335, 364–365.

See also Rinzai sect

Primary references appear in boldface type.

Bankei Zen: Translations from the Record ofBankei (Haskell), 18

Baranashi, 18barbarian, 18, 197, 303Barnes, Nancy J., 22Basham, A. L., 31, 198Bashô. See Matsuo BashôBasô Dôitsu. See Ma-tsu Tao-iBassui Tokushô, 18–19, 312. See also Rinzai sectbathing, 51, 111, 123, 172, 175, 294, 381begging alms, 19–20, 126, 159, 197, 332begging bowl, 9, 20, 126, 131, 159, 185, 255,

268, 275–276, 304, 332, 349. See alsobegging alms and lay believer

Benares, 18, 20, 255, 372Bendôwa, 20. See also lay believerBenzaiten, 20, 288betsugo, 22, 57, 143bhikkhu, 22, 95, 276. See also Obaku sect,

Rinzai, sect, and Sôtô sectbhikkhuni, 22–24, 95, 276bien-li wen. See pien-wenbiku. See bhikkhubikuni. See bhikkhuniBinzuru. See Pindolabiography, 24, 27, 35, 44, 172, 238, 270, 284, 327Birushana. See Mahavairochana BuddhaBishamon, 24, 288black mountains, 24–25, 194Blofeld, John, 143Blue Cliff Record. See Hekiganrokubodai. See bodhiBodaidaruma. See Bodhidharmabodaiju. See bodhi treebodaishin. See bodhichittabodhi, 25, 26, 84bodhichitta, 6, 26, 29–30Bodhi Day, 26, 267Bodhidharma, vii, 13, 18, 25, 26–27, 37, 51–52,

63, 67, 69, 71, 104, 128, 134, 142, 145, 154,156, 161, 182, 188–189, 197, 204, 207, 221,239, 242, 254, 261, 266, 281–282, 291, 301,306, 322, 324, 327, 335, 361, 386

Bodhidharma’s Six Gates. See ShôshitsuRokumon

bodhisattva, ix, 6, 12, 14–15, 20, 26, 27–29, 30,32–33, 36, 38–41, 55, 60, 62, 68, 72, 78, 81,84, 86–87, 90, 92, 96, 100, 102, 109, 120,124, 126, 132, 135–137, 145, 149, 153, 156,159–161, 163, 168, 170, 175–176, 178, 191,193, 198–199, 201, 208, 211–212, 214, 222,225, 228, 247, 251, 255, 258–259, 268, 272,277, 283–284, 293, 295, 305, 307–309, 316,319–320, 324, 331, 335, 341–342, 351–352,360, 362, 369, 371–372, 374, 376, 382

bodhisattva precepts, 29–30, 33–34, 66, 95,137, 160–161, 163, 168–170, 249, 258,266, 271, 283, 296, 339, 341–342, 366,368. See also lay believer

“The Bodhisattva Ti-Tsang in China andJapan,” Ostasiatische Zeitschift (deVisser), 165

bodhisattva vows, 6, 29, 30, 102, 104–105,165, 370. See also lay believer

bodhi tree, 26, 30–31, 73, 153, 165, 216, 255,274, 325

Bodiford, William M., 30, 104, 107, 154, 275,278

bôkatsu, 31, 46bokuseki, 32bonbai, 32, 306. See also Obaku sectbongyô, 32Bonmôkyô. See Brahma Net Sutrabonnô, 2, 33bonpu, 33, 112The Book of Serenity (Cleary, T.), 308bosatsu. See bodhisattvabosatsukai. See bodhisattva preceptsbowing, 20, 74, 107, 114, 184, 265, 280, 298, 331boxwood Zen, 33, 197Boyd, James W., 216bôzu, 33Brahma Net Sutra, 29, 33–34, 95, 168, 258,

296, 341, 366. See also lay believer andTendai sect

branch temple, 34, 137, 160, 187, 211, 217,233, 269, 321, 337

Broughton, Jeffrey, 94Buddha, vi, viii–ix, 1–3, 5, 7–8, 10, 12–15, 18–20,

22, 24, 26–27, 32–33, 34–35, 36–40, 45, 48,50, 54, 57, 59–60, 62, 64–66, 68–69, 71, 73,77–79, 82–84, 86–87, 90–91, 93, 95–96,98–100, 102, 104, 107, 109–111, 118–119,123, 131, 135, 137, 139, 141, 149–150,152–154, 159, 161, 163, 165–168, 170, 178,180, 182, 188–190, 193, 196–198, 201,204–205, 207–208, 210–214, 216–219,222–226, 228, 230, 233–235, 237–242, 245,247, 251–252, 254–260, 262, 264, 267, 270,272, 274, 276–283, 288–291, 293–295, 297,299, 301, 304–307, 309, 311, 314, 319–320,324–325, 327, 331–335, 337–339, 341–343,345–347, 350–351, 355–356, 360, 362–363,365–367, 369–372, 374, 376, 379, 385, 390

“The Buddha,” Buddhism and Asian History(Reynolds and Hallisey), 35

Buddhacharita, 2, 14, 24, 35–36, 39, 153Buddha Day, 36, 123, 241. See also Hana

Matsuri and kanbutsuBuddha Dharma. See Buppôbuddha hall. See butsudenbuddhahood, 6, 26–27, 36, 137, 188, 208,

214, 309, 337, 372Buddha Land, 6, 35, 36–37, 127, 259, 272, 347Buddha Nature, 16, 33, 37, 39, 57, 86,

136–138, 149, 163, 188, 209, 214, 229, 242, 249–250, 290, 299, 337, 356, 373, 386

398

buddha patriarch. See bussoBuddhism, vi–viii, 2–4, 6, 10, 13–15, 17–19, 22,

24, 26, 29–30, 32–34, 36, 37–38, 40, 43–48,53, 57–60, 62, 65–66, 68, 73–77, 79–86,88–90, 94–96, 98–100, 103, 106, 108, 112,114, 117–118, 120, 123–124–125, 129–130,133, 135–138, 145, 147, 153, 155, 162–163,166, 168, 170–172, 174–176, 179–180, 182,185, 187–189, 193, 195–200, 204, 206–208,210–213, 216–222, 224, 227–228, 232–235,237–239, 241–242, 244, 246–252, 254,256–257, 259–260, 262–266, 271–272, 274,276, 278, 280–281, 283–286, 288–292,294–297, 300–302, 304–305, 307, 312, 314,317, 319–321, 323–324, 326, 332, 334–335,337, 339–340, 342–343, 345–348, 350–351,356–359, 361, 363, 366, 369, 372, 378,382–385, 387, 390. See also Hua-yenschool, lay believer, and Tendai sect

Buddhism and the Mythology of Evil: A Studyin Theravada Buddhism (Ling), 217

Buddhism in China: A Historical Survey(Chên), 49, 205

A Buddhist Leader in Ming China: The Lifeand Thought of Han-shan Te-ch’ing,1546–1623 (Hsu), 125

Buddhist Mahayana Texts (Cowell), 6Buddhist Monastic Life: According to the

Texts of the Theravada Tradition(Wijayaratna), 20, 22, 93, 254, 257

Buddhist name. See kaimyôBuddhist path, 30, 38, 39, 55, 66, 75, 84, 98,

108, 131, 160, 255, 304, 346–347,350–351, 361, 387

The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction(Robinson and Johnson), 26, 35, 180

Buddhist scriptures, viii, 2, 38, 39, 49, 62, 66,82, 87, 109, 126, 131, 141, 149, 156, 208,215, 219, 222, 246, 252, 284, 292, 327,331, 346, 350, 356, 369, 389. See alsoChinese Tripitaka and Daizôkyô

Buddhist Scriptures: A Bibliography (Conze),8, 126

Buddhists, persecution of, 84, 86, 106, 219, 248Buppô, 36, 38–39, 41burning house, 39, 208, 251, 351bushi. See samuraibusshi, 39busshin’in. See inkaBusshô. See Buddha NatureBusshôgyôsan. See Buddhacharitabusso, 37, 39–40, 320Buswell, Robert E., Jr., 2, 8, 267Butsu. See BuddhaButsuda. See Buddhabutsudan, 40, 150, 247. See also lay believerButsuden, 17, 36, 40, 47, 52, 65, 126, 135,

185, 279, 294, 338butsudô, 38, 40–41, 73, 197, 200, 295

Buttsû-ji, 41, 118. See also Rinzai sectButtsû-ji Ha, 41–42, 118, 266Byakushi Butsu. See pratyeka buddhabyakutsui, 42, 167byôdô. See equality

CCakravartin, 43, 342, 345, 372calligraphy, ix, 32, 43, 45, 48, 107, 121, 151,

228, 302, 304–305capping verse. See jakugocausality, 43, 153. See also codependent

origination, inga, and karmacave of the dharma, 43–44celibacy and sexual conduct, 12, 64, 78, 93,

111, 125, 161, 166, 168–169, 206, 217,224, 226, 244, 254, 256, 258–259, 282,340–342, 366, 376

chadô. See chanoyûCh’an-kuan Ts’e-chin, 44, 388. See also

Rinzai sect“Ch’an-men Kuei-shih,” 44, 389chanoyû, 44–45, 62, 116, 170, 271, 281, 285,

337. See also Rinzai sectCh’an-shih, 45, 330, 375, 381chanting, 17, 32, 40, 45, 52, 66, 75, 108, 111,

185, 191, 223, 236–237, 239, 259–260,263, 265, 278, 284, 304–305, 310, 314,321, 328, 357, 365

Ch’an-tsung Wu-mên-kuan. See MumonkanCh’an-yuan Ch’ing-kuei, 46, 385, 388–389Ch’an-yuan Chu-ch’uan-chi Tu-hsu, 46, 359, 388Chao-chou ts’ung-shen, 46, 166, 229Chao-lun, 46, 284. See also Hua-yen schoolChe-chiang, China, 49–50, 330, 352Chekiang, China, 16, 50, 142, 261, 357Cheng-fa Yen-tsang, 47, 302. See also Rinzai sectchen-jen. See true person of no rankChên, Kenneth Kuan Shêng, 49, 205Chia-t’ai P’u-teng Lu, 47, 115, 181chiden, 47, 52, 267, 282, 338chie. See prajnachief cook. See tenzoChien-chen, 47, 106, 170. See also lay believerChien-chung Ching-kuo Hsu-teng Lu, 47–48,

115, 187, 359Chi-fei Ju-i, 48, 171, 228, 322. See also

Obaku sectCh’ih-hsiu Pai-chang Ch’ing-kuei, 48, 52, 252Chih-i, 48, 133, 296, 348, 351Chih-wei, 48Chih-yen, 48Chii. See Chih-weichiji. See tôhanChina, vi, viiChinese Religion, An Introduction

(Thompson), 322

399

Chinese Tripitaka, 2, 3, 38, 49, 54, 58, 62,156, 246, 331, 339, 344, 356

Ching-kuei. See ShingiChingo Kokka No Sambukyô, 49, 196Ching-shan, 49–50, 142, 187, 234Ching-shan Tao-ch’in, 50Ching-te Ch’üan-teng Lu, 14, 44, 46, 48, 50,

52, 64–65, 89, 115, 127, 151, 172, 174,180, 185, 197, 286, 297, 324, 356, 359,370. See also lay believer

Ching-te-ssu, 50, 116, 146, 166, 270, 330Ching-tzu-ssu, 50, 116, 235. See also Sôtô sectchinsô, 50–51, 388chishiki, 51chiyoku, 51, 52, 267, 282, 338chizô, 51–52, 338, 390chôka, 52chôka (2), 52, 371Chokushû Hyakujo Shingi. See Ch’ih-hsiu

Pai-chang Ch’ing-kueichôrô. See jûjichôshu. See seihanChristianity, 244, 328, 342, 353Ch’uan Fa-pao Chi, 52. See also lay believerCh’uan-hsin Fa-yao, 52, 64. See also Huang-

po-shan and ZenjiCh’uan-teng lu. See Ching-te ch’uan-teng luChü-chih, 52–53, 119, 248Chûganha. See MâdhyamakaChûhô Myôhon. See Chung-feng Ming-penChu-hung, 44, 53, 365, 382. See also dual

practice, Hua-yen school, lay believer,and T’ien-tai school

chûin, 53, 132, 150, 221, 306Chung-feng Ho-shang Kuang-lu, 54. See also

Rinzai sectChung-feng Ming-pen, 53, 54, 60, 75, 158.

See also Rinzai sectChung-Yuan, Chang, 93Cleary, Christopher, 330Cleary, Thomas, 308, 385clothing, 8–9, 19, 22, 56, 62, 64, 69, 95, 99,

103–104, 108–111, 125, 155, 180–181,187, 189, 195–196, 200, 210, 249, 256,260–262, 264, 266, 268, 275, 291,294–295, 324, 340, 349, 366, 370, 385

codependent origination, 43, 54, 83, 92, 206,319, 373

cold ashes and dead trees, 54Collcutt, Martin, 2, 40, 116, 132, 280compassion, 3, 6, 14–15, 27, 29–30, 32, 34, 55,

63, 90, 100, 109, 133, 149, 155, 159, 168,176, 198, 211, 266, 342, 351, 355, 367, 373

Confucianism, 18–19, 53, 82, 90, 98, 115, 121,145, 196, 201, 224, 272, 278, 282, 350, 388

“Consciousness Only,” 55, 77, 88, 138–139,276, 358, 375, 380, 382. See also eightconsciousnesses, Fa-hsien school, andHossô school

Conze, Edward, 8, 126Cook, Francis Harold, 26, 302Covell, Jon Carter, 152Cowell, E. B., 6Cross, Chodo, 302

DDaibontennô Monbutsu Ketsugikyô, 56Daibutchô-ju, 56. See also Shuragama dharanidaie, 56Daie Sôkô. See Ta-hui Tsung-KaoDaifunshi, 56, 60, 118, 347. See also Rinzai sectDaigi, 56–57, 60, 118, 347. See also Rinzai sectdaigo, 22, 57, 143Daigu Sôchiku, 57. See also Rinzai sectDaihannya Haramitsukyô, 57, 255Daihatsu Nehangyô Shuge. See Nirvana SutraDaiji, 57, 118Daiji-ji. See Sôtô sectdaijô. See Mahayana BuddhismDaijô-ji, 58, 109, 185, 216. See also Shingon

sect and Sôtô sectDaijô Kishinron. See Awakening of FaithDaikaku Ha, 58. See also Rinzai sectDaikyû Shônen. See Ta-hsiu Cheng-nienDainichi Nônin, 59, 63, 114, 173. See also

Rinzai sect, Sôtô sect, and Tendai sectDainichi Nyorai, 24, 59Daiô Kokushi. See Nampô Jômyôdaisan, 1, 59, 105, 118, 126, 168, 285, 306Daisetsu Sonô, 60. See also Rinzai sect,

Tendai sect, and Yang-ch’i schooldaishi, 60, 64, 84, 178Daishinkon, 56, 60, 118, 347. See also

Rinzai sectDaitô Kokushi. See Shûhô MyôchôDaitoku-ji, 61–62, 81, 111, 151, 178, 251,

283, 310, 332, 345, 353, 355Daitoku-ji Ha, 62, 266Daizen, Victoria 76, 169Daizôkyô, 38, 49, 62, 156, 356danka seido, 62, 254Dankyô. See Platform Sutradanna, 62–63, 148. See also lay believerdarani. See dharaniDaruma. See Bodhidharma and Dharma dollDaruma sect, 59, 63, 173. See also Rinzai

sect and Tendai sectDaruma-shû, 63. See also Daruma sectdead ashes, 63, 296dead sitting, 63, 301Death Was His Kôan: The Samurai-Zen of

Suzuki Shosan (King), 100, 240, 328Deer Park, 18, 20, 255defilements, 63–64, 91, 110, 112, 251, 266, 318defrocking, 64delusion, 2, 33, 64, 76, 99, 163, 181, 190, 196,

241, 390400

dembôin. See inkaDengyô Daishi. See SaichôDenkôroku, 64, 185. See also Sôtô sectThe Denkôroku or The Record of the

Transmission of the Light by KeizanZenji (Nearman), 64

Denshin Hôyô. See Ch’uan-hsin Fa-yaodenshô, 65, 125, 231Dentôroku. See Ching-te Ch’üan-teng Lu“Depictions of the Guardians of the Law:

Lohan Painting in China,” Latter Daysof the Law: Images of ChineseBuddhism (Kent), 12

deshi, 65Devadatta, 65devas, 65. See also six pathsDevil’s Cave. See Kikutsuride Visser, Marinus Willem, 12, 165dharani, 45, 56, 63, 66, 75, 284, 312, 314Dharma, 1–4, 6–7, 12–14, 16, 19, 24, 27, 30,

32, 34, 36–37, 39, 43, 45, 50, 52, 59, 62,66, 67, 69, 71, 87–88, 90, 93, 95–97,99–100, 104, 106–107, 112, 115, 119,126–127, 130–132, 134–135,138–139–140, 145–146, 149, 151,153–156, 158, 161, 166, 168, 171, 174,182, 189, 196–197, 199, 201, 204,207–208, 210–211, 213, 221–223,225–226, 233–235, 238, 241, 249–250,254–255, 258, 270, 274, 276–277, 281,283, 285–286, 288, 292, 294–295,298–299, 301–302, 304, 309–311, 313,318–319, 322, 327, 331–332, 334,337–338, 340, 342–343, 345–347,350–351, 358, 360–362, 365–366,368–370, 372, 379, 382, 386–388, 390.See also lay believer

