The Etruscan Enigma REVIVED:Asia Etruscos sibi vindicate

Asia Claims the Etruscans back

Sterling Wright 2014

Abstract

The Etruscan civilization was a unique ancient Italian culture that has a recognizable

archaeological culture, which is very different from the Villanovan and Roman culture. The Etruscans

were at one point a very powerful nation. In fact they had major influences on Rome such as their

architecture. However, once they were overtaken by the Romans, their sort of culture faded and their story

was forgotten. Since much academic effort has been put forth into understanding this culture, a clearer

picture has been painted about who they were. Nevertheless, the question of whether the Etruscans were

an autochthonous group or a group that migrated to North Central Italy from the Near East has been

debated for centuries. Ancient writers such as Herodotus give us hints about the Etruscans’ origin but

these sources disagree with one another. Scholarship over the centuries has changed positions as new

material has been analyzed. Today, archaeologists agree for the most part that the Etruscans were an

autochthonous group. Interestingly, modern science such as DNA technology has revived this ancient

question of where the Etruscans came from. The DNA evidence put forth reveals that the Etruscans could

have been descendants of Near Eastern populations. However, much more work needs to be done. One

idea put forth is that ancient Lydian skeletal DNA and Etruscan skeletal DNA need to be compared with

directly.

1. Introduction

After the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization in the twelfth century, the decline of prominent

architectural structures and the reduction in trade left the Mediterranean in a different state of mind. For

centuries, traders and merchants travelled from the Levant all the way to Italy. However, once mainland

Greece recovered and their culture started to crystallize once more starting around the ninth century, we

start to see the emergence of organized civilizations such as the Etruscans.

The Etruscan culture began to prosper ca. 900 B.C. and we can tell this by seeing cemeteries and

the grave goods buried in them. During the 8th and 7th centuries B.C. we see influences from the Near

East becoming prevalent in the art of the Etruscans. Phoenician and Euboean ceramics found in Sardinia,

Sicily, and Veii, are evidence that there was contact from the East. Pottery remains from Cerveteri,

Vetulonia, Vulci, and other sites show distinct Greek influences. Perhaps the most recognized ware that

can be found is bucchero, which has a lustrous black finish to its surface. Fast-forwarding, the history of

the Etruscans comes to an abrupt end in the first-century B.C. when the Romans annexed the Etruscan

land. 1 For the most part, their history and stories were forgotten.

For a long time the origin of the Etruscans has been a major question. There is a general

consensus among scholars today that the Etruscans were a group of people that lived in what is not Italy.

This agreement in scholarship is relatively new and has not come without much debate and research over

the last two hundred years. The question of the origin of the Etruscans has been disputed since ancient

times. Herodotus mentions them in his book but very briefly. According to him, a Lydian group was

exiled as a result of a prolonged famine. Other ancient authors such as Dionysius of Halicarnassus and

Livy disagree with his version of Etruscan origins. I will explain what these authors said later on. The

Etruscans themselves, however, believed that their story begun with a boy named Tages, who popped out

of the fields of Tarquinia. This vexed question was once limited to a fixed number of literary sources and

a scarce amount of archaeological artifacts. In the twenty-first century, DNA testing, namely the

polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique and a few other techniques have revived this enigma about

the genesis of the Etruscans.

1. The Theories for their origin

Three theories have been put forth to explain the origin of the Etruscans: the autochthonous, the

northern, and the oriental. First, the autochthonous theory, posits that the Etruscans were a people who

have always lived in North Central Italy, which again is what the Etruscans themselves believed. An

Etruscan scholar who has taken much time to uncover archaeological artifacts on the Etruscans is Rosella

Lorenzi. She describes the second theory, which was supported by a Roman historian named Livy that the

Etruscans were a group of people who migrated south. Lastly, the “oriental theory,” gains much of its

support from Egyptian and Hittite records. These records refer to a group of people who called

themselves the Teresh, which to some scholars is close enough to Tyrsenoi, a name given ascribed to the

culture that lived in what is known as Etruria. According to Drews, the scholars who believed in this

theory advocated that environmental influences such as a major drought could have led a great migration

of people. These same scholars also supported this theory because of all the Eastern influences that can be

seen in the Etruscan culture. The name Tyrsenoi is similar in pronunciation, to some scholars at least, to

Tyrrhenos. Tyrrhenos, who Herodotus mentions in his first book (1.94), was the Lydian prince that led a

great migration of Lydians to a new land across the sea. Back in the 1950s, the oriental theory was in fact

the widely accepted theory by most archaeologists. However, most scholars accepted this theory long

before the DNA testing on ancient remains had been in place.

