1. ELECTRONICS THE H A N D B O O K SECOND EDITION Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group

2. The Electrical Engineering Handbook Series Series Editor Richard C. Dorf University of California, Davis Titles Included in the Series The Handbook of Ad Hoc Wireless Networks, Mohammad Ilyas The Avionics Handbook, Cary R. Spitzer The Biomedical Engineering Handbook, Second Edition, Joseph D. Bronzino The Circuits and Filters Handbook, Second Edition, Wai-Kai Chen The Communications Handbook, Second Edition, Jerry Gibson The Computer Engineering Handbook, Vojin G. Oklobdzija The Control Handbook, William S. Levine The CRC Handbook of Engineering Tables, Richard C. Dorf The Digital Signal Processing Handbook, Vijay K. Madisetti and Douglas Williams The Electrical Engineering Handbook, Second Edition, Richard C. Dorf The Electric Power Engineering Handbook, Leo L. Grigsby The Electronics Handbook, Jerry C. Whitaker The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition, Richard C. Dorf The Handbook of Formulas and Tables for Signal Processing, Alexander D. Poularikas The Handbook of Nanoscience, Engineering, and Technology, William A. Goddard, III, Donald W. Brenner, Sergey E. Lyshevski, and Gerald J. Iafrate The Handbook of Optical Communication Networks, Mohammad Ilyas and Hussein T. Mouftah The Industrial Electronics Handbook, J. David Irwin The Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook, John G. Webster The Mechanical Systems Design Handbook, Osita D.I. Nwokah and Yidirim Hurmuzlu The Mechatronics Handbook, Robert H. Bishop The Mobile Communications Handbook, Second Edition, Jerry D. Gibson The Ocean Engineering Handbook, Ferial El-Hawary The RF and Microwave Handbook, Mike Golio The Technology Management Handbook, Richard C. Dorf The Transforms and Applications Handbook, Second Edition, Alexander D. Poularikas The VLSI Handbook, Wai-Kai Chen Forthcoming Titles The Electrical Engineering Handbook, Third Edition, Richard C. Dorf The Electronics Handbook, Second Edition, Jerry C. Whitaker Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 3. Editor-in-Chief JERRY C. WHITAKER ELECTRONICS THE H A N D B O O K SECOND EDITION Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 4. Published in 2005 by CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-1889-0 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-1889-4 (Hardcover) Library of Congress Card Number 2004057106 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microlming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www. copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-prot organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identi- cation and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The electronics handbook / edited by Jerry C. Whitaker. 2nd ed. p. cm. (Electrical engineering handbook series; v. 34) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8493-1889-0 (alk. paper) 1. Electronic circuitsHandbooks, manuals, etc. I. Whitaker, Jerry C. II. Series. TK7867.E4244 2005 621.381dc22 2004057106 Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 5. Dedication For Mark Richer with thanks for the opportunity to contribute to ATSC Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 6. Preface The rst edition of The Electronics Handbook was published in 1996. Between then and now, tremendous changes have occurred in electronics engineering. During this same period, the value of The Electronics Handbook has been recognized by thousands of readers all over the world, for which the editor and authors are very grateful. The numerous changes in technology over the past few years have led to the publication of a second edition of The Electronics Handbook. This new edition builds upon the solid foundation of fundamental theory and practical applications of the original work. All chapters have been reviewed and updated as needed, and many new chapters have been added to explain new developments in electronics engineering. The Electronics Handbook is intended for engineers and technicians involved in the design, production, installation, operation, and maintenance of electronic devices and systems. This publication covers a broad range of technologies with emphasis on practical applications. In general, the level of detail provided is limited to that necessary to design electronic systems based on the interconnection of operational elements and devices. References are provided throughout the handbook to direct readers to more detailed information on important subjects. The purpose of The Electronics Handbook is to provide in a single volume a comprehensive reference for the practicing engineer in industry, government, and academia. The book is divided into 23 chapters that encompass the eld of electronics. The goal is to provide the most up-to-date reference on subjects ranging from classical devices and circuits to emerging technologies and applications. The fundamentals of electronics have evolved to include a wide range of knowledge, empirical data, and a broad range of practice. The focus of this handbook is on the key concepts, models, and equations that enable the engineer to analyze, design, and predict the behavior of complex electrical devices, circuits, instruments, and systems. The reader will nd the key concepts of each subject dened, described, and illustrated; where appropriate, practical applications are given as well. Thelevelofconceptualdevelopmentofeachtopicischallenging,buttutorialandrelativelyfundamental. Each chapter is written to enlighten the expert, refresh the knowledge of the experienced engineer, and educate the novice. The information contained in this work is organized into 23 chapters, building a foundation from theory to materials to components to circuits to applications. The Handbook concludes with important chapters on reliability, safety, and engineering management. At the conclusion of most chapters of the Handbook are three important entries of particular interest to readers: r DeningTerms,whichidentieskeytermsapplicabletotheeldandtheirmostcommondenitions r References, which lists the papers and other resources used in the development of the chapter r Further Information, which directs the reader to additional sources of in-depth information on the subject matter These features, a trademark of the CRC Press Electrical Engineering Handbook Series, are a valuable aid to both experienced and novice engineers. vii Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 7. In a publication as large as this, locating the information desired in a rapid manner is important. Numerous aids are provided in this regard. A complete table of contents is given at the beginning of the book. In addition, an individual table of contents precedes each of the 23 chapters. A comprehensive subject index is also provided. The Electronics Handbook is designed to provide answers to most inquiries and to direct the reader to further sources and references as needed. It is our hope that this publication will continue to serve youthe readerwith important, useful information for years to come. Jerry C. Whitaker Editor-in-Chief viii Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 8. Editor-in-Chief Jerry C. Whitaker is Vice President of Standards Development at the Advanced Television Systems Committee (ATSC). Whitaker supports the work of the various ATSC technology and implementation committees and assists in the development of ATSC standards, recommended practices, and related doc- uments. The ATSC is an international, nonprot organization developing voluntary standards for digital television. Whitaker is a Fellow of the Society of Broadcast Engineers and a Fellow of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. He is also the author and editor of more than 30 books on technical topics. His current CRC titles include: r The RF Transmission Systems Handbook r The Electronic Systems Maintaining Handbook r AC Power Systems Handbook, 2nd edition r The Power Vacuum Tubes Handbook Whitaker is the former editorial director and associate publisher of Broadcast Engineering and Video Systems magazines. ix Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 9. Contributors Samuel O. Agbo California Polytechnic State University San Luis Obispo, California Oktay Alkin School of Engineering Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Illinois Brent Allen Bell Northern Research Ottawa, Canada William F. Ames School of Mathematics Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, Georgia Constantine N. Anagnostopoulos Microelectronics Technical Division Eastman Kodak Company Rochester, New York Peter Aronhime Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Louisville Louisville, Kentucky Praveen Asthana IBM Corporation San Jose, California Fred Baumgartner TCI Technology Ventures Denver, Colorado Terrence M. Baun Criterion Broadcast Services Milwaukee, Wisconsin Melvin L. Belcher, Jr. Radar Systems Analysis Georgia Tech Research Institute Symrna, Georgia Carl Bentz Intertec Publishing Overland Park, Kansas David F. Besch University of the Pacic Stockton, California Ashoka K.S. Bhat Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Victoria Victoria, Canada Glenn R. Blackwell Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Technology Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana Bruce W. Bomar Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Tennessee Space Institute Tullahoma, Tennessee Iuliana Bordelon CALCE Electronic Packaging Research Center University of Maryland College Park, Maryland Jerome R. Breitenbach Department of Electrical Engineering California Polytechnic State University San Luis Obispo, California John R. Brews University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona Isidor Buchmann Cadex Electronics, Inc. Richmond, Canada Stuart K. Burgess University of Southern California Los Angeles, California George Cain School of Mathematics Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, Georgia Paulo Cardieri University