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The Buddhist approach to education: an alternativeapproach for sustainable educationSant Chansomsak a & Brenda Vale ba Faculty of Architecture , Naresuan University , Phitsanulok, Thailandb School of Architecture and Planning, National Institute of Creative Arts and Industries ,University of Auckland , New ZealandPublished online: 03 Mar 2008.

To cite this article: Sant Chansomsak & Brenda Vale (2008) The Buddhist approach to education: an alternative approach forsustainable education, Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 28:1, 35-50, DOI: 10.1080/02188790701850063

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The Buddhist approach to education: an alternative approachfor sustainable education

Sant Chansomsaka* and Brenda Valeb

aFaculty of Architecture, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand; bSchool of Architecture andPlanning, National Institute of Creative Arts and Industries, University of Auckland, New Zealand

This article is based on research undertaken as part of a study of sustainable schooldesign in Thailand. Since school design solutions are inevitably affected by educationaltheory and practice, in the search for appropriate building solutions, it has beennecessary to review Thai educational theories and practices that relate to thesustainability approach. Recently, there have been several attempts at the internationallevel to respond to sustainability concepts and practices in both educational andarchitectural fields. These have included changes to the physical building through theintroduction of techniques like passive solar cooling, and curriculum changes such asthe use of native plants in the school grounds for science teaching. In Thailand,sustainable practices in both fields appear to be in their infancy. This article aims toexplore one current Thai educational practice that presents the possibility of respondingto sustainability concepts via culturally sensitive education. The practice is based onthe three Buddhist principles of learning: sila sikkha (moral conduct); samadhi sikka(mind training); and panna sikkha (wisdom development). In this holistic approach,the principles are practised simultaneously and can be applied to many dimensions,including personal, family, school and communal levels, to cultivate responsivesustainable living practices for the learners. Because the majority of Thai people areBuddhists, this approach may be an alternative way of developing sustainableeducation in Thailand. It also presents a way to apply local knowledge to promotesustainable ways of living in particular contexts. This may be the first step in thedevelopment of sustainable school design in Thailand and could become an integratedpart of the country’s sustainable systems.

Keywords: sustainable education; Thailand; Buddhist approach to education;Buddhist-approach schools

Sustainable education: learning for sustainability

The concepts of sustainable education usually refer to a new way of thinking that is

focused on learning and acting appropriately to improve or at least sustain the

interrelationship between the human and ecological communities. Notions of sustainable

education (Sterling, 2001) have been used in a similar way to other phrases, such as

sustainability education (Shallcross, O’Loan, & Hui, 2000), education for sustainability

(EFS) (Federico, Cloud, Byrne, & Wheeler, 2002; Huckle & Sterling, 1996), and

education for sustainable development (ESD) (UNESCO, 2004). The terms share similar

objectives and also have parallels with environmental education. Their sentiments and

understandings also relate to other earlier educational theories, such as global education,

development education and peace education, which seem to have originated in the 1970s

ISSN 0218-8791 print/ISSN 1742-6855 online

q 2008 National Institute of Education, Singapre (2008)

DOI: 10.1080/02188790701850063

http://www.informaworld.com

*Corresponding author. Email: santchansomsak@gmail.com

Asia Pacific Journal of Education

Vol. 28, No. 1, March 2008, 35–50

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and been more widely adopted in the 1980s (Palmer, 1998). Although sustainable

education is a relatively recent term that emerged after the 1992 Earth Summit, the United

Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro,

Brazil, its concepts have been increasingly promoted and used as a basis for national and

international programmes and actions. Recently, as affirmed at the 2002 World Summit on

Sustainable Development, the UN General Assembly considered introducing a Decade

of Education for Sustainable Development that would run from 2005 to 2014 (UNESCO,

2004). Many authors (e.g. Gonzalez-Gaudiano, 2006; Jickling & Spork, 1998; Stables,

2001) have discussed the conflicting relationship between environmental education and

other education-related terms used to describe sustainable development, such as ESD.