The beginnings of this Anatolian people and their language can roughly date to ca. 2000 B.C.

Their culture continued until early Roman times. The Lydian kingdom had thrived for several centuries,

based on their amounts of gold and according to Herodotus about Croesus, until Cyrus the Great of Persia

invaded their land. The destruction of the Lydian kingdom has been based on cups that have been

excavated at Sardis. However, the rise of the Lydian empire did not occur until the seventh century where

much of the archaeological evidence, such as architecture, coins, and so forth, for them dates to. We see

them in the literary record in Herodotus, who was an ancient historian writing in the fifth century. He

describes the Lydians as being very similar to the Greeks, since they share all the same customs except

that the Lydians prostitute their women.2 Furthermore, he describes how they known to have been for

being the first people to use coinage consisting of gold and silver. Lastly, he mentions that they were the

first group to become retailers of commodities that they themselves did not manufacture.2

Most scholars today, unlike the scholars 60 years ago, agree that the Etruscans were an

autochthonous group. This conclusion is based on years of archaeological evidence that comes from the

area of with which the Etruscan, proto-Villanovan and Villanovan culture are associated. These cultures

are heavily defined by their material culture because the literary evidence on them is scanty. Only recently

has the Etruscan language been deciphered enough to shed any light on what the Etruscans were writing.

The question of what the Etruscan culture was like is not that difficult to answer. With all the excavations

in Italy, the material culture, including tombs, graves, and architectural remnants, of the Etruscans has

produced a vivid picture of their identity.

2. The Archaeological Evidence

Archaeologists and historians alike have tried to definitively answer whether or not the Etruscans

were an autochthonous group or a group from the Near East, solely based on the features of the material

they have unearthed. Clues about their origins can come from their archaeological record which includes

clothes, architecture, and other remnants. One finding, the Morgan statuette was likely made by an

Etruscan artist based on artistic characteristics but this can be debated. The dress of the figure includes an

Ionian chiton, pointed shoes, and a himation. An interesting artistic motif here is the pointed shoes, which

first appear in Etruscan art in ca. 550 B.C. At this time there was a transitioning period in art from the

Daedalic to the Ionic style. An architectural characteristic that can only be seen in Etruria and not in the

West is the podia. In addition, the Etruscans had influences on Roman architecture that can be seen at the

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, erected in 525 B.C. to 509 B.C. According to Lorenzi, not only did

the Etruscans influence Roman architecture, they even taught the Romans on how to build roads. These

examples of Etruscan material culture allow archaeologists to distinguish what is Etruscan from other

ancient Italic cultures.

Figure 1 The Queen's Tomb can be found in Tarquinia, which was a major Etruscan settlement. The walls here were covered with gypsum. This gypsum could have been exported from Cyprus, Egypt, or Syria. Most scholars believe that Eastern Mediterranean artists were employed for this project. This image was taken from the Lorenzi study.

A specific example of an Etruscan artifact is the Queen’s Tomb (see Figure 1), which can be

found in Tarquinia. The tomb is 130 feet in diameter and dates to the Orientalizing period.3 What is

unique about this tomb is that the walls of it were originally daubed with a one-inch-thick layer of

gypsum. The gypsum used by the artisans came from Cyprus, Egypt and/or Syria. Oriental and Greek

luxuries begin to appear in Etruscan chamber tombs about 630 B.C. in places like San Giovenale.

Interestingly enough, Asia Minor is the closest comparison to the mounds and chamber tombs of the

Etruscans at sites such as Cerveteri and San Giovenale. The similarities found between the Etruscans and

the Lydians in tomb construction have lead some scholars to believe in the theory put by Herodotus.

Figure 2 Found in Pyrgi, Italy, scholars have been able to understand more and more of the Etruscan language with findings similar to this. The Etruscan script was a modified Greek alphabet. This picture was taken from the Lorenzi article.