Dharma combat, 66–67dharmadhatu, 67, 134Dharma doll, 63, 67–68Dharma eye, 47, 68, 71, 92, 210, 302. See also

Sôtô sect and lay believerDharma gate, 68, 135Dharma hall. See hattôDharma heir, 17–18, 48, 50, 54, 60, 63, 68–69,

72, 82, 84, 88–90, 107, 109, 111–112, 117,121, 126, 139–143, 145–146, 152, 154–155,166, 178, 182, 185, 194, 196, 199, 207, 216,218, 221, 227, 232, 234–235, 242–243, 248,251–252, 256, 259, 270, 274, 280, 284–285,289–290, 294, 301, 304, 310, 312, 319,326–330, 332, 335, 337, 341, 344–345,353–355, 359, 374–375, 380, 383, 387. Seealso lay believer and Sôtô sect

Dharmakaya, 69, 132, 138, 248, 280, 347Dharma King, 69, 138Dharma robe, 59–60, 69, 71, 133, 266, 355Dharma Seal. See inkaDharma Seat. See Hôza

Dharma transmission, 27, 51, 59, 64, 69, 71,80, 88, 106–107, 118, 139, 145, 147, 154,156, 174, 182, 204, 207, 216, 266, 356,358, 375. See also Sôtô sect

“Dharma Transmission in Sôtô Zen,”Monumenta Nipponica (Bodiford),107, 154

Dharma Wheel. See Wheel of the Dharmadhyana. See meditationDiamond-Realm Mandala, 71–72, 195, 211,

214, 331, 367, 374Diamond Sutra, 57, 72, 146, 195, 200, 211,

255, 301Diary: The Record of a Pilgrimage to China

in Search of the Law (Reischauer), 84Disciples of the Buddha (Ishigami), 7, 10,

182, 260, 262, 291, 325, 340, 365“The Disposition of Error,” Sources of

Chinese Tradition (Tzu), 91Dô. See Taodôban, 72Dôgen Kigen, vii, 4, 8, 26, 29, 37, 46–47,

58–59, 63–64, 72–73, 76, 79, 85, 99, 102,104, 108, 122, 129, 150, 166, 169,173–174, 176, 181, 189, 197, 210,216–217, 222, 224, 254, 261, 270, 275,295–298, 301–302, 304, 313, 321, 323,330, 341, 344, 358, 384–385, 387. Seealso Tendai sect

Dôgen’s Formative Years in China: AnHistorical Study and AnnotatedTranslation of the Hokyo-ki (Kodera),298

Dôgen’s Pure Standards for the Zen Community(Leighton and Okamura), 80, 344

dojidô, 73dôjô, 73dokkaku. See pratyeka buddhadokusan, 73–74, 176, 280, 285, 305. See also

Obaku sect and Rinzai sectDôkyô Etan, 74, 121, 172, 294, 304dônai, 74donkatsukan, 74. See also Rinzai sectdora, 74Dôsha Chôgen. See Tao-che Ch’ao-yüanDôshin. See Tao-hsinDôshô, 74, 139, 141. See also Yogachara

schooldôshu. See inodôsu. See inodoubt, 2–3, 33dropping off body and mind. See shinjin

datsurakudual practice, 6, 53, 75, 88, 125, 237–238,

365. See also Rinzai sectduhkha. See sufferingDumoulin, Heinrich, 84, 390dust, 75, 104, 162, 298. See also five dusts

and six dusts

401

EEarly Modern period (1600–1867; Japan),

103–104, 211, 320Eastern rank. See tôhanEast Mountain school, 76, 292, 335, 359, 386easy path, 76, 324Edo (Tokyo), Japan, 74, 216, 228, 312ehatsu. See three robes, one bowlEichô. See Shakuen EichôEigen-ji, 76, 158. See also Rinzai sectEigen-ji Ha, 76, 266eight cold hells, 77, 120, 128, 159eight consciousnesses, 55, 77, 125, 267. See

also “Consciousness Only” andYogachara school

Eightfold Path, 10, 26, 36, 38, 41, 77–78, 84, 98,125, 272, 309, 316, 326, 347, 351, 361, 372

eight hot hells, 16, 78, 120, 128, 159, 229eight precepts, 78, 120, 125. See also

lay believereighty minor marks of a buddha, 78Eihei-ji, 73, 79, 173, 185, 275, 283, 313, 321, 323Eihei Shingi, 46, 73, 79–80, 216, 224, 304,

344. See also Sôtô sectEisai, vii, 45, 63, 72, 80, 84–85, 143, 166–167,

187–188, 197, 232, 261, 266, 270, 289,295, 330, 380–381

Eka Daishi. See Hui-k’oEmma, 80–81, 378Emmei Jikku Kannonkyô, 81Emmei Jikku Kannonkyô Reigenki, 81Emperor Go-Daigo, 61, 81, 185, 230, 232,

310, 321, 343Emperor Hanazono, 61, 81–82, 124, 178,

194, 233, 304, 310Empress Wu, 82emptiness, 7, 26, 35, 37, 54–55, 69, 72, 82, 85–86,

92, 99, 105, 113, 124, 155, 162–163, 167,191, 195, 198, 210–211, 229, 234, 243–244,255, 258, 264, 276, 280, 312, 319, 325, 340,342, 347–349, 358, 361, 363, 365, 369

Emptiness: A Study in Religious Meaning(Streng), 234

engaku. See pratyeka buddhaEngaku-ji, 60, 82–83, 116, 134, 156, 196, 232,

283, 290, 328, 330, 359, 374. See alsoRinzai sect

Engaku-ji Ha, 83, 266engi. See co-dependent-originationengi (2), 83Engo Kokugon. See Yüan-wu K’o-ch’inenju, 83enjudô, 75, 83, 241enlightened one, 34, 37, 83, 119, 167, 339enlightenment, viii, 2, 5, 10, 12, 14–15, 17–20,

25–27, 30–34, 36–39, 41–42, 44, 46, 50, 52,55–57, 59, 63–66, 68–69, 71–75, 77, 82–83,84, 85–88, 94, 96–97, 102–103, 108–113,

117–119, 121, 124, 129, 132, 134, 137–138,141–142, 146–147, 149–150, 152, 154–159,161–163, 165, 167, 170, 172, 184, 188, 190,192, 201, 204, 206, 209, 211–212, 214,216–219, 222, 225–226, 228–229, 235, 237,241–244, 249–252, 254–256, 258–259, 262,265–268, 272, 274, 277, 281, 283–284,288–289, 296–299, 302, 304–305, 309, 312,316, 318–319, 321, 324–326, 330, 334–335,337, 342–344, 346–348, 350–351, 353,355–357, 360, 362–363, 365, 368–369,372–375, 383, 386, 390

gradual enlightenment, 117, 140, 243, 323,326, 353, 388

sudden enlightenment, 117, 140, 146, 243,249, 323, 326, 353

Enni Ben’en, 84, 195, 229, 289, 304, 352, 374.See also Rinzai sect, Tendai sect, andYang-ch’i school

Ennin, 84, 306. See also T’ien-t’ai schoolEnniu’s Travels in T’ang China (Reischauer), 84Enô. See Hui-nengEnryaku-ji, 84–85, 129, 187, 339. See also

Tendai sectenshû, 85. See also Tendai sectensô, 85, 149equality, 42, 86, 194esoteric Buddhism, 37, 66, 71, 81, 86, 140, 162,

174, 187, 195–196, 200, 204, 214–215, 222,228–229, 233–234, 271, 284, 289, 298, 309,330–331, 339, 367, 373, 380

Esoteric Buddhist Painting (Ishida), 72, 374Essays in Zen Buddhism (Suzuki, D. T.), 141, 328The Essential Teachings of Zen Master

Hakuin: A Translation of the Sokko-roku Kaien-fusetsu (Waddell), 121, 321

evil paths, 4, 14, 86, 180, 274, 318. See alsosix paths

expedient means, 39, 68, 87, 92, 109, 131,208, 366, 369

The Experience of Buddhism: Sources andInterpretations (Strong), 29, 91,148–149

Fface-to-face transmission, 88, 221Fa-ch’ih, 88, 132Fa-hai, 88, 194Fa-hsien school, 5, 55, 88, 138, 380, 382Fa-jung, 88, 117, 140, 242, 251farming, 4, 83, 215, 301fasting, 12, 161, 244, 258, 288, 266Fa-yen school, 89, 92, 131, 142, 288, 344Fa-yen Wen-i, 89, 92, 131, 382. See also

Hua-yen schoolFeng-hsueh Yen-chao, 89, 103, 235. See also

Rinzai sect and T’ien-t’ai school

402

Feng-mu-shan. See Tung-shanFeng-yang Wu-te ch’an-shih Yü-lu, 89, 104.

See also Rinzai sectFen-yang Shan-chao, 89, 90, 93, 104. See also

Rinzai sectFestival of the Dead. See Obonfestivals and holy days, 26, 36, 90, 123, 129,

132–133, 165, 237, 241, 246–247, 267,274, 366

field of merit, 90, 103Fifth Patriarch. See Hung-jenfilial piety, 90–91, 224First Barrier. See ShokanFirst Zen Institute of America, 281, 321five deadly sins. See gogyakuzaifive dusts, 75, 91–92, 110. See also six dustsFive dynasties (907–960; China), 89five eyes, 68, 92, 109five false views. See five wrong viewsfive houses, 89, 92, 111, 199, 207, 265, 286,

323, 358, 374, 379, 382. See also Huang-lung school and Yang-ch’i school

five houses and seven schools, 92, 111, 288.See also Huang-lung school and Yang-ch’i school

Five Mountains. See Gozan temples andGozan system

Five Mountaints: The Rinzai Zen MonasticInstitution in Medieval Japan(Collcutt), 2, 40, 116, 132, 280

five precepts, 14, 78, 93, 95, 111, 206, 258,316, 366. See also lay believer

five ranks, 89–90, 93, 99, 110, 128, 201, 248,358–359. See also Hua-yen school andTs’ao-tung school

five skandhas, 2, 7, 93–94, 115, 319, 364five types of zen, 94, 112, 114five wrong views, 94, 111Flower Garland Sutra. See Avatamsaka SutraFolk Religion in Japan: Continuity and

Change (Hori), 130food, 4, 12, 14, 19–20, 40, 62, 83, 95, 99–100,

106, 126, 147–148, 166, 170, 181, 197, 201,219, 247, 271, 310–311, 344, 367–368, 387

formless precepts, 94, 160, 232formless repentance, 94–95, 232forty-eight light precepts, 95, 168, 258, 295, 341Foundation of Japanese Buddhism (Matsunaga

and Matsunaga), 6, 170, 306, 346Foundations of T’ien-T’ai Philosophy: The

Flowering of the Two Truths Theory inChinese Buddhism (Swanson), 342

founder’s hall, 95, 172, 294, 299four aspects. See shisôfour assemblies, 95, 276, 365–366. See also

lay believerfour discernments, 95–96, 99, 300. See also

Rinzai sectfour encounters, 96, 118

four fruits, 68, 96four grave offenses, 96, 296four great elements, 96, 294four great vows, 96–97, 295four guardian kings, 24, 97–98, 153, 196,

227, 301four kinds of birth, 98, 300four noble truths, 26, 36, 38, 41, 54, 77, 96,

98, 100, 293, 309, 326, 350, 372. See alsolay believer

four obligations, 98–99, 299. See also lay believerfour offerings, 99, 152, 201, 247, 295four periods of meditation, 99, 115, 295four realms of reality, 95, 99, 145, 182, 295, 301.

See also Rinzai sect and Hua-yen schoolfour shouts, 99–100, 181, 296. See also

Rinzai sectFourth Patriarch. See Tao-hsinfour wisdoms, 86, 100, 293Fraser, Dana R., 206fucha ryôri, 100Fudô Myôô, 100, 233Fugen, 102, 211, 226, 272. See also

Hua-yen schoolFujaku. See P’u-chiFukan Zazengi, 102–103, 122, 176, 385. See

also Sôtô sectFuke sect, 103, 173, 195, 259, 289. See also

lay believer and Rinzai sectFuketsu Enshô. See Feng-hsueh Yen-ChaoFuke Zenji. See P’u-huaFukien, China, 143–144, 227, 246fukuden. See field of meritThe Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way:

Nagarjuna’s Mulamadhyamakakarika(Garfield), 234

funerals, 4, 38, 45, 103–104, 130, 150, 152, 189,193–194, 199, 213, 220–221, 256–257, 264,274, 284, 293, 312, 331, 339

funeral Zen, 103–104. See also lay believer,Obaku sect, Rinzai sect, and Sôtô sect

Funyô Roku. See Feng-yang Wu-te Ch’an-shi Yü-lu

Funyô Zenshô. See Fen-yang Shan-chaofunzôe, 104. See also lay believerFuruna. See Purnafuryû monji, 104fusatsu. See uposathafusetsu, 105, 135, 321fushin. See manual laborfushô fumetsu, 105fûsu, 49, 105, 176, 267, 338, 358–359. See

also temple positions

Gga. See atmangaki, 4, 106, 147, 161, 259, 268, 271, 282, 313

403

gakuji, 106Ganges River, 37, 316Ganjin. See Chien-chengaranbô, 106–107. See also Rinzai sect and

Sôtô sectgardens, 45, 83, 112, 145, 178–179, 232, 266,

269, 298, 334, 341, 343, 389Garfield, Jay L., 234Gasan Jitô, 107, 121, 155, 332. See also

Rinzai sectgasô, 107, 301gasshô, 107, 114, 184, 265, 331Gateless Gate. See Mumonkangâthâ, 107–108, 170ge. See gâthâgedatsu, 108, 276genjô kôan, 108. See also Sôtô sectgenkan, 108, 242Genshin, 108, 120, 248. See also Tendai sectgenze riyaku, 108–109, 114, 256. See also

lay believerGesshû Shûko, 109, 216. See also Obaku sect

and Shingon sectgeta, 109Getty, Alice, 378gidan. See ball of doubtGinkaku-ji. See Silver PavilionGinzan teppeki. See Silver mountain, iron wallGlassman, Bernard, viii, 274gô. See karmaGoddess of Mercy. See Kuan-YinThe Gods of Northern Buddhism: Their

History and Iconography (Getty), 378goga, 109. See also Rinzai sectgogen. See five eyesgogo, 110. See also Rinzai sectgogyakuzai, 16, 91, 110goi. See five ranksGoi kôan, 99, 110, 113. See also Rinzai sectgojin. See five dustsgojôe, 8, 110–111, 188, 275, 349. See also

lay believergoka, 111gokai. See five preceptsgoke. See five housesGokei Sôton, 111, 283. See also Rinzai sectgoken. See five wrong viewsGoke Sanshô Yôro Mon, 111, 355Goke Shichishû. See five houses and seven

schoolsGolden Pavilion, 112, 191, 317. See also

Rinzai sectgoma, 100, 112. See also Shingon sect and

Tendai sectgomi zen, 112, 150. See also five types of zen

and Hua-yen schoolGomizunoo, 112, 380. See also Obaku sect

and Rinzai sectGonsen Kôan, 112–113. See also Rinzai sect

gorin sotoba, 113–114goriyaku. See genze riyakugoroku. See recorded sayingsgosan jôdô, 114goshuzen. See Five Types of ZenGoso Hoen. See Wu-tsu Fa-yengotai tôchi, 114, 280Gotôroku, 47–48, 50, 115, 351, 359Gottan Funei. See Wu-an P’u-ninggoun. See five skandhasgoya zazen, 115, 296. See also shiji zazenGozan jissatsu. See Gozan systemGozan literature, 115, 116, 156, 232Gozan system, 61, 92, 115–116, 117, 131,

133, 135, 163, 165–167, 193, 233, 236,265, 304, 308, 322. See also Rinzai sectand Sôtô sect

Gozan temples, 1, 16, 50, 83, 92, 115,116–117, 187, 198, 200, 207, 214, 233,235, 254, 305, 343, 352, 371

Gozu school. See Oxhead schoolgradual enlightenment, 117, 140, 243, 323,

326, 353, 388gradual teaching, 117, 388great assemblies. See daisanGreat Doubt. See DaigiGreat Matter. See Daijigreat renunciation, 118Great Resolve. See DaifunshiGreat Trust. See Daishinkongreat vehicle. See Mahayana Buddhismgreed, 2–3, 33, 166, 169, 180, 318, 340, 348, 373Groner, Paul, 30Guchû Shûkyô, 41, 118Gudô Tôshoku, 118–119, 294. See also

Rinzai sectGunin. See Hung-jenGutei. See Chü-chihgyôdô, 119gyôja, 9, 119. See also ascetic practicesgyô-jû-za-ga, 119gyônyû, 119, 239, 265Gyôyû. See Taikô Gyôyû

Hhachikan jigoku. See eight cold hellsHachiman, 120. See also honki suijakuhachinetsu jigoku. See eight hot hellshaiku, vi, 120, 135, 218, 264. See also

lay believerHajahadai. See PrajapatiHajun. See PapiyasHakeda, Kûkai, 200Hakeda, Yoshito S., 16, 200hakkai. See eight preceptsHakuin Ekaku, 17, 43–45, 56, 63, 74–75, 81,

93, 107, 110, 113, 119, 120–121, 124,

404

127–128, 138, 155, 158, 172, 190, 192,229, 234–235, 249, 251, 270, 282, 294,304, 312, 321, 332–333, 347, 354–355,372, 376, 379, 385, 389–390

half-lotus position, 122, 124, 134, 219, 385Hallisey, Charles, 35han, 122–123, 161, 171, 232, 239, 303, 364.