Although priorities and foci are varied, depending on definitions and interpretations of

concepts of sustainability and sustainable development, the terms have similarities and can

be complementary (McKeown & Hopkins, 2003).

The terms EFS and ESD are here seen as interchangeable but may create confusion

because the meaning of both terms relates to educational philosophy as well as to the

question ‘What is education for?’ In this article, the phrase sustainable education is used to

represent all educational actions related to sustainability. This enables the phrase to

encompass meanings such as education about sustainability, education for sustainability

and education as sustainability. While education about sustainability focuses on the

content and education for sustainability places emphasis on the purpose, education as

sustainability proposes a characteristic of education that enables education to be

understood both as an integrated process and as an element of a whole process that leads to

sustainability (Foster, 2001; Sterling, 2001). Sustainable education is thus concurrently

considered as a dynamic system that is connective, contextual, inclusive, integrative, and

multi- and trans-disciplinary, as well as extending the boundaries of care and concern from

the personal to the social, environmental, non-human and future dimensions (Sterling,

1996, 2001). Its implementation is necessarily varied according to the local conditions.

Because the dominant contemporary worldview typically leads to unsustainable

behaviour and situations, sustainable education inevitably calls for a paradigm shift

towards an ecological worldview, where the ecological system is viewed as an overarching

whole. Human beings are considered members of the system and, together with other

life forms, constitute the whole ecological community. Unfortunately, such a change in

worldview is not likely to happen easily or suddenly, but needs to gradually evolve and

develop. As pointed out by Sterling (2001), the evolution of sustainable education can be

considered in three different stages: accommodation, reformation and transformation. The

first stage, accommodation, refers to change that takes place within the existing education

paradigm but still leaves basic values unexamined and unchanged. This stage can be

referred to as education about sustainability. It may take the form of adding on issues of

sustainability to existing policies and practices, or treating sustainability as a separate

curriculum subject, for instance. In contrast to this first stage, reformation involves change

as the educational participants examine the assumptions behind basic values and

influences as well as reflecting critically on the adoption of the concept of sustainability.

This stage is what is often meant by reorientation or education for sustainability, as it

includes new content but with a bias towards value change and capability to cope with

change. The ‘greening of schools’ movement and many practices behind environmental

education and education for sustainable development (e.g. Shallcross, Robinson, Pace, &

Wals, 2006; Van Matre, 1990) are part of this approach. The last stage is a transformative

level of learning, or education as sustainability. It requires continual creation and revision,

36 S. Chansomsak and B. Vale

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and involves a cultural shift in education and public awareness from a ‘weaker’

sustainability to a ‘strong sustainability’ (Turner, 1993).1

Although sustainable education encompasses education about, for and as sustainability,

educational activities that are part of sustainable education need to aim at least at being

education for sustainability, rather than just education about sustainability. Based on the

model of responsible environmental behaviour suggested by Hines, Hungerford, and

Tomera (1986–87, as cited in Hungerford & Volk, 1990), to strengthen actions for

sustainability, both individual intention to act and external influences should be determined.

Accordingly, knowledge of issues is just one of the factors that could create a desire to act.

Moving towards sustainability needs both knowledge of and skills for actions. It also

involves personality factors such as attitudes, awareness, feelings of responsibility, habits,

and locus of control, as well as situational factors such as economic constraints, social

pressures, and opportunities to participate in actions (Kollmuss &Agyeman, 2002; Pruneau

et al., 2006). To engage people in critical reflection of current lifestyles and actions, the

issues to be discussed in sustainable education could involve natural degradation, pollution,

global population growth, increase in energy demand and unsustainable use, over-

consumption, poverty and social inequity. These should be discussed alongside exploring

the importance of values in addressing and resolving issues, and connecting them to local

situations and everyday experiences of learners (Stevenson, 2002). Citizenship skills,

including communication, group facilitation and civic engagement, should be practised,

together with engendering personal responsibility for society and the day-to-day lives of

each learner. In addition, a process of continual development is helpful. This could be in the

form of recurrent cycles of planning, acting, monitoring, revising, and using the results for

another cycle as a means of improving the practice of sustainable education. Since this

process also appears in educational action research (e.g. OECD, 1995; Robottom, 1987) and

community development (e.g. Maser, 1997; Ontario Round Table on the Environment and

Economy, 1994), the resemblance shows the inherent shared quality of sustainable

practices and the possibility of developing education as sustainability, so that education

becomes an integrated part of sustainable systems.

