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© Copyright by Elena A. Pakhoutova All Rights Reserved

December 2009

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Table of Contents Table of Contents iii

Introduction 1 The Subject 1 Purpose/Objective 2 Methodology 3 Previous Scholarship 4 Plan of the Dissertation 10

Part 1 Portable representations 13 Chapter 1 Eastern Indian Representations of the Eight Great Events and Typology of Stūpas 13

Introduction 13 Textual Sources Related to the Practice of Building and Worshipping Stūpas 17 Clay objects (tsa tsa) 31

Identifiable Types of Stūpas among Clay Objects (tsa tsa) 33 Clay Plaques, Votive Stūpas, Enlightenment at Vajrāsana, and Dharmakaya 36

Manuscript Illuminations 41 Depictions of Stūpas within the Scenes of the Life of the Buddha 42 Images of Stūpas Related to Sacred Sites 44

Chapter 1 Conclusion 46 Chapter 2 Portable Objects Related to the Eight Great Events in Tibet 48

Introduction 48 Sculpture 50

The Mahābodhi Temple Models 50 Clay Plaques tsa tsa 54 Stūpa Models (Reliquaries) 60 Stone Plaques 62

Manuscript Illuminations of the Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra 72 Eastern Indian Manuscripts in Tibet 72 Tibetan Manuscripts 78

Chapter 2 Conclusion 84 Chapter 3: Tibetan thang ka Paintings of the Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life 88

Introduction 88 Vajrāsana paintings 89 Paintings of the Eight Great Events 93

Thoughts on the use and production 96 The Khara Khoto painting 100 Iconographic considerations 102 Stylistic considerations 114 Chapter 3 Conclusion 122

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Part 2 Representations in Murals, Structures, Sites 125 Chapter 4 Central Tibet 125

Introduction 125 The Early Temples’ Decoration 127

Kyangbu 127 Yemar 131 Zhalu Monastery 132

Vajrāsana, Lineages, and Monastic Seats 137 Stūpas, their Typology and Associations 141 Zhang’s Stūpa at Tsal 147 Chapter 4 Conclusion 154

Chapter 5 Yulin Cave 3 – Reflection on Sacred Sites 157 Introduction 157 Visual Program of Cave 3 at Yulin 159

Composition and Iconography of the Main (Eastern) Wall 160 Central Panel 160 North Panel 165 South Panel 170

Other Murals and Overall Iconography of the Cave 175 Panels with Maṇḍalas 176 Pure Land Panels 180 Scenes with Mañjuśrī and Samantabhadra 182

Pictorial Means Employed in the Cave’s Visual Program 185 Chapter 5 Conclusion 189

Chapter 6: Western Tibet and Western Himalayan Sites 192 Introduction 192 Western Tibet 194

Tholing 194 Dungkar 205 Nyag Cave-temple at Khatse 214

The Western Himalayas 217 Tabo 217

The Main Temple at Tabo 217 The Decorated Stūpas at Tabo 220

Alchi, Ladakh 221 The Main Temple (Assembly Hall) at Alchi 223 The Three-story Temple at Alchi 227 Alchi Stūpa Shrines 230

The Five-Tower Stūpa 230 The Twin (Smaller) Stūpa 235

Other Decorated Stūpas in Ladakh and Zanskar 236 The Four Image Stūpa at Mangyu 237 The Stūpa at Kharsha 238 Stūpas at Lamayuru, Shangrong, and Basgo 241

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Stūpas at Nyarma 242 The Stūpa near Tikse 244

Chapter 6 Conclusion 245 Concluding remarks 248

Images 251

Select Bibiliography 368

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List of Images 1.1 Clay plaque (tsa tsa) with stūpas, c. 8th-9th c. (?), the British Museum, OA 1887 1.2 Tsa tsa from Bodhgayā, circa 10th century, Bodhgaya Site Museum. After Lawson

