The emperor’s new The emperor’s new paradigmparadigm

The rise and fall and rise and fall The rise and fall and rise and fall of evolutionary perspectives in of evolutionary perspectives in

psychologypsychology

On evolutionOn evolutionA chicken is just an egg's way of A chicken is just an egg's way of

making more eggs.making more eggs.

Charles DarwinCharles Darwin

Premise 1: Struggle for survivalPremise 1: Struggle for survival Premise 2: VariabilityPremise 2: Variability Premise 3: HeritabilityPremise 3: Heritability Premise 4: FitnessPremise 4: Fitness

CONCLUSION : NATURAL CONCLUSION : NATURAL SELECTIONSELECTION •He observed breeders and different naturally evolving

species•Charles Babbage: God = programmer of laws

Charles DarwinCharles Darwin

Premise 1: Struggle for survivalPremise 1: Struggle for survival Premise 2: VariabilityPremise 2: Variability Premise 3: HeritabilityPremise 3: Heritability Premise 4: FitnessPremise 4: Fitness

CONCLUSION : NATURAL CONCLUSION : NATURAL SELECTIONSELECTION

(Artificial selection = eugenics – later!)(Artificial selection = eugenics – later!)

On the origin of species, 1859On the origin of species, 1859 Premise 1: Struggle for Premise 1: Struggle for

survivalsurvival

Species have great fertility. Species have great fertility. They have more offspring than They have more offspring than ever grow to adulthood. ever grow to adulthood.

Populations remain roughly the Populations remain roughly the same size, with small changes. same size, with small changes. (Food resources )(Food resources )

An implicit struggle for survival An implicit struggle for survival ensues. ensues.

On the origin of species, 1859On the origin of species, 1859

Premise 2: VariabilityPremise 2: Variability

In sexually reproducing species, In sexually reproducing species, generally no two individuals are generally no two individuals are identical. identical.

Some of these variations directly Some of these variations directly affect the ability of an individual to affect the ability of an individual to survive in a given environment. survive in a given environment.

On the origin of species, 1859On the origin of species, 1859 Premise 3 InheritabilityPremise 3 Inheritability

Much of this variation is Much of this variation is inheritable. inheritable. Mind you: Mendel’s work – Mind you: Mendel’s work –

though existant at the time though existant at the time – was not known by Darwin – was not known by Darwin from the outset!from the outset!

Inheritance mechanism Inheritance mechanism was imagined entirely was imagined entirely differentlydifferently

On the origin of species, 1859On the origin of species, 1859

Premise 4 FitnessPremise 4 Fitness Individuals less suited to Individuals less suited to

the environment are less the environment are less likely to survive and less likely to survive and less likely to reproduce, likely to reproduce,

while individuals more while individuals more suited to the environment suited to the environment are more likely to survive are more likely to survive and more likely to and more likely to reproduce.reproduce.

On the origin of species, 1859On the origin of species, 1859 CONCLUSION : NATURAL CONCLUSION : NATURAL

SELECTIONSELECTION

The individuals that survive are The individuals that survive are most likely to leave their most likely to leave their inheritable traits to future inheritable traits to future generations.generations.

A continuous natural A continuous natural embetterment of the world?embetterment of the world?

Underlying assumptionsUnderlying assumptions Premise 1: Struggle for survivalPremise 1: Struggle for survival

Malthusian idea – technological improvement Malthusian idea – technological improvement Premise 2: VariabilityPremise 2: Variability

Much uniformityMuch uniformity Premise 3: HeritabilityPremise 3: Heritability

Debates even today – syphilis, doctoritis running in Debates even today – syphilis, doctoritis running in familiesfamilies

Premise 4: Fitness – well-adapted to the Premise 4: Fitness – well-adapted to the environmentenvironment Not at all a clear conceptNot at all a clear concept

Sickle cell anaemiaSickle cell anaemia what it means for a non-natural selection philosophywhat it means for a non-natural selection philosophy

The puzzling survivorThe puzzling survivor The Naked Ape – The Naked Ape – homo sapienshomo sapiens

No clawsNo claws No sharp teethNo sharp teeth Not too fast – slower than most predators at Not too fast – slower than most predators at

any rateany rate

Why is this parody of evolutionary Why is this parody of evolutionary perfection still around and moreover perfection still around and moreover everywhere?everywhere?

Solution by Evolutionary Solution by Evolutionary PsychologyPsychology

The adapted mindThe adapted mind The complexity seen in nature by Darwin The complexity seen in nature by Darwin

is compared to the complexity in human is compared to the complexity in human behaviour and it is explained as suchbehaviour and it is explained as such

Evolutionary psychology as an approachEvolutionary psychology as an approach

Evolutionary psychologyEvolutionary psychology The Human Animal (Sociobiology)The Human Animal (Sociobiology) AdaptationismAdaptationism

Originally applied to biological organs – the most well-Originally applied to biological organs – the most well-known is the eyeknown is the eye Extensions: the brain is a biological organExtensions: the brain is a biological organ Supposition: the brain produces behaviour and Supposition: the brain produces behaviour and

consciousnessconsciousness Therefore: behaviour and consciousness is formed by Therefore: behaviour and consciousness is formed by

evolution just as the biological body isevolution just as the biological body is

Eye’s complexity – in the centre of debatesEye’s complexity – in the centre of debates

Richard DawkinsRichard Dawkins An ardent proponent of adaptations An ardent proponent of adaptations

- earning him the title of Darwin’s - earning him the title of Darwin’s Rottweiler (and equally ardent Rottweiler (and equally ardent opponent to creationism )opponent to creationism )

The Blind WatchmakerThe Blind Watchmaker – focuses – focuses on how evolution could create on how evolution could create marvellous structures – like the eye marvellous structures – like the eye William Paley – a watch presupposes William Paley – a watch presupposes

intelligent design because of its intelligent design because of its complexitycomplexity

The Weasel problemThe Weasel problem Shakespeare’s HamletShakespeare’s Hamlet

Hamlet:Hamlet: Do you see yonder cloud that's almost Do you see yonder cloud that's almost in shape of a camel?in shape of a camel?Polonius:Polonius: By the mass, and 'tis like a camel, By the mass, and 'tis like a camel, indeed.indeed.Hamlet:Hamlet: Methinks it is like a weasel. Methinks it is like a weasel.

