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Kemal Gönen

Kimble Humiston, Ph.D.

ELT 524

17 December 2011

Cultural Achievements of Greek Golden Age

This paper tells you about the Golden Age of Greece, which is from 500 to 350 BC. It

tells about what Greeks did, and their cultural achievements. The Classical Period or

Golden age of Greece, from around 500 to 300 BC, has given us the great monuments,

art, philosophy, architecture and literature which are the building blocks of our own

civilization. There are many Greek influences that still affect us today. This paper also

tries to uncover those items.

Music in Ancient Greece

Music was essential to the pattern and texture of Greek life, as it was an important feature

of religious festivals, marriage and funeral rites, and banquet gatherings. Our knowledge

of ancient Greek music comes from actual fragments of musical scores, literary

references, and the remains of musical instruments. Although extant musical scores are

rare, incomplete, and of relatively late date, abundant literary references shed light on the

practice of music, its social functions, and its perceived aesthetic qualities. Likewise,

inscriptions provide information about the economics and institutional organization of

professional musicians, recording such things as prizes awarded and fees paid for

services. The archaeological record attests to monuments erected in honor of

accomplished musicians and to splendid roofed concert halls. In Athens during the

second half of the fifth century B.C., the Odeion (roofed concert hall) of Perikles was

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erected on the south slope of the Athenian akropolis—physical testimony to the

importance of music in Athenian culture.

In addition to the physical remains of musical instruments in a number of

archaeological contexts, depictions of musicians and musical events in vase painting and

sculpture provide valuable information about the kinds of instruments that were preferred

and how they were actually played. Although the ancient Greeks were familiar with many

kinds of instruments, three in particular were favored for composition and performance:

the kithara, a plucked string instrument; the lyre, also a string instrument; and the aulos, a

double-reed instrument. Most Greek men trained to play an instrument competently, and

to sing and perform choral dances. Instrumental music or the singing of a hymn regularly

accompanied everyday activities and formal acts of worship. Shepherds piped to their

flocks, oarsmen and infantry kept time to music, and women made music at home. The

art of singing to one's own stringed accompaniment was highly developed. Greek

philosophers saw a relationship between music and mathematics, envisioning music as a

paradigm of harmonious order reflecting the cosmos and the human soul.

Theater in Ancient Greece

Our interest in the theater connects us intimately with the ancient Greeks and Romans.

Nearly every Greek and Roman city of note had an open-air theater, the seats arranged in

tiers with a lovely view of the surrounding landscape. Here the Greeks sat and watched

the plays first of Aeschylus, Sophokles, Euripides, and Aristophanes, and of Menander

and the later playwrights.

The Greek theater consisted essentially of the orchestra, the flat dancing floor of

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the chorus, and the theatron, the actual structure of the theater building. Since theaters in

antiquity were frequently modified and rebuilt, the surviving remains offer little clear

evidence of the nature of the theatrical space available to the Classical dramatists in the

sixth and fifth centuries B.C. There is no physical evidence for a circular orchestra earlier

than that of the great theater at Epidauros dated to around 330 B.C. Most likely, the

audience in fifth-century B.C. Athens was seated close to the stage in a rectilinear

arrangement, such as appears at the well-preserved theater at Thorikos in Attica. During

this early period in Greek drama, the stage and most probably the skene (stage building)

were made of wood. Vase paintings depicting Greek comedy from the late fifth and early

fourth centuries B.C. suggest that the stage stood about a meter high with a flight of steps

in the center. The actors entered from either side and from a central door in the skene,

which also housed the ekkyklema, a wheeled platform with sets of scenes. A mechane, or

crane, located at the right end of the stage, was used to hoist gods and heroes through the

air onto the stage. Greek dramatists surely made the most of the extreme contrasts

between the gods up high and the actors on stage, and between the dark interior of the

stage building and the bright daylight.

Little is known about the origins of Greek tragedy before Aeschylus (?525/24–

456/55 B.C.), the most innovative of the Greek dramatists. His earliest surviving work is

Persians, which was produced in 472 B.C. The roots of Greek tragedy, however, most

likely are embedded in the Athenian spring festival of Dionysos Eleuthereios, which

included processions, sacrifices in the theater, parades, and competitions between

tragedians. Of the few surviving Greek tragedies, all but Aeschylus' Persians draw from

heroic myths. The protagonist and the chorus portrayed the heroes who were the object of

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cult in Attica in the fifth century B.C. Often, the dialogue between the actor and chorus

served a didactic function, linking it as a form of public discourse with debates in the

assembly. To this day, drama in all its forms still functions as a powerful medium of

communication of ideas.