The Buddhist approach to education: an alternative for Thai education

In Thailand, ideas about sustainability first appeared in the national policy in association

with the 7th National Economic and Social Development Plan (1992–1996) (National

Economic and Social Development Board, 2006a) as well as in the 1992 National

Education Scheme (Office of the National Education Commission, 1992). Sustainable

development was mentioned frequently along with ideas of environmental conservation

and human and social development. Since the 8th National Economic and Social

Development Plan (1997–2001) (National Economic and Social Development Board,

2006b), the concept of human and social development has officially been established as

the foundation of sustainable development.2 This emphasises the critical role of education

as a tool for human development and the creation of a strong social foundation. However,

compared with other educational themes, such as basic education for all, lifelong learning,

non-formal and informal education, innovative educational technologies,3 and child-

centred education, attempts to apply sustainability concepts to educational practices have

been unfocused and uneven. The ideas are often listed along with other educational

approaches but are not seen as a core concept.

At present, the Thai educational system is based on the National Education Act of BE

2542 (1999) (Office of the National Education Commission, 2000), the first Thai

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educational law, which was one of the results of the educational reform policy in the

Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand BE 2540 (1997) (Office of the Council of State,

1997). The education reform movement led to many innovations in educational activities.

In 2003, the Thai government launched the ‘five innovations’ – namely, the autonomous

schools, the Buddhist-approach schools, the bilingual schools, the information and

communication technology (ICT) schools, and plans and strategies for talented children.4

These innovations represent the variety of current new approaches in Thailand, with pilot

programmes being set up between 2003 and 2006. Among these five innovations,

Buddhist-approach schools represent the only alteration that is based on local knowledge

and practice, and also the Thai situation, as the majority of the population are Buddhists.

Although there is no clear intention to promote sustainability via Buddhist-approach

schools, because the ideas behind the practices are mainly focused on personal

development and expansion of care for others (including people and animals) as well as

the non-living environment, this approach is most closely related to sustainable education

compared with the other four approaches.

Ideas of education in the Buddhist approach

The idea behind education in the Buddhist approach, which is applied to both school

management and the learning process in Buddhist approach schools, is primarily based on

the Buddhist principle of learning, sikkha, which means ‘education’ in the Pali language.

Because education in Buddhism fundamentally involves practising a way of living,

learning simply means practice and development of oneself through living appropriately

(Payutto,5 2004).

This concept comprises three principles – namely, sila sikkha, samadhi sikka and

panna sikkha (Nyanasamvara Suvaddhana, n.d.; Payutto, 2003b). The first principle, sila

sikkha or moral conduct, is the principle of human behaviour that promotes peaceful

existence in society and the natural world. In practising a harmonious relationship with the

environment, learners must learn to control themselves and behave with the right speech,

right actions and right livelihood. Samadhi sikka – mental-collectedness or mind training –

is the second principle, which centres on study and training of the mind to create the right

effort, right mindfulness and right concentration. The last principle, panna sikkha,

is wisdom development. It focuses on understanding the interconnections of cause and

effect as well as the creation of the right intention to think and act properly.

Because each principle always supports the others, these three principles should not be

practised singly (Payutto, 2002, 2003b, 2004). Even though learners can practise the

principles separately, the benefits from such practice will not be complete. For instance,

learners who practise only sila sikkha (moral conduct), without samadhi sikka (mental-

collectedness), may not be able to maintain their practice in circumstances with many

disturbances. In some cases, without panna sikkha (wisdom development), they may know

a particular pattern of practices but may not be able to apply the practices properly in

different situations. Learners may start with sila sikkha by attempting to embrace good

behaviours, such as attention, diligence, care, and respect for themselves and others.