Based on the infinite monkey theoremBased on the infinite monkey theorem A monkey bashing away at random on a A monkey bashing away at random on a

typewriter – given enough time he would typewriter – given enough time he would type the entire works of Shakespearetype the entire works of Shakespeare

how long would it take him to produce the how long would it take him to produce the sentence ‘sentence ‘Methinks it is like a weasel.’?Methinks it is like a weasel.’?

The Weasel problemThe Weasel problem Methinks it is like a weaselMethinks it is like a weasel This is 28 charactersThis is 28 characters Using 26 letters – only capitals and a Using 26 letters – only capitals and a

space barspace bar Probability?Probability? 272728 =28 = 10 104040 = infinity, or at least much = infinity, or at least much

longer than milliseconds from the longer than milliseconds from the existence of the universe (13,73 billion = existence of the universe (13,73 billion = 13,73 * 1013,73 * 1099 years = 7,22 * 10 years = 7,22 * 1018 18

milliseconds)milliseconds)

Sir Frederick HoyleSir Frederick Hoyle

„„approximately the same order of approximately the same order of magnitude as the probability that a magnitude as the probability that a hurricane could sweep through a hurricane could sweep through a junkyard and randomly assemble a junkyard and randomly assemble a Boeing 747Boeing 747.”.”

solar system full of solar system full of blindblind men solving men solving Rubik'sRubik's CubeCube simultaneously. simultaneously.

The simplest bacterium needs The simplest bacterium needs 101040,00040,000 permutations, while the number of the permutations, while the number of the atoms in the universe is „only”atoms in the universe is „only” 10 1080, 80,

the chance is the same as throwing the chance is the same as throwing 50000 sixes in a row with a die 50000 sixes in a row with a die

Sir Frederick HoyleSir Frederick Hoyle

Astronomer and sci-fi writerAstronomer and sci-fi writerHe opposed the Big Bang theory – He opposed the Big Bang theory –

because it needs a cause because it needs a cause Steady Steady State theoryState theory

He also opposed natural He also opposed natural abiogenesis!abiogenesis! Intelligent design - Intelligent design - Evolution from Evolution from

SpaceSpace

Hoyle’s fallacyHoyle’s fallacy You don’t need 28 letters. You start with say 3.You don’t need 28 letters. You start with say 3.

They calculate the probability of the formation of a "modern" They calculate the probability of the formation of a "modern" protein, or even a complete bacterium with all "modern" protein, or even a complete bacterium with all "modern" proteins, by random events.proteins, by random events.

This is not the This is not the abiogenesisabiogenesis theory at all – it starts with VERY theory at all – it starts with VERY SIMPLE organisms SIMPLE organisms

They assume that there is a fixed number of proteins, with fixed They assume that there is a fixed number of proteins, with fixed sequences for each protein, that are required for life. sequences for each protein, that are required for life.

They calculate the probability of sequential trials, rather They calculate the probability of sequential trials, rather than simultaneous trials. than simultaneous trials.

Changing one at a time – mutations are rare but do not exclude Changing one at a time – mutations are rare but do not exclude each othereach other

They seriously underestimate the number of functional They seriously underestimate the number of functional enzymes/ribozymes present in a group of random enzymes/ribozymes present in a group of random sequences – sequences – only one good solution fallacyonly one good solution fallacy

The Weasel problemThe Weasel problem Cumulative selections instead of a single step Cumulative selections instead of a single step

selectionselection Two differences in his model:Two differences in his model:

Copying mechanism – it retains previous statesCopying mechanism – it retains previous states There is an inherent goal – any change that occurs towards There is an inherent goal – any change that occurs towards

methinks it is a weasel is kept, others are discardedmethinks it is a weasel is kept, others are discarded Generation 1: WDLMNLT DTJBKWIRZREZLMQCO P Generation 1: WDLMNLT DTJBKWIRZREZLMQCO P Generation 2: WDLTMNLT DTJBSWIRZREZLMQCO P Generation 2: WDLTMNLT DTJBSWIRZREZLMQCO P Generation 10: MDLDMNLS ITJISWHRZREZ MECS P Generation 10: MDLDMNLS ITJISWHRZREZ MECS P Generation 20: MELDINLS IT ISWPRKE Z WECSELGeneration 20: MELDINLS IT ISWPRKE Z WECSEL Generation 30: METHINGS IT ISWLIKE B WECSELGeneration 30: METHINGS IT ISWLIKE B WECSEL Generation 40: METHINKS IT IS LIKE I WEASELGeneration 40: METHINKS IT IS LIKE I WEASEL Generation 43: METHINKS IT IS LIKE A WEASELGeneration 43: METHINKS IT IS LIKE A WEASEL

Adaptive landscapesAdaptive landscapes Fitness or adaptive Fitness or adaptive

landscapes – genetic landscapes – genetic variation is pushed to the variation is pushed to the direction of the arrowsdirection of the arrows

Waddington – epigenetic Waddington – epigenetic landscape – landscape – curiously posits a curiously posits a rolling, not a climbing ballrolling, not a climbing ball

Saddle points in Saddle points in mathematics as non-mathematics as non-optimal solutionsoptimal solutions

Cosmides & ToobyCosmides & Tooby Flexibility – a basis never questionedFlexibility – a basis never questioned

Instinct vs reason distinctionInstinct vs reason distinction Please make a mental note as this is to be relevant to the Please make a mental note as this is to be relevant to the

discussion on implicit/explicit!discussion on implicit/explicit! What is What is instinct blindnessinstinct blindness according to Williams according to Williams

