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The Exeter School‐based PGCE: analternative initial teacher trainingmodelJon Nichol aa History Education Centre, School of Education, University ofExeter , Devon, EX1 2LU, EnglandPublished online: 03 Aug 2006.

To cite this article: Jon Nichol (1993) The Exeter School‐based PGCE: an alternative initialteacher training model, Journal of Education for Teaching: International research and pedagogy,19:3, 303-323

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Journal of Education for Teaching, Vol. 19, No. 3, 1993 303

The Exeter School-based PGCE:an alternative initial teachertraining modelJON NICHOLHistory Education Centre, School of Education, University of Exeter, Devon EX1 2LU,England

ABSTRACT During the 1980s in England several initial teacher training institutions indepen-dently developed school-based initial teacher training (ITT) courses. This coincided with theConservative government's political advisers' pressing for such a move and the governmentsubsequently decreeing that all 1-year postgraduate students will spend the bulk of their time inschools. For the past decade at the School of Education, University of Exeter, an unreportedHistory PGCE course has been run along these lines using long-established relationships withlocal school History departments. Close involvement with a school equips each student with theset of immediate skills and instrumental competencies they need to survive. School-experience isfully integrated with the university course. It aims to develop in students the complementaryattitudes, values, knowledge and understanding of the reflective practitioner which are seminalto their long-term membership of a profession.

INTRODUCTION

There has been a long-established discourse on teacher training in Britain, both ingeneral terms and with particular reference to the one-year full-time PostgraduateCertificate in Education (PGCE). During the past decade discussion has turned intoa debate on the current and future forms which initial teacher training should takein relation to both the BEd and PGCE routes (Bligh, 1984, p. 9; Furlong, 1988, pp.4-7; Barrow, 1990; Benton 1990), the role of separate disciplines such as history(Lamont, 1972; Booth, 1990; HMI, 1991) and the nature of training institutions'relationships with schools (Proctor, 1984; Furlong & Pocklington & Hirst & Miles,1988; Beardon & Booth & Hargreaves & Reiss, 1992). The teacher trainingcommunity in Britain has taken several initiatives to develop new training ap-proaches, both in response to pressure from the government's Department forEducation and in terms of its own internal debate on the form and nature ofeducation and its related teacher training provision. The best publicised for sec-ondary school pupils aged 11-18 have been at Sussex (Furlong, 1988, pp. 65-119),Oxford (Benton, 1990) and the Open University (Open University, 1992), althoughHirst has noted that there is a rich tradition in this area, (Hirst, 1990a), a patternconfirmed by the Modes of Teacher Education Research Project (Barret et al.,1992). Over the past 20 years there have been widespread attempts to develop

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school-based approaches to initial training, the most widely reported being at Sussexand Oxford Universities. Central to these has been the role of practising teacherswho act as the students' mentors within the schools. Below we discuss a previouslyunpublicised variant of a school-based course, the Alternative PGCE Course, at theSchool of Education, University of Exeter, with specific reference to PGCE History.This course attempts to deal with concerns raised about the dualism between tutors'and students' perceptions of teaching and teacher training, "Supervisors, free of thenovice teacher's fears, aware of the multiplicity of good practice and the unpre-dictable complexity of teaching situations, orientate towards a mixture of verygeneral principles in a quest to assist intelligently adaptable teaching competence.Students, stressed by the pressure of real-life learning demands, orientate towardsspecific effective procedures . . ." (Tomlinson, p. 169) The Alternative HistoryPGCE course has a model of training which reflects the "complex, hierarchical,creatively adaptive nature of human skill" (Tomlinson, p. 169). This involves theacquisition of related skills, competencies, professional knowledge and an under-standing of the nature of professional learning within the context of each student'sschool experience (Elliott, 1991).

Here we cast the students' school mentors and university tutors as members ofa team which both meets the immediate needs of students and equips them with ageneral framework of understanding which reflects wider concerns and interests.Such school-based training can provide a bridge between the liberal approach totraining which sees professional development as being the student's personal andrelatively undirected response to circumstances and a more purely instrumentalistone based upon tutored competencies. The medium for such training might be aschool-based course in which tutors and teachers combine to provide complemen-tary expertises and perspectives.

From 1981 onwards the PGCE History and Geography tutors at Exeterattempted to develop such a school-based PGCE course, the Alternative PGCECourse, on the initiative of the PGCE Geography tutor, Mr Bryan Stephenson. TheSchool of Education commissioned an external agency, the University's TeachingServices Centre, to evaluate the course in 1983/84 (Bligh, 1984). Following its pilotperiod the Alternative PGCE Course was amended in the light of the recommenda-tions of the evaluation, and it has continued in a modified form.

The Alternative PGCE Course consciously places the focus of the students'training in local schools, with the training institution cast in a supporting role. Thetutors take the local secondary schools' separate subject or faculty departments(Geography, History or Humanities) as the pivot for their students' training pro-gramme. To do this we attach the student to the school for the maximum amountof time possible from the start of the course. The standard Exeter PGCE secondarycourse had a 3-term pattern: term one university-based with a half or 1 day a weekof school experience, term two teaching practice and term three a return to theSchool of Education. The Alternative PGCE Course replaced the previous patternof term one school experience with a two-and-a-half-day a week school attachment,a pattern continued into the third term (Bligh, 1984, p. 2). The Alternative Courseneeds to be placed in a political context which considers that the training and

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education of teachers can occur on the job and which eschews teacher educators'role in the professional development of novice teachers (Gilroy, 1992).