To succeed in all kinds of action, such as study and everyday life activities, the settling of

the mind in appropriate manners (samadhi) is required. Learners should, therefore,

practise these behaviours with awareness and concentration, based on the samadhi sikka

principle. This attention or ability to concentrate requires a coordination of physical and

mental activities. With this, learners will practise efficiently even while they are in a state

of mental disturbance caused by objects of attraction, repulsion and delusion. They also

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need panna sikkha to understand their actions and decisions. Do they respond with the

right attention? Are their decisions and actions suitable for the circumstances? What are

the effects, benefits and disadvantages? The understanding that comes from such questions

will lead to correct decisions and actions in accordance with reason and reality, and also

cause the learners to act meaningfully. Consider the meaning of a simple action like eating,

for example; when children understand that they consume food to support their life, they

will know the benefits of food and may select food based not only on the taste but because

of the nutrition gained. They may also consume food appropriately, by not eating too

much.

Even though Buddhist concepts fundamentally focus on human improvement through

self-realisation and practices, there are other crucial elements in this educational approach

(Payutto, 2004). To avoid difficulties and maintain the practice, encouragement is needed

from other people, including teachers, friends, family and community members.

In addition, an appropriate environment for learning, including the right place, right

environment and atmosphere, right food, right dialogues, right people, and right positions

and actions, is required (Ministry of Education, 2003a). All these support learners in

practising and sustaining the right way of living.

Implementation of the Buddhist approach to education in Thailand

The Buddhist approach was introduced into formal education in 2003, when the Thai

government launched the Buddhist-approach school project as one of five innovative

educational movements. It was implemented in approximately 80 pilot schools around the

country (Ministry of Education, 2003b). By 2006, there were more than 20,000 schools

participating in the project. The tremendous increase in numbers was because of the

support and encouragement of the government agencies and religious institutes. Moreover,

because the Buddhist approach could be applied in existing schools without the need for

special equipment or experts, it could be easily introduced with little change in facilities

and, therefore, at a lower cost. The essential requisites are the right intentions and the

collaboration of members in the school community.

To apply the Buddhist approach into schools, according to the Ministry of Education

(2003a), there are five actions that the schools need to undertake. First, schools need to

modify their physical environment to support Buddhist practices. Buildings and

classrooms should be maintained so as to be clean, tidy and in good condition; and

peaceful, natural outdoor spaces should be provided. To remind students of the Buddhist

doctrines, signs of the precepts of Buddhism or Buddha images may be set up in the

school. Second, schools should initiate basic activities that relate to Buddhist practices and

the life of the students, such as meditation before studying, considering their food before

eating, and setting up a consensus for actions in the classroom. Third, schools should apply

Buddhist principles to their curriculum and educational activities. The learning process

should be integrated, contextual, active and related to the lives of the students. Besides the

expectation of gaining knowledge, behavioural objectives should be examined in every

lesson. Fourth, the schools should promote positive interactions among school members.

The interactions between students and students, students and teachers, and teachers and

teachers should be with care and respect for each other. Moreover, each member should be

thought of as a role model of good conduct for others. Finally, the schools should consider

their management process as a dynamic cycle of planning, acting, monitoring and revising.

They should apply Buddhist learning processes in understanding the causes and effects,

and to continually develop the process and activities of the schools. Schools should also

Asia Pacific Journal of Education 39

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promote the participation of all staff, parents and community members in the development

of the school and its educational activities. Each school may have a different approach in

accordance with the local conditions.

To create the holistic idea of practice, all these issues should be concurrently

conducted to support the Buddhist principle of learning (sikkha; see Figure 1).

The integrated issues of the Buddhist approach to education also share similarities with the

whole-school approach in that the ideas have to transform not only the content and

processes of the formal curriculum and the purpose of learning but also the ways in which

the schools work.