Unlike the Greek tragedy, the comic performances produced in Athens during the

fifth century B.C., the so-called Old Comedy, ridiculed mythology and prominent

members of Athenian society. There seems to have been no limit to speech or action in

the comic exploitation of sex and other bodily functions. Terracotta figurines and vase

paintings dated around and after the time of Aristophanes (?460/50–ca. 387 B.C.) show

comic actors wearing grotesque masks and tights with padding on the rump and belly, as

well as a leather phallus.

In the second half of the fourth century B.C., the so-called New Comedy of

Menander (?344/43–292/91 B.C.) and his contemporaries gave fresh interpretations to

familiar material. In many ways comedy became simpler and tamer, with very little

obscenity. The grotesque padding and phallus of Old Comedy were abandoned in favor

of more naturalistic costumes that reflected the playwrights' new style. Subtle

differentiation of masks worn by the actors paralleled the finer delineation of character in

the texts of New Comedy, which dealt with private and family life, social tensions, and

the triumph of love in a variety of contexts.

Athenian Vase Painting: Black- and Red-Figure Techniques

The ancient statues and pottery of the Golden Stone Age of Greece were much advanced

in spectacular ways. The true facts of Zeus's main reason for his statue. The great styles

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of the Kouros and the Kore. The story of The Blinding of Polphemus, along with the

story of Cyclops. The Dori and Ionic column stone temples that were built in Greece that

had an distinctive look. The true colors of the vase, Aryballos. The vase that carried

liquids from one place to another.

Between the beginning of the sixth and the end of the fourth centuries B.C.,

black- and red-figure techniques were used in Athens to decorate fine pottery while

simpler, undecorated wares fulfilled everyday household purposes. With both techniques,

the potter first shaped the vessel on a wheel. Most sizeable pots were made in sections;

sometimes the neck and body were thrown separately, and the foot was often attached

later. Once these sections had dried to a leather hardness, the potter assembled them and

luted the joints with a slip (clay in a more liquid form). Lastly, he added the handles. In

black-figure vase painting, figural and ornamental motifs were applied with a slip that

turned black during firing, while the background was left the color of the clay. Vase

painters articulated individual forms by incising the slip or by adding white and purple

enhancements (mixtures of pigment and clay). In contrast, the decorative motifs on red-

figure vases remained the color of the clay; the background, filled in with a slip, turned

black. Figures could be articulated with glaze lines or dilute washes of glaze applied with

a brush. The red- figure technique was invented around 530 B.C., quite possibly by the

potter Andokides and his workshop. It gradually replaced the black-figure technique as

innovators recognized the possibilities that came with drawing forms, rather than

laboriously delineating them with incisions. The use of a brush in red-figure technique

was better suited to the naturalistic representation of anatomy, garments, and emotions.

The firing process of both red- and black-figure vessels consisted of three stages.

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During the first, oxidizing stage, air was allowed into the kiln, turning the whole vase the

color of the clay. In the subsequent stage, green wood was introduced into the chamber

and the oxygen supply was reduced, causing the object to turn black in the smoky

environment. In the third stage, air was reintroduced into the kiln; the reserved portions

turned back to orange while the glossed areas remained black.

Painted vases were often made in specific shapes for specific daily uses—storing

and transporting wine and foodstuffs (amphora), drawing water (hydria), drinking wine

or water (kantharos or kylix), and so on—and for special, often ritual occasions, such as

pouring libations (lekythos) or carrying water for the bridal bath (loutrophoros). Their

pictorial decorations provide insights into many aspects of Athenian life, and complement

the literary texts and inscriptions from the Archaic and, especially, Classical periods.