THE POLITICAL CONTEXT

The debate on teacher training has had two dimensions, the educational and thepolitical. Before 1988-89 the debate was predominantly educational. Teacher edu-cators responded to a number of government initiatives transmitted through theDepartment of Education and Science (DES) to improve the quality of existinginitial teacher training (ITT) courses.

The second element in the post-1980 debate is the political one, and from1988-89 this factor has dominated (Swanwick, 1990). Gilroy (1992) has fullyanalysed the failure of the government to engage in any form of dialogue withprofessionals involved in teacher education, and its development of policies basedupon unsubstantiated dogma. Through the involvement of political activists(O'Hear, 1988; Cox, 1989, p. 17), and pressure groups like the Hillgate Group andthe Centre for Policy Studies (Hillgate Group, 1989; Hargreaves, 1990; Lawlor,1990), teacher training has been drawn into the arena of political controversy, anaspect of the increasing politicisation of education in the late 1980s. When Harg-reaves, the professor of Education at Cambridge University, launched his initiativeadvocating placing students in teaching schools as an alternative to teacher traininginstitutions, he put the teacher training controversy firmly in the political arena.Indeed, he expressed surprise that the then Conservative government's Secretary ofState, Kenneth Baker, had not extended his zeal to teacher training (Hargreaves,1989, p. 22), something for which we should perhaps be thankful. In reply toresponses from teacher educators who wished to keep teacher training an arcaneactivity, Hargreaves pointed out the threat to their existence from the radical rightif teacher training did not put its own house in order (Hargreaves, 1990). Indeed,Hargreaves' initial sally bears the hallmark of a prescient pre-emptive strike againstpolitical prescription.

In 1990 teacher training was, as Hargreaves intimated, dragged into the centreof the arena of political debate with the publication of the Conservative Party'spolitically influential Centre for Policy Studies (CPS) pamphlet Teachers Mis-taught—training in theories or education in subjects? The CPS is a right-wing think-tankwhich had direct access to the government in the premiership of Margaret Thatcher(1979-89), and subsequently. CPS involvement posed a serious threat to thesurvival of established methods of teacher training, with explicit proposals beingmade for the abolition of the PGCE and the institutions which provide it. "Theexisting Education Departments should be disbanded" (Lawlor, 1990, p. 38). Insetting the agenda for political control and direction over initial teacher training theCPS appears to have had a profound influence (Brown, 1991; MacLeod, 1991).The CPS pamphlet was carefully argued, with a full scholarly apparatus, eventhough this apparatus has been subject to trenchant criticism (TES, 1990a; Gilroy,

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1992). The CPS supported the concept of apprenticing students to schools insteadof basing their training in specialist institutions. After an examination of alternativeworking models—those of France, Germany and Jersey—to that in England, theCPS came up with an uncompromising alternative to the current pattern of traininggraduates through the one-year Postgraduate Certificate of Education. "Instead oftaking the PGCE, graduates would be sent to the schools to train on the job,designated to an experienced mentor—a senior teacher in the subject. Full guideli-nes for the hours to be spent in teaching; for observing, for taking sole responsibilitywould be drawn up. The mentor would attend the trainees' classes and guide theirpreparation and organisation of lessons. The trainee would have a lighter timetablethan a trained teacher" (Lawlor, 1990, p. 38).

The CPS model is one of several which use the example of training in otherprofessions as their basis for initial teacher training. Medical training is a favouriteanalogy. Hargreaves felt that teacher training should mirror that based on teachinghospitals where "some of the consultants are lecturers and professors in theuniversity; they are both practitioners and educators" in stark contrast to allegedPGCE practice (Hargreaves, 1989, p. 22). Baroness Cox (Minister of State forEducation) took the training of nurses with its experiential base as her pattern forteacher training. "Even now, when moves are afoot for reform in nursing educationto allow more time to be spent, inter alia, on subjects such as pharmacologyand physiology, the profession is still deeply committed to retaining a large core ofsupervised practice for the essential process of learning by doing and by emulatinggood role models" (Cox, 1989, p. 17). The issue of using training modelsdrawn from other professions and the whole question of untested assumptionsabout both the meaning and value of the apprenticeship model has receivedcritical consideration elsewhere (Swanwick, 1990, p. 203). However, teachertraining can draw upon and adapt elements of training in other areas such as policetraining and postgraduate medical education as Elliott has trenchantly indicated,with particular emphasis upon the model of the trainee as reflective practitioner(Elliott, 1991).

The debate on initial teacher training has taken an increasingly ominous formfor existing providers, with the very existence of teacher training in its present formbeing called into doubt, (Perry, 1991; Lodge, 1991). At the time of writing thedebate has developed further, with a clear indication that the government intends toplace initial teacher training under the direct control of schools (Hughes, 1992). TheCentre for Policy Studies PGCE model, based as it is upon apprenticing students toschools, assumes either that the school can provide both the specialised generaleducational inputs and the detailed pedagogical training and education required orthat these are unimportant. Likewise, the Hargreaves model underestimates theimportance of the teacher training institution in providing both these dimensions. Intransferring its role to the teaching schools he implicitly assumes that such knowl-edge can be acquired within the context of training schools. He fails to provide anysupporting evidence that the training schools either possess or can develop thesespecialisms (Beardon et al, 1992). The Exeter Alternative PGCE Course suggeststhat such specialist input is an essential element in training.