James?James? Make the „natural seem strange” programMake the „natural seem strange” program „’„’of course’ is no longer a good answer” – does evolutionary of course’ is no longer a good answer” – does evolutionary

psychology manage to get round the problem?psychology manage to get round the problem? „„cognitive psychologists spend more time studying cognitive psychologists spend more time studying

how we solve problems we are bad at” – the concept how we solve problems we are bad at” – the concept of „difficult” is being redefinedof „difficult” is being redefined

The Blank SlateThe Blank Slate The Standard Social Science Model (SSSM)The Standard Social Science Model (SSSM)

learninglearning InductionInduction IntelligenceIntelligence ImitationImitation RationalityRationality the capacity for culturethe capacity for culture CultureCulture

A proposed problem with domain generality: if A proposed problem with domain generality: if there is no inborn mechanism at all (only there is no inborn mechanism at all (only perception), what learns how to learn?perception), what learns how to learn?

SSSMSSSM Hypotheses and problems:Hypotheses and problems:

Babies are born with the same capacities (roughly) all Babies are born with the same capacities (roughly) all over the worldover the world

YET they come to be very different adults finally, with YET they come to be very different adults finally, with different customs and habitsdifferent customs and habits

The difference must therefore lie in their experience of The difference must therefore lie in their experience of the worldthe world

This experience is mediated through general-This experience is mediated through general-purpose-learning mechanismspurpose-learning mechanisms

Culture must be the explanation – it has an Culture must be the explanation – it has an overarching and all-pervasive effectoverarching and all-pervasive effect

What is this „roughly” supposed to mean exactly?

The problem of innateness – is it presence at birth?

Are cultures all that different?How much universality lies under the

cultural differeces of human societies?

Are domain-general learning mechanisms good enough to deal with

the information load? +Consider the visual system

Arguments againstArguments against Many things are not present at birth that are Many things are not present at birth that are

rarely doubted to be innaterarely doubted to be innate Do we learn to grow beards and menstruate?Do we learn to grow beards and menstruate?

The nature/nurture dichotomy is not only The nature/nurture dichotomy is not only arbitrary – it is false arbitrary – it is false again connected to innatenessagain connected to innateness

In some cases domain-general learning In some cases domain-general learning mechanisms are just not enoughmechanisms are just not enough Most prominent example is language – poverty of Most prominent example is language – poverty of

stimulus argumentstimulus argument Moreover: striking differences - species-specific Moreover: striking differences - species-specific

learning mechanisms (also consider phobias)learning mechanisms (also consider phobias)

Asking the wrong questionsAsking the wrong questions

genes vs environment genes vs environment ~ engine or gasoline?~ engine or gasoline?~ the ingredients of bread~ the ingredients of bread

Presence at birth is not required – points Presence at birth is not required – points at the problematics of „innate”at the problematics of „innate”

InnatenessInnateness What do we mean by innate? What do we mean by innate? Cognitive scienceCognitive science

Non-acquisitionNon-acquisition UG – vacuous, as in a sense everything is acquired at some UG – vacuous, as in a sense everything is acquired at some

point – a blastula has no UGpoint – a blastula has no UG Presence at birth – inbornPresence at birth – inborn

Neither necessary (pubic hair), nor sufficient (prenatal Neither necessary (pubic hair), nor sufficient (prenatal learning is possible)learning is possible)

Internally caused as opposed to environmentally Internally caused as opposed to environmentally induced induced Jeffrey Ellman: rethinking Innateness „the product of Jeffrey Ellman: rethinking Innateness „the product of

interactions internal to the organism…”interactions internal to the organism…” Impossible: without maternal blood, no organ could possibly Impossible: without maternal blood, no organ could possibly

develop at alldevelop at all Triggering is often evoked – yet unsure in meaningTriggering is often evoked – yet unsure in meaning

InnatenessInnateness What do we mean by innate? What do we mean by innate? BiologyBiology

Genetically determined?Genetically determined? Genetically causedGenetically caused Genetically representedGenetically represented – mapped in DNA – mapped in DNA Both accounts fail because of Both accounts fail because of

interactionist explanationsinteractionist explanations difficulty of observationdifficulty of observation

Invariance accounts – stable across „normal” Invariance accounts – stable across „normal” environmentsenvironments Attractive as it explains stability and universality in a Attractive as it explains stability and universality in a

speciesspecies YET: the concept that water is wet would be innateYET: the concept that water is wet would be innate

InnatenessInnateness What do we mean by innate?What do we mean by innate?

Innateness as high heritabilityInnateness as high heritability Heritability=overall phenotypic variation that is due to genetic Heritability=overall phenotypic variation that is due to genetic

variation (Vg/Vp)variation (Vg/Vp) However: only works if there is phenotypic variation – if there However: only works if there is phenotypic variation – if there

is none, it is useless is none, it is useless Opposable thumb in humans – drug taaken by mother Opposable thumb in humans – drug taaken by mother

disrupting its development -> low heritability disrupting its development -> low heritability Not learnedNot learned

Learning is nearly as slippery as innateness is…Yet..Learning is nearly as slippery as innateness is…Yet.. Psychologically primitivePsychologically primitive

Can not be explained by general psychological mechanisms Can not be explained by general psychological mechanisms – have to retreat to biological explanations– have to retreat to biological explanations

Bootstrapping-type learning – learning that is faster that would Bootstrapping-type learning – learning that is faster that would be expected based on a domain-general viewbe expected based on a domain-general view

Adaptive mindsAdaptive minds Problem-specificity:Problem-specificity:

The brain is a naturally constructed computational system whose The brain is a naturally constructed computational system whose function is to solve adaptive information-processing problems function is to solve adaptive information-processing problems

Modularity of mind – the Swiss army knife modelModularity of mind – the Swiss army knife model face recognition, threat interpretation, language acquisition, or face recognition, threat interpretation, language acquisition, or

navigationnavigation Domain specificity (environment specifity) – domain generality Domain specificity (environment specifity) – domain generality

(modus ponens works in all environmental conditions) (modus ponens works in all environmental conditions) adaptiveadaptive problems  problems

Permanent to be solved in the life of a speciesPermanent to be solved in the life of a species Enhance reproductive successEnhance reproductive success

What about survival?What about survival? The side-effect trick (exaptation)The side-effect trick (exaptation)

Walking and skateboardingWalking and skateboarding

MMA hypothesisMMA hypothesis Massive modularityMassive modularity

Modern-day Modern-day phrenology?phrenology?