Geometric Art in Ancient Greece

The roots of Classical Greece lie in the Geometric period of about ca. 900 to 700 B.C., a

time of dramatic transformation that led to the establishment of primary Greek

institutions. The Greek city-state (polis) was formed, the Greek alphabet was developed,

and new opportunities for trade and colonization were realized in cities founded along the

coast of Asia Minor, in southern Italy, and in Sicily. With the development of the Greek

city-states came the construction of large temples and sanctuaries dedicated to patron

deities, which signaled the rise of state religion. Each polis identified with its own

legendary hero. By the end of the eighth century B.C., the Greeks had founded a number

of major Panhellenic sanctuaries dedicated to the Olympian gods.

Geometric Greece experienced a cultural revival of its historical past through epic

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poetry and the visual arts. The eighth century B.C. was the time of Homer, whose epic

poems describe the Greek campaign against Troy (the Iliad) and the subsequent

adventures of Odysseus on his return to Ithaca (the Odyssey). A newly emerging

aristocracy distinguished itself with material wealth and through references to the

Homeric past. Their graves were furnished with metal objects, innately precious by the

scarcity of copper, tin, and gold deposits in Greece.

Evidence for the Geometric culture has come down to us in the form of epic

poetry, artistic representation, and the archaeological record. From Hesiod (Erga, 639–

640), we assume that most eighth century B.C. Greeks lived off the land. The epic poet

describes the difficult life of the Geometric farmer. There are, however, few

archaeological remains that describe everyday life during this period. Monumental

kraters, originally used as grave markers, depict funerary rituals and heroic warriors. The

presence of fine metalwork attests to prosperity and trade. In the earlier Geometric

period, these objects, weapons, fibulae, and jewelry are found in graves—most likely

relating to the status of the deceased. By the late eighth century B.C., however, the

majority of metal objects are small bronze figurines— votive offerings associated with

sanctuaries.

Votive offerings of bronze and terracotta, and painted scenes on monumental

vessels attest to a renewed interest in figural imagery that focuses on funerary rituals and

the heroic world of aristocratic warriors and their equipment. The armed warrior, the

chariot, and the horse are the most familiar symbols of the Geometric period.

Iconographically, Geometric images are difficult to interpret due to the lack of

inscriptions and the scarcity of identifying attributes. There can be little doubt, however,

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that many of the principal characters and stories of Greek mythology already existed, and

that they simply had not yet received explicit visual form.

Surviving material shows a mastery of the major media—turning, decorating, and

firing terracotta vases; casting and cold-working bronze; engraving gems; and working

gold. The only significant medium that had not yet evolved was that of monumental stone

sculpture—large-scale cult images most likely were constructed of a perishable material

such as wood. Instead, powerful bronze figurines and monumental clay vases manifest

the clarity and order that are, perhaps, the most salient characteristics of Greek art.

Democracy

The Greeks created the world’s first democracy. Athens started out as a monarchy and

then advanced to and oligarchy until it finally reached a democracy. The government

consisted of over 6,000 assembly members all of whom were adult male citizens. The

assembly voted on issues throughout Athens, and passed laws. The required number of

votes to pass a law was simply the majority but in order to banish or exile someone 6,000

votes were needed. Today we still use a democracy but now instead of using a direct

democracy we use a representative democracy where the citizens democratically vote on

who should make the decisions in the country, while in Greece a direct democracy was

used and the citizens actually voted on the decision rather than choosing which people to

make the decision.

The Alphabet

The Greeks were the first civilization to use an alphabet. The Alphabet was developed

after the Dark Age when the Greeks stopped using their previous written language. The

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Greek alphabet had 24 letters and believe it or not the word "alphabet" originates from

the first 2 letters of the Greek alphabet; alpha, and beta. Today many letters of our

modern alphabet originate from the Greek alphabet such as the letters A, B, E, and O.

Libraries

The first library in the world, the library of Alexandria was actually built in Egypt,

however Egypt was pretty much Greeks because after Egypt submitted to Alexander’s

rule the Macedonians started spreading the Greek way of life to all of the lands he

conquered including Egypt. After Alexander’s death and the power struggle of the

Kingdom Egypt came under the rule of Alexander’s Greek Generals, Ptolemy. Ptolemy

ordered the construction of the Library which contained over 700,000 scrolls of work.