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THE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE

Through its attempt to blend theory and practical experience, the Exeter AlternativePGCE Course may meet many of the criticisms which have been levelled at PGCEcourses during the post-1981 debate on teacher training. The Alternative PGCEcourse is based upon a theoretical framework of how students develop the knowl-edge and expertise to become members of a profession. The framework has fourrelated elements:

• that theoretical (know that) and practical (know how), knowledge should beintertwined, mutually reinforcing and progressive;

• that students require specialised instruction in the pedagogy of their subject orsubjects to relate the domain knowledge of their academic discipline to a new formof teaching knowledge which reflects this;

• that teaching is a profession whose practice is analogous to a performing art withthe novice teacher being inducted into the profession through a close workingrelationship with a practising professional or professionals within the context of aschool;

• that practical teaching knowledge, praxis, is a form of understanding that dependsupon the context within which it is practised and developed.

Theories of Teacher Training

Theories of teacher training have passed through four stages: the apprenticeshipmodel, theory into practice, a-theoretical pragmatic adaptation (Hirst, 1990a, pp.147-48), and practice intertwined with theory (Barrow, 1990). The fourth stage,practice intertwined with theory can be related to Schon's rationalisation of teachingas an art, and a performing one at that (Schon, 1987), as opposed to an activitybased upon technical rationality which sees the application of rules-governed expertknowledge (Furlong et ah, 1988, p. 121). The Exeter course shares Schon'stheoretical perspective but was developed independently of it. Like Schon, we seeteaching as an activity which applies knowledge drawn from particular circum-stances to new, analogical instances. Professional knowledge as opposed to noviceknowledge depends upon an empirically-grounded reflective process (Hirst, 1990b,pp. 84-86). Reflection draws upon a repertoire of ideas, rationalised practices,instances and exemplars directed towards a goal or goals within the particularsituation which faces the teacher.

The Novice Teacher

Novice teachers initially have an impoverished repertoire to rely upon (Furlong etal, 1988, p. 125). The novice repertoire is based upon inchoate knowledge rootedin personal experience and memory of his or her own schooling, folk lore and extraeducational experience. The development, enrichment and application of a new

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repertoire to replace novice with expert knowledge has practical activity dealing withactual classroom teaching situations at its core. Such practice is implicitly orexplicitly linked to theory.

To argue that school-based knowledge is purely practical and pragmatic incontrast to college-based theory is a false and fruitless dichotomy (Beardon, 1992,pp. 8-9). Barrow noted the elements in reflection which need to be grounded intheory, pointing out that teachers have to "come to an understanding of the basicdisciplines of philosophy, history, sociology and psychology, which have, tradition-ally, and correctly, been seen as the basic elements in educational theory. Whetherpeople need to study them formally, or whether they can pick them up by introspec-tively dwelling on their own experiences, is a purely empirical question, but onesurely has little doubt of the answer, now that the precise nature of the question isclear" (Barrow, 1990, p. 311). We would add to Barrow's list the need to acquirea pedagogy which is subtle, extensive and grounded in transferring and translatingan academic discipline's principles and practices into classroom activities. This is atopic of current academic concern (McNamara, 1991), and in terms of an EnglishNational Curriculum couched in terms of discrete subject areas it has become ofparamount importance to the government (DFE, 1992b).

Students as Reflective Practitioners

The Exeter Alternative PGCE Course reflects these theoretical concerns, and reliesupon close liaison between schools' departments and the training institutions'individual subject tutors. De facto it involves a form of mentoring in which thestudent is cast as a reflective practitioner with continual interaction with andguidance from a practising professional, i.e. the teacher to whom the student isattached. Here we are mirroring many of the conditions which Schon noted in thetraining of professionals in other areas (Schon, 1987). The key element is reflectionupon those experiences within a framework of expert tuition and guidance. Under-pinning this is a carefully framed and monitored programme of involvement andinteraction, including a development of the skills of teacher as researcher whichSkilbeck highlights (Skilbeck, 1992). Such a model reflects Elliott's, and would meetthe legitimate concerns which Elliott raises concerning school-based courses whichtrap students in a "redundant occupational culture and the obsolete practices itsustains. This culture embodies an 'infallible expert' model of professionalism, andis the source of the crude stereotypes which shape the learning experiences ofchildren and determine their educational opportunities" (Elliott, 1991, p. 315). Anadditional danger is the student being thrown back upon an alternative and evenmutually reinforcing redundant occupational culture, that of his or her own schoolexperience.

The alternative to professional training based on a team of teacher educatorsand practising teachers is the acquisition of expertise through an 'exposure' modelwhich is atavistic in nature. Theory is meaningless without reference to the actualityof the school, practice can only be rationalised in terms of the insights which theoryprovides. However, to accord theoretical knowledge a higher status than practical

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knowledge in a profession which can be seen as a performing art is at the best adubious distinction. Throughout this paper we will use Furlong's model as areference point:

Level (a) Direct PracticePractical training through direct experience in schools and classrooms.Level (b) Indirect Practice'Detached' training in practical matters usually conducted in classes orworkshops within training institutions Level (c) Practical PrinciplesCritical study of the principles of practice and their use Level (d) Disci-plinary TheoryCritical study of practice and its principles in the light of fundamentaltheory and research. (Furlong, 1988, p. 132)

Hirst seeks a solution to the problems of progression in the Furlong model inthe student as reflective practitioner, an area he recognises as being difficult andproblematic (Hirst, 1990b, pp. 85-86). Likewise, Mclntyre has argued that teachingexpertise arises from a continuous interaction between the four levels, with theoret-ical perspectives being enriched from practical experience, and vice versa (Mclntyre,1990, pp. 17-34).

The Integrated Model

The intertwining of theory and practice, with the thrust of training being theprofessional relationship between the teacher and trainee turns Furlong's four-levelmodel of the development of professional knowledge into one which is non hierar-chical in which all the elements are interlocked and inter related. To explain howstudents can move in this pattern from being 'novices' to 'experts' we refer to threeideas: script theory, the development of understanding in relation to theories of peerinteraction and the concept of situated cognition. Script theory helps explain thenature of the professional expertise of students, peer interaction research suggestshow student-tutor and student-teacher relations promote script acquisition anddevelopment while theories of situated cognition suggest that the knowledge embod-ied in scripts is best acquired within or in relation to the context of the classroom.