See also Obaku sectHana Matsuri, 36, 123, 274. See also kanbutsuHanazonokai, 123–124. See also lay believerhandaikan, 124hanka fuza. See half-lotus positionHannya. See PrajnaHannya shingyô. See Heart Sutrahannya zanmai, 124Han-shan, 124, 178. See also Rinzai sectHan-shan Shih, 124, 178. See also Rinzai sectHan-shan Te-ch’ing, 124–125. See also dual

practice and Rinzai secthanshô, 125. See also denshôhara, 125, 334Hara, Japan,120–121Harado Sogaki, viiharaizai. See parajikaHardacre, Helen, 213Harvey, Peter, 54hashin kyûji, 125Haskell, Peter, 18hassaikai. See eight preceptshasshiki. See eight consciousnesshasshôdô. See eightfold pathhassu. See dharma heirhatsu, 126hatsui. See hoihatsunehan. See parinirvanahattô, 1, 59, 68, 71, 118, 126, 135, 141, 271,

294, 337–338, 371Heart Sutra, 15, 45, 57, 105, 124, 126, 200,

211, 255, 298, 306heaven, 6, 36, 98, 127, 147, 153, 161, 227,

268, 285, 288, 318–319, 322, 334, 342,348, 373, 378

Hebiichigo, 81, 127. See also Rinzai sectHeian period (794–1185; Japan), 129, 135,

137, 260, 298, 309, 320, 371Hekiganroku, 25, 46, 53, 57, 83, 113, 127,

128, 142, 151, 192–193, 206, 217, 226,239, 256, 277, 304, 308, 316, 327, 330,369, 378, 381, 383. See also lay believerand Rinzai sect

Hekiganshû. See HekiganrokuHekigo, 127–128. See also Rinzai secthekikan, 128, 221Hekizen, 128. See also Rinzai secthell, 4, 6, 16, 28, 77–78, 81, 86, 91, 98, 110,

147, 159, 161, 165, 176, 180, 198, 219,238, 247, 267–268, 274, 282, 285, 318,342, 348, 363, 373, 378

henshô goi. See five ranks

henzan. See pilgrimageHerrigel, Eugen, 203Hiei-zan, 129. See also Enryaku-jihigan, 129higan-e, 129hijiri, 129–130. See also Shingon sect and

Tendai sectHinayana Buddhism, 36, 112, 130, 208, 211,

258, 304, 319, 345Hinduism, vi, 313–14, 20, 32, 66, 80, 97, 179,

234, 264, 271, 272, 378hinko. See akohinpotsu, 1, 130–131Hiroshima, Japan, 41, 216Hirota, Dennis, 6hô, 131, 223, 232Hô (2). See Dharmahôben. See expedient meansHôgen Bun’eki. See Fa-yen Wen-iHôgen school. See Fa-yen schoolhôgo, 131, 285, 299hoi, 126, 131–132. See also Obaku sect,

Rinzai sect, and Sôtô secthôji, 132, 135, 150, 193, 238, 371Hôji (2). See Fa-ch’ihhôjin. See sambhogakayahoji zazen, 132, 296hôjô, 132, 369, 390. See also lay believerhôjô (2), 132–133. See also Obaku sect and

T’ien-t’ai schoolHôjô regents, 133, 134Hôjô Sadatoki, 133, 156. See also Sôtô sectHôjô Tokiyori, 133, 187, 204, 330, 374Hôjô Tokimune, 83, 134, 374Hokekyô. See Lotus Sutrahôki, 134, 368hokkai. See dharmadhatuhokkai jôin, 135Hokkekyô. See Lotus Sutrahokku, 120, 135, 231, 264. See also Obaku

sect, Rinzai sect, and Sôtô secthokku (2). See haikuHô Koji. See Layman P’angHôkô-ji, 135, 230. See also Rinzai sectHôkô-ji Ha, 135, 266The Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: A

Mahayana Scripture (Thurman), 369hômon. See Dharma gatehômyô. See kaimyôHondô. See butsudenHônen, 136, 166, 260, 299, 357. See also Pure

Land sect and Tendai secthongaku. See original enlightenmenthonji suijaku, 120, 137Honrai no Menmoku. See Original FaceHonshin, 137, 250honshô, 137, 159, 163Honshô (2). See jataka taleshonshôkai, 137, 163

405

honzan, 137, 217, 320. See also Obaku sectand Rinzai sect

honzon, 36, 40, 135, 138, 261, 279, 376Hôô, 69, 138. See also Dharma KingHori, Ichiro, 130, 175hôrin. See Wheel of the DharmaHôrinden. See Pao-lin Chuanhosshi, 138, 388hosshin. See DharmakayaHosshin kôan, 138, 190, 193, 229. See also

Rinzai sectHossô school, 5, 55, 74, 138, 294, 321,

380, 382hossu, 130, 139, 155, 373Hotei. See Pu-taihotoke, 40, 139, 228, 371Ho-tse school, 46, 139, 181, 359Ho-tse Shen-hui, 139–140, 162, 181, 244,

292–293, 323, 359Hottô Ha, 18, 140, 174. See also Rinzai sect

and Yang-ch’i schoolHou Hei, 140, 194Hou Po, 140, 193–194householder, 53, 140, 194, 206, 217, 224, 310,

354, 384How to Raise an Ox: Zen Practice as Taught

in Zen Master Dôgen’s Shobogenzo(Cook), 26, 302

Hôyû. See Fa-junghôza, 1, 59, 71, 126, 140–141, 337Hsiang-yen Chih-hsien, 141, 199, 201Hsing-hua Ts’ung-chiang, 141, 194, 235. See

also Rinzai sect“Hsin-hsin-ming,” 141, 284, 298Hsi-shan, 141, 282, 359Hsüan-tsang, 73–74, 141–142, 255, 298Hsüeh-feng I-ts’un, 142, 285, 344. See also

Fa-yen schoolHsüeh-mo Lun, 142, 156, 189, 306Hsüeh-tou Ch’ung-hsien, 127, 142, 285–286,

381, 383Hsu, Sung-peng, 125Hsü-t’ang Chih-yü, 142, 189, 234. See also

Rinzai sectHsü-t’ang Lu Tai-Pieh, 142–143, 189. See

also Rinzai sect and Takujû schoolHuang-lung Hui-nan, 143, 250. See also

Rinzai sectHuang-lung school, 92, 143, 207, 266, 288.

See also Rinzai sectHuang-mei Hung-jen. See Hung-jenHuang-mei shan, 143, 375Huang-po Hsi-yün, 31, 52, 143, 144, 146,

206, 246, 252, 323, 383, 387. See also laybeliever and Rinzai sect

Huang-po-shan, 52, 143, 143–144. See alsolay believer and Rinzai sect

Hua-yen school, 15–16, 38, 46, 53, 89, 93, 95, 99,102, 112, 145, 182, 211, 259, 301, 358–359

Hua-yen Sutra. See Avatamsaka SutraHui-k’o, vii,13, 52, 69, 74, 80, 134, 145, 204, 242,

266, 281, 284, 345, 386. See also lay believerHui-neng, vii, 33, 37, 62, 68–69, 71–72, 84,

88, 90, 139, 144, 145–146, 160, 243, 254,256, 292, 319, 321, 323, 358, 386. Seealso lay believer

Hung-chih Cheng-chüeh, 146, 176, 224, 308,330, 371. See also Rinzai sect and Sôtô sect

Hung-chou school, 146, 194, 197Hung-jen, 52, 69, 75–76, 88–90, 119, 140,

143, 145, 146–147, 237, 243, 292, 319,335, 355, 359, 375. See also lay believer

hungry ghost, 4, 6, 86, 98, 106, 147–148, 161,165, 180, 219, 247, 259, 268, 271, 274,282, 285, 313, 318, 342, 348, 363, 373.See also six paths

Hupeh, China, 89, 143, 147, 359Hurvitz, Leon, 15, 39Hyakujô Ekai. See Pai-chang Huai-haiHyakujô Shingi. See Pai-chang Ch’ing-kueihyôshigi, 148, 232

Iicchantika, 37, 149, 156, 284ichidaiji innen, 57, 149Ichien. See Mûjû Dôgyôichi ensô. See ensôichiji kan, 217, 149–150, 249, 382–383ichijô. See one vehicleichimi zen, 112, 150ichinen fushô, 150iconography and images, 40, 43, 71–72,

80–81, 102, 109, 120, 124, 137–138, 165,226, 228, 251, 256, 261, 324, 331, 345,372–373, 376, 378

guardians, 12, 24, 97–98, 100, 233, 240–241laughing buddha, 205, 261

igan butsuji, 150, 199, 293ignorance, 2–3, 33, 54, 72, 108, 180, 250, 348,

361, 373Igyô school. See Kuei-yang schoolihai, 40, 95, 150–151, 221, 294, 336. See also

lay believerikebana. See kadôikko hanko, 151Ikkyû Sôjun, 115, 151–152, 203. See also lay

believer and Rinzai sectimpermanence, viii, 37, 94, 123, 152, 229,

277, 318, 326, 348, 350, 373incense, ix, 5, 40, 73, 99, 150, 152, 163, 167,

171, 189, 193, 201, 213, 227, 247, 299,305, 310, 355

indaramô. See Indra’s jewel netIndia, vi, 5, 13, 18–20, 27, 32, 37, 63, 66, 80,

86, 88, 139, 141, 145, 189, 194, 196, 204,214, 227, 234, 255, 262, 272, 282, 289,

406

298, 314, 324, 332, 367–368, 370, 373,376, 382, 386

Indra, 13, 97, 152–153, 227, 316, 331Indra’s jewel net, 99, 152, 153, 155inga, 43, 153. See also karma and Law

of CausationInga Monogatari, 153Ingen Ryûki. See Yin-yüan Lung-ch’iin’in ekishi, 107, 153–154, 157, 341inka, 18, 39, 60, 64, 69, 71, 74, 107, 133, 140,

144, 146, 154, 155–156, 173, 221, 230,281, 290, 298, 310, 313, 332, 341, 355

inkin, 154, 232ino, 49, 75, 154–155, 267, 299, 338, 353. See

also temple positionsinshô. See inkainterrelatedness, 153, 155. See also empti-

ness and Indra’s jewel netIn the Hope of Nibbana: The Ethics of

Theravada Buddhism (King), 180An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings,

History and Practices (Harvey), 54An Introduction to Zen Buddhism (Suzuki,

D. T.), 328Inzan Ien, 107, 155, 322. See also Rinzai sectInzan school, 155, 333. See also Rinzai sectIppen, 155–156, 162, 260. See also Tendai sectIsan Reiyû. See Kuei-shan Ling-yuIsao, Kumakura, 45I-shan I-ning, 133, 156, 158. See also Gozan

literature and Rinzai sectIshida, Hisatoyo, 72, 374Ishigami, Zenno, 7, 10, 182, 260, 262, 291,

325, 340, 365ishin denshin, 156, 161, 221–222issaikyô, 62, 156, 356Issan Ichinei. See I-shan I-ningissendai. See icchantikaisshi injô. See isshi inshôisshi inshô, 17, 154, 156–157, 216, 313, 341.

See also Sôtô sectIsshin, 157, 249Isshitô Zen. See “One-finger Zen”isshu, 157ittengo, 3, 157, 360

JJainism, 3, 66, 179, 264, 271–272jakugo, 3, 43, 158, 389jakumetsu, 158Jakushitsu Genkô, 76, 158–159Japanese Religions: A Survey by the Agency

for Cultural Affairs (Hori), 175jari. See ajarijataka tales, 24, 137, 159, 274ji. See terajigoku, 4, 77–78, 128, 159, 161, 229, 268. See

also six paths

jihatsu. See begging almsjihi, 55, 159jiin hattô, 159–160, 338jikai, 160, 268. See also Jikai Zen and lay believerJikai Zen, 160jikidô, 160, 161, 184jikijitsu, 161. See also jikidôjikishi ninshin, 161jikishi ninshin kenshô jôbutsu, 161jikishi tanden. See ishin denshinjikkai. See ten realmsjikkai (2). See ten heavy precepts and

ten preceptsjin. See dustjinjû, 162. See also lay believerJinne. See Ho-tse Shen-huiJinshi Eison, 162, 289. See also Tendai sectJinshû. See Shen-hsiujiri, 162Jiriki. See Self PowerJi sect, 155, 162, 175, 260jisha, 162–163, 305, 307. See also lay believerjishô, 163jishô butsu, 163jishô kai, 163Jishô Shôjô, 163jissatsu temples, 117, 163, 193, 214. See also

Gozan systemJizô, 29, 81, 138, 163–165, 198, 268, 352Jôchi-ji, 116, 165, 232, 330. See also Gozan

system and Rinzai sectjôdô, 59, 126, 135, 165, 175Jôdo (2). See Pure LandJôdô-e. See RôhatsuJôdo No Sanbukyô, 165–166Jôdo Shinshû. See True Pure Land sectJôdo-shû. See Pure Land sectJohnson, William L., 26, 35, 180jôjû, 74, 166Jômyô-ji, 116, 166. See also Gozan system,

Rinzai sect, and Shingon sectJôshû Jûshin. See Chao-Chou Ts’ung-shenjôza. See shusojûaku. See ten evil actsJu-ching, 72, 166, 275, 298, 330, 352. See also

Sôtô sectJûdai Deshi, 166–167, 340juen. See shinsansikiJufuku-ji, 80, 84, 116, 167, 330. See also

Gozan system and Rinzai sectjûgô, 167, 339jûgyûzu, 167, 251jûji, 1, 52, 168, 338, 343jûji (2). See ten stages of a bodhisattvajûjûkinkai. See ten heavy preceptsjukai, 168, 169jukaie, 168. See also lay believerjûrokujôkai, 30, 169, 277. See also Sôtô sectjûzen. See ten good acts

407

Kkada. See gâthâkadô, 151, 170kaichin, 170kaidan, 47, 170, 249kaidan seki, 170kaigen, 170–171. See also Obaku sectkaihan, 171. See also Rinzai sectkaiki, 171, 172kaimyô, 38, 135, 150, 171, 257, 306. See also

lay believer, Rinzai sect, and Sôtô sectkaisan, 95, 171–172, 218kaisandô. See founder’s hallKaisan Shidô Bu’nan Anju Zenji Anroku,

172, 355. See also Rinzai sectkaiyoku, 172. See also Sôtô sectkaji ichige, 172kako shichibutsu. See seven buddhas of

the pastKakua, 173. See also Rinzai sect, Tendai sect,

and Yang-ch’i schoolKakuan Shion, 167, 173, 251Kakushin, 103, 140, 173–174, 194, 230, 289,

375. See also Shingon sectkalpa, 174, 191, 250Kalupahana, Nagarjuna, 234Kamakura, Japan, 82–83, 133, 115–116, 156,

158, 162, 165, 167, 178, 187, 196, 204,234, 262, 289, 310, 328, 330, 359, 374

Kamakura period (1185–1333; Japan), 17–18,54, 59–61, 75, 85, 103, 108, 115–116, 129,133, 135, 137, 140, 158, 162, 166–167, 173,178, 185, 194, 199–200, 206, 229, 232, 234,239, 251, 260, 266, 272, 289, 303, 310, 312,323, 330, 337, 339, 345, 357–358, 381

Kamens, Edward, 175, 274kami, 72–73, 120, 136, 174, 191, 286kana hôgo, 131, 174, 249–250, 376Kanakamuni buddha, 172, 174–175, 286kanben, 175kanbutsu, 36, 123, 175. See also Hana Matsurikanchô, 175. See also Obaku sect, Rinzai

sect, and Sôtô sectKanjizai. See Kannonkanki issoku, 175–176kanna Zen, 176, 193, 224, 321, 330. See also

Rinzai sectKannon, 15, 29, 138, 175, 176, 178, 198–199,

256, 284, 307–308, 313. See also Kuan-yinKannonkyô, 15, 81, 176, 199. See also

Avalokiteshvara Sutra and Kuan-yinChing

kanshi, 176, 371kanshiketsu. See shiketsukanshô, 176–178, 231kansu, 49, 105, 178, 267, 338, 353, 358–359.