Also all ships that went into the Alexandrian harbor had to declare if they had any works

of science or philosophy. If they did the work was copied and placed in the library and

the captain would receive the original copy back. Many great discoveries happened in the

library such as when Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the earth and when

Hero drew up plans for steam power. Today we have many libraries all over the world

with billions of works of literature but the first library in the world was the library of

Alexandria.

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The Parthenon in Ancient Greece

The Olympics

The Olympic Games started in ancient Greece. The participants were the city-states of

Ancient Greece and their colonies. The Olympic Games were held every 4 years in honor

of Zeus, the king god. There were also other games such as the Ptythian games that were

held in honor of Apollo the sun god and the isthmian games, which were held in honor of

Poseidon, the sea god. The prizes for winning the Olympic Games in Greece were fame,

and glory along with having statues of the winners erected and sometimes even having

the winners faces put on coins. Today we still celebrate the Olympic Games, and many

things are similar such as the olive leaf crowns and opening and closing celebrations.

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Mathematics

The ancient Greeks excelled in mathematics, particularly geometry. Some famous Greek

Mathematicians are Pythagoras, Archimedes, Euclid, and Aristotle. An example of a

theory developed by one of hem would be the Pythagorean Theorem which was

developed by Pythagoras. The Pythagorean theorem is a theory that states in a right

triangle the hypotenuse of a triangle squared equals the other 2 sides of the triangle

squared or as it is better known "a^2+b^2=c^2". Other famous math achievements by

Greek Mathematicians would be the accurate calculation of pi by Archimedes and proof

that all right angles were equal by Euclid.

Science

Along with being the birthplace of many great mathematicians Greece was also the

mother country of many famous scientists. Some scientists include Eratosthenes who

calculated the circumference of the earth and was off by less than 1% and Aristarchus

who theorized the earth revolved around the sun instead of the other way around. More

famous Greek scientists include Archimedes who was able to explain levers and pulleys

making his famous quote "give me a lever long enough and I will move the Earth!", and

Hipparchus who created a system to explain how all the planets and stars move.

Architecture

We still use Greek-style architecture today. A type of Greek Architecture that is used

today would be pillars. In Greece a building which pillars were used would be the

Parthenon located in Athens. Today pillars are also used in many public buildings such as

churches and libraries. There are also pillars in many buildings in WashingtonD.C.,

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including the White House!

Mythology

Today many of us still read Greek myths. Some famous include the tales of Peruses,

Theseus and of course, Heracles. The Greeks often used these myths to explain things but

today we mostly read the Greek myths for entertainment. Many Greek myths have been

altered a bit in order to write novels and movies based on them. Some well known

adaptations of Greek Myths are Disney’s: Hercules and the bestselling novel Percy

Jackson and the Olympians.

Lighthouses

Like the first library the first lighthouse in the world was located in the Greek/Egyptian

kingdom of Alexandria. The lighthouse was huge, comparable to the statue of liberty and

was the second tallest structure of its day, as only the great pyramid of Giza was taller

than it. The lighthouse had three layers, the base which was square shaped, the middle

which was octagonal, and the round beacon on top. The lighthouse signaled itself through

smoke and fire burning in the beacon. Sadly the lighthouse was destroyed due to

earthquakes but it set the model for all future lighthouses.

Conclusion

As you have read, and maybe noticed, the Greek civilization was a lot like ours, and

maybe even better. They had the same type of government, the same jobs, homes,

schools, and other things. It was a very important society, especially because they taught

us so much about art, and Space.

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Words Cited

Department of Greek and Roman Art. "Athenian Vase Painting: Black- and Red-Figure

Techniques". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan

Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/vase/hd_vase.htm

(07 Dec. 2011)

Department of Greek and Roman Art. "Geometric Art in Ancient Greece". In Heilbrunn

Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/grge/hd_grge.htm (07 Dec. 2011)

Hemingway, Colette, and Seán Hemingway. "Music in Ancient Greece". In Heilbrunn

Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/grmu/hd_grmu.htm (07 Dec. 2011)

Hemingway, Colette. "Theater in Ancient Greece". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.

New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/thtr/hd_thtr.htm (07 Dec. 2011)

“Greek Art.” www.history-world.org. History-world, n.d. Web. 07 Dec. 2011.

“Greek Golden Age.” www.ahistoryofgreece.com. A History of Greece, n.d. Web. 07

Dec. 2011

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