In practice, all Buddhist-approach schools attempt to carry out all five actions, but

details of how this is done are generally divergent.6 For example, Thawsi School in

Bangkok, one of the first schools in Thailand to have adopted the Buddhist approach in

their educational practices and management,7 has applied the Buddhist ideal into the

school curriculum by creating a new curriculum under the theme ‘Picking up a flower

affects the Earth’,8 thus introducing the idea of interrelationship as core to the learning

process (Thawsi School, 2006). The curriculum is designed to relate external factors and

their effects; the emphasis on environmental issues is scaled according to the age of the

learners. First-grade students learn about the relationship between their mind and body,

and their relationship with other people in their school and family. In the second grade,

students learn about the relationships between human beings, animals and the biological

environment, as well as about their relationship with and position in the community. They

are trained to respect social rules and practise personal responsibility, and learn to treat the

relationship with their society and environment with care. The scale of environmental

concerns is elevated to the national level in the third and fourth grades, where the

relationships between people and culture are the main focus. In the fifth and sixth grades,

the concepts of ecology, the earth and the universe are introduced, and the relationships

between people and the natural environment are also emphasised. In addition, other

Figure 1. The ideas behind school development according to the Buddhist approach (adapted fromMinistry of Education, 2003a, p. 13).

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educational activities are designed in relation to this curriculum. For instance, students in

the third grade have the opportunity to grow rice in a real rice field when they study the

country and its main crop. From this activity, the children learn about the relationships

between biological environments, physical environments and their country’s culture. They

also learn about the effects of overconsumption and how to consume properly.

Because of the limitations of the school site and the fact that the school is situated in an

urban area of Bangkok, while some activities such as planting vegetables can be set within

the school site, others like growing rice have to take place outside the school in the

countryside. Furthermore, the school approach and its activities challenge the common

urban lifestyle (Ganok-orn Bunthaweekij, school staff in charge of public relations,

personal communication, 24 January 2007). Understanding from the parents is needed to

support and guide their children to behave at home in a similar way to that in school. Many

of Thawsi School’s activities could easily be undertaken in schools in the provinces

because of their fertile natural environments and self-reliant lifestyles.9

In many cases, implementation of the Buddhist approach to education is related to

Buddhist customs and rituals. The essence of these activities is not only to sustain the

tradition but to be able to practise them personally and develop according to the ideals of

proper living. At Wat Sowhin School, a primary school in Phitsanulok, basic Buddhist

practices like praying, mental-collectedness training (samadhi) and using moral conduct

(sila) are always practised. Moreover, a night devoted to studying and observing religious

rites is a regular practice on Father’s Day and Mother’s Day10 as well as on the important

Buddhist days and every fortnight during Buddhist Lent. This activity has been part of

school life since 1995, 8 years before the school officially participated in the Buddhist-

approach school project. On the day of the activity, the children study as per normal. In the

evening, they will take a bath and put on white garments. That night, they will stay at the

local temple and perform Buddhist practices until the next day.

Another important activity is Dharma camp,11 which is a Buddhist practice camp. It is

usually held close to Magha Puja Day and takes the form of a 3-day, 2-night session.

The target group is students in Grades 4–6, while up to 10 younger children may also

participate. It is the school’s responsibility to prepare the food and arrange for a place that

is supported by the local temple. The camp was initially sponsored by the teachers, but the

Figure 2. Because of the limited school site, the gardens of Thawsi School, where children learnhow to grow organic vegetables, mushrooms and herbs, are located along both sides of an inner streetand one edge of the sports field.

Asia Pacific Journal of Education 41

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local people and shops later lent their support. Of the total number of 100 pupils, 80 are of

primary age (Grades 1–6), and 40–50 children normally participate in the activity. This

means more than half of the students usually take part. Moreover, some family members

occasionally come and stay with the children. The activities conducted by the Wat Sowhin

School have led to new relationships between the school and its community, which has

encouraged some community members to join in the school activities. The traditional

culture of the area has been revisited and strengthened. It seems that after the community

members have seen their children practising the approach or have even participated in the

school activities themselves, the whole community has seen some positive developments.