Jerry Fodor: ModularityJerry Fodor: Modularity Differentiation of modules and central processing Differentiation of modules and central processing

systemssystems Modules are:Modules are:

Domain-specificDomain-specific RapidRapid Informationally encapsulatedInformationally encapsulated Automatic – obligatory firingAutomatic – obligatory firing Shallow outputShallow output Inaccessible to consciousnessInaccessible to consciousness Characteristic pattern of breakdown - lesionsCharacteristic pattern of breakdown - lesions

„„The moon looks bigger when it’s on the horizon; but I know The moon looks bigger when it’s on the horizon; but I know perfectly well it’s not. My visual perception module gets fooled, perfectly well it’s not. My visual perception module gets fooled, but I don’t. The question is: who is this I?[…]  If, in short, there is but I don’t. The question is: who is this I?[…]  If, in short, there is a community of computers living in my head, there had also a community of computers living in my head, there had also better be somebody who is in charge; and, by God, it had better better be somebody who is in charge; and, by God, it had better be me. ” Jerry Fodor on Pinker and Plotkinbe me. ” Jerry Fodor on Pinker and Plotkin

Jerry Fodor: The trouble with psychologicalDarwinism. London Jerry Fodor: The trouble with psychologicalDarwinism. London Review of BooksReview of Books

Reasoning circuits – rational Reasoning circuits – rational instinctsinstincts

1.1. Structured around an adaptive problemStructured around an adaptive problem2.2. Universally present in homo sapiensUniversally present in homo sapiens3.3. Develop without conscious effort (speech Develop without conscious effort (speech

vs writing)vs writing)4.4. Applied without conscious effortApplied without conscious effort5.5. Distinct from more general abilitiesDistinct from more general abilities

Stone age mindsStone age minds

EEA - EEA - environment of evolutionary adaptednessenvironment of evolutionary adaptedness „„For this reason, evolutionary psychology is relentlessly past-For this reason, evolutionary psychology is relentlessly past-

oriented…”oriented…” What is problematic about this argument?What is problematic about this argument?

Proximal and distal explanations in psychologyProximal and distal explanations in psychology UniversalismUniversalism

the universal, species-typical architecturethe universal, species-typical architecture reliably developsreliably develops across the (ancestrally) normal range  across the (ancestrally) normal range psychic unity of humankindpsychic unity of humankind – as opposed to marvellous – as opposed to marvellous

cultural diversitycultural diversity (Donald Brown – the universal human)(Donald Brown – the universal human) Margaret Mead – coming of age in the Samoa – Derek FreemanMargaret Mead – coming of age in the Samoa – Derek Freeman

The Universal PeopleThe Universal PeopleThe total list comprises about 150 itemsThe total list comprises about 150 items

Abstraction (in speech and in Abstraction (in speech and in thought)thought)

Language!Language! baby talkbaby talk AntonymsAntonyms NounsNouns numeralsnumerals

Belief in supernatural/religion – Belief in supernatural/religion – magic (wicca)magic (wicca)

Beliefs about death, disease, Beliefs about death, disease, fortune & misfortunefortune & misfortune

Binary cognitive distinctions – Binary cognitive distinctions – antonymsantonyms

Childhood fear of strangers/loud Childhood fear of strangers/loud noisesnoises

CoalitionsCoalitions Collective identitiesCollective identities Cooperation & competitionCooperation & competition MoralsMorals

Murder prohibitedMurder prohibited Rape prohibitedRape prohibited

Myths & narrativesMyths & narratives

Meals & meal timesMeals & meal times MarriageMarriage Daily routinesDaily routines MelodyMelody MetaphorsMetaphors MusicMusic

Repetition&variationRepetition&variation DanceDance Crying (emotions?)Crying (emotions?) Personal namesPersonal names PlanningPlanning ProdeProde PromisePromise Recognition of individuals by faceRecognition of individuals by face RhythmRhythm Rites of passage & ritualsRites of passage & rituals Oedipus complex – defense Oedipus complex – defense

mechanismsmechanisms self-imageself-image

Donald Brown

The importance of universalismThe importance of universalism

In theory, evolution could explain diversity In theory, evolution could explain diversity – supposing a varying environment would – supposing a varying environment would entail varying organismsentail varying organisms

Why is universalism so highly emphasized Why is universalism so highly emphasized then?then?

Sociobiology and social DarwinismSociobiology and social Darwinism

Edward O. WilsonEdward O. Wilson

1971. Insect societies1971. Insect societies 1975: Sociobiology: The New Synthesis1975: Sociobiology: The New Synthesis 1978: On human nature1978: On human nature

In a Darwinian sense the organism does not live for In a Darwinian sense the organism does not live for itself. Its primary function is not even to reproduce other itself. Its primary function is not even to reproduce other organisms; it reproduces genes, and it serves as their organisms; it reproduces genes, and it serves as their temporary carrier... Samuel Butler's famous aphorism, temporary carrier... Samuel Butler's famous aphorism, that the chicken is only an egg's way of making another that the chicken is only an egg's way of making another egg, has been modernized: The organism is only DNA's egg, has been modernized: The organism is only DNA's way of making more DNA way of making more DNA

Edward O. WilsonEdward O. Wilson

People are animals, their behavior has evolved People are animals, their behavior has evolved just like that of the animals, and our culture has just like that of the animals, and our culture has a biological component a biological component

altruism : self-destructive behavior performed altruism : self-destructive behavior performed for the benefit of others – what other for the benefit of others – what other explanation than culture?explanation than culture?