Script Theory

Central to changing novice into expert knowledge is altering student perceptions,attitudes, understandings and behaviour and relating these to teaching which in-volves largely verbal skills. Gliessman & Pugh (1984, pp. 195-96) highlighted theimportance of the conceptualisation of teaching skills to produce conceptualschema. "These schema are modified through feedback from the process of teach-ing; modified schema in turn influence the teaching process itself." Such schema canalso be called 'scripts'. Schank developed the idea of scripts in 1977 to analysehuman cognition in relation to the developing area of Artificial Intelligence research.To Schank schema are made up of related mental 'slots'. "A script is a structure that

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describes appropriate sequences of events in a particular context. A script is madeup of slots and requirements about what can fill those slots. The structure is aninterconnected whole and what is in one slot affects what can be in another. Scriptshandle stylized everyday situations" (Schank, 1977, p. 42). Schank's original con-ception of a script was too rigid, and has been modified to accept that scripts can bedynamic and flexible (Schank, 1986, p. 6). The concept of scripts is of generalapplication, and can be applied to particular, similar circumstances.

Scripts are analogical in nature in terms of teaching skills, competencies and arepertoire of approaches. Student teachers develop hundreds of scripts to deal withthe innumerable different yet similar teaching situations they encounter. Scriptscover the whole gamut of educational practice from the taking of a register to theestablishment of relationships with pupils during a play rehearsal. Within a lessonteaching scripts provide the teaching strategy and its implementation for specificteaching situations, such as drama, simulation and working on original documents.The related slots and requirements in a teaching script are drawn from differentaspects of the teacher's professional craft knowledge. John's (1991) analysis ofHistory teachers' professional craft knowledge and Booth's model for evaluating aPGCE History course, (Booth et al., 1990, p. 101) suggest that a teaching script'sslots would tie into these elements:

(i) beliefs, values and attitudes;(ii) subject content—propositional, conceptual, procedural and analogical subject

knowledge;(iii) the lesson's general aims, and specific objectives;(iv) the teaching strategy to be adopted, with ideas on

—communication,—management of the teaching strategy within the context of classroom

management;(v) allowance for the dynamic interplay between teaching strategies and lesson

goals;(vi) knowledge of individual pupils, pupil groups and the class ethos;

(vii) knowledge of the institutional and class context within which the teaching willoccur;

(viii) the teaching and learning with which the pupils are already familiar;(ix) evaluation of classroom teaching and learning.

Teaching scripts are what teachers carry inside their heads when they teach.Each is like a recipe in a cookery book; it implies generalised knowledge aboutcooking and the kitchen, specific knowledge concerning the ingredients of therecipe, practical knowledge about how to execute the steps given in the recipe andjudgment about the management of the actual cooking. Unlike most recipes,teaching scripts are in a constant process of adaptation and change, and new scriptsdraw upon the reservoir of experiences encoded in previous scripts. A lesson can bemade up of numerous scripts, some only lasting seconds, from the organisation ofpupil entry into a room to the different phases in the actual teaching. The acquisi-tion of a repertoire of professional scripts is at the heart of the novice teachers'

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development. Central to the Alternative PGCE Course at Exeter University is amodel of teacher training which sees the putative teacher move from novice toproto-expert through the acquisition of scripts for both teaching and other aspectsof the teacher's craft.

Training as a Social Activity

Student acquisition of scripts occurs through interaction with tutors, teachers andpupils within the context of a one-year programme. Scripts are a form of sociallyacquired knowledge. In teacher training we have an asymmetrical situation in whichthe teachers and tutors possess the expert knowledge the student will acquire. In theschool context the novice learns from exploring possible solutions to teachingproblems with the teachers and relating these to his or her own perceptions. Theresolution of the cognitive conflict between the student's and teachers' perceptionsand solutions results in the student developing his or her understanding. Learninginvolves both socio-cognitive conflict and cooperation, each with different learningstrategies. "Our findings . . . suggest that verbally explicit planning, negotiation andinterpretation of feedback play a role in facilitating problem-solving. Parallel workwith adults . . . in which we have examined the information searching strategiesmore closely confirms that the demands of having a partner tends to force moredetailed forward-planning, in advance of embarking on a particular solution path"(Light, 1991, p. 6).

HMI investigations confirm the need to place students' acquisition of expertknowledge in the social context of the school. Here the beginning teacher iscontinually engaged in interaction with experienced teachers in relation to thestudent's classroom observation and practice. Using three HMI/DES publicationson teaching, Broadhead (1987) indicates a DES view of the professional teacherwhich underlies DES prescriptions for initial training courses. The DES modelindicates five areas in which the teacher needs to acquire professional knowledge,understanding and related skills. In turn, these areas break down into discreteelements such as 'able to control the class'. Broadhead identifies and numbers theelements. The first figure in brackets indicates the number of elements in each areawhich depend upon classroom experience, the second the total number. Theelements are: professional behaviour < 4/6 > , personal characteristics < 11/12 > ,organisational abilities < 8/8 > , perceptive qualities < 7/7 > and information gath-ering and evaluative skills < 8/8 > .