Some adults have begun to rethink their roles in the community and to change their

behaviour. Gambling and drinking rates have decreased. Additionally, the school has

become a meeting place for those who come to pick up their children.

According to the teacher who initiated many of these activities at Wat Sowhin School,

many children join in these activities without conscious attention, thinking that they are

just part of their tradition (Benja Poon-gaysorn, personal communication, 31 January

2007). Thus, the teachers need to tell them about manners and the purpose of the activities,

and to foster an attitude of consciousness towards these activities.

Most of the schools visited as part of this research reported that adopting the Buddhist

approach has led to improvement in the behaviour of the children. Based on the experience

of teachers at Jiraprawat Wittayakom School, a secondary school in Nakorn Sawan, the

students did not really pay attention at the beginning, and some even opposed the

activities. After practising some of the activities, many students realised the benefits as

the practice helped them to improve in their studies and made them conscious of their

actions and attitudes. In some cases, when students came back from the 3-day Buddhist

training camp, which is conducted once a year for all students in Grades 7 and 10, students

who used to act improperly had changed their behaviour or begged forgiveness from their

teachers (Naparat Juntarakum, personal communication, 29 January 2007).

Figure 3. The students of Wat Sowhin School practise mental-collectedness training in the semi-open corridor. The same space is also used for training in Buddhist manners and worship.

42 S. Chansomsak and B. Vale

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Although development of the physical environment to support Buddhist practices is

one of the five actions that a school is supposed to take in applying the Buddhist approach,

there was little change in the physical environment of the schools visited for this research.

Cleanliness is a major practice that every school has developed. Since buildings are costly,

in public schools the decision to have a new building or improve part of the infrastructure

normally depends on the budget provided by government. However, schools can increase

their options by asking for donations or by undertaking communal self-building.

The students and local people will usually be involved in such actions.

Applying Buddhist principles also assists Buddhist-approach schools in maintaining

and developing their practices. The process is focused on practices with panna sikkha.

At Ban Sai-yauy Community School, a primary school in Phitsanulok, school members

frequently evaluate and keep records of their activities as part of the continual

development of the school’s practices. Many publications have been produced as a result,

and these have been used for a public relations exercise as well as for keeping records.

Moreover, a research-based approach is applied to developing the instruction methods and

activities. These practices are part of the process that helps participants, both teachers and

learners, understand their actions and improve the activities.

The success of the approach is clearly based on the local situation. The most important

factor is the attitude and abilities of school staff members. A strong and sincere intention

to practise and develop is always the starting point for achievement of the goal. In the

successful cases, the principal, teachers and other staff members will have shown a clear

understanding of the concept and process of learning. They will have attempted to apply

the concept conscientiously and develop their practices consistently.

Figure 4. At Wat Sowhin School, Buddha images are located in many places, such as in front of theschool, near the library, next to the flagpole (as shown in the picture), in the hall and in classrooms.These statues are teaching aids that remind learners of the concepts in Buddhism and encourage themto constantly practise.

Asia Pacific Journal of Education 43

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Agood relationship among the school, families, local temples and local institutions is also

a critical factor.12 SinceBuddhist principles should be practised at all times and can be applied

at many levels – including personal, family, school and communal levels – Buddhist

approach activities should not be limited to the school premises. Table 1 shows the different

placesusedbyBanSai-yauyCommunitySchool for their activities. Furthermore, parentswho

understand the school’s approach will contribute their support for and participation in

educational and communal activities. Because Buddhist practice is the basic culture for the

majority ofThai people, in somecases, parentswill alsopractise alongside their children, such

aspresenting food to amonkwith their children, conducting themselvesproperly and actingas

role models, as well as instructing their children to act correctly. Such parental involvement

affirms what students learn in school.13 In a community where the Buddhist approach is

recognised as the basic concept of learning in both the school and community, such as atWat

Sowhin School andBanSai-yauyCommunity School,while the schoolmay ask for assistance

from the monks or local people and use the facilities in the temple and their community, they

will also let the community use their facilities and allow students to volunteer for communal

activities. A bonding relationship between school and community not only enhances

opportunities for school activities but, in many cases, also supports the moral conduct of the

students. It appears that the more relationships that exist, the more effective in practice is the

education.

