Architecture, GreekNILS HELLNER

The early development of Greek architecture

can be geographically divided into themainland

with the Aegean islands, and CRETE. Consider-

able architectural remains have been excavated

on the Greek mainland (e.g., Dhimini and

SESKLO in THESSALY) dating to as early as the

Late Neolithic Age (fifth to fourth millennium

BCE). In these settlements, small house-units

were grouped around a dominant central

megaroid building (see MEGARON), considered

to be the house of the chief, which probably

also had a public function (Figure 1). Around

2500 BCE corridor-houses appeared (huge two-

story rectangular buildings with a corridor

running around the circumference of at least

two large consecutive rooms along an axis).

They seemed to have served similar purposes

to those of the megaroid buildings (cf.

the “House of the Tiles” at Lerna, where there

is evidence of STORAGE and ceremonial con-

sumption, possibly together with administra-

tion, as indicated by seals; Wiencke 2000). In

the northeastern Aegean, megaroid buildings

in the context of prestigious architecture

(TROY) or within urban layouts with complex

dwelling-compounds and public structures –

such as regular streets, squares, and water

drainage – are well attested (POLIOCHNI in LEM-

NOS, Thermi in LESBOS). These settlements are

often protected by huge fortification walls, fre-

quently built in casemate construction (two

parallel walls connected by transverse walls at

regular intervals), and semicircular bastions.

In Crete urbanization began in the Early

Bronze Age (ca. 3300–2100), possibly under

Near Eastern influence. During the Palatial

period, including the Protopalatial (ca.

1950–1750) and Neopalatial (ca. 1750–1500),

a new urban layout emerged. A dominant part

of the settlement consisted of a large complex

building, the Minoan palace (KNOSSOS; MALLIA;

PHAISTOS, and Petras in the Protopalatial;

Gournia, Zakros, Galatas, possibly Chania,

and Zominthos in the Neopalatial). Somewhat

later, similar though smaller architectural

structures were erected, the so-called Minoan

villas or mansions (Agia Triada, Tylissos).

During the Neopalatial period a common plan

was developed with rooms clustered around a

central court; the court, often surrounded by

porched buildings, many with upper stories,

served principally for communal gatherings

and ritual performances, while the adjacent

rooms were used for production, storage, and

administration. An important feature was the

bent-axis access, and architectural innovations

were introduced such as alternating columns

and pillars, light-wells, and polythyra (a series

of doors divided by piers). The lower part of

the buildings’ outer walls were constructed

of fine ashlar masonry (orthostates of soft

rock such as limestone, sandstone, and often

gypsum slabs were used), while the upper

parts were built with rubble. The inner walls

were built on carefully constructed stone foun-

dations and consisted of smaller pieces of

rubble fixed with clay mortar and stabilized

with wooden frames. Vertical timbers were

mortised with the foundation ashlars. The

upper stories were built of mudbrick with

similar timberframing. After the collapse of

the Minoan civilization ca. 1500, a takeover

of the old centers by the Mycenaeans, or at

least a strong influence, can be observed.

Mycenaean civilization developed on the

Greek mainland from about 1600. In the

beginning, efforts were devoted to creating

monumental funerary architecture celebrating

important individuals in shaft graves, tumuli,

chamber tombs, and particularly tholos

graves. Dwellings evolvedmainly from theMid-

dleHelladic period (around 2000), and there are

only a few cases of so-called citadels (ARGOS)

provided with fortifications and central build-

ings within a centripetal urban layout

(Kolonna in AIGINA, Malthi in Messenia). In

the Early Mycenaean period, megaroid build-

ings with a central hearth and surrounding

columns are thought to have been the fore-

runners of the Mycenaean palaces with a

The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, First Edition. Edited by Roger S. Bagnall, Kai Brodersen, Craige B. Champion, Andrew Erskine,

and Sabine R. Huebner, print pages 650–656.

© 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

DOI: 10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah04038

1

megaroid building at their center. The most

famous early megara (Menelaion and Agios

Stefanos in the southern Peloponnese) were

also influenced by Minoan models. The Myce-

naean citadels are famous for theirmonumental

cyclopic walls within which the palaces focused

on the megaroid center (PYLOS, MYCENAE, TIRYNS,

possibly Thebes, and Orchomenos). Unlike

their Minoan predecessors, the Mycenaean

palaces had a more symmetrical plan with

a mostly axial approach.