Edward O. WilsonEdward O. Wilson

Culture is the slave of biology – it can only Culture is the slave of biology – it can only survive as long as it supports biological needssurvive as long as it supports biological needs Gathering of resources (territorial fights)Gathering of resources (territorial fights) cooperation – helping relativescooperation – helping relatives Securing the continuity of the populationSecuring the continuity of the population

Resonates to Nazi „Sozialbiologie”, genetic Resonates to Nazi „Sozialbiologie”, genetic determinism, eugenicsdeterminism, eugenics

Richard LewontinRichard Lewontin

Population geneticist – locus studiesPopulation geneticist – locus studies The concept of niche and interaction – the environment The concept of niche and interaction – the environment

does not form passive creatures according to its own does not form passive creatures according to its own accordaccord

Deterministic perspective is false : biological creatures Deterministic perspective is false : biological creatures are actively forming their environmentare actively forming their environment Sould it be different the homo sapiens would not be alive by Sould it be different the homo sapiens would not be alive by

nownow Legitimation and ideology – first God and now science is the Legitimation and ideology – first God and now science is the

weapon – universities the factories that produce themweapon – universities the factories that produce them

Not in Our Genes

The danger in evolutionary beliefThe danger in evolutionary belief

SociobiologySociobiology The mere idea of struggle and survival is inherent in The mere idea of struggle and survival is inherent in

nature and it is inevitable gives moral justification nature and it is inevitable gives moral justification towards the „unfit”towards the „unfit”

Mary Midgley: Mary Midgley: Evolution as a ReligionEvolution as a Religion „„Facts will never appear to us as brute and Facts will never appear to us as brute and

meaningless; they will always organize themselves meaningless; they will always organize themselves into some sort of story, some drama”into some sort of story, some drama”

Buss: the moral/naturalistic fallacy (Dawkins Buss: the moral/naturalistic fallacy (Dawkins examines it as well)examines it as well) Does studying heart attack cause heart attacks?Does studying heart attack cause heart attacks?

EugenicsEugenics Eu – good, well (euphoria)Eu – good, well (euphoria) Genics – (genes) born Genics – (genes) born

(genetics)(genetics) any human action whose any human action whose

goal is to improve the goal is to improve the genegene poolpool

Renaissance idea:Renaissance idea: improvement of the world improvement of the world through science: why not through science: why not better humankind?better humankind?

Second International Eugenics Second International Eugenics Conference, 1921 Conference, 1921

Popularity of eugenicsPopularity of eugenics Originally a field of science!Originally a field of science!

1859 1900 1920 1940 1950 1992

Multifaceted EugenicsMultifaceted Eugenics TraitTrait

IntelligenceIntelligence Mental diseasesMental diseases Detrimental mental Detrimental mental

traits - criminalitytraits - criminality Physical diseases Physical diseases

(tubercolosis)(tubercolosis)

RaceRace

Means:Means:

Dissemination of information Dissemination of information and free choiceand free choice

Vocational counsellingVocational counselling Genetic counsellingGenetic counselling Marriage restrictionMarriage restriction SegregationSegregation Compulsory sterilizationCompulsory sterilization Compulsory abortionCompulsory abortion Forced pregnancyForced pregnancy GenocideGenocide

Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911)Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911)

Charles Darwin’s half-Charles Darwin’s half-cousin cousin and a child prodigyand a child prodigy

StatisticianStatistician CorrelationCorrelation

Medical studiesMedical studies 1960 – Oxford Evolution 1960 – Oxford Evolution

DebateDebate

Hereditary GeniusHereditary Genius Count the number of the relatives of various degrees of eminent Count the number of the relatives of various degrees of eminent

menmen

Proposed:Proposed: adoption studiesadoption studies trans-racial adoption studiestrans-racial adoption studies Twin studies Twin studies

adopted and non-adoptedadopted and non-adopted Later: dyzigotic and monozygoticLater: dyzigotic and monozygotic

Aware of the nature-nurture debateAware of the nature-nurture debate 1883: invented the word eugenics (1883: invented the word eugenics (Inquiries into human faculty Inquiries into human faculty

and its developmentand its development)) Dysgenic behaviour of eminent people Dysgenic behaviour of eminent people Introducing monetary incentivesIntroducing monetary incentives

The Galton Institute The Galton Institute (Former Eugenics (Former Eugenics Society)Society)

The Bell Curve, 1994The Bell Curve, 1994

Intelligence predicts:Intelligence predicts: Financial incomeFinancial income Job performanceJob performance CrimeCrime

Intelligence is Intelligence is inherited 40-80%inherited 40-80% Perils of a custodial Perils of a custodial

StateState

The Bell Curve, 1994The Bell Curve, 1994

Intelligence is normally Intelligence is normally distributed - gdistributed - g sum of many small random sum of many small random

variations in genetic and variations in genetic and environmental factorsenvironmental factors

Racial claims – differences Racial claims – differences between blacks and whitesbetween blacks and whites

Controversial – APA Controversial – APA IntelligenceIntelligence: : KnownsKnowns and and UnknownsUnknowns

At present, no one knows At present, no one knows what causes this what causes this differential. differential.