Situated Cognition

The third theoretical perspective relates to the actual form of knowledge whichstudents acquire. Theories of situated cognition argue that knowledge which issuperficially the same is in fact radically different according to its context. Theknowledge is contextualised, and draws its meaning from the circumstances in whichit develops. "The embedding circumstances efficiently provide essential parts of itsstructure and meaning. So knowledge, which comes coded by and connected to the

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activity and environment in which it is developed, is spread across its componentparts much as the final picture on a jigsaw is spread across its component pieces"(Brown & Collins, 1991, p. 257). Transferability of knowledge crucially dependsupon the circumstances to which the knowledge is being adapted being similar.Linked to the theory of situated cognition is that learning occurs through cognitiveapprenticeship. "Cognitive apprenticeship supports learning in a domain by en-abling students to acquire, develop, and use cognitive tools in authentic domainactivity" (Brown & Collins, 1991, p. 257).

In terms of training teachers the three strands of our theoretical framework,scripts, peer interaction and situated cognition, return us to the ideas of reflectivepractice and students working under the guidance of a professional, the mentor.Taking the four-level Furlong model as our basis (cited earlier), but treating it asbeing non-hierarchical with all of its nodes interconnected, we can see that the tutorand teacher training institution provides the bulk of the knowledge at levels b-d:indirect practice, practical principles and disciplinary theory. But, the crucial level islevel a: direct practice. Here the novice is able to develop the scripts of theprofessional practitioner which see him or her transmuted from the novice teacherat the start of the course to the proto-professional by its end. The school subjectspecialist department plays the crucial role, primarily as the repository of thepractical knowledge the beginning teacher needs in terms of level a's classroomteaching.

Overlap occurs at levels b, c and d between the teacher training institution andthe school. Students in school will develop a rich understanding of the overallworking of a school and theoretical insights drawn from involvement in both theclassroom and the school in general and with its community. How did this modeltranslate into practice at Exeter from 1981 onwards?

THE EXETER ALTERNATIVE PGCE COURSE

What axioms underlie the Exeter Alternative PGCE Course? What form does theAlternative Course take on the ground? What is the school-based departmentalmodel of training which it advocates? Underpinning our theoretical framework is ourfirst axiom which requires tutors to be action researchers and reflective practitionersin their subject specialism. Overall the PGCE tutor should have a continuinginvolvement in the teaching of children, similar to the role of a teaching surgeon ina medical school, in order to provide a dimension to a student's training which aschool department alone cannot give. Perhaps teacher trainers need not only to beabreast of current developments in theoretical terms, but should also have continu-ing practical experience of the approaches being advocated, i.e. the tutor should bethe ultimate reflective practitioner, particularly in a context where demands are in astate of constant change. To be at the leading edge of the interface between theoryand practice means the tutor is a curriculum developer engaging in action research.The action research has to be both continual and long-term if it is to feed back intothe training of students. In the Alternative Course the PGCE tutor works withteachers and pupils in school on average a day a week throughout the school year.

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Axiom one perfectly meets the concerns of Cox (1989), Hargreaves (1989),Lawlor (1990) and the DES (1989, p. 7) about PGCE tutors not possessing thenecessary experiential and theoretical knowledge to run a professionally crediblecourse, and in detail it also reflects the Cox and Hargreaves medical school model.There is a difference between PGCE tutors having the practical knowledge whichmost experienced heads of department and teachers possess and the expertise basedupon a theoretical and practical involvement in the most up-to-date approaches toteaching, assessment and curriculum change within the subject area. If PGCE tutorsonly possess the former kind of knowledge in an increasingly dated form, potentiallyteachers in school may take over their mentoring role, a principle which indeedunderlies the Open University's Postgraduate Certificate in Education (Open Uni-versity, 1992).

The tutor's role as an action researcher is reflected in the PGCE Historycourse's input. Its pattern of training is based upon an exposure model of teachingwhich reflects domain knowledge and processes, mirroring the pattern which Knightdiscovered in the teaching of History in the primary school (Knight, 1991). Here wetreat knowledge of approaches to teaching as central to the transmuting of subjectknowledge into teaching subject knowledge, thus reflecting one of the concernsShulman charted (McNamara, 1991). We consciously attempt to provide teachingscripts for students to adapt to the learning situations which Booth et al. highlight asbeing at the heart of successful teaching (Booth et al, 1990, p. 104).

In common with many other PGCE History courses the one at Exeter Historycovers in detail the theory and practice of the teaching of History. Students receivea course handbook, a classroom observation schedule booklet (Nichol, 1984), andreaders which contain detailed information on teaching History. In term one themain subject sessions last for up to 2 days a week, and see the students workingthrough literally hundreds of classroom approaches, strategies and learning situa-tions, each of which constitutes a teaching script. For example, there are teachingscripts for roughly 30 different ways of handling pictorial evidence, about 20different approaches to gaming and simulation and innumerable methods of usingdocumentary material, textbooks, video and artefacts with children. The emphasis ison history as an active subject, with the students being able to draw on a vastreservoir of ideas and approaches to adapt to their school situations. All of these arerelated to the tutor's own action research.

Our second axiom is more contentious, and mirrors to a certain degreeHargreaves' view of teaching schools. We stated that a student's training should be"school and not college-based" (University of Exeter, School of Education, docu-ment 1, 1983), as we wanted to involve our students in the ethos of a school and itseveryday working life. Initially this meant 2 full days a week for the first term;subsequently we extended this time in school to two-and-a-half days. The Historystudents work either alone or in pairs within a History department which has agreedto supervise them. Within the two-and-a-half days each student negotiates time withthe school to undertake a programme of observation, teaching and general involve-ment in school life. Negotiation is of paramount importance; in effect the studentcreates a contract between him or herself and the school concerned. The School of

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Education can only advise as to the form which that contract might take. What doesthis two and a half days involve? The student course booklet notes three strands:

. . . you [the student] will observe a wide range of history classes, and seeall their teaching instead of isolated lessons. Participate in teachingwherever this is possible. This could include whole class teaching, group orindividual work, and the preparation of materials. Participate where possi-ble in the general life of the school. This will involve tutorial work, andinvolvement with remedial classes and non-examination pupils at 14 plus.Also, if you have a special expertise the school might wish to use, pleasemake it available. (University of Exeter, PGCE History Course Handbook,1989).

