the grammar of modern indo

8/4/2019 The Grammar of Modern Indo

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The Grammar of Modern Indo-European at the Indo-EuropeanLanguage Association

APPENDIX I. SYNTAX PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN

I.1. PRAYER

A prayer is a form of words that contain a statement, a question, an exclamation or a

command.

one. a prayer in the form of a statement is called a declarative sentence, as the

racing dog.

b. A prayer in the form of a question is called an Interrogative Prayer: as the dog

run?

c. A prayer in the form of an exclamation is called an exclamatory

prayer: how, howfast the dog races!

d. A prayer in the form of a command, an exhortation or a Prayer Request is called

an Imperative: how, go, run through the Alps, or let the dog run.

NOTE.After Lehman (1974), "The fundamental order of sentences in PIE appears to be OV.

Support for this assumption is evident in the texts of older material attested in early IE

dialects. The fundamental order of sentences in these dialects can not be determined early only

by frequency of prayer patterns. For, like other linguistic constructions, marked manifest

patterns of prayer as well as unbranded order. Order is expected in selected literary

materials. The documents that survive the early dialects are virtually all in verse or in literaryforms of prose. Accordingly many of the individual prayers do not have the unmarked order,

with the end of the verb. For this reason conclusions about the word order characteristic of

PIE and the early dialects will be based in part on those syntactic patterns that are rarely

modified for literary effect and rhetorical, comparative constructions, the presence of

postposition and prepositions, and the absence of prefixes, (...)".

Lehman has been criticized by Friedrich (1975), as Watkins (1976) and Miller (1975), supports

a VO prehistoric situation, probably SVO (as they thought in these 'core' areas of IE), with

results of non-SOV dialect -consistent.In any case (viz. Lehman and Miller), an older IE or IE I

II V (VSO for Miller) would have been replaced by a younger VO (SOV for Miller, SVO later

through a process of transposition of the verb).well, all Indo-European dialects attested evolved

(and probably a common Late PIE trend) in a modern SVO.

Modern Indo-European as a modern language of IE, you can follow the stricter formal

standards attested in older entries, ie (S) OV, as in Latin Greek, Sanskrit old, ancient

Vedic and Avestan. A newer, general (S) VO order (found in Greek, Latin, Avestan,

Germanic, etc..), Which reveals the change in PIE OV to a VO in Early Late PIE for the

spoken language of Europe.and even some forms of Literary uses, for

example. journalism. could be used in non-formal contexts.
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I.1.1. TYPES OF PRAYERS

Prayers were either Nominal PIE, ie formed by nouns or verbal, whether they include

a verb.

U.S.. A subject and a predicate. The subject of a sentence is theperson or thingspoken of. The predicate is that what is saidof the subject.

one. The subject is usually a noun or pronoun or a word or group of words used as a

noun.

b. The predicate of a sentence can be a word (like dog racing) or may consist of some

form ofes and a noun or adjective describing the subject ordefines (as good). Such a

noun or adjective is called a noun or predicate adjective.

II. In prayers proto-Indo-European, simple can be composed of only one word, a

noun or a verb, as God, or (it) rains.

NOTE 1.Prayers of this type are usually nominal and vocative Interjections. Prayers of this

type include verbal imperatives (at least 2 P.Sg.) and impersonal verbs have never had an issue

in the older dialects attested, how to engineer (it) rains, cf.Gothic.Rignei, Lat.Pluit, Gk....,

Sktvr.ati.It is believed that when IE dialects become SVO in structure, so that a subject was

required, the third singular anaphoric pronoun corresponding to it, s German,French il,etc..

Was introduced as a subject in such condemns. Were introduced such pronounsbecause SVO

languages must have subjects in sentences, as do intransitive verbs in any language OV.Such

verbs could be supplemented by substantial in several cases, including the accusative.These

constructions are especially prominent for verbs that draw on the emotions, as Lat.miseret,

Pudeto, taedet, SkrKitava. tat.pa.Also compare Lat Cicero.E.rum miseret of thes ns or Ganges

Thiha nirthrzziOHG.In case PIE condemns various forms that could be used with verbs. The

most simple prayers may consist of verbs followed by nouns in seven of eight cases, only the

vocative is not used well.The nouns fill the role of objects or, perhaps better said, add-ons.