of Campinas Sao Paulo, Brazil Clifford G. Carter Naval Undersea Warfare Center Newport, Rhode Island xi Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 10. Jonathon A. Chambers Cardiff School of Engineering Cardiff University Wales, United Kingdom Curtis J. Chan Chan and Associates Fullerton, California Ken A. Chauvin Corning Cable Systems Hickory, North Carolina Tom Chen Department of Electrical Engineering Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado John Choma, Jr. University of Southern California San Dimas, California Badrul H. Chowdhury Department of Electrical Engineering University of Wyoming Laramie, Wyoming Michael D. Ciletti University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Almon H. Clegg CCi Cumming, Georgia George I. Cohn California State University Flintridge, California James G. Cottle Hewlett-Packard San Francisco, California Leon W. Couch, II University of Florida Gainesville, Florida Charles H. Cox, III Research Laboratory of Electronics Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Massachusetts Gilles A. Daigle Institute for Microstructural Sciences Ottawa, Canada Edward J. Delp, III ECE Department Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana Kenneth R. Demarest University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas Gene DeSantis DeSantis Associates New Milford, New Jersey William E. DeWitt School of Technology Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana Daniel F. DiFonzo Planar Communications Corporation Rockville, Maryland Dennis F. Doelitzsch 3-D Communications Corporation Marion, Illinois Barry G. Douglass Department of Electrical Engineering Texas A&M University College Station, Texas Thomas F. Edgar Department of Chemical Engineering University of Texas Austin, Texas Ezz I. El-Masry Department of Electrical Engineering Technical Institute of Nova Scotia Halifax, Canada Yariv Ephraim Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering George Mason University Fairfax, Virginia Steve Epstein Video Systems Magazine Overland Park, Kansas Eugene D. Fabricius EL/EE Department California Polytechnic State University San Luis Obispo, California Anthony J. Ferraro Department of Electrical Engineering Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania Clifford D. Ferris University of Wyoming Laramie, Wyoming Robert J. Feugate, Jr. College of Engineering and Technology University of Arizona Flagstaff, Arizona Igor M. Filanovsky Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Alberta Edmonton, Canada Paul D. Franzon Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering North Carolina State University Raleigh, North Carolina xii Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 11. Susan A. Garrod Department of Electrical Engineering Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana James E. Goldman Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana Juergen Hahn Department of Chemical Engineering Texas A&M University College Station, Texas Jerry C. Hamann Department of Electrical Engineering University of Wyoming Laramie, Wyoming Margaret H. Hamilton Hamilton Technologies, Inc. Cambridge, Massachusetts William F. Hammett Hammett and Edison, Inc. Sonoma, California Cecil Harrison University of Southern Mississippi Brandon, Mississippi Robert D. Hayes RDH Incorporated Marietta, Georgia Robert J. Honger School of Technology Purdue University Columbus, Indiana James M. Howell Raytheon Corporation Woodstock, Georgia Timothy P. Hulick Acrodyne Industries, Inc. Schwenksville, Pennsylvania Thomas K. Ishii Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Marquette University Milwaukee, Wisconsin David Jernigan National Instruments Austin, Texas T. S. Kalkur Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Rangachar Kasturi Department of Computer Science Pennsylvania State University State College, Pennsylvania Hagbae Kim Langley Research Center National Aeronautics and Space Administration Hampton, Virginia Ravindranath Kollipara LSI Logic Corporation Palo Alto, California Kurt L. Kosbar Department of Electrical Engineering University of Missouri Rolla, Missouri David A. Kosiba Pennsylvania State University State College, Pennsylvania Robert Kubichek Department of Electrical Engineering University of Wyoming Laramie, Wyoming Gopal Lakhani Department of Computer Science Texas Tech University Lubbock, Texas Paul P.K. Lee Microelectronics Technical Division Eastman Kodak Company Rochester, New York Elvio Joao Leonardo University of Campinas Sao Paulo, Brazil Honoch Lev-Ari Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Northeastern University Boston, Massachusetts Francis Long University of Denver Denver, Colorado Shih-Lien Lu Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering Oregon State University Corvallis, Oregon Melissa S. Mattmuller Department of Engineering Technology Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana Edward McConnell National Instruments Austin, Texas John E. McInroy Department of Electrical Engineering University of Wyoming Laramie, Wyoming Bernard E. McTaggart Naval Undersea Warfare Center Baltic, Connecticut xiii Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 12. Patricia F. Mead Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Maryland College Park, Maryland Alvaro Augusto Machado Medeiros University of Campinas Sao Paulo, Brazil Victor Meeldijk Network Processing Group Intel Corporation Parsippany, New Jersey Sanjay K. Mehta Naval Undersea Warfare Center Newport, Rhode Island John D. Meyer Printing Technologies Department Hewlett-Packard Co. Palo Alto, California Jan H. Mooij Ceramic Innovation Center Philips Components Roermond, Netherlands Gibson Morris, Jr. Department of Electrical Engineering University of Southern Alabama Mobile, Alabama Wayne Needham Intel Corporation Chandler, Arizona John Norgard University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Martin R. Parker Department of Electrical Engineering University of Alabama Tuscaloosa, Alabama Eugene T. Patronis, Jr. School of Physics Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, Georgia Michael Pecht CALCE Electronic Products and Systems Center University of Maryland College Park, Maryland Benjamin B. Peterson U.S. Coast Guard Academy Waterford, Connecticut John W. Pierre Department of Electrical Engineering University of Wyoming Laramie, Wyoming Fabrizio Pollara Jet Propulsion Lab California Institute of Technology Pasadena, California Roy W. Rising ABC - TV Valley Village, California David E. Rittenhouse Siecor Corporation Hickory, North Carolina William J.J. Roberts Atlantic Coast Technologies, Inc. Silver Spring, Maryland Richard Rudman KFWB Radio Los Angeles, California Stanley Salek Hammett and Edison, Inc Sonoma, California C. Sankaran Electro-Test Inc. Shoreline, Washington James A. Scheer Department of GTRI - Sensors Electronics Georgia Tech Research Institute Atlanta, Georgia Jerry E. Sergent BBS PowerMod, Inc. Corbin, Kentucky Ken Seymour AT&T Wireless Services Sprynet Santa Rosa, California James F. Shackelford University of California Davis, California E. A. G. Shaw National Research Council of Canada Ottawa, Canada Joy S. Shetler Computer Engineering Program California Polytechnic State University San Luis Obispo, California xiv Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 13. Carol Smidts Reliability Engineering Program University of Maryland College Park, Maryland Sidney Soclof California State University San Gabriel, California David Stafford Quantegy, Inc. Opelika, Alabama Michael Starling National Public Radio Washington, DC Zbigniew J. Staszak Department of Electronic Circuits Technical University of Gdansk Gdansk, Poland Michael B. Steer Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering North Carolina State University Raleigh, North Carolina Michel R. Stinson Institute for Microstructural Sciences Ottawa, Canada Gerhard J. Straub Hammett and Edison, Inc. La Plata, Maryland Robert A. Surette Shively Labs Bridgton, Maine Sawasd Tantaratana Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts Jeffrey P. Tate Department of Electronic Engineering and Technology Florida A&M University Tallahassee, Florida Stuart K. Tewksbury Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Stevens Institute of Technology Hoboken, New Jersey Floyd E. Toole Harman International Industries, Inc. Northridge, California William H. Tranter Department of Electrical Engineering Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg, Virginia Vijai K. Tripathi Oregon State University Corvallis, Oregon Sadrul Ula Department of Electrical Engineering University of Wyoming Laramie, Wyoming Ardie D. Walser Department of Electrical Engineering City College of New York New York, New York William E. Webb Department of Electrical Engineering University of Alabama Tuscaloosa, Alabama Robert R. Weirather Harris Corporation Quincy, Illinois Douglas H. Werner Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania Pingjuan L. Werner Pennsylvania State University State College, Pennsylvania Jerry C. Whitaker Advance Television Systems Committee Washington, DC Allan White Langley Research Center National Aeronautics and Space Administration Hampton, Virginia Donald White Don White Consultants, Inc. Warrenton, Virginia Bogdan M. Wilamowski Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Auburn University Auburn, Alabama Tsong-Ho Wu Transtech Networks, Inc. Iselin, New Jersey Fred Wylie Audio Processing Technology, Ltd. Belfast, Northern Ireland xv Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 14. Michel D. Yacoub University of Campinas Pathumthaui, Brazil Harry E. Young MTA-EMCI Atlanta, Georgia Paul Kit-Lai Yu Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of California, San Diego La Jolla, California Rodger E. Ziemer University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado xvi Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 15. Contents Chapter 1 Fundamental Electrical Theory 1 1.