See also temple positionsKanzan. See Han-shan

Kanzan Egen, 82, 111, 172, 178, 184, 201, 233,251, 310, 353, 355. See also Rinzai sect

Kanzan-shi. See Han-shan ShihKanzeon. See KannonKanzeon Bosatsu Fumon-bon. See

Avalokiteshvara SutraKapilavastu, 178, 290, 314, 326, 365Kapleau, Philip, viii, 74, 274kare sansui, 179, 266, 269karma, viii, 26–27, 43, 53, 65, 77, 86, 94, 98, 109,

112, 120, 127–128, 153, 159, 179–180, 206,222, 241, 254, 259, 272, 317–318, 378

The Karma of Words: Buddhism and theLiterary Arts in Medieval Japan (LaFleur), 165

kashaku, 180kashaya. See kesakashin, 180, 199Kashô. See MahakashyapaKashyapa buddha, 172, 180, 286kasshiki, 180–181. See also lay believerkata, 181Katai Futô Roku. See Chia-t’ai P’u-Teng LuKataku Jinne. See Ho-tse Shen-huiKataku-shû. See Ho-tse schoolkatsu!, 31, 89, 172, 206–207, 181, 265, 296,

308. See also Rinzai sectkattô, 182Kattôshû. See Shûmon Kattôshûkattô Zen. See moji ZenKatyayana, 167, 182, 340. See also arhatkechimyaku, 182, 189. See also lay believer

and Sôtô sectKegonkyô. See Avatamsaka SutraKegon school, 15, 89, 94, 145, 182, 294keisaku, 184, 201, 203. See also Rinzai sect

and Sôtô sectKeisen Sôryû, 184–185, 283. See also Rinzai sectkeisu, 185, 191, 232, 304Keitoku Dentôroku. See Ching-te Ch’uan-

Teng LuKeizan Jôkin, 64, 185, 304, 321, 323, 381, 385.

See also lay believer and Shingon sectKeizan shingi, 185, 216, 304. See also Sôtô sectkekka fuza, 185, 208kekkaiji, 185–187, 264Kenchô-ji, 58, 60, 116, 133, 156, 178, 187,

204, 234, 330, 359, 374. See also Rinzaisect

Kenchô-ji Ha, 187, 266Kenchû Seikoku Zokutô Roku. See Chien-

chung Ching-Kuo Hsu-Teng Lukendô, 187Kennin-ji, 72, 80, 84, 116, 152, 158, 187, 188,

230, 270, 345. See also Shingon sectKennin-ji Ha, 188, 266kenshô, 37, 109–110, 113, 121, 138, 188, 190,

229, 235, 249, 281, 332. See also Rinzai sectKenshô jôbutsu, 188

408

Kent, Richard K., 12kesa, 9, 56, 104, 110, 180, 188, 196, 200, 262,

275, 294, 349kesa bukuro, 188. See also kesakesa kudoku, 188–189Ketsumyaku Ron. See Hsüeh-Mo LunKiangsi, China, 143–144Kidô Chigu. See Hsü-t’ang Chih-yüKidô Roku Daibetsu. See Hsü-T’ang Lu Tai-Piehkie, 95, 189, 235, 244, 277, 331–332, 350,

365, 366kie sambô, 189kigan, 189, 199, 293kikai, 190kikan, 190, 265, 278kikan (2), 190kikan kôan, 113, 190, 194. See also Rinzai sectkikutsuri, 65, 190–191kimô. See tortoise hairkimô tokaku. See tortoise hairkin, 185, 191King Ashoka. See AshokaKing, Winston L., 100, 180, 240, 328kinhin, 157, 191, 320. See also Sôtô sectKinkaku-ji. See Golden Pavillionkitchen-office. See ku’inkitô, 191. See also lay believerkô. See kalpakôan, viii–ix, 3, 17–18, 22, 24–25, 43–44, 46–47,

50, 53, 57, 59, 63, 73–74, 87, 89–91, 93, 95,100, 107, 109–110, 113, 127, 138, 142, 146,155, 158, 174, 188, 190, 191–193, 194,199–200, 207, 217, 220, 224–225, 227,229–230, 235, 237, 239, 249, 256, 265, 270,275, 277–278, 280–281–283, 285, 296, 302,304, 308, 311, 316, 321, 323, 327, 330,344–345, 347–348, 358–359, 369, 372, 375,378, 381, 383, 387, 389. See also Rinzai sect

kôan collections, 121, 191, 193, 249, 344kôan-gazing Zen. See kanna ZenKôbô Daishi. See Kûkaikôden, 193Kodera, Takashi James, 298Kôgaku-ji, 193. See also Rinzai sectKôgaku-ji Ha, 193, 266Kôgaku Sôen. See Shaku SôenKô Haku. See Hou PoKôhô. See Fa-haiKohô Kakumyô, 18, 194. See also Rinzai sectkoji, 194, 310. See also lay believerkôjô, 194, 265, 278Kôjû-shû. See Hung-chou schoolKôke Zonshô. See Hsing-hua Ts’ung-chiang Kô Koku. See Hou Heikôkon zazen, 194, 296. See also shiji zazenKokusan, 24, 194kokushi, 80, 119, 194–195, 232, 304, 310, 380Kokutai-ji, 195Kokutai-ji Ha, 195

komusô, 103, 195. See also Fuke sectKongô Hannya Haramitsu Kyô. See

Diamond SutraKongôjô. See esoteric buddhismKongôkai Mandara. See Diamond-Realm

MandalaKongôkyô. See Diamond Sutrakonkô, 195–196, 367Konkômyôkyô, 49, 196konkô no cho, 196Konshô, 196Korea, 22, 49, 124, 217, 260Koromo, 188, 196. See also kesaKôsen Sôon, 196, 290, 388. See also Rinzai sectkoshin mida, 6, 196–197, 237Kôshô-ji, 17, 73, 197, 302. See also Sôtô sectKoshushaku, 197Kôshû-shû. See Hung-chou schoolkotsu, 197, 245kotsu jiki, 159, 197. See also begging alms

and lay believerkôyôboku no Zen. See boxwood ZenKôzen Gokokuron, 80, 197Kraft, Kenneth, 74, 113, 138, 190, 235, 268Krakucchanda buddha, 172, 197–198, 286kshatriya, 198, 290Kshitigarbha. See Jizôkû. See emptinessku. See sufferingKuan-li-ssu, 16, 116, 198Kuan-yin, 15, 46, 109, 176, 198–199. See

also KannonKuan-yin Ching, 15, 176, 199. See also

Avalokiteshvara Sutra, Kannonkyô, and lay believer

kubutsuji, 4, 130, 150, 180, 189, 199, 245,271, 293, 331, 339, 343

Kuei-fen Tsung-mi: The Convergence of Ch’anand the Teachings (Broughton), 94

Kuei-shan Ling-yu, 141, 156, 172, 199, 379Kuei-yang school, 92, 141, 150, 199, 286, 379kufû, 199kuge, 199–200, 272ku’in, 105, 190, 200, 201, 294, 338kujôe, 56, 188, 200, 275, 320, 349Kûkai, 60, 129, 193, 200, 256, 298Kumarajiva, 15, 46, 126, 176, 199, 200, 208,

278, 280, 284, 312, 369, 382Kumarajû. See Kumarajivakung-an. See kôankunshin goi. See five rankskuri, 200, 201, 364kuyô, 201, 220. See also four offeringsKu Zôshi, 201, 355, 389. See also Zenrin Kushûkyô. See sutrasKyôgen Chikan. See Hsiang-yen Chih-hsienKyôsaku. See keisakuKyoto, Japan, 60–61, 73, 76, 79, 81, 84–85,

111–112, 115–116, 129, 133, 136, 152,

409

410

158, 162, 187–188, 191, 196–197, 214,230, 233–234, 236, 238, 246, 251, 266,283, 298–299, 302, 304–305, 312, 317,332, 339 343, 352, 355

Kyôun-shû, 203Kyôzan Ejaku. See Yang-shan Hui-chikyûdô, 10, 120, 203, 332Kyûshû, Japan, 58, 80, 344

LLa Fleur, William R., 165Lan-ch’i Tao-lung, 58, 133, 187, 204, 234, 262.

See also Rinzai sect and Yang-ch’i schoolLankavatara Sutra, 55, 149, 204, 269, 284Latter Age of the Dharma, 204–205, 216,

277, 309, 346. See also three ages of the Dharma

Laughing buddha, 205, 261Law of Causation, 153, 206, 351lay believer, vi, ix, 4, 9–10, 13–15, 19–20, 27, 30,

34, 38, 40, 45, 47, 50, 52–53, 63, 66, 69, 75,78, 83, 90, 93, 98, 103–104, 109, 111, 120,124, 126–127, 130, 132, 140, 143–147,151–152, 160, 162–163, 168, 171, 181–182,185, 191, 194, 197, 199, 201, 206, 216,221–222, 237–238, 247, 249, 256–257, 259,262, 264, 274, 276, 284, 286, 290–291, 294,299, 301, 304, 306, 309, 316, 325–326, 328,332, 339, 341, 343, 347, 351, 365–370, 381,384–385, 387

Layman P’ang, 135, 206, 252. See alsolay believer

The Legend of King Ashoka: A Study andTranslation of the Asokavadana(Strong), 13, 43

Leighton, Taigen Daniel, 80, 344Liang dynasty (c. 500; China), 27Lin-chi I-hsüan, 31, 67, 89, 95, 99, 141,

143–144, 146, 181, 206–207, 209, 235,239, 259, 265, 277, 281, 290, 296, 300,308, 320–321, 323, 348, 356, 378, 387.See also Rinzai sect

Lin-chi Lu. See Sayings of Lin-chiLin-chi school, vii, 89, 92, 143, 199, 207,

265–266, 288, 323, 358, 383. See alsoHuang-lung school and Yang-ch’i school

lineage, vii, 17–18, 26, 37, 39, 46, 50, 52, 54,57–60, 63–64, 69, 71, 74, 76, 80, 84, 88–89,92–93, 107, 115–117, 131, 139–140,142–143, 146, 150–151, 153–154, 157,171–174, 178, 194, 197, 199, 204, 207, 216,219, 221, 234–235, 242–243, 246, 251–252,254, 265, 288, 301, 304, 306, 308–309, 313,319, 322–323, 327–328, 335, 337, 341, 344,351, 354–356, 358–359, 363–364, 374–375,378, 380, 382, 386–387

lineage chart, 64, 69, 107, 112, 182, 207, 326

Ling, Trevor Oswald, 217Ling-yin-ssu, 116, 207, 254lion’s roar, 208, 300, 309Liquid Life: Abortion and Buddhism in Japan

(La Fleur), 165literature, ix, 2, 6, 24, 51, 89, 90–91, 111, 114,

116, 131, 140–141, 145, 153, 158–159,192–194, 226, 232, 238, 263, 286, 292, 302,308, 327, 356, 371, 374, 382, 387–388, 390

lotus position, viii, 134, 185, 208, 219–220,384–385, 389

Lotus Sutra, 12, 15, 36, 39, 48–49, 87,134–135, 149, 176, 178, 199–200,208–209, 211, 214, 226, 233, 235, 239,249, 251, 307, 339, 351, 370. See alsoTendai sect and T’ien-t’ai school

The Lotus Sutra in Japanese Culture (Tanabeand Tanabe), 227

The Lotus Sutra (Watson), 15, 39“lump of red flesh”, 209, 290, 356

MMâdhyamaka, 15, 46, 53, 82, 200, 210, 234,

264, 278, 280, 284, 348Mâdhyamika. See MâdhyamakaMahakashyapa, 7, 56, 71, 167, 180, 210, 213,

226, 238, 254, 270, 281, 286, 301, 307,340, 370

Mahaprajna Paramita, 57, 210, 213Mahavairochana Buddha, 24, 59, 72, 100,

102, 114, 136–137, 210–211, 367, 373Mahayana Buddhism, vi–vii, 3, 5, 7, 12, 14–16,

20, 22, 26–27, 29–30, 32, 34, 36–38, 41,54–55, 58, 66, 69, 72, 78, 82, 84, 86–87, 92,94, 98, 100, 105, 108, 118, 125, 127, 130,132, 137, 149–150, 153, 159–160, 162–163,168–170, 197, 200, 204, 206, 208, 210, 211,212, 222, 226, 229, 234, 237, 241–242, 249,251, 255, 258, 260, 272, 276–277, 280, 283,305, 319, 335, 341, 345, 350, 356, 358–359,362–363, 365–366, 368–370, 376, 380, 382.See also three bodies of the Buddha

Mahâyâna Buddhism: The DoctrinalFoundations (Williams), 26

main temple, 34, 137, 160, 211–212, 217Maitreya, 34, 36, 82, 165, 205, 212–213, 222,

261, 355, 360Maitreya, the Future Buddha (Sponberg and

Hardacre), 213Major Works (Hakeda), 200Maka Hannya Haramitsu. See Mahaprajna

ParamitaMakakashô. See MahakashyapaMakuragyô, 213, 256Mampuku-ji, 2, 100, 133, 144, 171, 214, 227,

246, 261, 339, 380manbô. See ten thousand dharmas

mandala, 71, 81, 86, 100, 214, 298, 373. Seealso Diamond-Realm Mandala,Shingon sect, Tendai sect, and Womb-Realm Mandala

mani, 20, 114, 165, 214, 268Manju-ji, 116, 214, 234, 310. See also

Rinzai sectManjusri. See MonjuA Man of Zen: The Recorded Sayings of

Layman P’ang (Sasaki, Yoshitaka, andFraser), 206

mantra, 45, 66, 75, 86, 100, 214–215, 233,240, 298

manual labor, 9, 83, 105, 215–216, 224, 252, 262,272, 285, 301, 321. See also lay believer

Manual of Zen Buddhism (Suzuki, D. T.),126, 141

Manzan Dôhaku, 17, 109, 216, 221, 304, 313Mappô. See Latter Age of the DharmaMara, 163, 216–217, 316, 373The Marathon Monks of Mount Hiei

(Stevens), 30, 296married clergy, 217, 224. See also monastic

celibacyMasangin, 217, 348Masen, 217Master Dôgen’s Shôbôgenzo (Nishijima and

Cross), 302Master Yunmen: From the Record of the

Chan Master “Gate of the Clouds”(App), 150, 383

matsuji, 137, 211, 217–218Matsunaga, Alicia, 6, 170, 306, 346Matsunaga, Daigan, 6, 170, 306, 346Matsunaga, Reihô, 302, 385Matsuo Bashô, 120, 218Ma-tsu Ssu-chia lu. See Ssu-chia Yu LuMa-tsu Tao-i, 18, 46, 52, 142, 146, 181, 206,

217, 218–219, 239, 252, 308, 323, 327,387. See also Rinzai sect

Maudgalyâyana, 167, 219, 223, 291, 340, 363McRae, John R., 52, 128, 244, 293, 335Medicine buddha. See Yakushi butsuMedieval period (1185–1600; Japan), 34, 103,

107, 115, 128, 131, 180, 182, 187, 200,203, 211, 270, 277, 281, 291, 304, 320,345, 358, 371

meditation, vi–ix,1, 6–8, 10, 13, 18, 20, 26, 29,44–48, 52–54, 57, 59, 63, 66, 68, 71, 73–75,77, 80, 82–83, 94, 98–99, 102–103, 108,110, 114, 119, 122, 124–125, 128, 131–134,137–138, 141, 144–146, 152–154, 157, 161,166, 168, 171, 176, 180, 184–185, 188,190–193, 197, 199, 201, 203, 207–208,214–215, 217–218, 219–220, 221–224,226–227, 236–237, 239–240, 244, 250, 255,258–260, 262, 265, 267–268, 270–272, 274,276, 280, 282–285, 289, 291, 296, 298,301–302, 306, 312, 314, 316, 319–320,

323–325, 327–328, 330, 332, 334, 338–339,342, 347, 353, 358–359, 363, 365, 372, 376,379, 381–382, 384–385, 388–389. See alsolotus position and Rinzai sect

meditation hall, 10, 43, 73–74, 123, 154, 160,165, 184, 204, 220, 226, 265, 280, 283,292, 294, 299, 307, 313, 320, 331,333–336, 387–388

Meiji period (1868–1912; Japan), 62, 103,196, 217, 248, 272, 337, 368

memorial service, 38, 40, 51, 53, 56, 72, 74,95, 103, 132, 135, 150, 152, 185, 193,201, 220–221, 228, 238, 257, 270, 274,284, 306, 312, 331, 335, 337, 371. Seealso lay believer

memorial tablet. See ihaimendicancy, 19, 22, 195, 197, 276–277, 314menju kuketsu. See menju shihômenju shihô, 216, 221menpeki. See hekikanMenzan Zuihô, 221–222, 302merit, 6, 19, 27, 45, 53, 55, 57, 62, 65, 75, 90,

95, 112, 119, 133, 149, 162, 171, 180,188, 197, 212, 219, 222, 247, 251, 259,277, 283–284, 319, 324, 335, 339, 363,365, 367. See also lay believer

metsujinjô, 63, 222, 296middle path, 222, 372Mikkyô. See esoteric buddhismmilitary forces, 17, 77, 81, 127, 159, 269, 272,

303–304, 320–321, 332, 338, 371, 380mind and body drop-off. See shinjin dat-

surakumind ground, 222, 297mind-to-mind transmission. See ishin denshinMing dynasty (1368–1644; China), 44, 48, 53,

75, 124, 144, 227, 237–238, 246, 322,335, 365, 380, 382

Miroku. See MaitreyaMiura, Isshû, 17, 22, 73, 110, 113, 138, 158,

190, 235, 385, 389Modern period (1868–present; Japan), 34, 175,

187, 194, 211, 217, 272, 329, 368, 388moji Zen, 182, 223mokugyo, 131, 231, 223Mokuren. See Maudgalyâyanamokushô Zen, 63, 146, 176, 224, 316, 321, 330monasteries, vi–vii, ix, 1–2monastic celibacy, 217, 224. See also

married clergymonastic code, 5, 8, 19–20, 22, 33, 38, 44, 46,

49, 60, 63–64, 66, 83, 95–96, 105, 114,116, 125, 130, 132, 148, 152, 160–161,168, 170, 172, 185, 216–217, 224, 226,244, 246, 250, 252, 254, 257, 262,264–266, 272, 283, 288, 291, 297, 304,310, 313, 316, 320, 324, 338, 342,355–356, 365–367, 369, 371, 376, 380,387, 389