NOTE 2.Besides the simple prayer that consists only of a verb, a simple prayer in the early

dialects and in PIE could consist of a verb followed by a noun or pronoun as complement. One

subject was not yet compulsory.Nor were other constructions which may seem to be natural,

such as indirect objects with verbs like 'give'.The root form * orearlier *deh-had in its simplest

sense the meaning 'gift'and was often unaccompanied by any nominal expression (Lehman).

I.1.2. PRAYER RATED

Nominal sentences in which a noun is compared with another noun, an adjective or a

particle, compose one of the simplest type of prayer in PIE.

NOTE 1.Such a type of prayer is found in almost every dialect of IE, cf.Hitt.Atta.a.. u., "the

father (is) good,"Skr TVA.vru.a, "you (are) Varuna,"O. Pers. D.rayavau adam., "i (is)

Darius,"Lat.praeclara rare for omnia, 'all the best things (are) rare, "etc. .In all dialects,

however, such prayers were restricted in their use for a particular use of formal or on the

contrary, they are found more frequently than originally PIE.Thus, in Latin and Germanic

dialects they are found in proverbs and statements, as in Old Irish, is found in Greek epic and

also in poetry.However, in Balto-Slavic dialects the pure nominal prayer became the usual kind

of prayer par, even when the predicate is an adverb or an adverbial case. However, such a use

that is more extended in modern dialects (and Russian) than in older (as Old Slavic), is

considered the result of influence Ural-Altaic.


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NOTE 2.Over time a prayer nominal required a verb, this development is as subjective

characteristic of PIE and ends that came to replace the markers for individual qualifier early

PIE.The various dialects no longer had a different kind of prayer equitable.Verbs might of

course be omitted through ellipsis. And remarkably, in Slavic prayers, was reintroduced

nominal, as shown by (1906-1908) Meillet.The reintroduction is probably a result of influence

from OV languages, such as the Finno-Ugric. Illustrates this phenomenon should be studied

those syntactic constructions and syntactic characteristics carefully before they could be

ascribed to inheritance.In North Germanic also a characteristic of OV was reintroduced, with

the loss of prefixes to the end of the first millennium AD.(Lehmann 1970). Yet despite these

influences subsequent OV must be assumed for PIE nominal prayers.

A. There are traces of Pure Prayers Ratings with a predicate made by an oblique case

of a noun or a prepositional combination, although they are not common to all Indo-

European dialects.

NOTE.Just beyond the Balto-Slavic examples (due to the influence Ural-Altaic), are found

some isolated examples, cf.Skr havyar Agnrmnu.a. raydhyai, "Agni is to be said with thesacrifices of men,"Gk. hpoige pair ka hlloi ke hi meantim.sousi, "near me (there are) others

who [particle] I(Mendoza)" praise.

B. In addition to these expansions through additional cases of nouns nonrequired,

could be expanded through prayers of particles.

NOTE.For Lehman, three subsets of particles came to be particularly important.One of these

is the game of preverbs as..Another is the set of connectives of prayer, as Hitt.Naked.The third

is the set of qualifier expressions, for example., M PIE."(Should) not. "An additional subset,

conjunctions introducing clauses will be discussed below in the section on clauses combination.

Preverbs are characterized distinctly being closely associated with verbs and modifying their

meaning / them.In their normal position / them if they arise directly before verbs (Watkins

1964).

Generally, therefore, ruled Concordance both members of the Pure Prayer Roll Call.

NOTE.Unlike the verb personnel and their complements (governed by inflection), the Prayer

Nominal confidence showed a strong concordance between subject and predicate as a feature

definitory: both require the same case and tended to have the same number and gender.

THE COPULA

Es of the copula is only necessary when introducing categories in recent verbal

morphology, like Time and Mood. So when is the Indicative Mood, and Time is neutral(no time or proverbs presented with neutral semantic) there s no need to use.