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum John Norgard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.2 Resonance Michael D. Ciletti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.3 Electroacoustics Eugene T. Patronis, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 1.4 Thermal Noise and Other Circuit Noise Barry G. Douglass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 1.5 Logic Concepts and Design George I. Cohn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 1.6 Digital Logic and Sequential Logic Circuits George I. Cohn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 1.7 The Physical Nature of Sound Floyd E. Toole, E. A. G. Shaw, Gilles A. Daigle, and Michel R. Stinson . . . . . . . . . . . 87 1.8 Principles of Light, Vision, and Photometry Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Chapter 2 Properties of Materials and Components 111 2.1 Circuit Fundamentals John Choma, Jr. and Stuart K. Burgess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 2.2 Semiconductor Materials Stuart K. Tewksbury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 2.3 Thermal Properties David F. Besch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 2.4 Resistive Materials Jan H. Mooij . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 2.5 Magnetic Materials for Inductive Processes Martin R. Parker and William E. Webb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 xvii Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 16. 2.6 Capacitance and Capacitors Igor M. Filanovsky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 2.7 Properties of Materials James F. Shackelford. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 2.8 International Standards and Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Chapter 3 Properties of Passive Components 239 3.1 Crystal Oscillators Jeffrey P. Tate and Patricia F. Mead. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 3.2 Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Devices Ardie D. Walser. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 3.3 Electromechanical Devices C. Sankaran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 3.4 Aural Pickup Devices Roy W. Rising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 3.5 Aural Reproduction Devices Michael Starling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Chapter 4 Passive Electrical Circuit 309 4.1 Coaxial Transmission Lines Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 4.2 Waveguide Kenneth R. Demarest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 4.3 Passive Microwave Devices Michael B. Steer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 4.4 Passive Filters Cecil Harrison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Chapter 5 Electron Vacuum Devices 353 5.1 Electron Tube Fundamentals Clifford D. Ferris. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 5.2 Power Grid Tubes Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 5.3 Neutralization Techniques Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 xviii Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 17. 5.4 Amplier Systems Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 5.5 Image Capture Devices Steve Epstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 5.6 CRT Devices and Displays Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 5.7 Projection Systems Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 Chapter 6 Microwave Vacuum Devices 475 6.1 Microwave Power Tubes Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 6.2 Klystron Robert R. Weirather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 6.3 Traveling Wave Tubes Thomas. K. Ishii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 6.4 Other Microwave Vacuum Devices Thomas K. Ishii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 6.5 Operational Considerations for Microwave Tubes Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 Chapter 7 Semiconductor Devices and Circuits 529 7.1 Semiconductors Sidney Soclof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 7.2 Bipolar Junction and Junction Field-Effect Transistors Sidney Soclof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 7.3 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor John R. Brews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545 7.4 Image Capture Devices Edward J. Delp, III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 7.5 Image Display Devices Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 7.6 Solid-State Ampliers Timothy P. Hulick. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 7.7 Operational Ampliers Peter Aronhime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611 xix Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 18. 7.8 Applications of Operational Ampliers Peter Aronhime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641 7.9 Switched-Capacitor Circuits Ezz I. El-Masry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 7.10 Semiconductor Failure Modes Victor Meeldijk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 Chapter 8 Microelectronics 707 8.1 Integrated Circuits Tom Chen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708 8.2 Integrated Circuit Design Samuel O. Agbo and Eugene D. Fabricius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 8.3 Digital Logic Families Robert J. Feugate, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739 8.4 Memory Devices Shih-Lien Lu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755 8.5 Microprocessors James G. Cottle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 8.6 D/A and A/D Converters Susan A. Garrod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784 8.7 Application-Specic Integrated Circuits Constantine N. Anagnostopoulos and Paul P.K. Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791 8.8 Digital Filters Jonathon A. Chambers, Sawasd Tantaratana, and Bruce W. Bomar . . . . . . . . . . . . 808 8.9 Multichip Module Technology Paul D. Franzon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832 8.10 Testing of Integrated Circuits Wayne Needham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844 8.11 Integrated Circuit Packages Victor Meeldijk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852 Chapter 9 Optoelectronics 875 9.1 Optical Fiber Ken A. Chauvin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875 9.2 Fiber Optic Cable Ken A. Chauvin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905 9.3 Optical Transmitters Charles H. Cox, III. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936 xx Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 19. 9.4 Optical Receivers Paul Kit-Lai Yu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964 9.5 Optical System Design David E. Rittenhouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980 Chapter 10 Power Supplies and Regulation 1013 10.1 Transformers Sadrul Ula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014 10.2 Rectier and Filter Circuits T. S. Kalkur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026 10.3 Voltage Regulation Melissa S. Mattmuller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031 10.4 Switching Power Supplies Robert J. Honger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046 10.5 Inverters Ashoka K.S. Bhat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067 10.6 DC-to-DC Conversion Ashoka K.S. Bhat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081 10.7 Power Distribution and Control Badrul H. Chowdhury. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1094 10.8 Power System Protection Alternatives Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1115 10.9 Standby Power Systems Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157 10.10 Facility Grounding Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184 10.11 Batteries Isidor Buchmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1246 Chapter 11 Packaging Electronic Systems 1259 11.1 Printed Wiring Boards Ravindranath Kollipara and Vijai K. Tripathi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1259 11.2 Hybrid Microelectronics Technology Jerry E. Sergent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1276 11.3 Surface Mount Technology Glenn R. Blackwell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1297 xxi Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 20. 11.4 Shielding and EMI Considerations Donald White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1316 11.5 Heat Management Zbigniew J. Staszak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1329 Chapter 12 Communication Principles 1353 12.1 Intelligence Coding Leon W. Couch, II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1354 12.2 Amplitude Modulation Robert Kubichek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1368 12.3 Frequency Modulation Ken Seymour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1383 12.4 Pulse Modulation Rodger E. Ziemer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1397 12.5 Digital Modulation Rodger E. Ziemer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1410 12.6 Spread Spectrum Systems Kurt L. Kosbar and William H. Tranter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1434 12.7 Digital Coding Schemes Oktay Alkin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1449 12.8 Audio Compression Techniques Fred Wylie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1456 12.9 Aural Noise Reduction Systems William J.J. Roberts and Yariv Ephraim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1464 12.10 Video Compression Techniques Gopal Lakhani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1473 Chapter 13 Electromagnetic Radiation 1483 13.1 Antenna Principles Pingjuan L. Werner, Anthony J. Ferraro, and Douglas H. Werner . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1483 13.2 Radio Wave Propagation Gerhard J. Straub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1516 13.3 Practical Antenna Systems Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1531 13.4 Combiners and Combining Networks Robert A. Surette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1560 xxii Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 21. Chapter 14 Information Recording and Storage 1577 14.1 Magnetic Tape David Stafford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1577 14.2 Data Storage Systems Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1586 14.3 Optical Storage Systems Praveen Asthana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1592 14.4 Error Correction Fabrizio Pollara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1608 14.5 Data Compression Jerome R. Breitenbach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1619 Chapter 15 Wired Communications Systems 1635 15.1 Network Switching Concepts Tsong-Ho Wu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1635 15.2 SONET Brent Allen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1647 15.3 Facsimile Systems Rodger E. Ziemer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1663 Chapter 16 Wireless Communications Systems 1667 16.1 Radio Broadcasting Dennis F. Doelitzsch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1668 16.2 Digital Audio Broadcasting Stanley Salek and Almon H. Clegg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1683 16.3 Audio Interconnection Roy W. Rising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1698 16.4 Television and Video Production Systems Curtis J. Chan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1708 16.5 ATSC Video, Audio, and PSIP Transmission Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1732 16.6 Propagation Considerations for Mobile Radio Systems Michel D. Yacoub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1757 16.7 Cellular Radio Harry E. Young . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1772 16.8 Satellite Communications Daniel F. DiFonzo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1786 xxiii Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 22. Chapter 17 Radar and Radionavigation 1801 17.1 Radar Principles James M. Howell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1801 17.2 Radar System Implementation Melvin L. Belcher, Jr. and James A. Scheer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1820 17.3 Electronic Navigation Systems Benjamin B. Peterson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1847 17.4 Underwater Sonar Systems Sanjay K. Mehta, Clifford G. Carter, and Bernard E. McTaggart . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1878 17.5 Electronic Warfare and Countermeasures Robert D. Hayes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1896 Chapter 18 Control and Instrumentation Technology 1915 18.1 Measurement Techniques: Sensors and Transducers Cecil Harrison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1915 18.2 Data Acquisition Edward McConnell and David Jernigan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1938 18.3 Process Dynamics and Control Thomas F. Edgar and Juergen Hahn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1966 18.4 Servo Systems John E. McInroy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1988 18.5 Power Control and Switching Gibson Morris, Jr.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1996 Chapter 19 Computer Systems 2005 19.1 Fundamental Architecture Joy S. Shetler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2006 19.2 Software Design and Development Margaret H. Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2019 19.3 Neural Networks and Fuzzy Systems Bogdan M. Wilamowski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2039 19.4 Machine Vision David A. Kosiba and Rangachar Kasturi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2063 19.5 A Brief Survey of Speech Enhancement Yariv Ephraim, Hanoch Lev-Ari, and William J.J. Roberts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2088 xxiv Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 23. 19.6 Ad Hoc Networks Michel D. Yacoub, Paulo Cardieri, Elvio Joao Leonardo, and Alvaro Augusto Machado Medeiros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2097 19.7 Network Communication James E. Goldman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2118 19.8 Printing Technologies and Systems John D. Meyer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2145 Chapter 20 Signal Measurement, Analysis, and Testing 2163 20.1 Audio Frequency Distortion Mechanisms and Analysis Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2164 20.2 Analog Video Measurements Carl Bentz and Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2177 20.3 Radio Frequency Distortion Mechanisms and Analysis Samuel O. Agbo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2194 20.4 Oscilloscopes Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2213 20.5 Spectrum Analysis Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2221 20.6 Fourier Waveform Analysis Jerry C. Hamann and John W. Pierre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2231 20.7 Digital Test Instruments Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2243 Chapter 21 Reliability Engineering 2257 21.1 Probability and Statistics Allan White and Hagbae Kim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2257 21.2 Electronic Hardware Reliability Michael Pecht and Iuliana Bordelon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2281 21.3 Software Reliability Carol Smidts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2292 Chapter 22 Safety 2317 22.1 Electric Shock Clifford D. Ferris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2317 22.2 Nonionizing Electromagnetic Radiation William F. Hammett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2325 xxv Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 24. 22.3 PCBs and Other Hazardous Substances Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2330 22.4 Facility Grounding Principles William E. DeWitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2337 Chapter 23 Engineering Management, Standardization, and Regulation 2343 23.1 Systems Engineering Concepts Gene DeSantis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2344 23.2 Concurrent Engineering Francis Long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2366 23.3 Engineering Documentation Fred Baumgartner and Terrence M. Baun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2383 23.4 Disaster Planning and Recovery Richard Rudman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2388 23.5 Conversion Factors Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2401 23.6 General Mathematical Tables William F. Ames and George Cain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2420 23.7 Glossary of Terms Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2469 23.8 Abbreviations and Acronyms Jerry C. Whitaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2516 xxvi Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 25. 1 Fundamental Electrical Theory John Norgard University of Colorado Michael D. Ciletti University of Colorado Eugene T. Patronis, Jr. Georgia Institute of Technology Barry G. Douglass Texas A&M University George I. Cohn California State University Floyd E. Toole Harman International Industries, Inc. E. A. G. Shaw National Research Council of Canada Gilles A. Daigle Institute for Microstructural Sciences Michel R. Stinson Institute for Microstructural Sciences Jerry C. Whitaker Editor-in-Chief 1.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum ............................. 2 Introduction Spectral Subregions 1.2 Resonance ............................................. 11 Introduction Frequency-Domain Description of Resonance Series-Parallel RLC Resonant Filter The Pole--Zero Pattern Description of Resonance Time-Domain Description of Resonance Resonance and Energy Storage in Inductors and Capacitors Physical Hazards with Resonant Circuits 1.3 Electroacoustics ........................................ 20 Introduction Linear Acoustics Radiation Models Dynamic Low-Frequency Loudspeaker Radiated Power Acoustic Impedance Circuit Duals and Mobility Models 1.4 Thermal Noise and Other Circuit Noise................. 30 Introduction Thermal Noise Shot Noise Noise in Systems of Cascaded Stages Noise-Induced Error in Digital Circuits Noise in Mixed Signal Systems Conclusions 1.5 Logic Concepts and Design ............................. 40 Introduction Digital Information Representation Number Systems Number Representation Arithmetic Number Conversion from One Base to Another Complements Codes Boolean Algebra Boolean Functions Switching Circuits Expansion Forms Realization Timing Diagrams Hazards K -Map Formats K -Maps and Minimization Minimization with K -Maps Quine--McCluskey Tabular Minimization 1.6 Digital Logic and Sequential Logic Circuits.............. 59 Combinational and Sequential Logic Circuits Set-Reset Latch Latch Analysis with Difference Equations Microtiming Diagram Construction Set-Reset Latch Nomenclature Set-Reset Latch Truth Table Set-Reset Latch Macrotiming Diagram J K Latch T Latch D Latch Synchronous Latches Master-Slave Flip-Flops Standard Master-Slave Data Flip-Flop Sequential Logic System Description Analysis of Synchronous Sequential Logic Circuits Synthesis of Synchronous Sequential Logic Circuits Equivalent States Partitioning Implication Table State Assignment State Assignment Guidelines Implication Graph Incompletely Specied Circuits Algorithmic State Machines Asynchronous Sequential Machines 1 Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 26. 2 Electronics Handbook 1.7 The Physical Nature of Sound .......................... 87 Introduction Sound Waves Dimensions of Sound 1.8 Principles of Light, Vision, and Photometry............. 97 Introduction Sources of Illumination Monochrome and Color Vision Photometric Measurements Luminosity Curve Human Visual System A Model for Image Quality 1.