(1988), fig. 12 1.3 Clay plaque, circa 10th-11th century, Nālandā, Bihar, India. After Huntington (1990),

fig. 56 1.4 Clay sealings with the Formula of Dependent Origination from Bodhgayā, 9th-10th

century, The British Museum. After Lawson (1988), figs. 9-11 1.5 Metal stūpa from Nālandā with the Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life, circa 9th

century, The National Museum, New Delhi. After Pal (1984), no. 69 1.6 Drawing of a clay stūpa, the British Museum, OA 40, circa 10th century. After

Lawson, page 81, c 1.7 Drawing of a clay stūpa from Gūdul-i Āhangarān, Ghazni, Afghanistan, circa

9thcentury (?) After Taddei fig. 2 1.8 Stone stele of the Buddha’s Descent from the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods, c.

800 C.E. The British Museum, OA 1963.2-14.1 1.9. Stone stele of the Buddha’s Descent from the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods,

Bihar, India circa late 9th century. After Huntington (1990), fig. 9 1.10 Stone stele of the Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life, Jagdispur, near Nālandā,

Bihar, 10th century. After J. Huntington (1987), II, fig. 2 1.11 Stone stele of the Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life, eastern India, 11th c., the

British Museum, OA 1942.4-15.3 1.12 Prajñāparamitā manuscript from Nālandā monastery, Bihar, India, 1073 C.E., Asia

Society 1987.1 1.13 Buddha’s Descend from the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods. Prajñāparamitā

manuscript India, 997 C.E., The Cambridge University Library, Add.1464, folio128 recto, right panel. After Jamieson (2000), 60

1.14 Stone stele of the Eight Great Events, Sarnath, Bihar, India, 7th-8th century, Sārnāth

National Museum, no. C(a)2. After Williams (1975), fig. 3

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1.15 Stone stele of the Taming of the Elephant Nalagiri, Bihar, India, c. 10th c., The Rubin

Museum of Art, C2006.71.9 1.16 Ornate stūpa in Oḍradeśa (northern Orissa, India). Prajñāparamitā manuscript,

Nepal, 1015 C.E., The Cambridge University Library Add.1643, folio169 recto, left panel. After Jamieson (2000), 48, 105

1.17 Ornate Rhinoceros stūpa (khaḍga caitya) on the Black Mountain in Konkan, India.

Prajñāparamitā manuscript, Nepal, 1015 C.E., The Cambridge University Library Add.1463 folio 214 verso, right panel. After Jamieson (2000), 55, 105

1.18 The stūpa in the Deer Park at Vārendrā (northwestern Bangladesh),

Prajñāparamitā manuscript, Nepal, 1015 C.E., The Cambridge University Library Add.1643 folio 176 verso, right panel. After Jamieson (2000), 30, 104

1.19 The stūpa in Tirhut, Bihar, India. Prajñāparamitā manuscript, Nepal, 1015 C.E., The

Cambridge University Library Add.1643, folio 214 verso, left panel. After Jamieson (2000), 64, 105

1.20 The golden stūpa at Puruṣapura, Gāndhāra (Peshawar), Prajñāparamitā manuscript,

Nepal 1015 C.E., The Cambridge University Library Add.1643, folio 123 verso, left panel. After Jamieson (2000), 96, 106

2.1 Model of the Mahābodhi Temple at Bodhgayā, sandalwood, c. 11th century. Eastern

Indian work (?) Potala Collection: Lima lha khang, inv. no.1335. a: East face; b: West face, c: North face. After Schroeder (2001), figs. 113A-C

2.2 Clay plaques tsa tsa. Buddha in Vajrāsana. Tibet, 10th-13th century. After Lui Dong

(2000), figs. 28, 31 2.3 Clay plaques tsa tsa. Many doors and Descent type stūpas. Tibet, 10th-13th century.

After Lui Dong (2000), figs. 146, 147. 2.4 Clay plaques tsa tsa. Many doors, Descent, Parinivāṇa, Enlightenment, Miracles,

and Birth type stūpas. Tibet, 10th-13th century (?) 2.5 Clay plaques tsa tsa. Eight types of stūpas, a: Tholing monastery; b: Tibet, 10th-13th

century (?) 2.6 Clay plaques tsa tsa in a stūpa/cone shape

a: composite stūpa, Tibet, 13th-17th century (?); b: composite stūpas, India or Tibet (from an Indian mold), 10th-13th century

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c: stūpa with relief of eight stūpas, Tibet, 13th-17th century (?). After Lui Dong (2000), figs. 151, 144, 152.