National Longitudinal Survey of Labor Market Experience of Youth Validity problem

California, 1900-1940sCalifornia, 1900-1940s

Eugenics flourishingEugenics flourishing Influential group of intellects endorsed and Influential group of intellects endorsed and

financed eugenic projectsfinanced eugenic projects Haynes – physician in Los Angeles (bronchitis!)Haynes – physician in Los Angeles (bronchitis!) Goethe – businessmen of SacramentoGoethe – businessmen of Sacramento Cold Spring Harbor Station – research facilityCold Spring Harbor Station – research facility

Aggravated by the Great DepressionAggravated by the Great Depression „„act of civilizing” & Manifest Destinyact of civilizing” & Manifest Destiny

Sinophobia and discrimination, scientific racismSinophobia and discrimination, scientific racism

California, 1900-1940sCalifornia, 1900-1940s

Eugenics flourishingEugenics flourishing Active involvement of governmental Active involvement of governmental

organizationsorganizations Large-scale administration of IQ testsLarge-scale administration of IQ tests Authorization of scientific research and sterilizationAuthorization of scientific research and sterilization Expulsion of foreigners and undesirables en Expulsion of foreigners and undesirables en

massemasse Fomented racial segregationFomented racial segregation IQ testing – two-tracked school systemIQ testing – two-tracked school system

California, 1900-1940s - California, 1900-1940s - EugenicsEugenics

Victims:Victims: Racial groupsRacial groups

ImmigrantsImmigrants MexicansMexicans Asian AmericansAsian Americans African AmericansAfrican Americans

Young girls classified as Young girls classified as ImmoralImmoral DelinquentDelinquent

3 stages : liberal – state – liberal3 stages : liberal – state – liberal

Liberal starting pointLiberal starting point

1910 Terman’s Binet-Simon test1910 Terman’s Binet-Simon test WhitesWhites MexicansMexicans NegroesNegroes

Intelligence tied to Nordic blood…Intelligence tied to Nordic blood…

SegregationSegregation Vocational counsellingVocational counselling

Sterilizations per annum 1909-1936Sterilizations per annum 1909-1936

Major themes:Major themes: DelinquencyDelinquency Mental retardednessMental retardedness

Haynes in Los AngelesHaynes in Los Angeles Society organized for well-Society organized for well-

beingbeing Regulate and streaamlineRegulate and streaamline

Gosney and PopenoeGosney and Popenoe Sterilization for Human Sterilization for Human

BettermentBetterment 1935 HOGUE’s bill – to extend 1935 HOGUE’s bill – to extend

sterilization did not passsterilization did not pass Competent decision boards:Competent decision boards:

Directors, wardens and Directors, wardens and superintendentssuperintendents

Drop in 1952Drop in 1952 Administrative measuresAdministrative measures

1953 – many categories 1953 – many categories dropped – idiots, fools, sexual dropped – idiots, fools, sexual perversion - declineperversion - decline

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1909 1920 1929 1936 1942 1952

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PROTECTION - NOT PROTECTION - NOT PENALTYPENALTY

emphasis shifts from heredity to capacity emphasis shifts from heredity to capacity and responsability of parenthood and and responsability of parenthood and social skillssocial skills Change in methods towards liberal measures Change in methods towards liberal measures

in 1940 in 1940 PopenoePopenoe

Counselling – career planning, marriage, family planningCounselling – career planning, marriage, family planning Information dissemination on eugenical measuresInformation dissemination on eugenical measures

Holmes (1920) monetary incentivesHolmes (1920) monetary incentives

The motives shiftedThe motives shifted Early years – genes deflate the germ plasm Early years – genes deflate the germ plasm

(1880)(1880) Initially against: criminality, imbecility, poverty…Initially against: criminality, imbecility, poverty… White supremacy, racial segregation, stereotypesWhite supremacy, racial segregation, stereotypes

Mexican boys – mentally incompetent – forced manual Mexican boys – mentally incompetent – forced manual workersworkers

Mexican women – hyperbreeders dependent on welfareMexican women – hyperbreeders dependent on welfare

Defectives depleting resources – fiscal Defectives depleting resources – fiscal justificationsjustifications

Herbert SpencerHerbert Spencer Social darwinismSocial darwinism

Taking „survival of the fittest” a step too farTaking „survival of the fittest” a step too far Darwin himself thought it impractical – he would Darwin himself thought it impractical – he would

rather have spread the knowledge and let people rather have spread the knowledge and let people decide for themselvesdecide for themselves

2 basic mistakes2 basic mistakes Naturalistic fallacyNaturalistic fallacy He conflates development with changeHe conflates development with change

Probably a side effect of the ancient idea of the scala naturaeProbably a side effect of the ancient idea of the scala naturae

Internal strugglesInternal struggles Evolution by selection is the only known causal process Evolution by selection is the only known causal process

capable of creating such complex organic mechanisms.capable of creating such complex organic mechanisms. (David Buss)(David Buss)

Jerry FodorJerry Fodor The motiv is inaccessible even to the agentThe motiv is inaccessible even to the agent

A way of restoring our innocenceA way of restoring our innocence Psychological Darwinism is a kind of conspiracy Psychological Darwinism is a kind of conspiracy

theory; that is, it explains behaviour by imputing an theory; that is, it explains behaviour by imputing an interest (viz in the proliferation of the genome) that interest (viz in the proliferation of the genome) that the agent of the behaviour does not acknowledge.  the agent of the behaviour does not acknowledge. 

Popular for the same reason Freud was popular: a Popular for the same reason Freud was popular: a slip of tongue is just a libidinous impulseslip of tongue is just a libidinous impulse

Objections : Jerry FodorObjections : Jerry Fodor Is it ONLY adaptationism that is able to explain such Is it ONLY adaptationism that is able to explain such

complexity?complexity? The complexity of behaviour itself is irrelevant The complexity of behaviour itself is irrelevant

evolution does not and can not act on itevolution does not and can not act on it only on brainsonly on brains

What matters is how much you would have to change an ape’s What matters is how much you would have to change an ape’s brain in order to produce that much complexity in behaviourbrain in order to produce that much complexity in behaviour

„ „ And about this, exactly nothing is known. ”And about this, exactly nothing is known. ” It is not like the giraffe’s neck – longer is evidentIt is not like the giraffe’s neck – longer is evident

In fact the difference between brains is not that big (J.F.)In fact the difference between brains is not that big (J.F.) in terms of genes it is even smallerin terms of genes it is even smaller

„„what matters with regard to the question whether the mind is an adaptation is not what matters with regard to the question whether the mind is an adaptation is not how complex our behaviour is, but how much change you would have to make in an how complex our behaviour is, but how much change you would have to make in an ape’s brain to produce the cognitive structure of a human mind. And about this, ape’s brain to produce the cognitive structure of a human mind. And about this, exactly nothing is known. That’s because nothing is known about how the structure of exactly nothing is known. That’s because nothing is known about how the structure of our minds depends on the structure of our brains.”our minds depends on the structure of our brains.”