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum John Norgard 1.1.1 Introduction The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum consists of all forms of EM radiation, for example, EM waves propagating through space, from direct current (DC) to light to gamma rays. The EM spectrum can be arrangedinorderoffrequencyorwavelengthintoanumberofregions,usuallywideinextent,withinwhich the EM waves have some specied common characteristics, for example, those characteristics relating to the production or detection of radiation. Note that in this section, specic frequency ranges are called bands; several contiguous frequency bands are called spectrums; and subfrequency ranges within a band are called segments. A common example is the spectrum of the radiant energy in white light, as dispersed by a prism, to produce a rainbow of its constituent colors. The EM spectrum can be displayed as a function of frequency (or wavelength), as shown schematically in Fig. 1.1. In air, frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional ( f = c/). The meter-kilogram- second (MKS) unit of frequency is the hertz (1 Hz = 1 cycle per second); the MKS unit of wavelength is the meter. Frequency is also measured in the following subunits. kilohertz [1 kHz = 103 Hz] megahertz [1 MHz = 106 Hz] gigahertz [1 GHz = 109 Hz] terahertz [1 THz = 1012 Hz] or, for very high frequencies, electron volt [1 eV 2.41 1014 Hz] Note that E = hf = qV where h = 6.63 1034 Js (Plancks constant) and q = 1.602 1019 C. Wavelength is also measured in the following subunits. centimeters [1 cm = 102 m] millimeters [1 mm = 103 m] micrometers [1 m = 106 m] (microns) nanometers [1 nm = 109 m] Angstroms [1 A = 1010 m] picometers [1 pm = 1012 m] femtometers [1 fm = 1015 m] attometers [1 am = 1018 m] 1.1.2 Spectral Subregions In this section, the EM spectrum is divided for convenience into three main subregions: (1) the optical spectrum, (2) the DC to light spectrum, and (3) the light to gamma ray spectrum. The main subregions of the EM spectrum are now discussed, starting with the optical spectrum and continuing with the DC to light and the light to gamma ray spectrums. Note that the boundaries between Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 27. FundamentalElectricalTheory3 FREQUENCY (in Hertz = cycles per second) WAVELENGTH (in meters) ELF VLF VF LF MF VHF SHF EHF Sub HF Centimeter Waves Millimeter Waves L S C X BK Q V W L S C X KVQ M E F G R (old) (new) XB Mm km m mm m nm pm fm am Hz kHz MHz GHz THz eV keV MeV GeV Photon Energy 300 100 30 10 3 1 300 100 30 10 3 1 300 100 30 10 3 1 300 100 30 10 3 1 300 100 30 10 3 1 300 100 30 10 3 1 300 100 30 10 3 1 300 100 30 10 3 1 300 100 3010 3 1 1 3 10 30 100 300 1 3 10 30 100 300 1 3 10 30 100 300 1 3 10 30 100 300 1 3 10 30 100 300 10 100 1 10 100 1 10 100 1 10 100 PF rotating machinery musical instruments microphones telephones RF radio t.v. electronic tubes integrated circuits radar magnetrons klystrons gyrotrons Microwaves IR lasers thermal cameras incandescent lights UV fluorescent lights HID lights X-Rays X-ray tubes Gamma Rays linear accelerators betatrons synchrotrons AM FM TV CB TVTV CB Far Inter- mediate Near Far Soft Hard Primary ,,,, Secondary ,, ,, (Cosmic Origin) (0.78) 0.7 m VisibleLight 0.4 m (0.39) 0.6 m 0.5 m Y G C B I VR O VISION 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 (1 micron) Xu 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 UHF LS KU NearAudio Band Inter- national Broadcast Soft Hard 1 A f Millimeter Waves A B C D E F GH I J K L M FIGURE 1.1 The electromagnetic spectrum. Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 28. 4 Electronics Handbook some of the spectral regions are somewhat arbitrary. Some spectral bands have no sharp edges and merge into each other, and some spectral sequences overlap each other slightly. Optical Spectrum The optical spectrum is the middle frequency/wavelength region of the EM spectrum. It is dened here as the visible and near-visible regions of the EM spectrum and includes the following. The infrared (IR) spectrum: 1 mm0.7 m (300 GHz429 THz) The visible light spectrum: 0.7 m0.4 m (429 THz750 THz) The ultraviolet (UV) spectrum: 0.4 mcirca 3 nm (750 THzcirca 300 eV) These regions of the EM spectrum are usually described in terms of their wavelengths. Atomic and molecular radiation produce radiant light energy. Molecular radiation and radiation from hot bodies produce EM waves in the IR band. Atomic radiation (outer shell electrons) and radiation from arcs/sparks produce EM waves in the UV band. Visible Light Spectrum In the middle of the optical spectrum is the visible light spectrum, extending approximately from 0.4 m (violet) up to 0.7 m (red), that is, from 750 THz down to 429 THz. EM radiation in this region of the EM spectrum, when entering the eye, gives rise to visual sensations (colors), according to the spectral response of the eye [the spectral response of the eye is sometimes quoted as extending from 0.38 m (violet) up to 0.75 or 0.78 m (red), that is, from 790 THz down to 400 or 385 THz)], which responds only to radiant energy in the visible light band extending from the extreme long wavelength edge of red to the extreme short wavelength edge of violet. This visible light spectrum is further subdivided into the various colors of the rainbow, namely (in decreasing wavelength/increasing frequency): red a primary color; peak intensity at 700.0 nm (429 THz) orange yellow green a primary color; peak intensity at 546.1 nm (549 THz) cyan blue a primary color; peak intensity at 435.8 nm (688 THz) indigo violet IR Spectrum The IR spectrum is the region of the EM spectrum lying immediately below the visible light spectrum. The IR spectrum consists of EM radiation with wavelengths extending between the longest visible red (circa 0.7 m) and the shortest microwaves (circa 3001000 m, i.e., from 400 THz down to 1 THz300 GHz). The IR spectrum is further subdivided into the near, intermediate, and far IR bands as follows: 1. Near IR band: 0.7 m up to 3 m (429 THz down to 100 THz) 2. Intermediate IR band: 3 m up to 10 m (100 THz down to 30 THz) 3. Far IR band: 10 m up to 100 m (30 THz down to 3 THz) ThesubmillimeterregionofwavelengthsissometimesincludedintheveryfarregionoftheIRband. 4. Submillimeter: 100 m up to 1 mm (3 THz down to 300 GHz) EM radiation is produced by oscillating and rotating molecules and atoms. Therefore, all objects at temperatures above absolute zero emit EM radiation by virtue of their thermal motion (warmth) alone. Note some reference texts use 2.5 m (120 THz) as the breakpoint between the near and the intermediate IR bands. Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 29. Fundamental Electrical Theory 5 Objects near room temperature emit most of their radiation in the IR band. Even relatively cool ob- jects, however, emit some IR radiation; hot objects, such as incandescent laments, emit strong IR radiation. IR radiation is sometimes incorrectly called radiant heat, because warm bodies emit IR radiation and bodies that absorb IR radiation are warmed. However, IR radiation is not itself heat. This EM radiation is called black body radiation. Such waves are emitted by all material objects. For example, the background cosmic radiation (2.7 K) emits microwaves; room temperature objects (295 K) emit IR rays; the sun (6000 K) emits yellow light; the solar corona 106 K emits X rays. IR astronomy uses the 1 m1 mm part of the IR band to study celestial objects by their IR emissions. IR detectors are used in night vision systems, intruder alarm systems, weather forecasting, and missile guidance systems. IR photography uses multilayered color lm, with an IR sensitive emulsion in the wavelengths between 700 and 900 nm, for medical and forensic applications and for aerial surveying. UV Spectrum The UV spectrum is the region of the EM spectrum lying immediately above the visible light spectrum. The UV spectrum consists of EM radiation with wavelengths extending between the shortest visible violet (circa 0.4 m) and the longest X rays (circa 3 nm), that is, from 750 THz (circa 3 eV) up to 125 eV (some reference texts use 4, 5, or 10 nm as the upper edge of the UV band.) The UV spectrum is further subdivided into the near and the far UV bands as follows: Near UV band: 0.4 m down to 100 nm (3 eV up to 10 eV) Far UV band: 100 nm down to circa 3 nm (10 eV up to circa 300 eV) The far UV band is also referred to as the vacuum UV band, since air is opaque to all UV radiation in this region. UV radiation is produced by electron transitions in atoms and molecules, as in a mercury discharge lamp.UVradiationfromthesuncausestanningoftheskin.RadiationintheUVrangecancauseorescence in some substances, can produce photographic and ionizing effects, and is easily detected. In UV astronomy, the emissions of celestial bodies in the wavelength band between 50 and 320 nm are detected and analyzed to study the heavens. The hottest stars emit most of their radiation in the UV band. DC to Light Spectrum BelowtheIRspectrumarethelowerfrequency(longerwavelength)regionsoftheEMspectrum,subdivided generally into the following spectral regions (by frequency/wavelength). Microwave spectrum: 300 GHz down to 300 MHz (1 mm up to 1 m) Radio frequency (RF) spectrum: 300 MHz down to 10 kHz (1 m up to 30 km) Power/telephony spectrum: 10 kHz down to DC (30 km up to ) Note that some reference works dene the lower edge of the microwave spectrum at 1 GHz. The three regions of the EM spectrum are usually described in terms of their frequencies. Radiations having wavelengths of the order of millimeters and centimeters are called microwaves; those still longer are called radio waves (or Hertzian waves). Radiation from electronic devices produces EM waves in both the microwave and RF bands. Power frequency energy is generated by rotating machinery. Direct current is produced by batteries or rectied alternating current (AC). Microwave Spectrum The microwave spectrum is the region of wavelengths lying between the far IR/submillimeter regions and the conventional RF region. The boundaries of the microwave spectrum have not been denitely xed, but it is commonly regarded as the region of the EM spectrum extending from about 1 mm to 1 m in wavelengths, that is, 300 GHz down to 300 MHz. Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 30. 6 Electronics Handbook The microwave spectrum is further subdivided into the following segments. Millimeter waves: 300 GHz down to 30 GHz (1 mm up to 1 cm) extremely high-frequency (EHF) band Centimeter waves: 30 GHz down to 3 GHz (1 cm up to 10 cm) super high-frequency (SHF) band Note that some reference articles consider the top edge of the millimeter region to stop at 100 GHz. The microwave spectrum usually includes the ultra high-frequency (UHF) band from 3 GHz down to 300 MHz (10 cm up to 1 m). Microwaves are used in radar, in communication links spanning moderate distances, as radio carrier waves in radio broadcasting, for mechanical heating, and cooking in microwave ovens. Radio Frequency Spectrum The RF range of the EM spectrum is the wavelength band suitable for utilization in radio communications extending from 10 kHz to 300 MHz (some authors consider the RF band as extending from 10 kHz to 300 GHz, with the microwave band as a subset of the RF band from 300 MHz to 300 GHz.) Some of the radio waves serve as the carriers of the low-frequency audio signals; other radio waves are modulated by video and digital information. The amplitude modulated (AM) broadcasting band uses waves with frequencies between 550 and 1640 kHz; the frequency modulated (FM) broadcasting band uses waves with frequencies between 88 and 108 MHz. In the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is responsible for assigning a range of frequencies, for example, a frequency band in the RF spectrum, to a broadcasting station or service. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) coordinates frequency band allocation and cooperation on a worldwide basis. Radio astronomy uses a radio telescope to receive and study radio waves naturally emitted by objects in space. Radio waves are emitted from hot gases (thermal radiation), from charged particles spiraling in magnetic elds (synchrotron radiation), and from excited atoms and molecules in space (spectral lines), such as the 21-cm line emitted by hydrogen gas. Power Frequency/Telephone Spectrum The power frequency (PF) range of the EM spectrum is the wavelength band suitable for generating, transmitting, and consuming low-frequency power, extending from 10 kHz down to DC (zero frequency). In the U.S., most power is generated at 60 Hz (some military applications use 400 Hz); in other countries, for example, in Europe, power is generated at 50 Hz. Frequency Bands The combined microwave, RF (Hertzian waves), and power/telephone spectra are subdivided into the following specic bands. Extremely low-frequency (ELF) band: 30 Hz up to 300 Hz (10 Mm down to 1 Mm) Voice-frequency (VF) band: 300 Hz up to 3 kHz (1 Mm down to 100 km) Very low-frequency (VLF) band: 3 kHz up to 30 kHz (100 km down to 10 km) Low-frequency (LF) band: 30 kHz up to 300 kHz (10 km down to 1 km) Medium-frequency (MF) band: 300 kHz up to 3 MHz (1 km down to 100 m) High-frequency (HF) band: 3 MHz up to 30 MHz (100 m down to 10 m) Very high-frequency (VHF) band: 30 MHz up to 300 MHz (10 m down to 1 m) Ultra high-frequency (UHF) band: 300 MHz up to 3 GHz (1 m down to 10 cm) Super high-frequency (SHF) band: 3 GHz up to 30 GHz (1 cm down to 1 cm) Extremely high-frequency (EHF) band: 30 GHz up to 300 GHz (1 cm down to 1 mm) The upper portion of the UHF band, the SHF band, and the lower part of the EHF band are further subdivided into the following bands. Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 31. Fundamental Electrical Theory 7 L band: 1 GHz up to 2 GHz (30 cm down to 15 cm) S band: 2 GHz up to 4 GHz (15 cm down to 7.5 cm) C band: 4 GHz up to 8 GHz (7.5 cm down to 3.75 cm) X band: 8 GHz up to 12 GHz (3.75 cm down to 2.5 cm ) Ku band: 12 GHz up to 18 GHz (2.5 cm down to 1.67 cm) K band: 18 GHz up to 26.5 GHz (1.67 cm down to 1.13 cm) Ka band: 26.5 GHz up to 40 GHz (1.13 cm down to 7.5 mm) Q band: 32 GHz up to 50 GHz (9.38 mm down to 6 mm) U band: 40 GHz up to 60 GHz (7.5 mm down to 5 mm) V band: 50 GHz up to 75 GHz (6 mm down to 4 mm) W band: 75 GHz up to 100 GHz (4 mm down to 3.33 mm) An alternate and more detailed subdivision of the UHF, SHF, and EHF bands is as follows: L band: 1.12 GHz up to 1.7 GHz (26.8 cm down to 17.6 cm) LS band: 1.7 GHz up to 2.6 GHz (17.6 cm down to 11.5 cm) S band: 2.6 GHz up to 3.95 GHz (11.5 cm down to 7.59 cm) C(G) band: 3.95 GHz up to 5.85 GHz (7.59 cm down to 5.13 cm) XN(J, XC) band: 5.85 GHz up to 8.2 GHz (5.13 cm down to 3.66 cm) XB(H, BL) band: 7.05 GHz up to 10 GHz (4.26 cm down to 3 cm) X band: 8.2 GHz up to 12.4 GHz (3.66 cm down to 2.42 cm) Ku(P) band: 12.4 GHz up to 18 GHz (2.42 cm down to 1.67 cm) K band: 18 GHz up to 26.5 GHz (1.67 cm down to 1.13 cm) V(R, Ka) band: 26.5 GHz up to 40 GHz (1.13 cm down to 7.5 mm) Q(V) band: 33 GHz up to 50 GHz (9.09 mm down to 6 mm) M(W) band: 50 GHz up to 75 GHz (6 mm down to 4 mm) E(Y) band: 60 GHz up to 90 GHz (5 mm down to 3.33 mm) F(N) band: 90 GHz up to 140 GHz (3.33 mm down to 2.14 mm) G(A) band: 140 GHz up to 220 GHz (2.14 mm down to 1.36 mm) R band: 220 GHz up to 325 GHz (1.36 mm down to 0.923 mm) The upper portion of the VHF band, the UHF and SHF bands, and the lower part of the EHF band have been more recently divided into the following bands. A band: 100 MHz up to 250 MHz (3 m down to 1.2 m) B band: 250 MHz up to 500 MHz (1.2 m down to 60 cm) C band: 500 MHz up to 1 GHz (60 cm down to 30 cm) D band: 1 GHz up to 2 GHz (30 cm down to 15 cm) E band: 2 GHz up to 3 GHz (15 cm down to 10 cm) F band: 3 GHz up to 4 GHz (10 cm down to 7.5 cm) G band: 4 GHz up to 6 GHz (7.5 cm down to 5 cm) H band: 6 GHz up to 8 GHz (5 cm down to 3.75 cm) I band: 8 GHz up to 10 GHz (3.75 cm down to 3 cm) J band: 10 GHz up to 20 GHz (3 cm down to 1.5 cm) K band: 20 GHz up to 40 GHz (1.5 cm down to 7.5 mm) L band: 40 GHz up to 60 GHz (7.5 mm down to 5 mm) M band: 60 GHz up to 100 GHz (5 mm down to 3 mm) Several other frequency bands of interest (not exclusive) are now listed. In the power spectrum: Audio band: 10 Hz10 kHz Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 32. 8 Electronics Handbook In the RF spectrum: Longwave broadcasting band: 150290 kHz AM broadcasting band: 5501640 kHz (1.640 MHz) (107 Channels, 10-kHz separation) International broadcasting band: 330 MHz Shortwave broadcasting band: 5.9526.1 MHz (8 bands) VHF television (channels 24): 5472 MHz VHF television (channels 56): 7688 MHz FM broadcasting band: 88108 MHz VHF television (channels 713): 174216 MHz UHF television (channels 1483): 470890 MHz In the Microwave spectrum (up to 40 GHz): Aeronavigation: 0.961.215 GHz Global positioning system (GPS) down link: 1.2276 GHz Military communications (COM)/radar: 1.351.40 GHz Miscellaneous COM/radar: 1.401.71 GHz L-band telemetry: 1.4351.535 GHz GPS downlink: 1.57 GHz Military COM (troposcatter/telemetry): 1.711.85 GHz Commercial COM and private line of sight (LOS): 1.852.20 GHz Microwave ovens: 2.45 GHz Commercial COM/radar: 2.452.69 GHz Instructional television: 2.502.69 GHz Military radar (airport surveillance): 2.702.90 GHz Maritime navigation radar: 2.903.10 GHz Miscellaneous radars: 2.903.70 GHz Commercial C-band satellite (SAT) COM downlink: 3.704.20 GHz Radar altimeter: 4.204.40 GHz Military COM (troposcatter): 4.404.99 GHz Commercial microwave landing system: 5.005.25 GHz Miscellaneous radars: 5.255.925 GHz C-band weather radar: 5.355.47 GHz Commercial C-band SAT COM uplink: 5.9256.425 GHz Commercial COM: 6.4257.125 GHz Mobile television links: 6.8757.125 GHz Military LOS COM: 7.1257.25 GHz Military SAT COM downlink: 7.257.75 GHz Military LOS COM: 7.757.9 GHz Military SAT COM uplink: 7.908.40 GHz Miscellaneous radars: 8.5010.55 GHz Precision approach radar: 9.009.20 GHz X-band weather radar (and maritime navigation radar): 9.309.50 GHz Police radar: 10.525 GHz Commercial mobile COM [LOS and electronic news gathering (ENG)]: 10.5510.68 GHz Common carrier LOS COM: 10.7011.70 GHz Commercial COM: 10.7013.25 GHz Commercial Ku-band SAT COM downlink: 11.7012.20 GHz Direct broadcast satellite (DBS) downlink and private LOS COM: 12.2012.70 GHz ENG and LOS COM: 12.7513.25 GHz Miscellaneous radars and SAT COM: 13.2514.00 GHz Commercial Ku-band SAT COM uplink: 14.0014.50 GHz Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 33. Fundamental Electrical Theory 9 Military COM (LOS, mobile, and Tactical): 14.5015.35 GHz Aeronavigation: 15.4015.70 GHz Miscellaneous radars: 15.7017.70 GHz DBS uplink: 17.3017.80 GHz Common carrier LOS COM: 17.7019.70 GHz Commercial COM (SAT COM and LOS): 17.7020.20 GHz Private LOS COM: 18.3619.04 GHz Military SAT COM: 20.2021.20 GHz Miscellaneous COM: 21.2024.00 GHz Police radar: 24.15 GHz Navigation radar: 24.2525.25 GHz Military COM: 25.2527.50 GHz Commercial COM: 27.5030.00 GHz Military SAT COM: 30.0031.00 GHz Commercial COM: 31.0031.20 GHz Navigation radar: 31.8033.40 GHz Miscellaneous radars: 33.4036.00 GHz Military COM: 36.0038.60 GHz Commercial COM: 38.6040.00 GHz Light to Gamma Ray Spectrum Above the UV spectrum are the higher frequency (shorter wavelength) regions of the EM spectrum, subdivided generally into the following spectral regions (by frequency/wavelength) X-ray spectrum: circa 300 eV up to (circa 3 nm down to circa (circa 1 1017 Hz up to circa 30 keV 30 pm) 1 1019 Hz) Gamma ray spectrum: circa 30 keV up to (30 pm down to 0 m) (1 1019 Hz up to ) These regions of the EM spectrum are usually described in terms of their photon energies in electron volts. Note that cosmic rays (from astronomical sources) are not EM waves (rays) and, therefore, are not part of the EM spectrum. Cosmic rays are high-energy-charged particles (electrons, protons, and ions) of extraterrestrial origin moving through space that may have energies as high as 1020 eV. Cosmic rays have been traced to cataclysmic astrophysical/cosmological events, such as exploding stars and black holes. Cosmic rays are emitted by supernova remnants, pulsars, quasars, and radio galaxies. Cosmic rays collide with molecules in the Earths upper atmosphere producing secondary cosmic rays and gamma rays of high energy. These gamma rays are sometimes called cosmic or secondary gamma rays. Cosmic rays are a useful source of high-energy particles for experiments. They also contribute to the natural background radiation. Radiation from atomic inner shell excitations produces EM waves in the X-ray spectrum. Radiation from naturally radioactive nuclei produces EM waves in the gamma ray spectrum. X-Ray Spectrum The X-ray spectrum is further subdivided into the following segments. Soft X rays: circa 300 eV up to 10 keV (circa 3 nm down to 10 nm) (circa 1 1017 Hz up to 3 1018 Hz) Hard X rays: 10 keV up to circa 30 keV (10 nm down to circa 30 pm) (3 1018 Hz up to circa 3 1019 Hz) Because the physical nature of these rays was rst unknown, this radiation was called X rays. The more powerful X rays are called hard X rays and are of high frequencies and, therefore, are more energetic; less powerful X rays are called soft X rays and have lower energies. Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 34. 10 Electronics Handbook Xraysareproducedbytransitionsofelectronsintheinnerlevelsofexcitedatomsorbyrapiddeceleration of charged particlesBrehmsstrahlung breaking radiation. An important source of X rays is synchrotron radiation. X rays can also be produced when high-energy electrons from a heated lament cathode strike the surface of a target anode (usually tungsten) between which a high alternating voltage (approximately 100 kV) is applied. X rays are a highly penetrating form of EM radiation and applications of X rays are based on their short wavelengths and their ability to easily pass through matter. X rays are very useful in crystallography for determining crystalline structure and in medicine for photographing the body. Since different parts of the body absorb X rays to a different extent, X rays passing through the body provide a visual image of its interior structure when striking a photographic plate. X rays are dangerous and can destroy living tissue and can cause severe skin burns; however, X rays are useful in the diagnosis and nondestructive testing of products for defects. Gamma Ray Spectrum The gamma ray spectrum is subdivided into the following segments. Primary gamma rays: circa 30 keV up (circa 30 pm down to 300 fm) (circa 1 1019 Hz up to 3 MeV to 1 1021 Hz) Secondary gamma rays: 3 MeV up to (300 fm down to 0 m) (1 1021 Hz up to ) The primary gamma rays are further subdivided into the following segments. Soft gamma rays: circa 30 keV up to (circa 30 pm down to (circa 1 1019 Hz up circa 300 keV circa 3 pm) to circa 1 1020 Hz) Hard gamma rays: circa 300 keV up to (circa 3 pm down to 300 fm) (circa 1 1020 Hz 3 MeV up to 1 1021 Hz) Secondary gamma rays are created from collisions of high-energy cosmic rays with particles in the Earths upper atmosphere. Gamma rays are essentially very energetic X rays. The distinction between the two is based on their origin. X rays are emitted during atomic processes involving energetic electrons; gamma rays are emitted by excited nuclei or other processes involving subatomic particles. Gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus of radioactive material during the process of natural radioactive decay as a result of transitions from high-energy excited states to low-energy states in atomic nuclei. Cobalt 90 is a common gamma ray source (with a half-life of 5.26 years). Gamma rays are also produced by the interaction of high-energy electrons with matter. Cosmic gamma rays cannot penetrate the Earths atmosphere. Applications of gamma rays are used both in medicine and in industry. In medicine, gamma rays are used for cancer treatment, diagnoses, and prevention. Gamma ray emitting radioisotopes are used as tracers. In industry, gamma rays are used in the inspection of castings, seams, and welds. Defining Terms Cosmic rays: Highly penetrating particle rays from outer space. Primary cosmic rays that enter the Earths upper atmosphere consist mainly of protons. Cosmic rays of low energy have their origin in the sun, those of high energy in galactic or extragalactic space, possibly as a result of supernova explosions. Collisions with atmospheric particles result in secondary cosmic rays (particles) and secondary gamma rays (EM waves). Electromagnetic spectrum: EM radiant energy arranged in order of frequency or wavelength and divided into regions within which the waves have some common specied characteristics, for example, the waves are generated, received, detected, or recorded in a similar way. Gamma rays: Electromagnetic radiation of very high energy (greater than 30 keV) emitted after nuclear reactions or by a radioactive atom when its nucleus is left in an excited state after emission of alpha or beta particles. Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 35. Fundamental Electrical Theory 11 Infrared (IR) radiation: Electromagnetic radiations having wavelengths in the range, 0.7 nm (the long- wavelength limit of visible red light) to 1 mm (the shortest microwaves). A convenient subdivision is as follows: near, 0.7 m to 25 m; intermediate, 25 m to 10 m; far, 10 m to 1 mm. Light: White light, when split into a spectrum of colors, is composed of a continuous range of merging colors: red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, indigo, and violet. Microwaves: Anelectromagneticwavethathasawavelengthbetweenapproximately0.3cm(or1mm)and 30 (or 10) cm, corresponding to frequencies between 1 GHz (or 300 MHz) and 100 (or 300) GHz. Note that there are no well-dened boundaries distinguishing microwaves from infrared and radio and waves. Radio waves: Electromagnetic radiation suitable for radio transmission in the range of frequencies from about 10 kHz to about 300 MHz. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation: Electromagnetic radiations having wavelengths in the range from 0.4 nm (the shortest wavelength limit of visible violet light) to 3 nm (the longest X rays). A convenient subdivision is as follows: near, 0.4 m to 100 nm; far, 100 nm to 3 nm. X rays: Electromagnetic radiation of short wavelengths (circa 3 nm to 30 pm) produced when cathode rays impinge on matter. References Cambridge Encyclopedia. 1990. Cambridge University Press, New York. Collocott, T.C. and Dobson, A.B., Eds. Dictionary of Science & Technology. W & R Chambers. Columbia Encyclopedia. 1993. Columbia University Press, New York. Handbook of Physics. 1958. McGraw-Hill, New York. Judd, D.B. and Wyszecki, G. Color in Business, Science and Industry, 3rd ed. Wiley, New York. Kaufman, Ed. IES Illumination Handbook. Illumination Engineering Society. Lapedes, D.N., Ed. The McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. Stemson, A. Photometry and Radiometry for Engineers. Wiley, New York. Websters New World Encyclopedia. 1992. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Wyszecki,G.andStiles,W.S. Color Science, Concepts and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae,2ndEd. Wiley, New York. Further Information Kobb, B.Z. Spectrum Guide, Radio Frequency Allocations in the United States, 30 MHz300 GHz. New Signal Press. IEEE Standard 521. U.S.A.F. Regulation 5544. 1.2 Resonance Michael D. Ciletti 1.2.1 Introduction Resonant circuits play an important role in lters and tuning circuits for communications, radar, and many other electronics systems. In a typical application a resonant circuit is used to tune a radio or television to a particular station while blocking the signals that it receives simultaneously from other stations and sources of signals. Resonant circuits effect a frequency-dependent attenuation of signals, thus passing certain signals and rejecting others, including noise. Widespread use of resonant circuits in consumer, industrial, and defense electronics warrants their study. We will examine resonant circuits from the point of view of their frequency-domain and time-domain properties. Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 36. 12 Electronics Handbook 1.2.2 Frequency-Domain Description of Resonance When a sinusoidal source is applied to a stable linear circuit all of the steady-state node voltages and branch currents in the circuit will be sinusoids having the same frequency as the input. A sinusoidal input signal produces a sinusoidal steady-state output (response). The steady-state response of a given node voltage or CIRCUIT outwtin sin( f+A in) wtsin( f+A )out FIGURE 1.2 Inputoutput relationship for linear cir- cuits in sinusoidal steady state. branch current, however, may have different ampli- tude and phase than those of the input signal. This relationship is illustrated by the block diagram in Fig. 1.2, in which the input signal Ain sin(t + in) produces a steady-state output signal (i.e., a voltage or current) yss(t) = Aout sin(t + out). In general, when a linear circuits input signal is the sinusoid vin(t) = Ain sin(t +in) for t 0, the steady-state output signal will be a sinusoid described by yss(t) = Aout sin(t + out). The magnitude and phase of the steady-state output signal are related to the magnitude and phase of the circuits input sinusoidal signal by Aout = Ain|H( j)| and out = in + angH( j) tss Aout Ain A inA out ang H (j)/ V (t )in y (t )ss t FIGURE 1.3 Input-output signal relationships. where |H( j)| denotes the magnitude of the complex-valued s-domain input-output transfer function H(s), and ang H( j) denotes the an- gle of H(s), with both quantities evaluated at s = j in the complex plane. It is important to re- alize that the steady-state output signal will be a scaled and time-shifted copy of the input signal, as depicted in Fig. 1.3. The time tss denotes the time at which the circuit is considered to be in the steady state. The magnitude of the steady-state output signal yss(t) is created by scaling the magni- tude of the input signal by |H( j)|; the phase angle of the steady-state output signal is created by adding the phase angle increment ( j) = ang H( j) to the phase angle of the input signal. The steady-state output signal is translated relative to the input signal on the time axis by an amount = angH( j)/. + R u in C VC + FIGURE 1.4 Three series RC circuit. The relationship between a circuits sinusoidal input signal and its steady-state output signal can be represented in the frequency domain by the Bode magnitude and phase responses of the circuit [DeCarlo and Lin, 1995; Irwin 1995]. For exam- ple, the capacitor voltage in the simple RC circuit shown in Fig. 1.4 has the Bode magnitude |H( j)| and Bode phase response, ( j) shown in Fig. 1.5. The s-domain input-output transfer function H(s) relating the output (capacitor voltage) to the input source voltage in Fig. 1.4 is obtained by using voltage division with the generalized impedances (Ciletti, 1988) in the series RC circuit H(s) = ZC (s)/[ZR(s) + ZC (s)] Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 37. Fundamental Electrical Theory 13 where ZC (s) = 1/(sC) and ZR(s) = R. Making these substitutions leads to H(s) = 1/(1 + s RC) and H( j) = 1/(1 + jRC) with |H( j)| = 1/ (1 + 2 R2 C2 ) and ( j) = ang[H( j)] = tan1 (RC) (Note: Generalized (s-domain) impedances Z(s) and admittances Y(s) obey the same algebraic laws of series and parallel combination as do resistors, thereby simplifying circuit analysis.) 