In settlements at the edge of or outside

the sphere of Mycenaean influence, apsidal

or even round ground-floor types dominated,

linked to rural societies organized in clans with

more or less free-standing housing conglom-

erates (see KASTANAS IN MACEDONIA). Rectangular

building layouts seem to be developed

Figure 1 Dimini. From Preziosi and Hitchcock, Aegean Art and Architecture (1999).

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predominantly in the dense urban contexts

of Mycenaean settlements. The Mycenaean

palaces collapsed around 1200 and the Myce-

naean culture faded out around 1100/1050.

Few architectural remains have survived

from the Iron Age (1150–800) since almost

no monumental architecture existed. As build-

ings were made chiefly of wood and mudbrick,

archaeological evidence has rarely survived.

Excavated cemeteries help us to draw some

conclusions concerning the size, organization,

and contacts of the connected settlements. It

must be assumed that ATHENS, ARGOS, LEFKANDI,

IOLKOS, KNOSSOS, IALYSOS, and NICHORIA were sig-

nificant centers. Exceptional for its dimensions

is the so-called Heroon at Lefkandi in Euboea

(Popham, Calligas, and Sackett 1992), a long

apsidal building (about 50�15 m) with sur-

rounding wooden columns (Figure 2). We

have more information from Geometric times

(about 800–600) onwards. Buildings were

erected on rough-stone bases and walls were

made mostly of mudbrick covered by lime

plaster (depending on the existing natural

resources: for example, on islands they were

also made of small unworked stones with no

binding material). A timber construction par-

allel to the walls, or sometimes integrated

within them, and a middle row of columns

usually supported the two thatched sloping

roofs. In the Early Iron Age there was no typo-

logical difference between domestic and sacred

architecture. Stone benches ran along the inte-

rior walls of the buildings and served as chairs

and beds. There were usually hearths for

cooking and heating. Lighting and the outlet

of smoke were obtained through doors and

openings in the pediment; windows were rela-

tively rare. Large terracotta vessels were used

for food storage and collecting water, while

smaller terracotta cooking and drinking vessels

were also used for cult practice. Representa-

tions on vase-paintings show wooden furni-

ture such as beds, tables, boxes, and chairs.

The ground-floor plan of the buildings was

apsidal or oval, rarely round. The formation of

a more egalitarian group of perhaps several

ruling clans and the emergence of the POLIS

led to urbanization and colonization (south-

ern Italy, BLACK SEA) from the eighth century BCE

onwards (see COLONIZATION, GREEK). The com-

mon rounded ground-floor plans could not

easily be accommodated in denser urban

areas without significant loss of space, and

the rectangular shape therefore seems to pre-

vail (ZAGORA in Andros, Emporion in CHIOS,

KOUKOUNARIES in PAROS, DREROS in Crete). The

need for public space for a larger number of

people within the settlements led to the crea-

tion of squares as civic centers (see AGORA) and

the monumentalization of house-types for cult

use (Mazarakis Ainian 1997). Examples of

apsidal cult buildings continued to exist, how-

ever, until the early sixth century in extra-

urban sanctuaries (Ano Mazaraki, Kalapodi,

Nikoleika, Thermos).

Building material consisted of wood for

supports and roof beams; clay for mudbrick

walls; baked clay (terracotta) for roof tiles

and ornaments; lime as the basic constituent

of plaster, and later limestone and marble for

columns and walls, upper portions, and even

tiles (almost exclusively for temples and public

buildings); and IRON and BRONZE for decorative

details and clamps.

Around 600 there began the “petrification”

process of architectural members (capitals, col-

umns, friezes, architraves) that were originally

developed in wood. On Paros and NAXOS the

availability of natural marble deposits led to

the production of both monumental sculp-

tures and architectural members: first dedica-

tory columns and then whole buildings,

including the roof construction and even the

tiles (Sangri in Naxos). In IONIA, the first temple

of Hera in Samos (hekatompedos, about

6�33 m), made of timber and mudbrick, was

replaced by the first monumental Dipteros

(ca. 575, about 108�55 m), built of limestone.

This was followed in 550 by the slightly smaller

temple of Artemis at Ephesos, now completely

erected in marble. On the Greek mainland

similar processes occurred. The early monu-

mental temples were built of mudbrick and

timber, but subsequently the wooden compo-

nents were replaced with stone elements. In the

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old temple of Hera at OLYMPIA, Pausanias

(5.16.1) saw one of the old wooden columns

that had not been replaced by stone. Other

parts of the temple were gradually “petrified.”