To back up this involvement is a schedule of work and observation within the schoolwhich feeds back into the course in college.

A key element is working with pupils, either individually, in groups or throughwhole class teaching. Whole class teaching commences as soon as the teacherconsiders that the student is ready, usually 3-4 weeks into the course. As part oftheir school-based programme the students have to complete a full programme ofobservation schedules, using the Teacher Education Project formula, during theirfirst two terms (Nichol, 1984). Each schedule requires detailed classroom observa-tion or research into an aspect of:

1. a day in the life of a History teacher, in which the student monitors a teacher'sprogress through the day;

2. teacher interaction with pupils;3. questions in the classroom;4. the History Department;5. discussion leadership skills;6. history teaching and language across the curriculum;7. lesson planning;8. management techniques and teaching skills;9. teaching slow learners;

10. teaching quick learners;11. group work;12. handling ideas and concepts;13. pupil assessment;14. How to evaluate a History Department.

During the second, teaching practice term the students undertake research intoaspects of the school. At the end of the teaching practice term the students widentheir experience through tutoring on a 2-day sixth form residential conference. Inthe summer term the course members continue their attachment to the same schoolas in the previous two terms, and undertake special projects for the school. In thefirst 2 years of the course 60-70% of the students were able to have a whole yearattachment to one school. By 1990 this figure rose had risen to around 90%.

The third axiom is to devolve to school tutors within the main subject depart-ment responsibility for the development of the student. The core of the Alternative

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PGCE Course is the professional working partnership between the PGCE tutors atthe School of Education and individual subject departments within the local schoolcommunity. This liaison is based upon the PGCE tutor's being a member of thelocal school community through full involvement in the LEA's in-service provision,departmental meetings of local heads of History, curriculum development work inrelation to both GCSE and A Level, the holding of conferences at the School ofEducation on matters of current importance and frequent visits to schools in relationto both teaching history and the supervision of students. The Alternative PGCECourse was established through personal negotiation between the PGCE tutor andthe heads of departments in schools where the PGCE tutor felt there was a positiveenvironment for students to be trained. The head of department is the key figure insupervising students and working out their programmes of involvement in theschool. In 1990 this crucial role was recognised through the organisation of atraining day for the relevant departmental heads. Indeed, the school departments'training role reflects the recognition of them as a major element in implementingcurriculum decisions and change (Eggleston, 1977).

Initiation of a student into the range of activities involved in becoming aprofessional teacher is based upon the student's becoming a participating member ofa school community. Student participation in school and departmental life has manyfacets, including schools mounting tutorials for students, individual staff takingresponsibility for aspects of student work, the constant interchange of advice andideas in the staffroom and the development of a working relationship betweenstudents and teacher, both whilst team teaching and while sharing responsibilitiesfor tutoring classes of pupils. It is only through the interaction with the school tutorthat a student is able to absorb a school's ethos and share the professional attitudesand values of the department to which s/he is attached and develop a range ofgeneral and teaching scripts.

The fourth axiom ties in closely with Furlong's model. Training is seen as anintegrated process covering three areas: the specific teaching of the pedagogy of thestudent's specialist main subject; general pedagogical issues (related to educationalpsychology, developmental psychology and the nature of the classroom and schooland its relationship to society) and pastoral concerns. Pastoral issues include thesocial aspect of schooling, the multicultural and ethnic perspective, active tutorialwork and dealing with children with Special Educational Needs. An integrated,holistic approach blurs the edges between specific skills training and the generaleducation of the student. The Alternative Course is based on enabling a continualwidening and deepening of experience which will move the student teacher along thecontinuum from being a novice to a professional.

For the first term at the School of Education the students have a general courselecture programme for 1 day a week which deals with topics such as developmentalpsychology, current issues in education, language development, classroom teachingand management, the school curriculum and tutorial and pastoral systems. Sessionsin the main subject course and the student's pattern of school-based activities andobservation are linked to the general course. Thus when language development is onthe general course agenda we explore this element in History teaching with specific

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reference to the use of language in History lessons in the school to which the studentis attached. Similarly, when the general course examines Special Educational Needs(SEN) provision the students complete the observation schedule dealing with slowand quick learners in their schools and study SEN in relation to History teaching.The extent of integration between the school, general and subject courses can begauged from the four general course assignments in the Michaelmas term:

(a) an analysis of the behaviour, work and learning problems of a special needspupil;

(b) an investigation of two of the following:the school's curriculumthe option system in the schoolchanges in curriculum provision for non-academic pupils in years 10 and 11the reasons behind any recent or pending change in one subject areathe school's policy on gender;

(c) a report on pupils' perception of tutor-group time and the operation of thetutorial system from the form tutor, year head, head of house or section andschool counsellor or deputy head in charge of the tutorial system;

(d) an investigation of any issue which is currently under debate in the school.

Overall we aim to deal with the four traditional areas of educational under-standing; philosophical issues involving both education and the domain-specificnature of historical knowledge; psychological considerations both in terms of learn-ing the subject and general issues of child development; sociological concernsrelating to school and classroom; and an historical perspective of the educationalsystem. Furlong's model of training becomes one in which there is continualinterchange between the levels, but with them all focusing on level a: practicaltraining through direct experience in schools and their classrooms (Furlong, 1988,p. 32).