411

monastic training, 43, 45, 103, 224, 225, 338.See also threefold training

mondô, 1, 3, 57, 126, 131, 133, 225, 226Mongol Invasion (1281), 83, 134, 308Monju, 102, 211, 214, 225–226, 255, 307,

320, 369monk, vi, ix, 1, 4, 6–9, 12, 16–20, 22, 24–27,

29–30, 32–34, 38, 42–54, 56–67, 71–75,78, 80–81, 83–84, 86, 88–90, 93–96,99–100, 102–112, 115, 118–119,124–135, 138–146, 148–152–153,155–162, 165–168, 170–174, 178,180–182, 184–185, 188–190, 194–197,199–201, 204–206, 213, 215–221,223–225, 226, 227, 229–230, 232–239,241–242, 244–252, 255–271, 274–278,280–286, 288–299, 301–302, 305–313,316, 319–324, 326–328, 330–345,347–350, 352–359, 363–367, 369–371,373–376, 380–381, 383–385, 387–390

Monkey (Wu), 142monks’ hall. See sôdômonna, 226Moon in a Dewdrop (Tanashi), 302moral code. See preceptsMorrell, Robert E., 292mountains, 16, 24–25, 40, 49–50, 61, 76, 80, 84,

89, 92, 115–116, 120, 128–129, 133, 136,141, 143–144, 146, 163, 171, 173–174,178–179, 185, 187, 193–194, 207, 221,226–227, 235, 239, 254–255, 264, 270,308–309, 319, 327, 331, 340, 359, 378, 386

Mount Gridhrakuta, 226–227, 270, 370Mount Hiei, 260, 264, 270–271, 281, 299, 339,

357, 380–381Mount Sumeru, 24, 40, 97, 153, 227, 311, 331moxa, 125, 227mu, 227, 229–230, 372, 374Mu-an Hsing-t’ao, 171, 227–228, 344, 380mudra, 86, 107, 134, 228, 298, 376, 385Mudra: A Study of the Symbolic Gestures in

Japanese Buddhist Sculpture(Saunders), 107, 378

muen botoke. See wandering spiritsMuga. See AnatmanMugaku Sogen. See Wu-hsüeh Tsu-yüanMuhon Kakushin. See KakushinMujaku Dôchû, 229, 294. See also Rinzai sectmujô, 152, 229, 295Mujû Dôgyô, 149, 229, 292. See also Rinzai sectMujun Shiban. See Wu-chun Shih-fanmuken jigoku. See Avici hellMu kôan, 46, 227, 229, 249, 372. See also

Rinzai sectMumon Ekai. See Wu-men Hui-k’aiMumon Gensen, 135, 230. See also Rinzai sectMumonkan, 7, 45–46, 53, 71, 107, 113, 140,

142, 158, 172, 174, 192–193, 210, 217,227, 229, 230, 238, 249, 277, 283, 286,

297, 301, 304, 308, 312, 327, 337, 372,375, 378. See also Rinzai sect

Munen. See No-thoughtmuni, 230muni (2), 230–231, 243Muryôju. See Amida buddhaMuryôkô. See Amida buddhaMushin. See No-thoughtmusic, 20, 32, 74, 289musical instruments, 185, 191, 223, 232,

231–232, 304–305bells, 65, 125, 154, 161, 176, 231–232,

247–248, 263–265, 299, 306, 311clappers, 122–123, 148, 323, 314drums, 135, 223, 231, 271flutes, 103, 195, 289gongs, 74, 122–123, 131, 189, 223, 231–232,

303, 311, 364lutes, 20

musô kai. See Musô shinji kaiMusô shinji kai, 232Musô Soseki, 81, 112, 115, 156, 232, 265, 278,

292, 305, 317, 343. See also Gozan liter-ature, Rinzai sect, and Shingon sect

musô zange. See formless repentanceMyôan Eisai. See EisaiMyôhô Renge Kyô. See Lotus Sutramyôô, 100, 233, 355Myôshin-ji, 18, 57, 74, 82, 111, 118, 121, 123,

152, 155, 178, 184, 201, 229, 233, 236,251, 269, 283, 332, 353, 355, 364

Myôshin-ji Ha, 233, 266Myôzen. See Ryônen Myôzen

Nnaga, 214, 234Nagarjuna, 48, 76, 82, 210, 234, 278, 280,

324, 351, 361Nagasaki, Japan, 335, 380naikan, 234Nampô Jômyô, 59, 142, 178, 189, 234–235,

251, 310, 327. See also Rinzai sect andYang-ch’i school

namu, 235“Namu amida butsu,” 235, 237, 260, 357“Namu myôhô rengekyô,” 235, 239Nan’in Engyô. See Nan-yüan Hui-yungNan-shan, 50, 235Nantô kôan, 113, 193, 235. See also Rinzai sectNan-yüan Hui-yung, 89, 141, 235Nanzen-ji, 116, 156, 232, 236, 283. See also

Shingon sectNanzen-ji Ha, 236, 266Nara, Japan, 47, 59, 74, 173, 281, 308, 352Nara period (710–794; Japan), 120, 139, 182,

194, 280Nearman, Rev. Hubert, O.B.C., 64

412

nehan. See nirvananehandô. See nirvana hallNehan-e. See Nirvana FestivalNehankyô. See Nirvana Sutranembutsu, 45, 53, 68, 75, 88, 108, 125, 129,

137, 156, 162, 235, 237, 238–239, 260,278, 284, 328, 365. See also dual prac-tice, lay believer, and Nembutsu Kôan

Nembutsu kôan, 75, 237–238, 278Nembutsu kyôgen, 238Nempu, 196, 238nen, 238“Nenge mishô,” 238“Nenge shunmoku.” See “Nenge mishô”nenki, 150, 238. See also lay believernettetsugan, 238–239“Nichimen butsu, Gatsumen butsu.” See

“Sunface buddha, Moonface buddha”Nichiren, 62, 160, 175, 208, 235, 239, 249. See

also Tendai sectNichiren sect, 239. See also Tendai sectnien-fo. See nembutsunijô. See two vehiclesnijûgoten, 239ninyû, 119, 239, 265Ninyû Shigyôron. See Shôshitsu RokumonNiô, 240, 278Niô Zen, 240, 328nirmanakaya, 35, 138, 240, 248, 280, 347, 355.

See also three bodies of the Buddhanirvana, viii, 7, 10, 14, 26–27, 33, 36, 46–47,

64, 71, 84, 96, 106, 108, 129, 139, 149,158, 182, 208, 210, 226, 237, 240–241,243–244, 254, 256, 258, 272, 274, 290,299, 316, 324, 326, 357, 365

Nirvana Festival, 237, 241, 274. See alsoBuddha Day

nirvana hall, 83, 237, 241Nirvana Sutra, 37, 57, 149, 188, 237, 241, 242Nishijima, Gudo Waju, 302Nitai. See Twofold Truthnitten sôjo, 242Niu-t’ou school. See Oxhead schoolniwa zume, 9, 242, 334Nô drama, 242No-mind. See No-thoughtnon-duality, 42, 86, 230, 243Northern school, 46, 52, 76, 88, 117,

139–140, 146, 243–244, 259, 292, 319,323, 326

The Northern School and the Formation ofEarly Ch’an Buddhism (McRae), 52,128, 244, 293, 335

No-Self. See Anatmanno-thought, 230–231, 243, 244, 318novice, ix, 1, 3, 4, 8–10, 14, 45, 64, 78, 93, 95,

119, 160–161, 167, 180, 200, 226, 244,245, 249–250, 257–258, 262, 291, 316,338, 340, 342, 365–366, 370

nun, vi, ix, 1, 4–5, 7–8, 12, 17, 19–20, 22, 24, 27,29–30, 34, 38, 42–43, 45, 50, 56–57, 62, 64,66, 74–75, 78, 83, 90, 93–96, 99, 103–104,106, 110, 119, 124–126, 131, 135–136, 138,140, 150, 152, 160, 165–166, 168, 170–172,180–181, 188–190, 194, 197, 199–201, 206,215, 217, 219–221, 224–225, 237–238,241–242, 244–245, 247, 249–250, 252,257–258, 262–263, 266–267, 271,274–275, 277, 280–282, 284, 286, 288, 291,293–295, 297, 306, 309–310, 313, 316,319–320, 324, 327, 331–338, 342, 347,349–350, 353, 356, 365–367, 370–371, 376,379, 381, 384, 387–390

nyoi. See kotsuNyorai. See Tathagatanyoraizô. See Tathagata Garbhanyûgan, 199, 245, 293nyûin. See shinsanshikinyusshitsu, 245, 303

OObaku-ban, 246, 344Obaku Kiun. See Huang-po Hsi-yünObaku sect, vii, 2, 22, 32, 73–75, 100, 104, 109,

112, 123, 132–133, 135, 137, 144, 153,171, 175, 214–216, 220, 223, 227, 237,246, 261, 265, 278, 294, 304, 320,322–323, 339, 342, 344, 352, 378, 380, 387

Obaku Shingi, 72, 123, 216, 246, 304, 380Obon, ix, 40, 90, 106, 246–247, 282, 363, 366offerings, ix, 19, 40, 62, 73, 99, 106, 112, 129,

150, 193, 201, 247, 282, 294, 325. Seealso four offerings and lay believer

ogane, 65, 125, 230, 247–248, 306, 311Ogino Dokuon, 248oji goi. See five ranksojin. See nirmanakayaojô, 237, 248. See also rebirthOjôyôshû, 108, 120, 248Okamura, Shohaku, 80, 344Old-woman Zen, 248, 266. See also

Rôba ZenOne-finger Zen, 52, 119, 157, 248–249One hand kôan, 249, 282, 376. See also

Rinzai sect“One mind,” 107, 156–157, 249. See also

Mahayana Buddhismone vehicle, 150, 249, 309, 351one-word barrier. See ichiji kanOnin War (1466–1477), 112, 233, 236, 283,

305, 317Ooms, Herman, 328Orategama, 121, 249, 390ordination, 9–10, 20, 22, 29, 47, 64, 71, 95, 103,

126, 133, 150, 161, 168–171, 180, 182, 189,226–227, 244–245, 249, 250, 257, 264,

413

270, 277, 282, 291, 299, 306, 310, 337, 342,350, 354, 371. See also lay believer

ordination platform. See kaidanoriginal enlightenment, 37, 136–137, 146,

163, 249Original Face, 137, 141, 249–250Original Mind, 137, 250Original Teachings of Ch’an Buddhism:

Selected from the Transmission of theLamp (Chung-Yuan), 93

Oryô Enan. See Huang-lung Hui-nanOryô school, 143, 250. See also Rinzai sectOsaka, Japan, 17, 152, 246, 308, 310, 344oshiku, 250, 297oshô, 250. See also Shingon sect, Sôtô sect,

and Tendai sectOther Power, 251, 283, 335Otôkan school, 251, 310. See also Rinzai sectoutflows. See defilementsox cart, 251Oxhead school, 48, 50, 88, 117, 132, 140, 142,

242, 251oxherding pictures, 167, 251

Ppagoda, 24, 252, 263–264, 325, 337, 352Pai-chang Ch’ing-kuei, 148, 252, 297Pai-chang Huai-hai, 44, 141, 143–144, 146,

148, 172, 199, 216, 219, 224, 252, 257,297, 323, 387

painting, ixPali Canon. See TripitakaP’ang Yun. See Layman P’angPao-lin Chuan, 50, 138, 252Papiyas, 120, 252parajika, 5, 96, 125, 252–254, 370. See also

Theravada Buddhismparinirvana, 12, 126, 237, 241–242, 254, 290parishioner system. See danka seidopaths

Buddhist, 30, 38, 39, 55, 66, 75, 84, 98, 108,131, 160, 255, 304, 346–347, 350–351,361, 387

easy, 76, 324Eightfold, 10, 26, 36, 38, 41, 77–78, 84, 98,

125, 272, 309, 316, 326, 347, 351, 361, 372evil, 4, 14, 86, 180, 274, 318middle, 222, 372six, 65, 86, 148, 159, 165, 267–268, 285,

318, 342, 367steep, 76, 302, 324

patriarch, vii, 1, 7, 13, 16, 20, 26, 33, 37, 39,48, 50, 52, 59–60, 63–64, 67, 69, 71, 74,80, 84, 88–89, 92, 100, 108, 112, 126,141–143, 145, 167–168, 182, 189,193–194, 200, 207, 210, 213, 219, 234,238, 244, 251, 254, 256, 259–260,

265–266, 268, 281–282, 284, 286, 296,301, 319, 322–323, 327, 335, 339–340,343–345, 351, 355, 358–359, 371, 375,385–387. See also Sôtô sect

patriarch’s hall. See soshidôPaul, Diane Y., 24Pei-shan, 207, 254Pei-yung Ch’ing-kuei, 254, 389Perfection of Wisdom Sutra, 57, 72, 255, 258,

339. See also Mahayana BuddhismThe Philosophy of the Middle Way

(Kalupahana), 234pien-wen, 255pilgrimage, 8, 10, 18, 30, 46, 121, 128–129,

141–142, 155, 180, 188, 193, 198, 207,232, 255–256, 281, 290, 296, 310, 319,332, 371, 383. See also lay believer

Pillow Sutra. See MakuragyôPindola, 24, 256, 307, 376Pine, Red, 142, 306Pi-yen Lu. See HekiganrokuPlatform Sutra, 33, 62, 69, 88, 97, 145, 147,

160, 230, 232, 242, 256–257, 268, 292,295, 318, 326, 328, 350, 360, 387

The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch(Yampolsky), 69, 189, 244, 257, 351

Po-chang Huai-hai. See Pai-chang Huai-haipoetry, vi, 14, 110, 115, 124, 141, 146, 151,

176, 192–193, 201, 203, 206, 218, 232,270, 371, 382, 389

posthumous name, 104, 171, 257, 332postulant, 180, 242, 257, 334, 365Prajapati, 22, 120, 257, 314, 316, 326. See

also lay believerprajna, 15, 47, 72, 78, 124, 146, 225, 257–258,

268, 276, 298, 316, 319, 347. See alsoPerfection of the Wisdom Sutra

prajna samadhi, 124, 258. See alsoPerfection of the Wisdom Sutra

pratyeka buddha, 42, 55, 73, 82, 92, 109, 161,239, 258, 277, 342, 351, 362. See alsothree vehicles

precepts, 3, 14, 22, 29, 32–33, 43, 47, 59, 64,86, 93–95, 111, 137, 160–161, 163,167–171, 179, 206, 222, 224, 226, 245,249–250, 257, 258–259, 262, 268, 277,282, 292, 302, 306, 310, 316, 319, 324,340–342, 345, 347, 365–367, 370. Seealso lay believer

preta. See gaki and hungry ghostA Primer of Sôtô Zen: A Translation of

Dôgen’s Shôbôgenzô Zuimonki(Matsunaga R.), 302

Prince Shôtoku. See Shôtoku Taishi“The Private Encounter with the Master,”

Zen, Tradition and Transition(Kapleau), 74

P’u-chi, 102, 259P’u-hua, 103, 259

414

Pure Land, 6, 16, 30, 34, 37–38, 44–45, 53–54,75, 88, 108, 124, 127, 129, 135, 137, 155,162, 165, 176, 196, 213, 235, 238–239,246, 248, 251, 259, 271, 284, 319, 324,332, 339, 360, 372, 376, 382

Pure Land of the Mind Only, 237, 259–260, 382Pure Land school, 30, 68, 76, 211, 237, 260, 283Pure Land sect, 136, 166, 248, 260Pure Land Sutra, 6–7, 165, 211, 234, 260,

357, 372Purna, 167, 260, 340purple robe, 260–261, 295, 332Pu-tai, 139, 205, 261, 288. See also Obaku sectP’u-t’i-ta-mo. See BodhidharmaPye, Michael, 87

RRagora. See RahulaRahula, 167, 262, 314, 340, 379rainy season retreat, 8, 36, 219, 247, 262,

277, 363rakusu, 111, 188, 262. See also lay believerRankei Dôryû. See Lan-ch’i Tao-lungrantô, 263Reader, Ian, 104rebirth, viii, 6–7, 12, 26–27, 45, 53, 75, 86, 91,

108, 110, 127–128, 139, 159, 171, 180, 212,219, 222, 237, 241, 248, 259, 260, 263,265, 272, 309, 318–319, 357, 360, 363

The Record of Lin-chi (Sasaki), 67, 281, 320recorded sayings, 50, 52, 54, 67, 114, 121,

127, 178, 192, 201, 206–207, 218, 263,265, 281, 302, 359, 382–383, 387, 389

rei. See shôkeireincarnation, viii, 263, 264Reischauer, Edwin O., 84reitaku, 264, 305. See also shôkeiRelative Truth, 16, 264, 348, 363relics, 114, 252, 255, 264, 291, 316, 324, 352renga, 264restricted area, 185, 264Reynolds, Frank E., 35rice, 40, 197, 271, 310–311, 313, 332Richi, 194, 264–265, 278, 363rin. See shôkeirin’i monjin, 265, 331rinka, 116, 135, 265, 322rinne. See samsararinsen kakun, 265rinyû, 119, 239, 265. See also two entrancesRinzai Gigen. See Lin-chi I-hsuanRinzai-roku. See Sayings of Lin-chiRinzai sect, vii, 18–19, 22, 41, 44, 47, 54, 56–63,