Objections : Jerry FodorObjections : Jerry Fodor Methodological flaw: „reverse engineering”Methodological flaw: „reverse engineering”

inferring how a device must work from a prior inferring how a device must work from a prior appreciation of its functionappreciation of its function Ever tried using telnet?Ever tried using telnet?

you don’t have to know how hands (or hearts, or eyes, or livers) you don’t have to know how hands (or hearts, or eyes, or livers) evolved to make a pretty shrewd guess about what they are for. evolved to make a pretty shrewd guess about what they are for. Maybe you also don’t have to know how the mind evolved to Maybe you also don’t have to know how the mind evolved to make a pretty shrewd guess at what it’s for; for example, that it’s make a pretty shrewd guess at what it’s for; for example, that it’s to think with. (Fodor, J.)to think with. (Fodor, J.)

Concerns with evolutionary Concerns with evolutionary psychologypsychology

Level of selection Level of selection IndividualIndividual GeneGene GroupGroup

Question of fitness & adaptation Question of fitness & adaptation Small designs that lead to a higher reproduction of a traitSmall designs that lead to a higher reproduction of a trait CIRCULARITYCIRCULARITY Fitness (reasoning circuits) has a definitionFitness (reasoning circuits) has a definition

Yet how do you recognize it in retrospect?Yet how do you recognize it in retrospect? Which one is the result of an adaptation? Which one is the result of an adaptation?

XenophobiaXenophobia colour of bonescolour of bones form of earlobesform of earlobes

The circular argumentation The circular argumentation problemproblem

Inherent goal – often evokes attacks of circular Inherent goal – often evokes attacks of circular argumentation – the reverse engineering argumentation – the reverse engineering problemproblem The effects strive towards the goalThe effects strive towards the goal The goal preexists (who invented the goal?) The goal preexists (who invented the goal?)

Answer – evolutionary forcesAnswer – evolutionary forces How do you know this was the goal?How do you know this was the goal?

Because it is reached!Because it is reached!

Just-so stories (Rudyard Kipling)Just-so stories (Rudyard Kipling)

Problems with blind adaptationismProblems with blind adaptationism

1.1. The Panglossian ParadoxThe Panglossian Paradox2.2. Graduality does not always work – saltational Graduality does not always work – saltational

models (one day you wake up speaking a models (one day you wake up speaking a language?)language?)

George Jackson Mivart George Jackson Mivart -- what do what do yyou do with 5% of ou do with 5% of a winga wing? ?

Gould: exaptationsGould: exaptations

3.3. Physical constraints – Gould: spandrels Physical constraints – Gould: spandrels in the cathedralin the cathedral

The Panglossian ParadoxThe Panglossian Paradox Candide, ou l'OptimismeCandide, ou l'Optimisme by Voltaire by Voltaire

Critique of the Leibnizian mantra of Pangloss, "all is Critique of the Leibnizian mantra of Pangloss, "all is for the best in the for the best in the bestbest of of allall possiblepossible worldsworlds" "

""Tout est pour le mieux dans le meilleur des Tout est pour le mieux dans le meilleur des mondesmondes" " theodicy of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniztheodicy of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz God is a benevolent deity –> the world is perfectGod is a benevolent deity –> the world is perfect Dr. Pangloss, professor of "Dr. Pangloss, professor of "métaphysico-théologo-métaphysico-théologo-

cosmolonigologiecosmolonigologie" and self-proclaimed optimist " and self-proclaimed optimist

The Panglossian ParadoxThe Panglossian Paradox Lisbon's harbor episode, where honest James diesLisbon's harbor episode, where honest James dies

Candide, who beheld all that passed and saw his benefactor one Candide, who beheld all that passed and saw his benefactor one moment rising above water, and the next swallowed up by the moment rising above water, and the next swallowed up by the merciless waves, was preparing to jump after him, but was merciless waves, was preparing to jump after him, but was prevented by the philosopher Pangloss, who demonstrated to prevented by the philosopher Pangloss, who demonstrated to him that the roadstead of Lisbon had been made on purpose for him that the roadstead of Lisbon had been made on purpose for the Anabaptist to be drowned there. the Anabaptist to be drowned there.

Pangloss on his own syphilisPangloss on his own syphilis it was a thing unavoidable, a necessary ingredient in the best of it was a thing unavoidable, a necessary ingredient in the best of

worlds; for if Columbus had not caught in an island in America worlds; for if Columbus had not caught in an island in America this disease, which contaminates the source of generation, and this disease, which contaminates the source of generation, and frequently impedes propagation itself, and is evidently opposed frequently impedes propagation itself, and is evidently opposed to the great end of nature, we should have had neither chocolate to the great end of nature, we should have had neither chocolate nor cochineal. nor cochineal.

The best of all possible worldsThe best of all possible worlds It is demonstrable that things cannot be otherwise than It is demonstrable that things cannot be otherwise than

as they are; for as all things have been created for as they are; for as all things have been created for some end, they must necessarily be created for the some end, they must necessarily be created for the best end. best end. Observe, for instance, the nose is formed for Observe, for instance, the nose is formed for spectacles, therefore we wear spectacles. spectacles, therefore we wear spectacles.