NOTE 1.The basic form of nominal sentences, however, was a matter of dispute.Some Indo-

Europeanists propose that the absence of a verb in nominal sentences is a result of an ellipse,

and assumes the underlying verb s - 'is'(Benveniste 1950).They support this assumption by

pointing to the need for such a verb if the prayer is rated in the past tense,

cf.Hitt.ABU.IAgenzuu.ala.e.ta, "My father was merciful."On the contrary, Meillet (1906-

1908), followed by Lehman and Mendoza, thought that nominal sentences did not require a verb

but a verb could be included for emphasis.This conclusion can be supported by noting that the

qualifiers could be used which were found in PIE in nominal sentences without a verb. As an

example we may cite a Hittite prayer that is negative and imperative, 1-a.1-l id.lu. menahhandaEdan, "One should not be bad for another. Even if a move were to be explicit, a form ofes could


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be used, as in SkrNakiri indra HDTV Uttar njy.y. asti, "nobody is taller than you, Indra, nor

greater."

NOTE 2.In the original meaning ofs, since Brugmann (1925) originally meant "there

is"therefore its use as a copula constructions in which the predicate expressed the existence of

the subject, as in Hom.Gk. Oduses Laertides eim, "I am Odysseus son of

Laertes (Mendoza)."In times of PIE had apparently other verbs (with similar meanings

of'exist') that could be used as a copulative, compare bhIE.,"there is, become, grow"(cf. O.

Ind. bhavati, or as supletives in Lat. I went past,O.Ir. ba, O. Lith. bvo, fut. bus, OCS

Impf.Beas, etc..)Wes Germanic'alive, more. "

I.1.3. PRAYER VERBAL

The simplest structure of Indo-European common prayer consists of a verb, ie driving

out of an action. This should be expressed none of the actors verbal (Subject and

Object). the subject is usually not mandatory and appears only when the object is

attached to the nature of the lexical verb.

NOTE.We expressed the older morphological categories, even while, in PIE by lexical means

and are found many remains of such a system, cf. Hitt.-Za (reflexive), modal particles in

Gk.and O. Ind., modal negation in some dialects of IE or the simple change in intonation that

made imperative interrogative or a declarative sentence.indeed, the imperative lacks a brand of

its own.

The relationship between subject and object is expressed by the case.

There is no clear morphological distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs

in Proto-Indo-European.

NOTE.Some Indo-European dialects specialize some verbal suffixes as transitive (causative)or intransitive, as Gk.-En, Gmc.-Io, Lat.-A, etc.., While in some others a preverbal combined

with a verbal root is the basic verb transitive or intransitive.

When subjects are explicitly expressed, the nominative case is used.

NOTE.Expression of the matter is the most prominent extension of simple prayers to include

more than one noun phrase.Besides such explicit mention of the subject, predicates may consist

of verbs accompanied by two or more nouns, in cases that complete the meaning of the verb

(vi).Such constructions must be distinguished from the inclusion of additional nouns whose

pack forms indicate adverbial use.

Few verbs are mandatorily accompanied by two nouns.

1. the use of the dative addition of the accusative, as in Skr andinof t.bhi.m.dehi

of Paris,the 'Deliver to these two. "

2. the instrumental and ablative, as Skr v.trm Ahan ...Indro vjre.a, 'Indra

killed ...Vr.tra screw with him. "Skr.tv.dsy.mr kaso AGNA. ja.,'You drove the

enemies of the house, O Agni. "

NOTE.While the addition to these sentences in which nouns are indicated by the instrumental

and the ablative is essential to the meaning of the lines in their context / them, need not be

included in prayer for syntactic reasons.

3. The causative accompanied by two accusative, as Skr dev.n. u.ata.p.yay.havi., 'Dothe gods wish to drink the libation. "


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In that condemns the agent-accusative represents the object of the causative element: as

Arthur A.Indicated Macdonell (1916), corresponding to a simple prayer would have been given

this noun in the nominative, as Skrdev.hav.pibanti, 'The gods drink the libation. "

Accordingly a simple verb in PIE was accompanied at the most before a noun, unless

the additional substantive was complementary or adverbial.LOCAL CASES: PREDICATES WITH TWO OR MORE NOUNS

Nonmandatory pack forms are found in great variety, as can be determined from

studies of substantive inflections and their uses / them. It identifies five groups of

adverbial elements: (1) circumstance, purpose or outcome, (2) time, (3) place, (4) way,

(5) means.

1) If additional forms can be used to indicate the purpose, results or circumstances of

an action.

So for example. Instrumental in the m. Skr. ay.on.suast, "Be gracious to us for our

well-being."

The Dative was generally used in this sense, as in the infinitive form Skr practical.