Similar developments could also be observed

at Kalapodi.

An architect designed the building but was

considered a craftsman and was employed as

such; no distinction was usually made between

the architect and the builder. The former hired

laborers and craftsmen and was responsible for

both the building’s budget and its timely com-

pletion. Known ancient architects include

Chersiphron (temple of Artemis at Ephesos),

HERMOGENES (temple of Artemis at Magnesia,

temple of Dionysos at TEOS), Iktinos (PARTHE-

NON at Athens, Telesterion at Eleusis, temple

of Apollo at Bassai), Kallikrates (Parthenon

at Athens), Mnesikles (Propylaia on the ACROP-

OLIS at Athens), Pytheos (temple of Athena at

PRIENE, Mausoleion of HALIKARNASSOS), Rhoikos

(second Dipteros in the Heraion of Samos),

Figure 2 The Heroon of Lefkandi. From Popham, Calligas and Sackett, eds., Lefkandi II: The Protogeometric

Building at Toumba, Part 2. The Excavation, Architecture and Finds (1993: pl. 28).

4

Skopas (temple of Athena Alea at TEGEA), and

Theodoros (first Dipteros in the Heraion of

Samos) (Coulton 1995; Svenson-Evers 1996).

As Greek society became increasingly com-

plex, a distinction between public and domes-

tic architecture began to emerge from Archaic

times (ca. 600) onwards.

GREEK PUBLIC ARCHITECTURE

Public architecture included religious build-

ings, the best-known form of which was the

temple (see TEMPLES, GREEK). This was the house

of the worshipped god who was represented as

the cult image inside. Access was limited

mainly to priests. Worshippers gathered out-

side by the ALTAR, which was located in front of

the temple, often at the eastern end. As it was

built for the gods, the monumentality of

the building was important and the best

possible materials and techniques had to be

used. In the Greek temple, masonry techniques

using marble achieved their highest degree of

accuracy and the forms reached such an

abstract level that they have remained in the

European architectural language up to today.

The temple was built in a sacred space

(temenos), access to which was often articu-

lated with an entrance building, the propylon

(cf., for example, the Classical sanctuary of

Aphaia at Aigina).

Other architectural structures included

buildings on the agora such as the council

chamber, bouleuterion (e.g., at Hellenistic

Priene; see BOULE), long colonnaded halls facing

the public square (see PORTICOES), which were

used to house rows of shops (e.g., the Attalos

Stoa in Classical Athens), fountain houses or

krenai, where women filled their vases with

water from basins (the best preserved early

Classic example in MEGARA); a palaestra or

gymnasium, the social center for male citizens,

used for athletic contests and exercise (see

GYMNASIUM, CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC TIMES);

and libraries, concert halls (odeia), storage

buildings, and shipsheds in harbors. Other

architectural structures should also be

mentioned: fortification walls with towers

and gates; theaters – every Greek city had one

(see THEATER, GREEK AND ROMAN); and finally,

outside the city walls, funerary architecture

such as public graves and mausolea.

GREEK DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE

Buildings were mostly constructed with walls

of mudbrick on stone foundations with a

monopitched or pitched roof covered with

tiles. After 479 BCE urban settlements were

planned according to a rectangular grid layout,

the Hippodamian plan (see HIPPODAMOS OF

MILETOS): two mirrored two-story units,

each unit with an open court (see PERISTYLE),

grouped in three or more pairs to one block,

eachwith an access to the main streets (plateiai)

which were orthogonally cut by secondary

streets (stenopoi) (Hoepfner and Schwander

1994). In the middle of the city, the agora was

an open space for sacral, administrative, and

commercial purposes.

ORDERS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE

In Greek public architecture buildings were

erected from about the sixth century BCE

onwards according to canonical building

styles. Originally there were two main styles

(or “orders”): the Doric and the Ionic. These

terms reflect the Greeks’ mythological belief

that the orders descended from their Dorian

and Ionian ancestors; the Roman architect

Vitruvius dealt with the orders extensively

in book 4 of his treatise, The Ten Books on

Architecture, and this subsequently influenced

European architecture.