Have we replaced God by evolution? - Is the Have we replaced God by evolution? - Is the world the best of all possible worlds?world the best of all possible worlds?

On the function of our noses:On the function of our noses: Is its inherent purposeIs its inherent purpose

to hold spectacles?to hold spectacles? to warm and moisturize air?to warm and moisturize air?

How are you to tell in retrospect?How are you to tell in retrospect?

Exaptation, cooption, preadaptationExaptation, cooption, preadaptation NOT everything is an adaptationNOT everything is an adaptation Human vestigiality has long been observedHuman vestigiality has long been observed

TailboneTailbone Vermiform appendixVermiform appendix Muscles in the earMuscles in the ear

Shifts in the function of a trait during evolutionShifts in the function of a trait during evolution Cooption had a slight confusion with non-adaptive traits less usedCooption had a slight confusion with non-adaptive traits less used

Darwin already outlined the basis in the „Darwin already outlined the basis in the „Origin of SpeciesOrigin of Species” ” bird feathers – originally thermo-regulatory function – adapted to flightbird feathers – originally thermo-regulatory function – adapted to flight

Mivart: the paradox of 5% of a wing!Mivart: the paradox of 5% of a wing! Jury-rigged design – apparent non-functional traits might be telling Jury-rigged design – apparent non-functional traits might be telling

about the original functionabout the original function

Exaptation, cooption, preadaptationExaptation, cooption, preadaptation

Recently – Stephen J. Gould: The thumb of the Recently – Stephen J. Gould: The thumb of the Panda Panda (uses the word exaptation)(uses the word exaptation)

The tinkertoy approachThe tinkertoy approach Odd arrangements and funny solutions are the proof Odd arrangements and funny solutions are the proof

of evolution--paths that a sensible God would never of evolution--paths that a sensible God would never tread but that a natural process, constrained by tread but that a natural process, constrained by history, follows perforce. history, follows perforce.

Other examples:Other examples: Mammals – lactatory glandsMammals – lactatory glands Flat feet – squat eating – bipedalismFlat feet – squat eating – bipedalism Bones – calcium deposits primarilyBones – calcium deposits primarily

Physical constraintsPhysical constraints

Venice: St Mark’s CathedralVenice: St Mark’s Cathedral

Stephen J. Gould and Richard Lewontin

"The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A Critique of the Adaptationist Programme" (1979)

Are the spandrels there, so that nice paintings could be Are the spandrels there, so that nice paintings could be painted on them, specially designed for that purpose?painted on them, specially designed for that purpose?

More likely to be inherent in the Bauplan – constraint on adaptive evolution

Causes of historical origin must always be separated from current utilities; their conflation has seriously hampered the evolutionary analysis of form in the history of life.

Physical constraintsPhysical constraints Does the tyrannosaur’s Does the tyrannosaur’s

hands are especially hands are especially useful in titillating females useful in titillating females – is this a good – is this a good explanation for its explanation for its adaptive value?adaptive value?

Blind adaptationism does Blind adaptationism does not differentiate between not differentiate between original function and original function and current potentialitiescurrent potentialities

Just-so-storiesJust-so-stories Physical constraints – like Physical constraints – like

spandrels – do not need spandrels – do not need an evolutionary an evolutionary explanationexplanation

In the age of ReasonIn the age of Reason

What is the argument that Tooby and What is the argument that Tooby and Cosmides make about reasoning?Cosmides make about reasoning? Think of the WASON task!Think of the WASON task!

General problem solvingGeneral problem solving Specialized problem-solving modulesSpecialized problem-solving modules

Mathematics – a basic concept or a high Mathematics – a basic concept or a high art?art? An argument can be made for bothAn argument can be made for both

How to make life difficultHow to make life difficult

DedDeduuction and Inductionction and Induction If it rains I’ll take an umbrella with meIf it rains I’ll take an umbrella with me

It is raining.It is raining. I take an umbrella with me.I take an umbrella with me.

I take an umbrella with meI take an umbrella with me It is either raining or notIt is either raining or not

It is not rainingIt is not raining I either take an umbrella with me or notI either take an umbrella with me or not

I do not take an umbrella with meI do not take an umbrella with me It is not rainingIt is not raining

John studied accountancy at university.John studied accountancy at university. John works at an accountant’s office.John works at an accountant’s office. Therefore John is an accountant.Therefore John is an accountant.

Modus ponens

Modus tollens

The Wason task – deduction taskThe Wason task – deduction task There are 4 cards on the tableThere are 4 cards on the table

Each card has a letter on one side and a number on the Each card has a letter on one side and a number on the otherother

RULE: If the card has a wovel on it, the other side RULE: If the card has a wovel on it, the other side must have an even number on itmust have an even number on it

Which one(s) do you have to turn to know if they conform Which one(s) do you have to turn to know if they conform to the rule or not?to the rule or not?

E K 2 7

The Wason taskThe Wason task There are 4 cards on the tableThere are 4 cards on the table

All cards have a drink on one side and the age on All cards have a drink on one side and the age on the otherthe other

RULE: If one drinks alcohol, they need to be RULE: If one drinks alcohol, they need to be over ageover age

Which one(s) do you have to turn to know if they Which one(s) do you have to turn to know if they conform to the rule or not?conform to the rule or not?

beer Coke 22 17

Why the difference?Why the difference? Social rulesSocial rules Evolutionary psychology – cheater detectors?Evolutionary psychology – cheater detectors?

What is the counter-argument to that?What is the counter-argument to that?

Some provocative questionsSome provocative questions

Does natural selection still work in our Does natural selection still work in our highly artificial society?highly artificial society?

What will the homo sapiens be like in What will the homo sapiens be like in another 200.000 years?another 200.000 years?

Why are there mental illnesses, if Why are there mental illnesses, if adaptationism is so powerful in adaptationism is so powerful in evolutionary psychology?evolutionary psychology?