The. J.vse yur sum of tr'Extend our years, sum, to sustain us [so that we can live a

long time].'

NOTE.See Hitt.KuinmNana of Luin-nu-kan ANA DUMU.LUGAL stop Halukof mNuwanza

nehhun, 'and Prince NanaLUi.Nuwanza whom I had sent to carry the message 'where Hittite

dative nounHaluk. (Raman 1973).

Excited when a noun is involved, this use of the dative has been labeled the indirect

object, as Skr ri.kti k. ...ra.u.. pnth.m ya,'Black Night waive the way the red sun. "NOTE.How can these examples indicate, the dative, like the other cases must be interpreted

with reference to the lexical properties of the verbal element.

2) an additional prayer adverbial segment indicates the Time of Occurrence. The cases

in question are various, as in Skr div.nkta.. Asmd yuyotam arum,'day and night to

protect us from the arrow. "

NOTE.The divnominal form., which with change of accent is no longer an instrumental but

an adverbial form outside the paradigm and nkta accusative. differs significantly.The

instrumental and the locative, refers to a point in time, however the "dot" can be extended, the

accusative, for an extension of time.Discrepant cases provide different meanings for nounsmarked properly during the time of lexical category.

3) Place also indicate that nouns differ significantly according to the event as:

A. The Accusative indicates the goal of an action, as in Lat. R.mam. Re 'go to

Rome', Hitt. You.tarnahhe of alki.tan 'and those (birds) I release the branch'(Otten

and Sou.ek 1969:38 37).

B. The Instrumental indicates the place "upon which an action extends" (Macdonell

1916: 306): srasvaty.y.nti 'they go along the Sarasvati. "


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C. The Ablative indicates the starting point of the action: s rth.t pap.ta 'he fell from

his chariot', and the following example from Hittite (Otten and Sou.ek 1969): i. mit. Az

(.) L. AN.BARa lan.[D]. I, 'He takes the language of their mouths iron / them. "

D. The Locative indicates a point in space, for example., Skt divided 'in heaven'or the

locative kardithe following example of Hittite (Otten and Sou.ek): .mi kardi-would-a-

kan dahhun, 'And I took out that [disease that was] in his heart. "

Nouns with lexical features for place and time because they can be used in the same

sentence, as in Skr stam Upa nktam eti, 'It will overnight at the house. " Although

both nouns are in the Accusative, the differing lexical features lead to different

interpretations of the case. In this way, inflect markers combine with lexical features to

yield a wide variety of adverbial elements.

4) between the adverbial elements that are very diverse in surface forms is using this

way. Several cases are used as follows.A. The Accusative is especially frequent with adjectives such as Skt k.iprm 'fast'

Bahu 'greatly' Nyak 'descending'.

B. The Instrumental is also used in the plural, as in Skt mhobhi.'Powerful', but also in

the singular, Sahas. " ofsuddenly. "

Similar to the phrase so is the instrumentation used to express the sense of

accompaniment: Skr devbhir Devo.. gamat, 'May the god come [in such a way that

he is] accompanied by the other gods.

C. The ablative is also used to express certain way to a restricted number of verbs such

as expressing 'fear':rjante v.v.bh k.trm of i. .. ..,'All creatures tremble fearfully. "

5) Means of adverbial expressions are especially expressed by the instrumental, as

SkrAhan Indro v.trm... vjre.a, 'Indra killed... Vr.tra with screw him. " The noun

often involved using an instrument, cf. Hitt.Kalulupu.. Mu.hulaliemi of gapinit, 'I air

the thread around their fingers / them.

They can also be used so excited nouns. When they are, they indicate the

agent: agnn.turv.a.Yadu.par.vtaugr.deva.hav.mahe, 'Why we call it Agni Turvasa far,

Yadu and Ugradeva. This use led to the use of instrumental as the agent in passive

constructions.

I.2. DAMN MODIFIERS

I.2.1. INTONATION PATTERNS

The prayer was characterized in PIE by patterns and by Order of Selection.

One class selection was partly determined by turning, in part because the majority of

lexical categories that were covered.

NOTE.Some lexical categories were characterized at least in part by formal features, such as

abstract nouns marked by- you -, nouns in the religious sphere marked by- u - and collectively

marked by *- h.