Language has been another puzzling feature that ancient historians have studied when asking

questions about Etruscan origins. There are definitely similarities between the Etruscan and Lydian

languages. The artifact that resurrected the Etruscan and Lydian connection was the Lemnos stele, which

was discovered in 1885 (See Figure 3). It is undoubtedly understood that there is an affinity—several

similarities in language structure—between the Etruscan and Lemnian inscriptions. To some scholars, the

inscriptions seem to be of an Etruscan dialect.

Figure 3 The Lemnos Stele. This stele was discovered in 1885. Lemnos has been an interesting site for people interested in the Etruscan enigma. It is where the DNA and language come together and puzzle archaeologists. Scholars agree that the stele is not Etruscan but the form in characters seem too similar to Etruscan to not have connections. This image was taken from the Ambrozic article.

Similarities found in the archaeological record, however, whether they are architectural, artistic

motifs, or language similarities, can never prove a genetic connection. Thus, artifacts with inscriptions

and architecture will never be able to definitively identify the Etruscans’ genetic relatedness to their true

ancestors. Just because similar styles in tomb construction can be found in Etruria and Lydia does not

mean a migration of Lydians occurred in the manner described by Herodotus. It is an equally valid

argument to say that the Etruscans went to the East and learned techniques by cultural diffusion.

The relationship between science and archaeology has been growing and growing over the years.

One of the most fruitful contributions science has given to archaeology is DNA testing. One example how

DNA testing has been used to confirm history is the studying of the Genghis Kahn bloodline. I will go

more into detail about this later on. Great certainty of genetic relatedness can be assumed when there are

similarities in individuals DNA. Understanding how DNA has provided new evidence for the Etruscans

origins is critical and thus a little background of DNA shall be provided.

To start with, the four basic components of DNA are adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.

Long strands of these base pairs comprise an individual’s DNA sequence. Thus, when two sequences have

exactly the same ten base pairs in order on the same number chromosome, the probability of this

happening at random, instead of by inheritance, is extremely small since the chance is (1/4)10, which is

9.5x10-7 That is why similarities in DNA are convincing pieces of evidence, because when two DNA are

almost matching, the chance of this occurring by chance is highly unlikely. Therefore, when similarities

are seen in Etruscan samples and populations in modern-day Turkey, Herodotus’ tale on the Etruscan’

origin gains some credence.

3. The DNA evidence

One academic has stated, “Molecular genetics… is conventionally seen to fuel a ‘new synthesis’

centered on population history.” By this, he meant that science is allowing historians and archaeologists to

answer old questions and begin to ask new ones. For example, genetic tests have revealed that many

people who live in the area that was once conquered by Genghis Kahn share his genetic makeup. In fact,

it is estimated that 16 million males, alone, are living today carrying his genes based on the sequences of

their Y chromosome.

There are a number of reasons why ‘reproducibility,’ which means can the experiment be

replicated over and over. This causes a conundrum for those who are working with ancient DNA (aDNA),

since there is a very limited amount of each sample. In addition, some samples are often contaminated

from environmental factors. In the scientific field, if an experiment cannot be replicated or “reproduced”

it has little to no value. Another problem dealing with aDNA is that there are destructive processes in a

living organism that constantly affect the DNA, which can later affect its analysis. Although there are

ongoing DNA repair processes in the body, when one dies the destructive DNA processes continue. This

is critical for scholars studying the Etruscan DNA since the bodies sampled have been dead over two

thousand years, thus allowing microorganisms—often responsible for the destruction of DNA—time to

contaminate the DNA sequences. Nevertheless, there are some climates that are more conducive to the

survival and preservation of DNA. For the Etruscan samples, the conditions were ideal as I will later

address more thoroughly. These destructive processes should be red flags to how one interprets findings

from DNA studies on the Etruscans, since they can affect accuracy of data.

Even though there are different DNA testing methods, the only one that seems to be fruitful for

archaeology is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. The main reason it is favored for

archaeological cases is because it can be used when there is a small amount of DNA or an impure sample

of DNA. In brief, the technique PCR is like how a student goes to the library to photocopy a few pages

from a book, rather than checking out the entire book. There are two basic limitations when using PCR on

aDNA. First, it is practically impossible to obtain long amplification of products, or in other words long

strands of DNA. This constrains the amount of work with aDNA to short sequences and necessitates the

use of overlapping primer parts if longer sequences are to be collected. Second, aDNA sequences indicate

that some type of recombination, the DNA being rearranged, has taken place during the PCR. Thus, DNA

analyses on aDNA are not infallible and can have experimental errors.