The final axiom is to equip students to be reflective practitioners. As such, heor she is equipped with the necessary expertise and understanding to undertakeprofessional development and renewal throughout a teaching career. The student istrained to do this through undertaking a written assignment, piece of teachingmaterial or an observation schedule on each aspect of their school involvement andkeeping a personal, reflective journal of their experiences. Reflection even involvesresearch in the second term, when the student has to "Produce an assessment of thepastoral system in your teaching practice school . . . The essay will be a small pieceof case-study research. Follow carefully the instructions concerning how to under-take such research" (University of Exeter, S. of E., PGCE History, 1989).

EVALUATION OF THE ALTERNATIVE PGCE COURSE

How effective is the school-based approach? What evidence is there that studentsdevelop professional expertise in the form of scripts as reflective practitionersthrough interaction with their mentors and the development of contextually-basedknowledge and understanding earlier? In reality, is the course based on its five

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axioms? The Bligh evaluation (1984, discussed in the Introduction), throws light onthese questions. The evaluation's brief was to evaluate the comparative effectivenessof the school-based alternative course vis-d-vis the existing theory-into-practicemodel.

The aims of the Bligh evaluation proved difficult to specify. Several generalhypotheses emerged from discussions with the tutors, and although difficult to test,the evaluators considered that they were both reasonable and significant (Universityof Exeter, School of Education, document 7, 1984). The hypotheses were that,compared with normal PGCE course, students taking the alternative would display:

(a) greater confidence in the classroom,(b) more competent teaching skills,(c) a different attitude to teaching,(d) less knowledge of general educational theory,(e) less well-developed opinions on educational theory,(f) greater ability to relate general educational theory to teaching practice,(g) more favourable attitudes to their course.

The evaluation involved a comparative study of the alternative courses' Historyand Geography cohorts with those of the existing Biology and English PGCEgroups. Biology and English were chosen because they were the subjects whosetraining pattern matched most closely History and Geography. The main differencebetween the existing and the alternative courses was the school experience ofstudents in their first term, and their attachment to the same school for the rest thecourse during both teaching practice and extended school experience in the summerterm.

The evaluations methodology was a student opinionnaire, the students' percep-tions of a critical incidents video and the structured interviewing of the 47 studentsand the 60 teachers who supervised the PGCE students in all four subjects. Theopinionnaire consisted of 92 factors on a nine-point scale, and was subject to bothfactor analysis and examination of individual factors. Students completed theopinionnaire at the end of the first term in college and again at the end of the secondterm, which was given over to teaching practice. The opinionnaire and the inter-views provided evidence that the Alternative PGCE Course students were moreconfident about undertaking their teaching practice at its start. Bligh analyses furtherthe meaning of 'confidence'. "The confidence of alternative course students inDecember relates not only to the use of visual aids, to the use of other preparedmaterials, to professional relationships in the classroom, to a willingness to riskinnovations in teaching and to the special techniques of their subject, it includes theanticipation of greater job satisfaction, greater determination to teach better thanthey were taught and the standards of work they expect from their pupils" (Bligh,1984, p. 44).

The interviews with the teachers during the second half of teaching practicesuggested that students had acquired a repertoire of scripts relating to their needs asnovice teachers. Positive responses from the teachers to the attachment of students

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to school departments in the first term was extremely strong for both Geography andHistory, comments on the History course were as follows.

Intimate contact with the same schools before teaching practice invalu-able—I know it has 100% support from school. Early school experiencegood. Students who were here last term not regarded by children as otherstudent teachers—get over a lot of the hurdles in the first term. The waythe course has been run over the last two years has been very valuable—giv-ing the students confidence—so they are not too frightened of getting intoclass. School experience is excellent, "I do therefore I understand." (Uni-versity of Exeter, School of Education, document 7, 1984)

Response to the critical incident video and student interviews reinforced the impres-sion that the alternative students were generally better prepared in relation to thesituations they were to face in the classroom. The following five paragraphs give theevaluation's interim findings.

There was some (admittedly impressionistic) evidence from the criticalincident responses and from interviews that students from the alternativecourse focused more quickly on specific issues in educational situationsthan students on the normal course. One could say that students on thealternative course focused quickly because they were narrow-minded anddid not consider all aspects of a situation; or one could say that theirgreater classroom experience enabled them to eliminate quickly certaininterpretations of a critical situation.

All the students' responses to questions on each critical incident werelisted and, where two or more responses were similar, a tally was kept. Inresponse to 'What should the teacher have done?' questions English andBiology students focused more upon the teacher's preparation. Alternativecourse students did not give more responses concerned with the teacher'sclassroom technique than those from the normal course, but these practicalconcerns seemed to be more prominent in their thinking. Of course,preparation and technique cannot be totally separated, but when asked tolist features of the teacher's organisation they might wish to change Englishand Biology students were more likely to say: 'Needs a definite beginningto the lesson', 'Should rehearse reading', 'Strategy for giving out the papershould be sorted out beforehand', 'Should have some visual aids' and 'Theteacher's desk and bookcase show obvious signs of disorganisation'. Agreater proportion of the alternative course students said: 'Should have animmediate task for them to do', 'Should make himself visible and in chargefrom the start', and 'Should have insisted on quiet when he's talking'.