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B. In addition to characterization by means of order and categories of selection, the

prayer was also delimited by intonation based on variations in pitch.

To the extent that the phonemes of PIE have been determined bid, a bid can be

posited that high could be in one syllable per word and a low bid that was not so

restricted.

NOTE.The location of the high bid is mainly determined by the Lehman evidence in Vedic; the

theory that this was inherited from PIE received important confirmation of Karl Verner's

demonstration of its maintenance in German (1875).So the frequently cited correlation between

the position of the Vedic accent perfect and the differing consonants in Germanic provided

decisive evidence for reconstruction of PIE accent bid but also to Verner's law, as in the perfect

forms (past tense) the root deik - , show.

PIE Vedic OE OHG

1

sg.

dedika did.a th zh

1

pl.

dedikm didi.im tigon zigum

Were characterized by a syllable words in a tone of high bid, unless they were enclitic,

that is, without a mark for accent.

Sharp words could lose the accent of their high bid / them if they were placed at

specific positions in sentences.

Vocative One of them lost the accent / them if they were median in a sentence orclause, and finite verbs have lost the accent of them / them unless they stand up

initially in an independent clause or in any position in a dependent clause in

Vedic. These same rules may be assumed for PIE. On the basis of two characteristic

patterns of loss of accent for verbs, characteristic patterns of intonation may also be

posited for the prayer of IE.

Judging on the basis of loss of high bid accent of verbs in them, independent clauses

were characterized by flow final bid. In order for the verb was unmarked in the last

clause.

However, clauses that are marked to indicate emphasis or subordination load, do not

suffer such a lowering. They can be distinguished with final

NOTE.The intonation pattern indicated by apparently carried the notion of an emotional or

emphatic utterance or requiring a supplement, such as by another clause.These findings are

supported by the patterns found in Germanic alliterative verse.For, as is well known, verbs were

frequently placed by poets in the room, nonalliterating, metrically prominent position in the

line: Thrymeodcyninga gefr.non of the people's-of-kings boast-we hear of, 'We hear of glory

of the kings of the people.This placing of verbs, retained by metrical convention in Germanic

verse, presumably maintains evidence for IE intonation pattern.For, by contrast, could

alliterative verbs when they arise initially in clauses or in subordinate clauses; Eorl of egsode,

syan weardof. rest, he-terrifiedmen since first he-was, 'He terrified the men he was the

first time [think]'. wordum of enden w.old Scyldinga entertain, as long-as-a-word with the


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he-friend-of-the-governed Scyldings.The patterns of alliteration in Germanic verse older

support the conclusions that were derived from Vedic accentuation on the intonation of the

Indo-European pray properly, as do patterns in other dialects.

Among such patterns is the preference for enclitic in second position in prayer (Wackernagel

1892).Words found in this position are particles, pronouns and verbs that have no accent in

Vedic texts.Wackernagel This observation supports the conclusion that the tone of the prayer

was characterized by high initial bid, his voice trailing off the end.For the enclitic elements were

not placed initially, but rather they occupied positions in which unaccented portions were

expected of words, as in Skrpr.vep.mbhat m.dayanti,'The high tree pendant make me

happy. "The m pronoun. 'I', such as other enclitic, makes up a sentence with the word original,

in this way it is comparable to unaccented syllables of individual words, as in

Skrprav.tej.ri.e vrv.tn,'[born] in a windy place, rolling on-board data'

A simple prayer then consisted not only in a unit accompanied by an intonation

pattern, but also subunit or phrases. These were identified by their accent / them and

also by patterns of late allowed.

I.2.2. PRAYER THAT LIMITS PARTICLES

The particles concerned are PIE naked,sofor, all introductory particles.

NOTE.The homonymity them / them with the adverb nu, nun and the anaphoric pronoun

was one of the reasons earlier Indo-Europeanists did not acknowledge their role and /

them.Although Delbrck had already noted the role of clause-introducing Skr sa (1888), as in

Skrtasyat.ni..r...i cicheda practical.Sa yat tataof somap.nam.sa.kapjala.abhavat Sam,'He hit it

out of their heads.Who drank the soma, was created brown chicken. "Delbrck identified sa in

this and other prayers as a particle and not a pronoun, for it does not agree in gender with a

noun in prayer.But it remained for Hittite to clarify the situation.In Hittite texts the introductory use of the particles is unmistakable (J. Friedrich 1960),

and ta. Uhappen especially in early texts, nakedin the latter, as illustrated in the following Old

Hittite example (Otten and Sou.ek 1969): wandering- a pe.iemi. u-u.Lu-an.natta au.zi 'I

throw a cloth over it and nobody will see. "

Besides such an introductory function (here as often elsewhere translated 'and'), these

particles were used as the first element in a chain of enclitic, as in in-.i '-and that for

him ", nu-mu-za -kan 'and ego-self in'and so on.