1 1 w/wc |H( jw)| BODE MAGNITUDE RESPONSE w/wc 1 q( jw) 0 45 90 BODE PHASE RESPONSE FIGURE 1.5 Bode magnitude and phase responses for a simple RC lowpass lter. The Bode magnitude response shown in Fig. 1.5 for the response of the capacitor voltage in the RC circuit in Fig. 1.4 said to be a low-pass re- sponse, indicating that sinusoidal sources with low frequencies will be less attenuated in steady state than those with relatively high frequency. In fact, the graph of |H( j)| is considered to be relatively at for c , with c the so-called cutoff fre- quency of the lter. The cutoff frequency of a lter is determined by the value of the circuits components; here, c = 1/(RC). The cutoff frequency of a low-pass lter has the signicance that a sinusoid signal the frequency of which is outside of the passband of the lter contributes less than 50% of the power to the output than would a DC signal having the same input amplitude. At low frequencies the output signals amplitude will be a close approximation to that of the input. We note that |H( j0)| = 1 and |H( jc )| = 0.707 for this circuit. 1.2.3 Series-Parallel RLC Resonant Filter A circuits ability to selectively attenuate signals at certain frequencies is determined by its topology and by the value of its physical components. For certain values of its components, a circuits Bode magnitude response might be much sharper in shape than for other choices of components. When a circuits Bode + R u in C VC + L FIGURE 1.6 Series-parallel resonant RLC circuit. magnitude response exhibits a sharp characteristic the circuit is said to be in resonance. The Bode magnitude response of the simple RC circuit will always have the shape shown in Fig. 1.5 andcanneverexhibitresonance. Ontheotherhand, the capacitor voltage in the series or parallel RLC circuit shown in Fig. 1.6 has the sharp Bode mag- nitude response shown in Fig. 1.7 when R = 10 , L = 1 H, and C = 1 F (frequency scaling can be used to obtain more realistic component values for a given cutoff frequency). This circuit is distin- guished by its sharp Bode magnitude response and is said to be a resonant circuit. We note, however, that Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 38. 14 Electronics Handbook 1 1 w/wp |H( jw)| FIGURE 1.7 Bode magnitude response for a resonant series-parallel RLC circuit. for other choices of its component values the same circuit might not exhibit the sharp Bode magnitude response that is characteristic of resonance (e.g., R = 1 , L = 1 H, C = 1 F). The resonant fre- quency of this circuit, R, can be shown to be given by R = 1/ (LC). Thetransferfunctionrelatingtheoutputvoltage (across L and C) to the input voltage of the series/ parallel RLC circuit is obtained as follows: H(s) = ZLC (s)/[R + ZLC (s)] = {ZL (s)ZC (s)/[ZL (s) + ZC (s)]}/{R + ZL (s)ZC (s)/[ZL (s) + ZC (s)]} = {(s L)[1/(sC)]/[s L + 1/(sC)]}/{R + (s L)[1/(sC)]/[s L + 1/(sC)]} = [s/(RC)]/[s2 + s/(RC) + 1/(LC)] The utility of the resonant series-parallel circuit is demonstrated by considering the circuits steady-state response to the signal vin(t) = A1 sin(0.5Rt +1)+ A2 sin(Rt +2)+ A3 sin(2Rt +3). The steady- state output signal will be yss(t) = A1|H( j0.5R)| sin[0.5Rt +1 +1( jR)]+ A2|H( jR)| sin[Rt + 2 + 2( jR)] + A3|H( j2R)| sin[2Rt + 3 + 3( jR)], which can be approximated by yss(t) A2|H( jR)| sin[Rt + 2 + 2( jR)] The steady-state output signal is approximately a scaled and time-translated (phase-shifted) copy of the sinusoidal input signal; it consists primarily of a sinusoidal signal having frequency = R. The components of the input signal at frequencies 0.5R rad/s and 2R rad/s will be effectively ltered by the circuit and make minimal contribution to the output voltage. 1.2.4 The Pole--Zero Pattern Description of Resonance jw FIGURE 1.8 Pole-zero pattern of a resonant series- parallel RLC circuit. The pole-zero pattern of the input/output transfer function, H(s), of a circuit is formed by plotting the location of the roots of the polynomials com- prising the numerator and denominator of H(s), when H(s) is expressed as a ratio of two polyno- mials. The roots of the numerator polynomial are called the zeros of H(s), and those of the denomina- tor are called the poles of H(s). The key relationship is that the location of the poles and zeros in the s plane determine the shape of the Bode magnitude and phase responses of the circuit. Figure 1.8 shows the pole-zero pattern of the resonant series-parallel RLC circuit. The Bode magnitude response is obtained by evaluating H(s) at points s = j on the imag- inary axis in the complex plane. The circuits Bode response will be resonant if it has a pair of complex conjugate poles located relatively close to the imaginary axis in comparison to their distance from the real axis. The presence of the associated pole factors in the denominator of |H( j)| gives rise to the sharp resonant peak feature in the Bode magnitude response. (The distance of the complex poles from the real axis determines the frequency of the circuits damped frequency of oscillation, and the distance of the pole pair determines the decay factor of the oscillation. The same is true of higher-order circuits having multiple repeated poles located near the j axis. Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group 39. Fundamental Electrical Theory 15 1.2.5 Time-Domain Description of Resonance Time-domain methods are often used to characterize linear circuits, and can also be used to describe resonance. When an electrical circuit exhibits an undamped oscillatory or slightly damped behavior it is said to be in resonance, and the waveforms of the voltages and currents in the circuit can oscillate indenitely. The response y(t) of a linear circuit to an input signal uin(t) comprises the sum of two parts. The zero- input response yZIR(t) is that part of y(t) due solely to the energy that was stored in the circuits capacitors and inductors before the input signal was applied. The zero-state response yZSR(t) is the response that the circuit exhibits to the input signal when no energy is initially stored in the circuit. When a circuit has no initial stored energy it is said to be initially relaxed. For a linear circuit, y(t) = yZIR(t) + yZSR(t), and y(t) is called the initial state response of the circuit, denoted by yISR(t). That is, the response of a linear circuit to an input signal is the sum of its response to its initial stored energy with the circuits input signal set to zero and its response to the input signal when the circuit is initially relaxed. The time-domain behavior of the zero-input response of a circuit is related to the frequency-domain property of resonance. In the case of a second-order circuit, its zero-input response will be overdamped, criticallydamped,orunderdamped,dependingonthevalueofthecircuitscomponents.Ifthecomponents are such that the response is highly underdamped, the circuit is said to be in resonance, and its zero-input response will be oscillatory in nature and will not decay rapidly. The relative proximity of the poles of the circuits transfer function H(s) to the j axis accounts for this oscillatory behavior. To see this, note that each distinct pair of complex poles in H(s) contributes to yZIR(t) a term having the following form: y(t) = K et sin(d t + ). [If H(s) has repeated (multiple) complex poles at the same location, the expression for y(t) also includes a polynomialfactorinthevariablet.]Thedampingfactor determinesthetimeconstantofthedecayof y(t), with = 1/||, and the damped frequency of oscillation d determines the frequency of the oscillation. When d || the circuit is said to be resonant, and the period of oscillation is small compared to the time constant of decay. The time-domain waveform of the response is said to exhibit ringing. The complex poles associated with ringing are relatively closer to the j axis than to the real axis. 1.2.6 Resonance and Energy Storage in Inductors and Capacitors The physical phenomena of resonance is due to an exchange of energy between electric and magnetic elds. In passive RLC circuits, the energy can be stored in the electrical eld of a capacitor and transferred to the magnetic eld of an inductor, and vice versa. In an active circuit, such as an op-amp bandpass lter with no inductors, energy can be exchanged between capacitors. The energy stored in a capacitor when charged to a voltage v is Wc = 1/2Cv2 ; the energy stored in an inductor carrying a current i is WL = 1/2Li2 . In a passive RLC circuit, resonance involves an alternating exchange between the inductor current and the capacitor voltage, with inductor current decreasing from a maximum value to a minimum value and capacitor voltage increasing from a minimum value to a maxi- mumvalue.Whenthisexchangeoccurswithrelativelylittle