It might be expected that if those on the normal course had littleexperience of teaching in a classroom, their responses to the 'What shouldthe teacher have done?' questions would be less practical than suggestionsmade by members of the alternative course. Any such judgment of whatis practical is a subjective one, but I think there is some confirmingevidence for this expectation. Two critical incidents showed a second yearclass in a state of pandemonium. When asked what the teacher should do,

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some English and Biology students recommended that the teacher shouldget the children "to draw a map for themselves and add details", and "Toread for themselves and summarise in their own words" and to "To writecreatively"; and that the teacher should "make four or five stand inopposite corners of the room" and should "allow a settling in time". Thejudgment that these suggestions would probably not have been successfulin the circumstances is emphatically not to say that the English and Biologycourses are producing less practically-orientated teachers. It may suggestthat the alternative course students are learning these practicalities earlier;correspondingly they may not have learned some other skills at that stage.It opens the question of how a possibly temporary advantage can be builtupon.

There are some signs, admittedly fairly slender ones, that the sugges-tions made by alternative course students are more specific than thosemade by students without the additional school experience. For example,when suggesting things the teacher could do when first entering theclassroom, History and Geography students recommend that s/he make thechildren "Answer their names at registration", "Should greet the class" and"Should tell the pupils individually where to sit"; while the Biologists andEnglish students were more likely to recommend "Anything to get thechildren to concentrate on something as quickly as possible".

The critical incident technique we adopted involved free responseswhich are difficult to classify. Consequently generalisations are difficult tomake. Our tentative conclusion on the basis of this technique alone is thatthe additional school experience has assisted the perception and interpreta-tion of classroom incidents by members of the alternative course in apractical way; but it would be quite wrong to suppose that students withoutthis additional experience have no powers of perception or interpretation ofclassroom incidents at all. (University of Exeter, School of Education,Document 7, 1984).

Subsequent to the Bligh report the alternative PGCE History component has beenevaluated by HMI, who commented on the integration of theory and practice: "Thecontent, level and pace of PGCE main subject teaching are appropriate and thestyles of teaching offer good exemplars to the students, and exploit both theirexperience of schools and their intellectual capabilities" (HMI, 1984, p. 23). Thecourse has also received positive endorsement from both the PGCE History and theoverall PGCE external examiners. The final History external examiner's report in1989 (before moving to a new system where they were no longer produced)remarked on the school-based process and its intermeshed elements.

Opportunities were made to observe 4 of the main History group onteaching practice; to study 6 of their course files, including Action Topicsand school-based studies; to interview the same six students, who spannedthe ability range, and to discuss the course with the whole group andtheir tutors. The volume of work is remarkable . . . All written work is

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characterised by conscientious apparaisal of recognized authorities, with,in most cases, a wider range of reading than a few 'set books'. Moreimportant, constant reference is made to first-hand observation of childrenworking in schools. The almost entirely school-based approach to thecourse is admirable, students are given a full year's opportunity to becomeworking members of a school staff, preparing projects carefully and seeingthem develop before, during and after teaching practice. The other charac-teristic of the course is that students become convinced that History is notonly a lively "subject", but also "an active learning process" with "constantinteraction between teacher and pupil" (a student's comments). (Univer-sity of Exeter, School of Education, document 8, 1989)

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The Alternative PGCE Course evaluations suggest that the students integratethemselves within the school community, begin to function as reflective practitionersand acquire a repertoire of general and teaching scripts which replace novice withprofessional teaching knowledge. More pertinently, students develop their ownteaching scripts through the assimilation of knowledge at the four levels of Furlong'smodel and the elements which Booth and John identify as making for successfulpractice (Booth et al, 1990; John, 1991). However, to be successful, the school-based approach requires a major institutional response, with allocation of resourcesto establish a long-term working relationship between the schools and the teachertraining institution, and to make allowance for the additional strain involved interms of the changed role of both teachers and tutors, Bligh (1984, p. 47). Teachersas mentors require support, while the tutor's role as an action researcher couldconflict with research interests and activities in other areas.

Through focusing on the school department the Exeter model could also haveother advantages. Within the basic pattern of being school-based, the AlternativeCourse is flexible and can be tailored to individual subjects' requirements. In moregeneral terms it meets the requirements of the DFE and their masters in governmentas well as the critique which both Hargreaves and the Centre for Policy Studies havemounted against existing PGCE provision. In the previous pattern the students wereoutsiders unable to establish a long-term relationship with the schools involved. TheAlternative PGCE Course means we have a system where there is a close relation-ship between theory and practice based upon the student becoming involved in thecorporate life of a school over a period of a year.

The Alternative PGCE History Course shares many features with both theHistory components of the Sussex school-based PGCE (Lamont, 1972) and OxfordIntern scheme (University of Oxford, 1990). As such, the Exeter course mightcontribute to answering some of the criticisms of PGCE provision in relation to itsrelevance, utilitarian value and professionality, criticism central to both the Harg-reaves and CPS teacher training models. Replies to the right-wing critique need tobe based upon teacher training being an autonomous, responsible area with its ownidentity and set of practices. For professional credibility these practices have to be

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seen as being as valid as those for the training of industrial apprentices, doctors,nurses and other professions.

The Alternative PGCE History Course also provides a rationale for the contin-uing role of specialist institutions which focus upon the relationship between theoryand practice and which recognise that the training of students requires a partnershipbetween the teachers and the trainers within the context of a teaching community.With grave concern being expressed over the quality of the state education systemand the teacher training courses which underpin it (Butt, 1991; TES, 1990b),internal reforms to the PGCE such as those at Exeter, Oxford and Sussex areessential contributions to the debate about all our futures. They continue the movetowards school-based courses which have been strenuously promoted for over adecade and provide a viable alternative to government abolition of PGCE courses ortheir emasculation through a scheme such as the Open University's PGCE Course(Open University, 1992).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank Mrs J. Dean of the University of Leeds Teacher EducationResearch and Development Project for her constructive criticism and comments.

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