In terms of integrating the Buddhist approach into the curriculum, and the purpose of

teaching and learning according to themulti- and trans-disciplinary approaches, it seems to fit

more easily into primary education, which is normally concerned with basic knowledge and

how students live or exist, than into secondary education, which is normally organised by

specific subjects. Moreover, as a teacher from Phaisali Pittaya School in Nakorn Sawan

commented (personal communication, 25 January 2007), primary school students also tend to

follow the suggestions of teachers and carry out good practicemore than high school students

do.Due tohigh competition aroundentrance examinations to famous schools anduniversities,

Figure 5. Besides keeping the school grounds and buildings clean, students at Lat YaoWittayakomSchool, Nakorn Sawan, occasionally help to maintain the physical environment around the school.

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some schools still place emphasis on knowledge that students must learn rather than their

behaviour and roles asmembers of a community (Wongyuen, 2004).However, implementing

the Buddhist approach to education does not mean that students will gain less knowledge.

In fact, students should acquire the sameamount of knowledge; butwith theBuddhist learning

principles, especially mind-collectedness (samadhi sikka), they will learn more effectively

and could simultaneously develop as a good person.

Table 1. Places used for Ban Sai-yauy Community School activities.

School Community

Activity Home

Classrooms

Library

Dining/Assem

bly

hall

Schoolsite

Wat

Sai-yauyTem

ple

Other

temples

Communityfacilities

The physical environmentSetting up learning e-centres outside classroom X X X XCleaning the school and environment X X X XImproving physical environment in the community X X X XBasic living activities‘Dharma classroom’ (Learning about Buddhistprinciples and practising Buddhist manners)

X X X X

Students’ discipline practice X X X XPraying and mental-collectedness training X X X XGreeting and basic manner training XGreeting and basic manner practices X X X X X X X XPresenting food to monks X X X‘Goodness Bank’ (Good behaviour records) X X X X X X X XThe curriculum and education activitiesIntegrated learning approach XEncouraging attention to learning and seeking for knowledge X X X X XPhysical movement with mental-collectednessI X XThe interactions of school membersGood Buddhist student practices X X X X XLearning ‘eating, being, seeing, and listening’(Consuming with knowledge and consciousuess)

X X X X

School managementStaff inspection activities and study trip At other

schools andplaces

Setting up an exhibition X

Evaluation and supervision X X X XSpecial activitiesThree-day ethical training campII X XSix-day participation in ordination training for monkhoodIII XMoral precept signsIV X XWhole school Buddhist practicesV X X X

Source: Ban Sai-yauy Community School (2005, 2006a, 2006b)

Note:IMental-collectedness training is to engage in mental awareness together and focus on movement of thebody. It is not only a practice for mental-collectedness but also a part of bodily exercise. IIThe activity is set up inJune for 250 students and 25 teachers. It links to five other schools in the same network. IIIThe activity is arrangesin November for around 70 students, both boys and girls. IVThe signs are posted along corridors and along theedges of school green areas. VThis is a weekly activity on Friday 2:30 to 4 pm, typically praying and Buddhistmanner training.

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With the support of the government through local agencies, Buddhist-approach

schools in each region have set up local collaborative networks. One or two schools in an

area that have experience and potential are chosen as Kalya-mitra schools to support

several nearby schools, while a few schools that have succeeded in practice are selected as

examples for other schools at both regional and national levels. Although the word Kalya-

mitra can be directly translated as “a good friend” (Ministry of Education, 2003a) and

commonly refers to a person, in this case it is used to refer to a school that has a good

relationship with and is supportive of or collaborative with other schools. To develop their

practice, besides self-improvement, all schools can learn from the experience of others,

which is also part of applying the learning concept into school management.