NOTE 1.In Homeric Greek such strings of particles follow different orders, but reflect the IE

construction, as in: SOI nude Etoro of Oude by Philon of entrpetai, Olmpie, 'But your heartdoes not notice, Zeus.As the translation ofperhere indicates, some particles were used to

indicate the relationships between clauses marking the simple prayer.

NOTE 2.Many simple sentences in PIE would then be similar to those in Hittite and Vedic

Sanskrit, such as those taken by the charming story of Delbrck. Atapathabr. Hma . To.Among

the simplest istoSkrIndro didve.a tam,'Indra hated him. "Presumablytam is a conflated form of

thetaand the enclitic particle accusative singular pronoun, the combination is attested in Hittite

as ta-an (J. Friedrich 1960).Besides the use of prayer-delimiting particles, these examples

illustrate the simplicity of prayer PIE.Of the fifteen prayers in history, only two have more than

one verb and noun form of these are adverbial as observed above. Similar examples could be

cited of other dialects early, as the inscription of Praeneste Italica, or Gallehus German

inscription:Ek HlewagastiR HoltijaR tawido Horn, 'I Hlewagastir Holt made the horn. "In

these recent texts, the subject was required and properly two nominal forms had come to be


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standard for prayer.If however the matter is not taken into account, many prayers contained

only one nominal element with verbs in dialects as well as in early PIE.

I.3. VERBAL MODIFIERS

I.3.1. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES

The injunctive has long been identified as a form unmarked for mood and was only

scheduled for stem and person. It may well be compared with the simplest form of OV

languages.

By contrast the Present indicative indicates "humor." We associate this additional

feature with the suffix - i and to assume that the declarative meaning.

NOTE 1. Yet it is also clear that until the Vedic Sanskrit and, we assume, Late PIE, the

injunctive no longer directly contrasted with the present indicative.We must conclude then that

the declarative qualifier was expressed by other means in prayer.We assume that the means of

expression was an intonation pattern.For, in normal cleared simple sentences, finite verbs were

not pronounced in the last clause of them / of them, as did the predicative elements of nominal

sentences; Delbrck repeatedly used example may be cited to illustrate the typical pattern once

more:VI.A. Bali k.atry.ya.Harant, 'The villagers pay tribute to the prince. "HarantSince the

word was not pronounced, ie not had any high bid, we can deduct the prayer for a normal

intonation pattern in which the final elements in prayer were followed by low bid.

NOTE 2.Lehman supports this assumption by noting that a distinctive suprasegmental was

used in Vedic distinguish a contrasting feature, interrogation or request(Wackernagel

1896).This marker, calledPluto by native grammarians, consisted of extra length, as

in gn.3i'the burn' (3 indicates extra length).But a more direct contrast with the intonation of

simple sentences may be exemplified by the accentuation of subordinate clauses.These stressed

verbs, as in the next line of the Rigveda: tapir.ACpr.g.bhav.si add, 'If you came in, you will beadditive.As the emphasis in bidg.indicates, verbs in subordinate clauses remained high bid, in

contrast with verbs of independent clauses as bhav.si.We can conclude that the high bid was an

element in an intonation pattern which indicated an incomplete state, a bit like the pattern of

contemporary English.

Evidence from other dialects supports the conclusion that, Declarative sentences were

indicated by an intonation pattern with a drop in stress at the end of the clause in

recent PIE.

NOTE.In Germanic verse, verbs of unmarked declarative sentences tend to occupy unaccented

positions on the line, notably the final position (Lehmann 1956).Although the expression of

surface stress patterns in Germanic is stress, rather than the flight of Vedic and PIE, the

coincidence of accentuation pattern supports our conclusions concerning PIE intonation.

the grammar of modern indo

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