72–76, 80, 83–84, 89–90, 93, 96, 99–100,103–104, 107, 110–113, 116–119, 121,123–125, 127–128, 132, 135, 137–138,140–144, 146, 152, 155–156, 158, 161,

165–167, 171–173, 175–176, 178, 181,184–185, 187–188, 190, 193–196, 204, 207,214, 219–220, 229–230, 232–233,235–236, 246, 248–251, 261–262,265–266, 268–270, 274, 278, 280–281,283, 285, 288–290, 292, 294, 300, 304–305,308–312, 317, 320, 323, 327–328, 330,332–333, 335, 339, 343, 345, 347–348,351–353, 355, 359, 364, 374–375, 378,380–381, 385, 387–390. See also Huang-lung school and Yang-ch’i school

Rinza-shû. See Lin-chi school and Rinzai sectritsu, 47, 106, 134, 170, 250, 266, 280, 294,

297, 321, 369. See also TheravadaBuddhism

ro, 63, 266Rôba Zen, 248, 266robe of transmission, 69, 210, 266Robinson, Richard H., 26, 35, 180rock garden. See kare sansuiRôhatsu, 111, 165, 267, 274Rôhatsu sesshin, 190, 267rokkon. See six sense organsroku chiji. See tôhanroku chôsu. See seihanrokudo. See six perfectionsrokudô. See six pathsrokujin. See six dustsroku jizô, 165, 268. See also samsararokumon. See six sense organsrokumotsu, 268, 384Rokuso Dankyô. See Platform Sutraron, 189, 268, 280, 292, 306Ronen. See Year of the Donkeyropparamitsu. See six perfectionsroshi, 268Ryôan-ji, 185, 269. See also Rinzai sectRyôgakyô. See Lankavatara Sutraryôgen, 269Ryôgon-gyô. See Shuramgama SutraRyôgon-ju. See Shuramgama dharaniRyôkan, 270. See also Sôtô sectryôkan (2), 270, 277, 281, 304Ryônen Myôzen, 72, 270, 331. See also

Rinzai sect and Tendai sectRyôzen. See Mount GridhrakutaRyûtaku Kaiso Jinki Dokumyô Zenji Nempu,

270, 355

Ssaba, 106, 271, 313sabi, 271, 371sagan butsuji, 199, 271, 293. See also

kubkutsujisai, 271Saichô, 29, 60, 64, 84, 129, 170, 251, 271, 296,

339, 352. See also T’ien-t’ai school

415

Saichô: The Establishment of the JapaneseTendai School (Groner), 30

saku, 135, 231, 272samadhi, 78, 124, 222, 225, 271–272, 276,

312, 316, 347, 349, 384, 388Samantabhadra. See Fugensambhogakaya, 132, 272, 280, 347. See also

Mahayana Buddhism and three bodiesof the Buddha

sambô. See three treasuresSambôe. See SanbôeSambô Kyôdan. See Sanbô Kyôdansammai. See samadhisamsara, 12, 14, 26–27, 39, 65, 86, 149, 156,

165, 180, 243, 263–265, 268, 272, 285,289, 309, 318, 342, 365, 372

samu. See manual laborsamurai, 17–18, 39, 57–58, 74, 103, 116, 133,

185, 195–196, 272–274, 328, 332san’akudô. See evil pathsSanbô. See three treasuresSanbôe, 274Sanbô Kyôdan, vii–viii, 274. See also lay believerSanbukki, 237, 274sanbutsuji, 4, 274–275, 339, 343Sanbyakusoku, 71, 210, 217, 227, 275. See

also Sôtô sectSandai Sôron, 275, 345Sand and Pebbles (Morrell), 292sandoku. See three poisonssan’e. See kesasan’e ippatsu. See three robes, one bowlsangai. See three realmsSangai yui isshin. See “Consciousness Only”sangaku. See threefold trainingsange, 276sangedatsumon. See Three gates to

emancipationSangemon, 276sangha, 13, 19, 22, 37, 64–65, 91, 95–96, 99,

104, 110, 189, 201, 210, 224, 235, 247,252, 260, 262, 274, 276–277, 291, 309,320, 350, 365–366, 370

Sanji. See Three Ages of the Dharmasanjô. See three vehiclessanjujôkai, 277. See also Sôtô sectsankan, 270, 277, 304, 345sankikai, 30, 169, 277Sanku. See three phrasesSanku (2). See three sufferingsSankyô itchi, 278, 350Sankyû Nembutsu, 278San-lun school, 46, 200, 210, 278, 280, 283, 358sanmai. See sammaisanmi, 278. See also Sôtô sectsanmon, 278, 294, 322, 338sanne-in yuikai, 278–279sanpai, 279–280sanpai (2), 280

Sanron school, 210, 278, 280, 294sansammai. See three samadhisanshin. See three bodies of the Buddhasanshu sambô. See three treasuressantai. See threefold truthsanzen, 197, 245, 280, 322. See also Rinzai sectSanzô, 266, 280, 356sanzô (2), 280–281sarei, 281Sasaki, Ruth Fuller, 17, 22, 67, 73, 110, 113, 138,

158, 190, 206, 235, 281, 320, 385, 389Sasaki Shigetsu, 281, 290, 321. See also

Rinzai sectSatan and Mara: Christian and Buddhist

Symbols of Evil (Boyd), 216satori, 17, 31, 57, 84, 110, 137, 172, 188, 194,

250, 281, 374Saunders, E. Dale, 107, 378Sayings of Lin-chi , 60, 67, 95, 99, 181, 207,

209, 259, 265, 270, 277, 281, 304, 337,348, 351, 356

schoolsEast Mountain school, 76, 292, 335, 359, 386Fa-hsien school, 5, 55, 88, 138, 380, 382Fa-yen school, 89, 92, 131, 142, 288, 344Hossô school, 5, 55, 74, 138–139, 294, 321,

380, 382Ho-tse school, 46, 139, 181, 359Huang-lung school, 92, 143, 207, 266, 288Hung-chou school, 146, 194, 197Inzan school, 155, 333Kegon school, 15, 89, 94, 145, 182, 294Kuei-yang school, 92, 141, 150, 199, 286, 379Lin-chi school, vii, 89, 92, 143, 199, 207,

265–266, 288, 323, 358, 383Northern school, 46, 52, 76, 88, 117,

139–140, 146, 243–244, 259, 292, 319,323, 326

Oryô school, 143, 250Otôkan school, 251, 310Oxhead school, 48, 50, 88, 117, 132, 140,

142, 242, 251Pure Land school, 30, 68, 76, 211, 237,

260, 283San-lun school, 46, 200, 210, 278, 280,

283, 358Sanron school, 210, 278, 280, 294seven schools, 92, 143, 288, 294, 378Southern school, 46, 88, 92, 117, 139–140,

146, 243, 323, 326Takujû school, 143, 155, 332, 333T’ien-t’ai school, 48, 53, 68, 84, 89, 92, 133,

209, 211, 271, 296, 339, 346, 348,351–352, 358

Ts’ao-tung school, vii, 92–93, 207, 288,323, 358, 359

Yang-ch’i school, 60, 84, 92, 140, 173, 204,207, 235, 246, 266, 288, 374–375, 378,380–381

416

Yogachara school, 4, 15, 55, 74, 77, 88, 100,125, 139, 141, 211, 267, 380, 382

Yôgi school, 378, 380, 381Yun-men school, 47, 92, 142, 286, 288,

344, 363, 382–383Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine

Dharma (Hurvitz), 15, 39second barrier. See ryôkanSecond Patriarch. See Hui-ko and

MahakashyapaSects

Daruma sect, 59, 63, 173Fuke sect, 103, 173, 195, 259, 289Ji sect, 155, 162, 175, 260Nichiren sect, 239Obaku sect, vii, 2, 22, 32, 73–75, 100, 104,

109, 112, 123, 132–133, 135, 137, 144, 153,171, 175, 214–216, 220, 223, 227, 237,246, 261, 265, 278, 294, 304, 320,322–323, 339, 342, 344, 352, 378, 380, 387

Pure Land sect, 136, 166, 248, 260Rinzai sect, vii, 18–19, 22, 41, 44, 47, 54,

56–63, 72–76, 80, 83–84, 89–90, 93, 96,99–100, 103–104, 107, 110–113, 116–119,121, 123–125, 127–128, 132, 135, 137–138,140–144, 146, 152, 155–156, 158, 161,165–167, 171–173, 175–176, 178, 181,184–185, 187–188, 190, 193–196, 204, 207,214, 219–220, 229–230, 232–233, 235–236,246, 248–251, 261–262, 265–266, 268–270,274, 278, 280–281, 283, 285, 288–290, 292,294, 300, 304–305, 308–312, 317, 320, 323,327–328, 330, 332–333, 335, 339, 343, 345,347–348, 351–353, 355, 359, 364, 374–375,378, 380–381, 385, 387–390

Shingon sect, 4, 16, 24, 58–60, 71, 80, 86,109, 112, 114, 129, 166, 174–175, 185,187, 193, 195, 200, 211, 214, 222, 232,236, 250, 294, 298, 306, 309, 330–331,352, 373, 378, 381

Sôtô sect, vii, 4, 8, 17, 22, 30, 50, 58–59,63–64, 69, 71–73, 79, 85, 103, 107–109,116, 132–133, 135, 137, 146, 154, 157, 166,169, 171–172, 175, 182, 184–185, 191, 197,221, 250, 254, 261, 265, 268, 270, 274–275,277–278, 282–283, 286, 296, 298, 301–302,308, 313, 320–321, 323, 328–330, 339, 342,345, 358–359, 381, 384–385, 387

Tendai sect, 4, 29, 34, 38, 59–60, 63–64, 73,79–80, 84–86, 108, 112, 114, 129, 136,156, 162, 170, 173, 175, 187, 209, 214,222, 239, 250–251, 260, 270–271, 281,289, 294, 296, 299, 306, 309–310, 339,352, 357, 378, 380

True Pure Land sect, 108, 166, 217, 299,344, 357

segaki. See ullambanaseian. See seidôseidô, 282, 352

seihan, 1, 49, 51–52, 168, 267, 282, 305, 313,338, 353, 372, 390

seiza, 282Seizan. See Hsi-shansekiri daruma, 282, 324. See also Straw

Sandal BodhidharmaSekishu kôan. See One hand kôansekkai, 282–283. See also Mahayana

Buddhism and Theravada Buddhismsekkan, 283, 286Sekkô Sôshin, 111, 185, 283, 353, 355. See

also Rinzai sectSelected Writings of Suzuki Shosan (Tyler),

100, 240, 328Self Power, 162, 251, 283sembutsujô, 283semmon dôjô, 73, 283–284. See also lay believersendai. See icchantikaSeng-chao, 46, 278, 284, 321senge, 284Seng-ts’an, 52, 69, 100, 141, 145, 284, 298, 322,

335, 345, 386. See also Hsin-hsin-mingsenju, 136, 284Senju darani, 284. See also esoteric buddhismSen no Rikyû, 62, 284–285sentient beings, 3, 6, 12, 16, 26–27, 29–30,

32–34, 36–39, 41, 55, 62, 64–65, 68, 77,81–82, 86–87, 92, 96, 98, 100, 109,127–129, 136–137, 147, 149, 153,155–156, 159, 163, 165, 176, 198, 208,211, 222, 241–242, 249, 256, 259, 267,272, 277, 284, 285, 289, 295, 309, 312,316, 318–319, 340, 342, 347–348, 351,363, 365, 367, 372–374, 376, 385

Senzaki Nyogen, 285, 290Seppô Gison. See Hsüeh-feng I-ts’unsermons, 2, 7, 18, 38, 44, 47, 66, 88–89, 106,

111, 114, 127, 131, 135, 167, 208, 226, 232,234, 256, 263, 280–281, 285, 294, 308,320–321, 327, 331, 337, 350–351, 356, 370

Seson. See World-Honored Onesesshin, 267, 285, 337Setchô Jûken. See Hsüeh-tou Ch’ung-hsiensetsuban, 283, 286setsuwa, 286, 292. See also lay believerseven buddhas of the past, 50, 172, 174, 180,

185, 197, 286, 297, 356, 359, 370seven lucky gods, 20, 24, 139, 286–288, 294seven schools, 92, 143, 288, 294, 378. See

also Rinzai sectsexuality, 288shaba, 288–289Shaka. See Shakya ClanShakamuni. See Siddharta GautamaShaka Nyorai. See Siddharta GautamaShakuen Eichô, 84, 162, 174, 289. See also

Tendai sectshakuhachi, 103, 289, 195shakuniku danjô. See “lump of red flesh”

417

Shaku Sôen, 193, 196, 285, 290Shaku Sôkatsu, 281, 290. See also lay believer

and Rinzai sectShakya clan, 178, 230, 289, 290, 314, 326Shakyamuni. See Siddharta Gautamashala trees, 255, 290–291shami, 244, 291. See also lay believershamikai. See ten preceptsshamini, 244, 291shamon. See shramanaShao-lin-ssu, 27, 145, 291, 306, 327shari. See relicsSharihotsu. See ShariputraShariputra, 105, 167, 219, 291, 340sharira. See relicsShasekishû, 149, 229, 291–292. See also

Rinzai sectshashu, 292shastra, 278, 280, 292shaven-headed layman, 292. See also

Rinzai sectShen-hsiu, 46, 52, 76, 140, 146, 162, 243, 259,

292–293, 319, 323Shen-hui. See Ho-tse Shen-huishichi. See four wisdomsshichibutsuji, 293. See also kubutsujishichidô garan, 9, 40, 68, 112, 122, 126, 200,

214, 226, 242, 278, 294, 301, 320, 338, 355shichifukujin . See seven lucky godsshichijôe, 188, 294, 349, 366shichishû. See seven schoolsshidai. See four great elementsshidô, 294. See also lay believerShidô Bu’nan, 74, 118–119, 172, 294, 304.

See also Rinzai sectshie. See purple robeShigematsu, Soiku, 389shigu seigan, 96, 295shihokkai. See four realms of realityshiji no kuyô. See four offeringsshiji zazen, 99, 115, 132, 194, 295–296, 322shijûhachikyôkai, 29, 168, 296shijûzai. See four grave offensesshika, 52, 267, 282, 296, 334, 338shikai. See dead ashesshikan, 296shikan taza, 224, 296, 323shikatsu. See four shoutsShike Goroku. See Ssu-chia Yu Lushiketsu, 176, 297Shikhin buddha, 172, 286, 297shikunichi, 172, 297, 354. See also oshikushila. See silaShimano, Eido T., 113, 138, 190, 235Shinbun Ritsu. See Ssu-fen Lushinchi. See mind groundShinchi Kakushin. See Kakushinshingi, 8, 48–49, 64, 160, 172, 224, 262,

265–266, 297–298, 338, 376

Shingon: Japanese Esoteric Buddhism(Yamasaki), 72, 100, 374

Shingon sect, 4, 16, 24, 58–60, 71, 80, 86, 109,112, 114, 129, 166, 174–175, 185, 187, 193,195, 200, 211, 214, 222, 232, 236, 250, 294,298, 306, 309, 330–331, 352, 373, 378, 381

Shingyô. See Heart SutraShin’in, 298shinji ike, 298. See also Sôtô sectshinjin datsuraku, 75, 298. See also Sôtô sect“Shinjinmei.” See “Hsin-hsin-ming”shinnin. See True person of no rankShinnyo. See True ThusnessShinran, 166, 217, 260, 299, 357. See also

Tendai sectShinran: An Introduction to His Thought

(Ueda and Hirota), 6shinsanshiki, 1, 167, 245, 299. See also

lay believerShinshin, 163, 299Shinshû. See True Pure Land sectShintô, 59, 73, 83, 98, 120, 133, 136, 155, 174,

278, 330, 350, 354shion. See four obligationsshippei, 31, 300shiroku benreitai. See shiroku no bushôshiroku no bunshô, 300shiryôken. See four discernmentsshishiku. See lion’s roarshishô. See four kinds of birthShisho, 301, 326shishu hokkai. See four realms of realityshisô, 301shissui, 49, 267, 301, 338, 353. See also lay

believer and temple positionsshitennô. See four guardian kingsShiza. See dead sittingShôbôgenzô, 68, 301Shôbôgenzô (2), 8, 26, 47, 73, 99, 103, 108, 129,

150, 169, 189, 210, 222, 275, 301, 302, 385Shôbôgenzô Benchû, 302, 342Shôbôgenzô Zuimonki, 302shodô. See calligraphyshôdô. See steep pathshôeki. See nyusshitsuShôgen Sûgaku. See Sung-yüan Chung-yuehshogo kôten, 303shôgun, 17, 80–81, 112, 133, 167, 187, 232,

280, 303–304, 305, 317, 332, 343. Seealso lay believer

Shohei, Ichimura, 4, 80, 313, 322, 344Shôhô, 277, 304, 309Shôichi Ha, 304. See also Rinzai sectshôjô. See Hinayana BuddhismShôju Dôkyô Etan Anju Anroku, 304, 354.