2.7 Metal reliquary stūpas a: Many doors type. Jo khang, Lhasa, inv. no. 178; b: Parīnirvaṇa type. Potala, Lhasa: Li ma lha khang, inv. no. 227, Pāla style, Tibet, 12th-13th century. After Schroeder (2001), figs. 119A, 119C

2.8 Metal stūpas of Parīnivaṇa type, also known as Kadampa stūpa. Mindroling (Tib.

sMin grol gling) monastery, Tibet, 11th-13th century 2.9 Miniature stone sculptures of the Eight Great Events. Potala, Lhasa: Lima lha

khang. After von Schroeder (2001), fig. V-3 2.10 Miniature stone sculpture of the Eight Great Events, 11th – 12th century

A Tibetan inscription of the Verse of Dependent Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda gāthā) and consecrational syllables Oṃ Āḥ, Hūṃ on verso. Potala, Lhasa: Li ma Lha Khang, inv. no. 1631. After von Schroeder (2001), fig. 129C, D

2.11 Miniature stone sculptures of the Eight Great Events. Potala, Lhasa.

a: 12th century, at Bla ma khang, inv. no. 2020 b: 1050-1150 C.E. at Li ma Lha Khang, inv. no. 1620 (?). After von Schroeder (2001), figs. 129 A, B

2.12 Illuminations of the Prajñāparāmitā sūtra on palm leaf and painted wooden covers

eastern India, 1195 C.E., Bhara Khala Bhavan. After Kim (2006), figs. 2.88, 4.99, 4.100.

2.13 Miniature stone sculpture of the Eight Great Events (with Crowned Buddha and

Seven Stations). c. 12th century. Potala, Lhasa: Li ma lha khang, inv. no. 1626. After Schroeder, fig. 130B

2.14 Illuminations of the Prajñāparāmitā sūtra on palm leaf, eastern India, 1208 C.E.,

Asiatic Society, Mumbai. After Kim (2006), fig. 4.85 2.15 Tibetan teacher with his Lineage. Miniature stone stele. 12th century. Potala, Lhasa:

Li ma lha khang, inv. no. 1552. After Schroeder (2001), fig. 122D 2.16 Prajñāpāramitā sūtra manuscript, Nālandā, India, 1073 C.E., 1151 C.E. Asia Society,

New York, 1987.1 2.17 Prajñāpāramitā sūtra manuscript, eastern India, 1096 C.E. After Samkrtyayana and

Pathak (1986), pl. 24

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2.18 Prajñāpāramitā manuscript, Nālandā, India, ca. 1124. Tibet Museum, Lhasa. After Treasures from the Roof of the World, fig. 37. A-C Details of the above

2.19 Frontispiece of the Prajñāparāmitā sūtra, Poo village in Kinnaur, western Himalaya,

first half of the 12th century. After Klimburg-Salter (1994), fig. 1 2.20 Illustrated folio of the Prajñāparāmitā sūtra, Western Tibet, c. 12th century. After

Pal (2003), fig. 98 2.21 Illustrated folios of the Prajñāparāmitā sūtra, Central Tibet, c. 13th century. After

Pal (2003), fig. 126 2.22 Painted wooden manuscript cover. Central Tibet, c. 12th century. After Kossak and

Singer (1998), no. 8 2.23 Illustrated folio of the Prajñāparāmitā sūtra, Central Tibet, c. 13th century. HAR

73811 3.1 Vajrāsana Buddha, painting on cloth, Tibet, second half of the 11th century. After

Himalayas, pl. 114) 3.2 Buddha at Vajrāsana, painting on cloth, Tibet, mid 11th century (?) After Bautze-

Picron, 1995/1996, fig. 1 3.3 Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life, painting on cloth, Tibet, 11th-12th century.