Understanding haplotypes have been crucial for genetically mapping the Etruscans. A haplotype

is a particular section of DNA that can be looked at on different individuals to establish genetic similarity.

Moreover a haplotype is a set of closely linked genetic markers present on a single chromosome that has a

tendency to be inherited together. For example, say that we looked at a particular region on an

individual’s chromosome 10. If another individual’s DNA sequence was similar to that of the other’s and

they were in the same region on the same chromosome, then it can be highly likely that the two are

related. Furthermore, when these DNA sequences match or are very close to matching it is easy to

believe that the two share a common ancestor, or shared a common ethnicity.

Let us turn back to our question on how we can use DNA methods to resolve the Etruscan

enigma. First of all, let us see what these processes can and cannot tell us. It should be noted that DNA

analyses have limitations to them. For instance, they cannot tell us who the Etruscans were on a cultural

level. More specifically, DNA tests cannot tell us what an individual did or what religion he practiced.

Nevertheless, the DNA obtained from numerous samples can answer two important questions:

(1) Were the Etruscans a single population, a group that shared similar gene frequencies, or

instead were they simply a set of individuals who shared a common culture and language? In

addition, were the Etruscans genetically related to one another or were they just a loose

confederation of people without a biological connection?

(2) Is there a genetic relationship between the Etruscans and modern populations and do these

patterns indicate any genealogical or migrational links between the Etruscans and Near Eastern

people?

A study conducted by Christiano Vernesi used DNA sampling techniques to investigate the

Etruscan enigma.19 The Vernesi study was the first study that conducted extensive data on the DNA of the

Etruscans. The Vernesi study gathered fragments of eighty well-preserved skeletons from ten Etruscan

necropoleis that were housed in museum and public collections. These remains covered a wide-span of

Etruscan history (7th-2nd centuries B.C.) and geography (multiple Etruscan archaeological sites).

According to Vernesi, the preservation of the aDNA samples was relatively good. It is known that low

temperatures can facilitate the preservation of DNA in ancient samples. This is due to the fact that

microorganisms tend to be more abundant when temperatures are warmer (i.e. there are more living

specimens in the rainforest than there are in Antartica). Thus the Vernesi and the other researchers were

confident in their results, since the environmental factors were conducive for DNA preservation. In their

case, the samples were mostly from underground burials or caves, where temperatures were constantly

low. Their results suggested that the modern Italian population is a hybrid with up to four potential

founding parents. The study showed how mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which is DNA specifically

inherited by the mother, from Etruscan bones demonstrate plausible genetic flow based on the mtDNA

samples from the Eastern Mediterranean regions.

Another laboratory in Italy took the same samples and ran similar tests. From the two

experiments, under double-blind conditions, the results from the two laboratories were congruous with

one another. This meant that there was a strong argument that the two laboratories’ conclusion was valid.

Their conclusion was that two lineages, characterized by substitutions at sites 193-219 and 356,

respectively, have a rather high internal diversity. These substitutions are documented along the eastern

and central Mediterranean shores and Tuscany, with some derivatives in northern Europe. Looking at the

statistical analyses there was no heterogeneity among Etruscan sites. Nevertheless, the contemporary

Italian populations had significant differences that showed how diverse Italy is today. The scientists could

not demonstrate any significant differences between populations among the time period (7th-6th centuries

vs. the 5th-4th or even the 3rd-2nd centuries), which is interesting to our case since these are critical times of

political upheaval for the Etruscan civilization.