See also Dôkyô EtanShôjurin Shingi, 216, 304. See also

Obaku sectShôju Rôjin. See Dôkyô Etan

418

shojutsu. See calligraphyshokan, 91, 270, 277, 304shôkei, 185, 232, 263–265, 304–305. See

also reitakushôken, 305shoki, 52, 267, 282, 305, 338Shôkoku-ji, 116, 196, 248, 305Shôkoku-ji Ha, 266, 305shômon. See shravakashômyô, 32, 237, 305–306shonan, 171, 306. See also lay believerShôrin-ji. See Shao-lin-ssushôrô, 231, 248, 294, 306. See also lay believershôsan, 135, 285, 306, 328Shôshitsu Rokumon, 27, 142, 239, 306shôsô, 256, 307, 313, 320shôsô jisha, 307Shôtoku Taishi, 259, 307–308shouting. See Katsu!Shôyôroku, 308–309, 359. See also Rinzai sectshozan, 116, 308Shôzômatsu. See Three Ages of the Dharmashramana, 291, 309shravaka, 55, 92, 109, 161, 239, 258, 277, 305,

309, 342, 351, 362. See also three vehiclesShrimala Sutra, 307, 309. See also lay believershu. See sanghashû. See lineageshugendô, 309, 378Shûhô Myôchô, 61–62, 81, 178, 234, 251,

309, 327, 345. See also Rinzai sect andTendai sect

shujô. See walking staffshukke. 310, 384shuku, 310shukuha fugin, 310shukushin, 310shukuyûjûri, 310–311shumidan, 311Shumisen. See Mount SumeruShûmitsu. See Tsung-mishumoku, 65, 311, 306Shûmon Kattôshû, 182, 311Shûmon Mujintô Ron, 311–312, 355Shûmon Rentô Eyô. See Tsung-men Lien-teng

Hui-yaoShun’ô Reizan, 312. See also Rinzai sectshunyata. See emptinessShuramgama dharani, 56, 270, 312Shuramgama Sutra, 56, 270, 312, 313shuryô, 269, 307, 312–313Shuryôgon-gyô. See Shuramgama Sutrashuso, 1, 52, 166, 172, 207, 267, 282, 313, 338shussan, 106, 271, 313shutara. See sutrashûtô fukkô, 313shuya, 314Siddharta Gautama, vi, 2, 7, 10, 12–15, 26–27,

30, 34–40, 43, 50, 56, 60, 64–65, 71, 73, 77,

83–84, 96, 102, 118, 123, 138, 154, 165–166,172, 178, 182, 198, 210, 212, 216, 219, 226,230, 237–238, 241, 254, 257, 260, 262, 267,274, 276, 281, 285–286, 288–290, 301,314–316, 320, 326–327, 334, 337, 339–341,346–347, 350–351, 360, 363, 368–369, 374,376, 379. See also lay believer

sila, 78, 225, 258, 276, 297, 316, 319, 347. Seealso lay believer

silent illumination Zen. See mokushô ZenSilver mountain, iron wall, 109, 316Silver Pavilion, 109, 112, 317. See also Rinzai sectsin, 317–318six dusts, 75, 92, 268, 318six gates. See six sense organssix paths, 65, 86, 148, 159, 165, 267–268, 285,

318, 342, 367six perfections, 29, 62, 159–160, 258,

267–268, 316, 319, 351six sense organs, 267–268, 318, 319Sixth Patriarch. See Hui-nengskandha. See five skandhasskillful means. See expedient meansSkillful Means: A Concept in Mahayana

Buddhism (Pye), 87small vehicle. See Hinayana BuddhismSmith, Robert, 40, 151, 247so. See patriarchsôan, 319sôan (2), 319sobutsu, 254, 319–320. See also bussosôdô, 73, 80, 111, 122, 124, 131, 154, 161, 165,

167, 170–171, 180–181, 187, 197, 204, 220,226, 271, 281, 283, 294, 299, 307, 313,320, 333–336, 338, 387. See also Obakusect, Rinzai sect, and Sôtô sect

sôgya. See sanghasôgyari. See kujôeSohaku, Ogata, 50, 286sôhei, 85, 320–321, 371Sôji-ji, 185, 283, 321, 341. See also Hossô schoolSôjô. See Seng-chaoSôkei. See Hui-neng and Ts’ao-hsiSôkei-an, 321. See also Sasaki ShigetsuSokkô Roku Kaien Fusetsu, 321Sôkô Shinsai, 321–322, 358Sokuhi Nyoichi. See Chi-fei ju-i; See also

Obaku sectsômon, 322sôrin, 265, 322Sôsan. See Seng-ts’ansôsan (2), 322sôsan (3), 322soshi, 254, 322soshidô, 95, 254, 322sôshin zazen, 132, 296, 322–323The Sôtô Approach to Zen (Matsunaga R.), 385Sôtô sect, vii, 4, 8, 17, 22, 30, 50, 58–59, 63–64,

69, 71–73, 79, 85, 103, 107–109, 116,

419

132–133, 135, 137, 146, 154, 157, 166, 169,171–172, 175, 182, 184–185, 191, 197, 221,250, 254, 261, 265, 268, 270, 274–275,277–278, 282–283, 286, 296, 298, 301–302,308, 313, 320–321, 323, 328–330, 339,342, 345, 358–359, 381, 384–385, 387. Seealso Lin-chi school

Sôtô-shû. See Sôtô sect and Ts’ao-tung schoolSôtô Zen in Medieval Japan (Bodiford), 30,

104, 275, 278Sounds of Valley Streams (Cook), 302Southern school, 46, 88, 92, 117, 139–140,

146, 243, 323, 326Sôzan Honjaku. See Ts’ao-shan Pen-chiSponberg, Alan, 213Sri Lanka (Ceylon), 30, 204, 290, 345Ssu-chia Yu Lu, 218, 296, 323–324Ssu-fen Lu, 297, 324, 370steep path, 76, 302, 324Stevens, John, 30, 296storehouse consciousness. See alaya

consciousnessStraw Sandal Bodhidharma, 282, 324, 327Streng, Frederick J., 234Strong, John S., 13, 29, 43, 91, 148–149Stuart, Maureen, viii, 274stupa, 13, 16, 113, 252, 255, 263–264, 294,

324–325, 336, 352. See also lay believerSubhuti, 167, 307, 325, 340subtemple. See tatchûsuccession certificate. See shishosudden enlightenment, 117, 140, 146, 243,

249, 323, 326, 353Suddhodana, 13, 257, 314, 326. See also

lay believersuffering, viii, 2, 7, 10, 13–16, 26–27, 33, 39,

54–55, 64–65, 68, 75, 81, 86, 91–92, 94,96, 98, 106, 108, 110, 118, 120, 128–129,152, 159, 162, 165, 176, 198, 206, 219,229, 241, 244, 247, 272, 277, 282, 289,301, 314, 318, 326, 334, 348, 350, 363,365, 367, 371, 373, 376

Sugyôroku. See Tsung-ching Lusuibokuga, 327, 388sumie. See suibokugaSunface buddha, Moonface buddha, 239, 327Sung dynasty (960–1279; China), 8, 22, 40, 44,

47–50, 63, 75, 83, 89, 92, 99, 111, 114–116,127, 133, 140, 142–144, 146, 166, 173, 185,187, 189,192–193, 199, 205, 207, 229, 250,252, 266, 278–279, 284, 286, 288, 294–295,297, 323, 327, 330, 356, 359–360, 371,374–375, 378, 380–383, 387

Sung-shan, 327Sung-yüan Chung-yueh, 303, 327. See also

Rinzai sectSung Yun, 324, 327. See also Straw Sandal

Bodhidharmasusoku-kan, 327

sutras, 2, 15, 17, 38, 44–45, 48–49, 52, 57, 62, 82,87, 108, 153, 156, 201, 208, 226, 237, 239,241, 255, 260, 264, 280, 282, 284, 294, 305,307, 309, 312–313, 321, 325, 327–328,331–332, 339, 351, 355, 369, 382, 389

Agama Sutras, 3Avalokiteshvara Sutra, 15, 176, 178, 199Avatamsaka Sutra, 15–16, 55, 94, 102, 145,

153, 182, 211, 276, 343Brahma Net Sutra, 29, 33–34, 95, 168, 258,

296, 341, 366Diamond Sutra, 57, 72, 146, 195, 200, 211,

255, 301Heart Sutra, 15, 45, 57, 105, 124, 126, 200,

211, 255, 298, 306Lankavatara Sutra, 55, 149, 204, 269, 284Lotus Sutra, 12, 15, 36, 39, 48–49, 87,

134–135, 149, 176, 178, 199–200,208–209, 211, 214, 226, 233, 235, 239,249, 251, 307, 339, 351, 370

Nirvana Sutra, 37, 57, 149, 188, 237, 241, 242Perfection of Wisdom Sutra, 57, 72, 255,

258, 339Platform Sutra, 33, 62, 69, 88, 97, 145, 147,

160, 230, 232, 242, 256–257, 268, 292,295, 318, 326, 328, 350, 360, 387

Pure Land Sutra, 6–7, 165, 211, 234, 260,357, 372

Shrimala Sutra, 307, 309Shuramgama Sutra, 56, 270, 312, 313Vimalakirti Sutra, 132, 200, 307, 369, 382

Suzuki, D. T. (Daisetsu Teitaro), 16, 126, 141,204, 242, 290, 328, 334. See also laybeliever and Rinzai sect

Suzuki Shôsan, 100, 153, 233, 240, 328. Seealso Sôtô sect

Suzuki, Shunryû, 329. See also Sôtô sectSwampland Flowers: The Letters and Lectures

of Zen Master Ta Hui (Cleary, C.), 330Swanson, Paul L., 342

TTa-hsiu Cheng-nien, 59, 165, 330. See also

Rinzai sect Ta-hui Tsung-kao, 47, 50, 56, 127, 146, 176,

192, 224, 302, 330, 378, 381. See alsoRinzai sect and Sôtô sect

Taikô Gyôyû, 119, 166, 174, 330. See alsoRinzai sect and Sôtô sect

T’ai-p’o-shan, 330–331, 352taireishôsan, 199, 331Taishaku. See IndraTaishakuten. See IndraTaishô Daizôkyô, 62, 246, 331taiya, 199, 331taiza monjin, 331Taizôkai Mandara. See Womb-Realm Mandalataking refuge. See kie

420

Takuan Sôhô, 187, 332. See also Rinzai secttakuhatsu, 159, 332. See also begging almsTakujû Kosen, 107, 155, 333Takujû school, 143, 155, 332, 333. See also

Rinzai secttan, 333, 335–336Tanabe, George J., Jr., 227Tanabe, Willa Jane, 227Tanashi, Kazuaki, 302tanbutsu, 74, 333tanden, 125, 190, 234, 334tanden (2), 334tanga, 334. See also tanga zumetanga zume, 9, 296, 305, 334T’ang dynasty (618–907; China), vi, 12, 18, 31,

46, 48–50, 52, 63, 82, 84, 88–90, 92,103–104, 111, 119, 124, 139, 141–143, 145,150, 166, 181, 192, 199, 206, 218, 225, 235,246, 251–252, 256, 259, 261, 265, 281, 284,288, 292–293, 297, 306–308, 323, 344,358–359, 363, 374, 379, 382–383, 386–387

tan-i, 334Tanjôge, 334, 341tanka, 335, 371tanpyô, 335Tao, 72, 299, 335, 365, 372Tao-che Ch’ao-yüan, 18, 74, 109, 335. See

also Obaku sect and Rinzai sectTao-hsin, 52, 74, 76, 88, 90, 100, 117, 141,

146, 215, 242, 251, 282, 284, 335, 359Taoism, 53, 72, 121, 145, 278, 284, 298–299,

334–335, 350, 357, 365, 372, 389Tariki. See Other PowerTa Sheng Ch’i-hsin-lun. See Awakening of

Faithtassu, 335–336tatami, 220, 313, 320, 333, 336, 384tatchû, 83, 137, 200, 279, 326, 336–337Tathagata, 167, 245, 289, 337, 339Tathagata Garbha, 163, 204, 245, 309, 337tea, 17, 44–45, 62, 80, 116, 123, 135, 170, 175,

269, 271, 281, 284–285, 293, 299, 337, 339tea ceremony. See chanoyûTea in Japan: Essays on the History of

Chanoyu (Varley and Isao), 45teihatsu. See tonsureteishô, 60, 285–286, 337–338temple buildings. See shichidô garantemple positions, 105, 155, 301, 338, 344,

353, 358–359temple regulations, 159, 338temples, 12–13, 17, 19, 24, 27, 33, 36, 40–42,

58–59, 61–62, 73, 76, 79, 82–85, 95,97–98, 105, 111–112, 116–117, 129, 133,135, 137–138, 150–154, 159, 163,170–171, 217–218, 233, 242, 246,255–256, 267, 269, 274, 279, 282, 284,294, 301, 306, 308, 314, 322, 326, 338,343–344, 352, 360

branch temple, 34, 137, 160, 187, 211, 217,233, 269, 321, 337

main temple, 34, 137, 160, 211–212, 217subtemples, 83, 137, 200, 279, 326,

336–337tenbôrin, 339. See also Wheel of the Dharmatencha butsuji, 199, 274, 293, 339. See also

sanbutsujiTendai sect, 4, 29, 34, 38, 59–60, 63–64, 73,

79–80, 84–86, 108, 112, 114, 129, 136, 156,162, 170, 173, 175, 187, 209, 214, 222, 239,250–251, 260, 270–271, 281, 289, 294, 296,299, 306, 309–310, 339, 352, 357, 378, 380.See also Rinzai sect and Sôtô sect

ten directions, 339tendoku, 57, 191, 339. See also Obaku sectten epithets for the Buddha, 245, 339, 374ten evil acts, 166, 169, 340ten good acts, 166, 169, 340ten great disciples of the Buddha, 340tengu, 340–341ten heavy precepts, 29, 95, 161–162, 168–169,

258, 296, 341. See also lay believer“Tenjô tenge yuiga dokuson,” 341Tenkei Denson, 302, 341–342. See also

Sôtô sectten precepts, 14, 78, 93, 95, 160–162, 168, 226,

244–245, 257–258, 283, 291, 316, 341,342. See also Obaku sect and Sôtô sect

ten realms, 161, 342. See also six pathstenrinnô. See cakravartinTenryû-ji, 81, 116, 232, 283, 298, 305, 343Tenryû-ji Ha, 266, 343Tenshô Kôtôroku. See T’ien-sheng

Kuang-teng Luten stages of a bodhisattva, 15, 168, 182, 343ten thousand dharmas, 214, 343tentô butsuji, 199, 274, 293, 343. See also

sanbutsujitenzo, 47, 49, 200, 267, 338, 344, 353. See

also temple positionsTenzo Kyôkun, 79, 344tera, 159, 344Te-shan Hsuan-chien, 31, 142, 344, 353Tetsugen-ban. See Obaku-banTetsugen Dôkô, 228, 246, 250, 344. See also

Obaku sectTettô Gikô, 310, 345. See also Rinzai sectTheravada Buddhism, vi, 2–3, 7, 10, 22,

26–27, 36–38, 41, 49, 54, 63–64, 78, 84,87, 94, 96, 98, 100, 149, 159–160, 162,168, 200, 208, 212, 222, 224, 254, 258,264, 266, 280, 283, 290–291, 293, 296,319, 324, 327, 342, 345, 351, 356,365–367, 370–371, 376

third barrier. See sankanThird Generation Schism. See Sandai SôronThird Patriarch. See Seng-ts’anthirty-two marks of a buddha, 43, 345

421

Thompson, Laurence G., 322Three Ages of the Dharma, 205, 277, 304,

309, 346, 390Three Baskets. See Tripitakathree bodies of the Buddha, 35, 69, 132, 138,

211, 241, 248, 272, 280, 347, 355three essentials of Zen, 347. See also

Rinzai sectthreefold training, 78, 225, 276, 316, 347–348Threefold Truth, 48, 92, 280, 348, 351Three gates to emancipation, 276, 348The Three Jewels: A Study and Translation of

Minamoto Tamenori’s Sanboe(Kamens), 175

three marks, 152, 229, 326, 348three phrases, 277, 348. See also Rinzai sectthree poisons, 3, 33, 275, 348, 373Three pounds of flax. See Masanginthree realms, 276, 318, 348–349three robes. See kesathree robes, one bowl, 76, 275, 349three samadhi, 280, 349three sufferings, 277, 350three teachings, 278, 350. See also Sankyô itchiThree teachings as one. See Sankyô itchithree treasures, 29, 90, 95, 99, 161, 168, 189,

201, 233, 235, 244, 259, 274, 276, 280,341, 350–351, 365–366

three vehicles, 249, 258, 277, 309, 351, 361Thurman, Robert A. F., 369Tibet, 38, 86T’ien-sheng Kuang-teng Lu, 115, 343, 351, 359.