After Pal (1991), no. 81 3.4 Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life, thang ka painting, Tibet, c. 12th century.

After Pal (2003), no. 121 3.5 Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life, thang ka painting, Tibet, c. 12th century.

After Bautze-Picron (1995/1996), fig. 24 3.6 Layout of the scenes (based on fig. 3.4) 3.7 The Buddha at Vajrāsana and stūpas, painting on cloth, Khara Khoto, 12-13th

century. Aafter The Lost Empore of the Silk Route: Buddhist Art from Khara Khoto (X-XIIIth century) pl.6

4.1 Śākyamuni’s victory over Māra, Kyangbu temple, before 1037. After Tucci 1988,

vol. 4, fig. 7 4.2 Stūpa, in the south temple at Kyanbu, gilded bronze circa 11th-12th century,

no longer extant. After Tucci 1988, vol. 4, fig. 18

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4.3 Śākyamuni’s victory over Māra, Yemar temple, before 1037. After Vitali, 1990,

pl.28 4.4 Plan of the early chapels of Zhalu. Arawing by the author 4.5 Vajrāsana Buddha, mural painting, Zhalu, Entrance chapel, presently Protectors’

temple. Photo by Amy Heller 4.6 Teaching Buddha (First Sermon?), Zhalu Protectors’ Temple. Photo by Amy Heller 4.7 One of the eight stūpas (the Descent type), Circumambulation Path by

Tengyur Temple at Zhalu. Photo by Rob Linrothe 4.8 Shara Bumpa (the stūpa of Sharapa), Central Tibet.

After Richardson, BMR.6.8.221 4.9 Renovated Tsechu Bumpa (Water of Life Stūpa), Central Tibet.

After Richardson BMR.6.8.78 4.10 Neusur Monastery, present day, Central Tibet. After Roesler, page 39 4.11 Portrait of Zhang, circa late 12th – early 13th century, by Marpa Lhakar (?) Jaques

Marchais Museum of Tibetan Art, Staten Island, NY. After Sorensen and Hazod 2007, Appendix 1, fig. 4

4.12 Great Stūpa at Tsal Gunthang, early 13th century

a: Satellite Image. After Sorensen ad Hazod 2007, vol. 1, fig.4 b: Great Stūpa at Tsal Gunthang, photo by Charles Bell, circa 1920, Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford. After Sorensen and Hazod, 2007, vol. 1, fig. 7

5.1 General view of Yulin cave 3. After The Yulinku Grottoes, pl. 141 5.2 Layout of Yulin cave 3 5.3 Yulin cave 3 ceiling decoration. After The Yulinku Grottoes, pl. 171 5.4 Main (east) wall panels, Yulin cave 3. After The Yulinku Grottoes, pl. 142, 144; The

Anxi Yulin Grottoes, pl. 19 5.5 Maṇḍala of Amitabha, Tibet, 13th century. After Pal (2003), pl.133

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5.6 Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life, central panel of the east (main) wall, Yulin cave 3, detail of Parinirvāṇa scene, upper central section. After The Yulinku Grottoes, pl. 143

5.7 Thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara, north panel of the east wall, Yulin cave 3. After

The Yulinku Grottoes, pl. 142 5.8 Thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara, thang ka painting, Tibet, 12th century. After

Kossak and Singer (1998), pl.12 5.9 Thousand-armed deity with fifty one heads, north panel of the east wall, Yulin

cave 3. After The Yulinku Grottoes, pl. 144 5.10 One of the Baisikou twin pagodas, Ningxia, ca. 12th century. After Linrothe (1996)

fig. 8 5.11 Detail of north panel of the east mural: working with metal, below is wine

production, husking of grain. After The Yulinku Grottoes, pls. 146, 147 5.12 Detail of eastern panel of the north wall: Vajrapāṇi maṇḍala. After The Yulinku

Grottoes, pl. 141 5.13 Uṣṇīṣavijaya maṇḍala, east panel of the south wall. After The Yulinku Grottoes, pl.