Another study led by Vernesi looked at Etruscan DNA samples and focused on their

mitochondrial components, once again to see if he could come up with the same results. There had been

problems between the correspondence between distributions of mutations in ancient and modern mtDNA

sequences. In order to determine on whether or not the Etruscan sample displayed mtDNA sequences

similar to present-day humans, they compared mutational spectra from ancient mtDNA and mtDNA

sequences characteristics of present-day Europeans, Asians, and Africans. The conclusion from this study

was that the mutational spectrum of the Etruscan mtDNA is characterized by a large portion of Etruscan-

specific mutations. The ancient mtDNA sequences contain unique mutations and by unique they mean

that they were not found in modern populations. The study did note, however, that at least some of the

mutations found in the mtDNA molecules were caused by postmortem damage. This uniqueness from the

Etruscan DNA has brought forth the questions that either the Etruscans died out or the samples that were

recovered suffered from postmortem damage.

Figure 4 This figure shows the distribution of mutations found in mtDNA data sets. The numbers that are above the sequence are parallel mutation analyzed in mtDNA haplogroups from modern human populations. This image was taken from the Vernesi article.

It is important to note that these tests can only indicate if the sample bone fragments had a

biological connection. The Etruscans’ genetic make-up show closer relationships both to North Africans

and to Turks than any contemporary population. In fact, in the Etruscan gene pool the Turkish component

is three times larger than in other populations. This means that there is strong chance that the Etruscans

and the people of Turkey today shared common ancestors of a unique culture group. By this, it can be

strongly suggested that a culture group such as the Lydians were the ancestors of both the Etruscans and

people who live in Turkey today.

The internal genetic diversity among Etruscan sites or time periods supports the view that

the Etruscans were a genetically related people. From the analysis, it can be concluded that either the

Etruscans were a cultural and biological entity with a shared common ancestry. Another modern group of

people whose DNA were compared with the Etruscans were the people who live in Tuscany today. In

terms of genetic distances, the Etruscans are most closely related to the Tuscans of the modern

populations. The Etruscans and Tuscans, however, share only two haplotypes. Based Historical

documents state that the Etruscans were eventually absorbed by the Romans and their culture along with

their people died out. This historical account would explain why so little of their DNA can be seen in the

modern population today in Italy. Nevertheless, a note of caution was added to their study. They realized

that the specimens they retrieved were recovered from extravagant tombs. Therefore, they recovered only

the elite social class of Etruscans which may not give a good representation of the entire cultural group.

Since most elite groups were executed for political reasons, the elite groups’ bloodline would have halted

and thus would have no descendents in the modern population today. Thus, it is possible that the more

impoverished Etruscans were able to mix their DNA with the Romans. This process of the Etruscans

being absorbed into the Roman culture would have excluded the social elites of the Etruscans and thus

ended their genetic line. Further evidence for this historical account is the fact that there are some

Etruscan mutations that are scarce or absent in modern humans. These mutations were found in multiple

individuals and therefore were designated as exemplary haplotypes for the Etruscans, suggesting that

these mutations should represent their original mtDNA sequences. These findings were interesting

because they showed that the Etruscan civilization is extinct since their DNA can no longer be found in

modern populations.

The Turkish and Etruscan gene pools may reflect some gene flow. Another study examined 322

subjects from areas of Tuscany and compared their sequence variation with that of 55 western Eurasian

populations. Of these 322 subjects, 86 of them were from Murlo, which is an Etruscan site as well. The

study revealed that Murlo, in fact, was characterized by an unusually high frequency (17.5%) of Near

Eastern human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups that is those who are in the Near Eastern

population today. Their suggestion is that the Etruscans had a Lydian origin. However, their study does

not necessarily mean that Herodotus’ claim is true, but instead reveals that some Near Eastern people did

migrate and settle in North Central Italy during the time of the Etruscans.

As mentioned before, archaeological artifacts such as Attic pottery found in an Etruscan tomb do

not automatically indicate that a Greek moved to Etruria or ever lived in Etruria. It is equally possible,

and more strongly supported by the archaeological evidence, a merchant went to Etruria and sold ceramic

vases there. However, if the groups of people from the East were migrating to the West, then it is

plausible that they would have brought over some long-term necessities such as livestock. Although, the

chance of the immigrants purchasing sheep or cows is possible, an interesting genetic analysis of faunal

remains has been. A genetic study has demonstrated how DNA sequences from bovine belonging to

Etruscans, association based the surrounding archaeological remains, have been useful when assessing the

Etruscan enigma.