The Doric order was used in mainland

Greece (Olympia) and spread from there

to the Greek colonies in southern Italy (Paes-

tum). The Ionic order was developed in Ionia

(the west coast of modern-day Turkey), off

its coast on the island of Samos, and on the

CYCLADES ISLANDS (Paros, Naxos, DELOS). Later

during the fifth century BCE the Corinthian

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order was invented. The three Greek orders,

known mainly through their column capitals,

show further differences as to the proportions

of the columns (e.g., the Ionic and Corinthian

columns had bases) and the decoration of

the entablature with different friezes (Figure 3).

The Ionic order tends to be more decorated

with floral patterns and sculptured ornaments

and became dominant in late Classical

times owing largely to the dominance of

Athens (see DELIAN LEAGUE). In the mid-fourth

century BCE the architect Pytheos rejected the

Doric order for the planning of the temple of

Athena at Priene with a theoretical treatise

that influenced even Vitruvius, and erected

it completely in the Ionic order, even using a

rational grid. In the Corinthian order the Ionic

adornment was used with a capital that was

sculpted as a basket overgrown with acanthus

leaves; it is said to have been used first in an

architectural context by Iktinos on the central

southern column in the cella of the temple of

Apollo at Bassai. The Ionic and Corinthian

orders were used all over the Hellenistic world

and were later taken over by the Romans. Often

the Corinthian order was used with so-called

composite capitals, where the acanthus leaves

are combined with Ionic volutes.

In the Hellenistic period the staging of archi-

tecture was discovered and complex ensembles

were built. Single architectonic forms were used

to create a greater context as emphasis began to

be placed on the building’s main facade and

elements were used to create vast spaces (e.g.,

the huge agora at Magnesia with 71�40 col-

umns). In planning, features such as axiality and

symmetry became dominant. Impressive

arrangements of flights of steps led up to main

buildings. One example is the Asklepieion of

KOS with three superimposed terraces lined

with colonnades and connected by monu-

mental stairways leading to the central

temple on the top (Schazman 1932). On the

acropolis of PERGAMON, palaces, theaters, and

sanctuaries were architectonically composed

in a unique manner that used every available

space.

SEE ALSO: Agia Triada in Crete; Andros,

topography and archaeology; Architecture,

Roman Republic; Asklepieion sanctuary; Bassai

sanctuary; Dhimini in Thessaly; Gournia in

Crete; Ialysos in Rhodes; Iolkos in Thessaly;

Kalapodi in Phokis; Lerna in the Argolid;

Menelaion in Lakonia; Miletos; Paestum

(Poseidonia); Palaces, Minoan/Mycenaean;

Petras in Crete; Tylissos in Crete; Vitruvius

(Pol(l)io); Zakros in Crete.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Coulton, J. J. (1995) Ancient Greek architects at

work: problems of structure and design. Oxford.

Dickinson, O. T. P. K. (2006) The Aegean from

Bronze Age to Iron Age: continuity and change

between the twelfth and eighth centuries BC.

New York.

Gruben, G. (2001) Griechische Tempel und

Heiligtumer, 5th ed. Munich.

Hoepfner, W. and Schwander, E.-L. (1994) Haus

und Stadt im klassischen Griechenland, 2nd ed.

Munich.

Lauter, H. (1986) Die Architektur des Hellenismus.

Darmstadt.

Mazarakis Ainian, A. (1997) From rulers’ dwellings

to temples: architecture, religion and society in

early Iron Age Greece (1100–700 BC). Jonsered.

Popham, M. R., Calligas, P. G., and Sackett, L. H.,

eds. (1992) Lefkandi II: the Protogeometric

Figure 3 Architectural orders. Courtesy of Nils

Hellner.

6

building at Toumba, part 2. The excavation,

architecture and finds. Oxford.

Preziosi, D. and Hitchcock, L. A. (1999) Aegean

art and architecture. Oxford.

Schazman, P. (1932) Kos: Ergebnisse der deutschen

Ausgrabungen und Forschungen, vol. 1:

Asklepieion, Baubeschreibung und Baugeschichte.

Berlin.

Svenson-Evers, H. (1996) Die griechischen

Architekten archaischer und klassischer Zeit.

Frankfurt am Main.

Wiencke, M. H. (2000) Lerna: a Preclassical site in

the Argolid. Results of the excavation conducted

by the American School of Classical Studies at

Athens, vol. 4: The architecture, stratification and

pottery of Lerna III. Princeton.

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