153 5.14 Western panel of the south wall: maṇḍala of Vairocana. After The Yulinku Grottoes,

pl. 154 5.15 Central panel of the south wall: Pure Land of Amitabha, Amitayurdhyāna Sūtra.

After The Yulinku Grottoes, pl. 150 5.16 Samantabhadra panel, south part of west (entrance) wall. After The Yulinku

Grottoes, pl. 158 6.1 Tholing monastery main temple, Western Tibet. Photograph by the author 6.2 Outer stūpa on the corner of the main temple, Tholing, Western Tibet. Photograph

by the author 6.3 Satellite image of the main temple at Tholing and four outer stūpas visible at the

corners of the enclosure (NFGIS, Digital Globe, Europa Technologies, Google, 2009) 6.4 Vairāsana stūpa complex, Tholing monastery, western Tibet. Photograph by the

author

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6.5 The renovated stūpa of the Descent type, on the northeast outside of the

monastery’s wall. Tholing complex, circa 11th century (?), recently renovated. Photograph by the author

6.6 Details of murals at Tholing monastery:

a: Prophesy by Asita, Amoghasiddhi temple, main temple b: Enlightenment, Mani Lhakhang, Tholing monastery. After Namgyal, pp. 89-90

6.7 Dungkar caves general view, Western Tibet. Photograph by the author 6.8 Dungkar cave 1, Western Tibet.

a: General view. Photograph by J. Poncar, WHAV b:Plan of cave 1 at Dungkar. Drawing by the author, not to scale

6.9 Details of section with the stūpas, Dungkar cave 1, Western Tibet.

a: Details of main wall, lower right corner. Photograph by Rob Linrothe b: Detail of fig. 6.9a. Seven stūpas. Dungkar cave 1. Photograph by the

author 6.10 Dungkar cave 1 lantern ceiling. Photograph by A. Maki, HAR 67005 6.11a Life of the Buddha, west wall, Dungkar cave 1. Photograph by the author 6.11b Donors assembly, south wall right, lower register, Dungkar cave 1.

Photograph by Rob Linrothe 6.12 Dungkar cave 2 ceiling maṇḍala. Photograph by T. Pritzker, HAR 8087 6.13 Mural depicting the Buddha and a large assembly, north wall of Nyag Lhakhang

Kharpo cave-temple near Khatse, Western Tibet. After Pritzker, 2008, fig. 4 6.13a Details of north wall mural at Nyag cave-temple showing a monk offering stūpas. 6.14 Central Vairocana throne, Four Decenty type stūpas on the central pole

Tabo Main Temple 6.15 Plan of Tabo Assembly Hall 6.16 Details of east wall murals showing scenes of the Buddha’s Life:

a: Gift of Honey b: Descent from the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods and Taming of the Mad Elephant. WHAV CL93 17, 33; CL93 17, 34

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6.17 Eight stūpas mural painting, Alchi Main Temple/Assembly Hall. WHAV Alchi Dukhang 7.5.21

6.18 Main Temple Wooden Portal, Alchi, Ladakh. Photograph by the author 6.19 Plan of the Three-Story Temple, Alchi, Ladakh. Drawing by the author 6.20 Akṣobhya/Śākyamuni in his realm, the right wall panel mural of the Maitreya

sculpture’s niche, Three-story Temple, Alchi, Ladakh. After Goepper, 1996, page 139

6.21 The Five Tower (Great) Stūpa at Alchi, circa 13th century. Photograph by the

author 6.22 View of the Inner Stūpa within the Five Tower (Great) Stūpa at Alchi. Photograph

by the author 6.23 Decorated Space of the inner stūpa of the Five Tower (Great) Stūpa, Alchi, Ladakh

Photograph by the author 6.24 Mural depicting the main teacher (Jigten Gompo), east wall of the interior space

within the inner stūpa of the Five Tower Stūpa at Alchi. Photograph by the author 6.25 Twin stūpas at Alchi, circa 13th century, Ladakh, western Himalaya. WHAV, CL98

102,1 a: View of the left stūpa b: View of the right stūpa that contains murals and an inner stūpa. Photograph by

the author 6.26 Murals of the interior space within the inner stūpa of the right of the Twin stūpas.