See also lay believer and Rinzai sectT’ien-t’ai school, 48, 53, 68, 84, 89, 92, 133,

209, 211, 271, 296, 339, 346, 348,351–352, 358

T’ien-t’ung Ju-ching. See Ju-chingT’ien-t’ung-shan. See T’ai-p’o-shanTimeless Spring: A Sôtô Zen Anthology

(Cleary, T.), 385Ti-Tsang. See Jizôtô. See stupatôan, 352tôdô, 282, 352Tôfuku-ji, 60, 84, 116, 158, 214, 304, 352. See

also Shingon sect and Tendai sectTôfuku-ji Ha, 266, 352tôhan, 1, 49, 52, 154, 168, 200, 267, 282, 338,

352–353, 358. See also temple positionsTokugawa Ideology: Early Constructs,

1570–1680 (Ooms), 328Tokugawa period (1600–1867; Japan), 17, 34,

44, 57, 62, 85, 100, 103–104, 107, 109,110, 112, 118, 120, 137, 153, 155, 157,159, 187, 195–196, 211, 216, 218,220–221, 229, 233, 236, 246, 251, 254,270, 272, 275, 279, 294, 302–304, 311,313, 320–321, 328, 332, 335, 338, 341,344, 354, 364, 387, 388

Tokuhô Zenketsu, 283, 353. See alsoRinzai sect

Tokusan Senkan. See Te-shan Hsuan-chienTômyô E’nichi. See Tung-ming Hui-jihton, 353tongaku. See sudden enlightenmenttongo. See sudden enlightenmenttonsure, 18, 53, 60, 81, 84, 89, 112, 121,

133–135, 142–143, 206, 224, 227, 233, 270,274, 281, 290–291, 328, 337, 353–354

Tôrei Enji, 44, 111, 121, 172, 270, 304, 312,354–355. See also Rinzai sect

tortoise hair, 191, 355tosotsuten. See Tushita Heaventôsu, 294, 338, 355Tôyô Eichô, 201, 283, 355, 389. See also

Rinzai sectTôzan. See Tung-shanTôzan Ryôkai. See Tung-shan Liang-chiehThe Training of the Zen Buddhist Monk

(Suzuki, D. T.), 242, 328, 334transformation body. See nirmanakayaThe Transmission of the Lamp: Early Masters

(Sohaku), 50, 286Transmission of the Lamp. See Ching-te

Ch’üan-teng LuTripitaka, 2–3, 7, 10, 37–38, 156, 210–211,

224, 252, 266, 280, 327, 346, 356,365–366, 369

True Mind, 163, 299, 356true person of no rank, 47, 299, 356–357True Pure Land sect, 108, 166, 217, 250, 299,

344, 357. See also Tendai sectTrue Thusness, 299, 358truth

four noble truths, 26, 36, 38, 41, 54, 77, 96,98, 100, 293, 309, 326, 350, 372

relative, 16, 264, 348, 363threefold, 48, 92, 280, 348, 351twofold, 242, 348, 351, 361ultimate, 57, 67, 87, 118, 264, 278, 348, 363

Ts’ao-hsi. See Hui-nengTsao-kung. See Sôkô ShinsaiTs’ao-shan Pen-chi, 93, 201, 248, 323, 358, 359Ts’ao-tung school, vii, 92–93, 207, 288, 323,

358, 359tsûbun, 49, 267, 338, 353, 358. See also

temple positionstsung. See lineageTsung-ching Lu, 326, 358, 382Ts’ung-jung Lu. See ShôyôrokuTsung-men Lien-teng Hui-yao, 115, 312, 359Tsung-mi, 46, 94, 112, 114, 146, 311, 359tsûsu, 49, 105, 176, 267, 338, 353, 358, 359.

See also temple positionsTung-ming Hui-jih, 133, 158, 353, 359. See

also Rinzai sect and Sôtô sectTung-shan, 89, 143, 355, 359. See also East

Mountain school

422

Tung-shan Liang-chieh, 93, 99, 110, 128,248, 323, 355, 358, 359, 387

Tun-huang Caves, 360. See also Tun-huangmanuscripts

Tun-huang manuscripts, 256, 360turning the Wheel of the Dharma, 339, 360.

See also Wheel of the Dharmaturning word, 3, 157, 360Tushita heaven, 212–213, 222, 355, 360. See

also MaitreyaTwelve-Link Chain of Causation, 360–361two entrances, 119, 239, 265, 361Twofold Truth, 242, 348, 351, 361two vehicles, 76, 92, 239, 258, 309, 351, 362Tyler, Royal, 100, 240, 328Tzu, Mou, 91

UUdraka Ramaputra, 363Ueda, Yoshifumi, 6ullambana, 90, 106, 219, 246, 282, 363, 371Ultimate Truth, 57, 67, 87, 118, 264, 278, 348,

363. See also Mahayana BuddhismUmmon Bun’en. See Yun-men Wen-yenUmmon school. See Yun-men schoolumpan, 122, 232, 364Umpo Zenjô, 18, 364. See also Rinzai sectun. See five skandhasunborn, 18, 365. See also Mahayana

Buddhism and Theravada BuddhismThe Unborn: The Life and Teaching of Zen

Master Bankei (Waddell), 18, 364United States, 281, 285, 290, 328–329Unraveling Zen’s Red Thread: Ikkyu’s

Controversial Way (Covell andYamada), 152

Unsei Shukô. See Chu-hungunsui, 9, 242, 296, 365Upali, 167, 224, 340, 356, 365, 370upâsaka, 276, 365, 366. See also upâsikâupâsikâ, 276, 365, 365. See also lay believerupaya. See expedient meansuposatha, 78, 104–105, 271, 283, 366, 370.

See also Mahayana Buddhism andTheravada Buddhism

Urabon-e. See Obonuttarasô. See Shichijôe

VVairochana buddha. See Mahavairochana

Buddhavajra, 71, 99, 195, 240, 367Vajrayana Buddhism. See esoteric buddhismVarley, Paul, 45vegetarian feasts, 100, 367, 368. See also lay

believer and vegetarianism

vegetarianism, 367–368, 387. See also Maha-yana Buddhism and vegetarian feasts

vessel of the Dharma, 134, 368. See also hôkiVietnam, viiVimalakirti, 132, 206, 368–369, 382. See also

lay believer and Mahayana BuddhismVimalakirti Sutra, 132, 200, 307, 369, 382. See

also lay believer and MahayanaBuddhism

vinaya, 4, 8, 19–20, 22, 29, 33, 38, 47, 66, 83, 96,106, 138, 160, 170, 206, 210, 216, 224, 249,252, 258, 262, 266, 280, 288, 291, 297, 324,342, 356, 365–367, 369–370, 371, 376, 383

Vipashyin buddha, 172, 286, 370Vishvabhu buddha, 172, 286, 370vows, 6, 30, 37, 96, 143–145, 180, 226, 244, 370,

372, 383. See also Theravada BuddhismVulture Peak, 71, 208, 210, 226, 238, 270,

340, 370

Wwabi, 271, 371Waddell, Norman, 18, 121, 321, 364waka, 52, 176, 335, 371walking staff, 256, 310, 371. See also

Theravada Buddhismwandering spirits, 228, 371Wanshi Shôgaku. See Hung-chih Cheng-chüehWan-shou-ssu, 49, 116, 371warrior monks. See sôheiwarriors, 83, 85, 104, 134, 153, 187, 198, 272,

274, 303, 320–321, 371wasan, 371–372watô, 227, 372Watson, Burton, 15, 39, 181, 209, 281Way. See TaoWestern Pure Land, 5, 37, 75, 108, 165, 213,

235, 237, 248, 259–260, 357, 372Western rank. See seihanWheel of the Dharma, 43, 138, 339, 345,

360, 372Wheel of Life, 372–373whisk, 130, 139, 154–155, 180, 373Wijayaratna, Mohan, 20, 22, 93, 254, 257Williams, Paul, 26Womb-Realm Mandala, 72, 81, 195, 211, 214,

331, 367, 373–374Women in Buddhism: Images of the Feminine

in Mahayana Tradition (Paul), 24“Women in Buddhism,” Today’s Woman in

World Religions (Barnes), 22The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the

History and Culture of the Indian Sub-Continent Before the Coming of theMuslims (Basham), 31, 198

World Conference of Religions (1893), 290World-Honored One, 7, 167, 283, 285, 339, 374

423

wu. See muwu (2). See satoriWu-an P’u-ning, 115, 133, 374. See also

Rinzai sectWu, Ch’eng-en, 142wu-chia. See five housesWu-chun Shih-fan, 229, 374. See also Rinzai

sect and Yang-ch’i schoolWu-hsüeh Tsu-yüan, 82–83, 229, 374. See

also Rinzai sectWu-men Hui-k’ai, 107, 140, 174, 230, 375, 378.

See also Rinzai sect and Yang-ch’i schoolWu-men Kuan. See MumonkanWu-tsu Fa-yen, 114, 375, 381. See also Rinzai

sect and Yang-ch’i schoolWu-tsu Hung-jen. See Hung-jen

YYabukôji, 376yakuseki, 376. See also Mahayana Buddhism

and Theravada BuddhismYakushi butsu, 219, 376–378Yama, 80, 378Yamabushi, 119, 255, 309, 340, 378Yamada, Shobin, 152Yamasaki, Taiko, 72, 100, 374Yampolsky, Philip B., 17, 69, 81, 121, 127,

189, 244, 257, 351, 376, 390Yang-ch’i school, 60, 84, 92, 140, 173, 204,

207, 235, 246, 266, 288, 374–375, 378,380–381. See also Obaku sect

Yang-shan Hui-chi, 146, 199, 203, 379Yasen Kanna, 121, 379, 390. See also meditationYashodhara, 262, 314, 379Yasutani Hakuun, viiiYear of the Donkey, 268, 380Yin-yüan Lung-ch’i, vii, 48, 109, 133, 144,

153, 214, 227, 246, 335, 344, 380, 387Yogachara school, 4, 15, 55, 74, 77, 88, 100,

125, 139, 141, 211, 267, 380, 382Yôgi school, 378, 380, 381Yôjô taimitsu, 380–381. See also Rinzai sectYokohama, Japan, 321Yôkoi, Yûhô, 76, 169, 302Yôkô-ji, 185, 381. See also Shingon sect and

Sôtô sectyokushitsu, 111, 294, 338, 381Yômyô Enju. See Yung-ming Yen-shouYôsai. See EisaiYoshitaka Iriya, 206Yüan dynasty (1260–1368; China), 48, 54, 56, 60,

75, 156, 204, 230, 279, 347, 359, 374, 389Yüan-wu K’o-ch’in, 25, 83, 127, 256, 330,

381. See also lay believeryuige, 382Yuima. See VimalakirtiYuimakyô. See Vimalakirti Sutra

“Yuishiki.” See “Consciousness Only”“Yuishin no jôdo.” See “Pure land of the

mind only”yu-lu. See recorded sayingsYun-ch’i Chu-hung. See Chu-hungYung-ming Yen-shou, 326, 358, 381, 382Yun-men school, 47, 92, 142, 286, 288, 344,

363, 382–383. See also Lin-chi schoolYun-men Wen-yen, 127, 142, 217, 297, 363,

382, 383, 387

Zzabuton. See zanikuzafu, 384zagu, 268, 299, 384zaike, 384zammai. See samadhizaniku, 122, 384. See also Sôtô sectzazen, vi, 18, 20, 54, 68, 94, 115, 121–122, 128,

132–133, 150, 184, 191, 194, 199, 201, 207,217, 219, 221, 227, 265, 280, 283, 295,322–323, 358, 364, 384, 385, 388–390

Zazengi, 103, 385“Zazenless Zen: The Position of Zazen in

Institutional Zen Buddhism,” JapaneseReligion (Reader), 104

Zazen wasan, 45, 372, 385. See also laybeliever, Rinzai sect, and zazen

Zazen yôjinki, 185, 385Zen, vi–ix, 1, 3–4, 7–10, 12, 14–20, 22, 24–27,

30–33, 36–40, 43–61, 63–69, 71–76,79–85, 87–96, 98–100, 102–112,114–120, 122, 124–128, 130–135,137–146, 148–150, 153–163, 165–168,170–172, 174–176, 178–182, 185,187–191, 193–201, 203–211, 213–215,217–227, 229–246, 248–252, 254, 256,259–272, 276–286, 288–290, 292–308,310–314, 316–324, 326–330, 333–340,342–347, 350–353, 355–356, 358–360,363, 365–366, 368–375, 379, 381–383,385–387, 388–390. See also lay believerand Obaku sect

Zen Buddhism: A History (Dumoulin), 84, 390Zenbyô. See Zen sicknessZenchishiki, 27, 51, 387Zen cuisine, 368, 387. See also vegetarianzendô. See meditation hallZen Dust: The History of the Kôan and Kôan

Study in Rinzai (Lin-chi) Zen (Miuraand Sasaki), 17, 22, 158, 385

Zen’en Shingi. See Ch’an-yuan Ch’ing-kueiA Zen Forest: Sayings of the Masters

(Shigematsu), 389Zenga, 388Zengen Shozenshû Tojo. See Ch’an-yuan

Chu-ch’uan-chi Tu-hsu

424

zengo. See gradual enlightenmentZengyô. See gradual teachingZen in the Art of Archery (Herrigel), 203Zenji, 18, 45, 52, 58, 60, 90, 104, 118, 121,

138, 140, 283, 330, 332, 345, 353, 388zenjô. See meditation and zazenZenkai Ichiran, 196, 388Zenkan Sakushin. See Ch’an-kuan Ts’e-chinZenkiku, 388–389The Zen Kôan (Miura and Sasaki), 73, 110,

113, 138, 158, 190, 235, 389The Zen Kôan as a Means of Attaining

Enlightenment (Suzuki, D. T.), 328“Zen Kôans,” Zen, Tradition and Transition

(Shimano), 113, 138, 190, 235Zen Master Dôgen: An Introduction with

Selected Writings (Yôkoi and Daizen),76, 169, 302

Zen Master Eihei Dôgen’s Monastic Regulations(Shohei), 4, 80, 313, 322, 344

The Zen Master Hakuin: Selected Writings(Yampolsky), 17, 81, 121, 127, 376, 390

Zen Mind, Beginner’s Mind (Suzuki, S.), 329The Zen Monastic Experience: Buddhist

Practice in Contemporary Korea(Buswell), 2, 8, 267

“Zenmon Kishiki.” See “Ch’an-men Kuei-shi”Zennasu, 389, 390Zennen Shingi. See Ch’an-yuan Ching-kueiZen’on Shingi. See Ch’an-yuan Ching-kueizenpan, 389Zenrin Biyô Shingi. See Pei-yung Ch’ing-kueiZenrin Kushû, 158, 201, 389. See also

Rinzai sectzenshitsu, 389–390Zen sickness, 121, 379, 387, 390. See also

Rinzai sectZensô, 390Zensu. See ZennasuThe Zen Teaching of Bodhidharma (Pine),

142, 306The Zen Teaching of Huang Po on the

Transmission of the Mind (Blofeld), 143The Zen Teachings of Master Lin-chi: A

Translation of the Lin-chi Lu (Watson),181, 209, 281

Zen, Tradition and Transition (Kraft), 74,113, 138, 190, 235, 268

Zôhô, 277, 309, 390zôsu, 51–52, 267, 282, 338, 390

425

426

About the Author

Helen J. Baroni, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the department of religion atthe University of Hawaii at Manoa. She received a bachelor of arts fromGrinnell College in 1981, a master’s degree in divinity from the PrincetonTheological Seminary in 1984, and both a master’s degree (1990) and a doctor-ate degree (1993) in philosophy from Columbia University.

From 1990 to 1991, Dr. Baroni was a visiting research fellow at theInternational Research Institute for Zen Buddhism of Hanazozo College inKyoto, Japan. She was awarded a Japan Foundation Dissertation Fellowship in1990, a Weatherhead Fellowship in 1992, and a grant from the HarvardPluralism Project in 1998. Dr. Baroni has published a number of journal articleson Japanese religions. She is also the author of Obaku Zen: The Emergence ofthe Third Sect of Zen in Tokugawa, Japan, published by the University of HawaiiPress (2000).

Cover, pp. 9, 25, 32, 51, 67, 85, 97, 106, 113, 122, 123, 147, 151, 157, 169, 183,184, 223, 225, 228, 231, 247, 263, 279, 300, 307, 315, 325, 368, 377, 384 © Patricio Goycoolea/The Hutchison Library; p. ii courtesy of the GeneralLibraries, University of Texas at Austin; pp. 1, 5, 35, 44, 58, 202, 218, 240, 241,269, 341 © Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY; pp. 11, 186, 253, 287, 357, 364,379 © Rodman Low; pp. 21, 23, 31, 79, 130, 134, 136, 179, 212, 215, 220, 243,273, 386 © Graham Harrison; pp. 28, 101, 102, 164, 177, 205, 208 © Christie’s Images Ltd.; p. 41 © Michael Greenhalgh; p. 61 © AngeloHornak/Corbis; p. 70 © Brooklyn Museum of Art; p. 91 © H. ArmstrongRoberts; p. 117 © Kyodo News; p. 144 © Sakamoto Photo ResearchLaboratory/Corbis; p. 173 © Macduff Everton/Corbis; p. 192 © AdamWoolfitt/Corbis; p. 236 © Michael Schulman; p. 289 courtesy of the Embassyof Japan; p. 293 © Nathan Benn/Corbis; p. 295 © Pacific Press Service Images;p. 303 © Asian Art and Archaeology, Inc./Corbis; pp. 311, 333, 354 © HoraceBristol/Corbis; p. 317 © Hulton-Deutsch Collection/Corbis; p. 336 © ChrisRainier/Corbis; p. 349 © Nik Wheeler/Corbis; p. 373 © ChristineKolisch/Corbis.

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