Marco Pellecchia and some of his colleagues had not only tested mtDNA on human samples but

also on livestock populations. Several Bos Taurus breeds continue to be raised in the area that

corresponds to ancient Etruria. Within these breeds, there is a recognizably high level of mtDNA

variation, which is unique since this cannot be seen in Italy or Europe. In fact, Tuscan bovines are not as

genetically close to European gene pools as they are to Near Eastern ones. This genetic signature from the

East is paralleled with the modern Tuscan human populations, as I stated before. The same scientists came

up with two theories that can account for the distinct genetic composition in the mtDNA of Tuscan breeds

of bovine. One theory postulates that the bovine were exported for trade, while the second theory posits

that the genetic sequences are due to human migration. On the one hand, if there were local traders

importing cattle from the Eastern Mediterranean, only bovines would carry the clear Eastern molecular

signature. However, if immigrants from the Levant were exchanging their bovine for other goods when

they were travelling to Tuscany, then the modern humans of that region would not share a genetic tie with

Eastern populations. Therefore, with this bovine and human DNA testimony, the theory of cattle being

imported into Etruria without human settlers is an invalid argument.

Pellecchia and his colleagues looked at the archaeological record and noticed some striking

events in the timeline of the Etruscans along with the entire Mediterranean. For instance, the replacement

of inhumation by cremation, the spreading of biconical urns and other artifacts, and the onset of proto-

urban settlements were seen in places beyond Etruria. These scholars believed that the final Bronze Age

cultural gap was due to Eastern settlers arriving in Central Italy, because of catastrophic environmental

factors, would be a clear explanation seem for the mixing of genes between the indigenous Italic human

populations, along with the livestock mixing with the indigenous populations. This hypothesis of

civilization collapsing has been brought to the forefront of historians based on scientific evidence and

historical records.

However, scientists who have conducted these DNA studies are not in agreement with each

other’s findings. Francesca Tassi and three other scholars believe that the DNA evidence put forth for the

Etruscans’ origin is not strong enough to support the argument that they originated from Anatolia. This

scholar does agree that the Etruscans were a single biological population, based on their genetic links.

Moreover, she agrees that they show a limited genetic resemblance to modern people of Italy. Tassi also

explains how most of the modern Tuscan population is not genetically related to the Etruscans. They also

point out that even though there are genetic links between Tuscany and Anatolia, they date back to

prehistory, possibly to the Neolithic period. Therefore, Tassi believes that the migration of Near Eastern

people to Etruria takes place long before the historical sources suggest. In short, there are scholars who

believe that the genetic evidence does not simply account a people migrating to Tuscany and as a result

manifesting a culture in which historians label the Etruscans. With this study, it should be noted to

Classicists and historians alike as a red flag. For when they present evidence constructed from DNA

findings, they should note how scientists are coming up with different conclusions when they are

conducting separate experiments with the same samples.

4. Conclusion

The Etruscan origin enigma is as a puzzling phenomenon today as it was during Herodotus’ time.

Whether more evidence comes to the table is not the question but rather if techniques such as DNA

analyses become more refined and thus give archaeologists better answers. Perhaps the question of

whether the story told by Herodotus is true or not will never be answered. Nevertheless, the question of

whether or not there were people migrating from Lydia to Etruria on a large scale may be within the

reach. To answer the Etruscan enigma, better research needs to be done that focuses on synthesizing DNA

evidence along with the archaeological evidence. This presumption comes from the journal articles that

primarily would use literary sources as their main evidence but mention the DNA evidence. However, the

authors of these articles did not give enough background information on the DNA evidence to strengthen

their argument. I believe that the Etruscan enigma is an unresolved question at hand which can be

answered only if more academic effort is put forth. What I found puzzling in my research is that no DNA

tests have looked directly at Etruscan samples and Lydian samples. Conducting DNA tests on ancient

Lydian burials that are contemporary with the Etruscan civilization may shed new light to this twenty-five

hundred years old question that was inspired by Herodotus. Furthermore, looking at other pieces of

evidence such as major climate changes, which this paper did not go into great detail about, took place

during the late second millennia B.C. would require another investigation to undertake when looking at

the historical record. Lastly, as more and more Etruscan remnants are unearthed, the uses of hard-science

techniques such as DNA testing need to be implemented to assist in solving ancient historical questions.

Maybe eventually there will be enough pieces of evidence that will decisively answer the Etruscan

enigma.

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