Photograph by the author 6.27 The Four Image Stūpa at Mangyu, Ladakh, western Himalaya:

a: View of the outside of the stūpa. After Linrothe 1994, fig. 2 b: View of the inside of the stūpa facing east wall. WHAV CL98 113,320

6.28 Decorated “entrance” stūpa at Karsha, Zanskar, western Himalaya, circa 13th

century a: View of the outside of the stūpa b: The ceiling with the figure of Akṣobhya inside the stūpa at Karsha

6.29 a: Shangrong stūpa near Alchi, Ladakh. WHAV CL98 119,12

b: Main (east) wall mural showing Vajrocana, Śākyamuni (proper right), and teacher portrait (proper left). WHAV CL98 119,5

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6.30 Lamayuru stūpa, Ladakh, western Himalaya

a: inside view up the lantern ceiling. WHAV CL94 28,8 b: Mural depicting Ratnasambhava. WHAV CL98 57, 23

6.31 Basgo stūpa, Ladakh, western Himalaya

a: outer view of the stūpa. CL05 DSCN4261 b: inner view of the stūpa. CL05 DSCN4262

6.32 Iconographic programs of stūpas at Nyarma, Ladakh, western Himalaya. After

Kozicz 2007, fig. 3 6.33 Stūpa at Tikse, Ladakh, western Himalaya. WHAV CL 98 88,02; CL98 88,04

a: view from outside b: view of the inner structure and murals showing different types of stūpas

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Abstract

This project examines representations of the Eight Great Events of the

Buddha’s Life and their Commemorative Stūpas in the Medieval Art of Tibet as a

visual and religious theme. The Eight Great Events’ images were most prominent in

India during the Pāla period (8th-12th century) and in the medieval art of numerous

Buddhist countries. Various forms of these representations feature the scene of the

Buddha’s Enlightenment as central, surrounded by remaining scenes of the events

and reflect symbolic and religious connotations of later Buddhist tradition, including

esoteric. Textual sources on the Eight Great Events directly associate the main even,

the Buddha’s Enlightenment, with the sacred site of its occurrence Vajrāsana and the

other events with their respective sites as well.

I argue that this theme’s representations were central to the process of active

assimilation of Indian Buddhist culture and formation of Tibetan religious traditions

during the period known as the Renaissance of Buddhist culture in Tibet (10th - 13th

centuries). Founders of new Tibetan institutions were establishing their own

authority and sanctity through affinity with the Indian sacred sites, purposefully

utilizing various artistic forms of the Eight Great Events’ representations, re-

interpreting their symbolic and religious connotations, and eventually “reproducing”

them in the form and image of their stūpa-monuments. The representations,

especially those that articulate the three-dimensional, or maṇḍala-like layout of the

events and emphasize commemorative stūpas, suggest that the convention of

representing the Eight Great Events came to signify India as the central place where

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the Eight Great Events occurred and eventually reproduce the sacred sites in their

physical form but on a different soil, in Tibet.

This project considers these representations in all their media and in relation

to related textual traditions as well. Affinities between Indian and Tibetan

representations are interpreted as expressions of a common religious and visual

convention that found specific applications in Tibet, not merely in terms of Indian

artistic influences. The inquiry crosses geographic and disciplinary boundaries and

integrates visual and textual material within the specific context of this period,

which, despite the importance of this theme, has not been done in the past.

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Acknowledgements

I am glad that I can express my deepest gratitude to all people who in various

ways helped to make this project come to fruition. They are many and come from all

walks of academic and the other life. It is not possible to name them all, not for the

lack of wanting but space, so I acknowledge only some of them individually.

First of all, boundless thanks to my teachers of Tibetan Buddhist traditions:

late Kirti Tsenshap Rinpoche, Denma Lodro Rinpoche, Khamtrul Rinpoche, Kenpo

Thubten, Geshe Tashi Tsering, late Venerable Lobsang Gyatso, Gen Gyatso, Nechung

Kuten, and others whose patience, kindness, time, and effort greatly helped me to

understand Tibetan religious culture and eventually its visual expressions as well.

Utmost gratitude to my artist teachers: Lopön Karma from Bhutan, his fellow

masters, and Tibetan sculptors who initially facilitated the First Encounter, of the

Best Kind, with traditional Tibetan and Bhutanese art. Thank you to my Tibetan

language teachers who taught me more than Tibetan language.

Thanks to all my teachers at the McIntire Department of Art at the University

of Virginia, who offered wealth of knowledge and resources, as well as appropriate

guidance and direction throughout the course of my studies: particularly my

dissertation adviser Professor Dorothy Wong, who taught me amazing arts of East

Asia and Dunhuang and kept me on track, Professor Daniel Ehnbom, who opened up a

wonderful world of Indian painting and sculpture, and counseled as the Graduate

Studies Director. I was fortunate to learn from these specialists in the East and South

Asian Arts. Other Graduate Studies advisers helped, supervised, and encouraged

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along the way -- Professors Marion Roberts and Howard Singerman. I thank

Professors Malcolm Bell for his inspiring classes and encouragement, David Summers

for his appealing theoretical inquiries into all aspects of art including Asian Art, John

Dobbins for his interest in my progress and an occasional kind advice, Eric Ramirez-

Weaver who graciously agreed to be on my dissertation committee and provided

feedback and support at the final stages of the project. Thanks to all other professors

at the Department who indirectly supported my studies and this project. Finally, a

special appreciation goes to Professor Larry Goedde, the Chair of the Department

who always offered time, advice, and support often needed especially during the

dissertation writing period.

My thanks to the stuff at the University of Virginia Museum of Art: the Chief

Curator Dr. Andrea Douglas, then Interim Director Professor Beth Turner, Exhibitions

Manager AnnaMarie Liddell, and everyone there for providing an exciting

opportunity to learn first hand and curate exhibitions. Even though not related to

this dissertation, the time spent at the Museum on a fellowship allowed for

continuing work on this project and exploring the world of museums as well.

Another round of gratitude is to professors at the Department of Religious

Studies: David Germano on my dissertation committee for his time, advice, ideas and

support, and for stimulating classes on Tibetan Buddhist Renaissance and Tantra

directly related to the period of this project; Karen Lang, Paul Groner, and Kurtis

Schaeffer who always offered kind advice and help.

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A few scholars of Tibetan Buddhist art have been a great impetus and

invaluable source of knowledge – Dr. Amy Heller, who always found time to respond

and shared her research, images, and expertise; Professor Rob Linrothe, who also

shared his discoveries, photographs, research, and offered counsel when the

dissertation was just getting started; and Christian Luczanits whose research on

western Himalayan and West Tibetan sites continues being published. Heartfelt

gratitude for your work and inspiration.

Thanks to a generous support of the Gerda Henkel Stiftung Foundation’s

Dissertation Research Fellowship and the McIntire Department of Art Nichols Travel

Grant, this project took me to European Museum collections and libraries, to Indian

western Himalaya and to Tibet, where I greatly depended on kindness and help of

many people. Heartfelt thanks to late Henry Ginsburg, then at the British Library, for

his tremendously kind support, and hospitality. Thanks to Dr. Jerry Losty and Dr.

Burkhard Quessel of the British Library for their time and advice as well. Thanks to

Dr. Michael Willis at the British Museum for his interest and discussions of parts of

this project. Many thanks to Dr. Simon Lawson at the Oxford Indian Institute Library

for providing access to his unpublished Doctoral thesis on Indian clay plaques that

was used in this dissertation. Thanks to Kabir Heimsath at Oxford University for his

hospitality, support, and help with several books.

Sincere gratitude to Professor Deborah Klimburg-Salter and all the people at

the Himalayan Archive Vienna who facilitated research on this project in Vienna and

found time for advice. I truly appreciate time and effort given by Professor Dr.

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Marianne Yaldiz, Russell Dick, and everyone who helped to accommodate my

research at the Berlin Museum of Indian Art.

Thanks to Tsering Gyalpo at the Tibetan Academy of Social Sciences (TASS)

who shared his knowledge of Western Tibetan travels and sites. Thanks to Puchung

(TASS) and Professor Karl Ryavec (University of Wisconsin at Stevens Point) for being

traveling companions to Western Tibet where often our lives literally hang in a

balance. Thanks to Ying Liu who was a point person at Lhasa Tibet University and

provided kind advice and friendship.

Thanks to my other numerous traveling companions in western Himalaya

(Tibetan, Ladhaki, and westerners) for sharing a lot of tsampa, thukpa, tea, and stories.

Special thanks to other scholars and friends whose direct help or advice led

me to eventually embark on the academic path: Gene Smith at the Tibetan Buddhist

Resource Center, Professor Janet Gyatso at Harvard Divinity School, Professor Andy

Quitman, now at Yale Religious Studies Department, Alex Kocharov, the artist

working in Tibetan traditional painting, all encouraged and supported me going back

to school. Great thanks to Jake Dalton, now Professor at Berkeley, who was a great

partner on our Indian and Himalayan adventures, and a motivating force during

academic applications writing and waiting process.

My fellow graduate students at the McIntire Department of Art: Tanya Paul,

Catherine Walden, Cory Korkow, Kevin Cole, Liz Hahn and others created welcome

and collegial environment, warm thanks to them all. Particular thanks to SeungJung

Kim, a great friend beyond school, and to her family, including Xiabalba.

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Many thanks to graduate students at the Religious Studies Department who

helped make Charlottesville my home, sometimes in a literal sense: my housemates

Dan Kent and David Newman (formerly of the THDL), and neighbor Suzanne

Bessenger. Thanks to Jann Ronis for camaraderie during the writing and numerous

other help, Chris Hatchel and Kimberly Dukes for friendship and companionship,

Brenton Sullivan, his wife Kerri, and other students for being a fun group to be

around.

Thanks to Jonathan Partridge, an incredible artist in his own right, who

mastered traditional Tibetan clay sculpture and was a friend and inspiration after my

apprenticeship with Bhutanese artists. Thanks to my non-academic friends in Russia,

Europe, India, Nepal, Tibet, and Japan. I am always grateful for your amazing

friendship, love, and acceptance.

Thanks to my extended family that is spread across two continents for their

support. Deepest gratitude to my grandparents whose treasured and hidden

knowledge of Kalmuk culture and tradition could have been mined more but served

as an impetus for the quest to discover, understand, and know our own history

through stories of ancestors, memories, and appreciation of the present. Loving

thanks to my immediate family -- my mother and father whose intellectual curiosity,

travels, and academic learning constantly inspired me, and whose unwavering

support, love, and understanding allowed for unlikely paths to eventually converge

here.

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To my parents

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Introduction

The Subject

Depictions of the Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s Life -- the Birth, His

Enlightenment, the First Sermon, His Descent from the Heaven of the Thirty-three

Gods, His Multiplication Miracle, the Taming of the Mad Elephant, the Gift of Honey,

and the Buddha’s Parinirvana -- were a prominent narrative and artistic theme found

in the medieval art of numerous Buddhist countries. Developed in India during the

fifth to the ninth century as a hagiographical, visual convention representing the

main episodes in Śākyamuni’s life, they were also associated with locations of the

events and their commemorative monuments, stūpas.

Representations of these events include various forms, portable as well as

monumental. Among the former are illustrated manuscripts of the Perfection of

Wisdom Sūtra (Prajñāpāramitā), paintings on cloth (thang ka), clay and stone plaques,

and votive clay stūpas. Large sculptural images (steles), murals, architectural

structures, such as temples founded at this time in Tibet and western Himalaya,

decorated stūpa-shrines, and the eight types of stūpa monuments built at monastic

sites comprise the latter group of representations.

Although the subject matter, forms, and style of the Eight Great Events’

depictions originated in India, they took different artistic and symbolic forms in

Tibet and came to reflect particular socio-political circumstances of the Tibetan

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