Although it appears that promotion of theBuddhist-approach school project during2003–

2006 caused an enormous increase in the number of schools participating in the programme,

future change in the government’s approach may, however, lead to discouraging school

participation in a particular programme. Because there is better government support when a

new programme is launched, such as access to a new source of funding and recognition as a

pioneer school, a school will sometimes change its practices to those of the new programme

and ignore the older practices, even if theyhaveproven tobegood.To sustain the quality of the

practices and enhance the number of students who are good people with ethical attitudes and

goodmanners, frequent and continuous evaluation, supervision and development needs to be

conducted. Integration of religious beliefs into education to improve the attitudes and

behaviour of students could be an alternative solution for any school. It should not be stopped

after the government launches a new programme, but should be merged into school practice,

even if this is changed in some way, to be a normal part of schooling.

The Buddhist approach to education: an alternative for sustainable education

According to discussion of the Buddhist approach to education and the practice of

Buddhist-approach schools, it seems that this alternative Thai approach shares similarities

with ideas and practices of sustainable education. Although the main aim of the Buddhist

approach to education is not to promote sustainability, its activities and the concepts behind

actions support sustainable practices. The Buddhist ideal differs from the contemporary

dominant worldview, which sees human beings as separate from nature. Instead, it is based

on connected systems of nature and the recognition that human beings are included within

nature and should thus develop themselves as part of the natural system of coexistence

(Payutto, 1995, 2003a). These ideas are related to the concept of ecological sustainability.

Buddhism may thus be considered an eco-religion (Merchant, 2005).

Because almost all social and ecological problems are caused by wrongful relationships

between humans and their environment, to solve such problems, themost important principle

is human development. Based on Buddhist ideas, although every person shares a similar

human nature, because human beings are creators who can develop themselves, they can

changeor eliminate imperfect characteristics. Thus, all people in any condition or position can

and should improve themselves at all times, even though the ways they behave or develop

themselves may be varied (Payutto, 1995). The process of development does not aim to

control or force people to be the same, but accepts diversity and celebrates their potential to

develop continually in away that is suited to their particular conditions (Payutto, 1995).When

human beings realise they are part of nature and have developed to be dependent on

themselves, they will avoid exploitation of nature for establishing a self-image based on

wealth. Instead, they will behave in a manner that is harmonious and supports their

coexistence with the natural environment. They will expand their concerns to include others

46 S. Chansomsak and B. Vale

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in their immediate society, the broader society, and the whole natural system.14 Ultimately,

when there is no difference between themselves and others, their self-interested behaviours

become actions in the interest of all. Thus, the Buddhist concept of education, which focuses

onhumandevelopment to develop proper behaviour that is harmoniouswith the environment,

including social and ecological systems, could be a key to solvingmodern-day problems. Due

to the interdependence of all phenomena, once people learn how to conduct their lives and

carry out activities to support the system of relationships, the effects of their actions will

constructively affect a wider system. In brief, the Buddhist approach to education could be

considered to be a process for cultivating responsive, sustainable living practices for learners.

Besides the learners’ internal factors, educational ideas in the Buddhist approach also

embrace external factors, including other people and the environment. This concept makes

implementation of the Buddhist approach to education contextual, connective and

inclusive – concepts that are also characteristic of sustainable education. Furthermore, the

practices of Buddhist-approach schools have shown the potential for applying Buddhist

principles in various dimensions, for formal and informal learning, as well as at the

personal, family, school and community levels. Simultaneous actions by stakeholders

at various levels will create appropriate conditions to support educational practices.

The diverse forms of implementation, yet with the same purposes and principles,

demonstrate the integrated and holistic quality of this approach, which is in accordance

with the nature of learning in both the Buddhist approach and in sustainable education.

Finally, the Buddhist approach to education clearly illustrates the relationship between

the educational approach and local conditions. With the support of a local culture based on

Buddhist ideas and practices, the Buddhist approach is more easily applied to educational

activities and more easily maintained in practice. The implementation of the concept also

presents a way to apply local knowledge to promoting a sustainable way of living. The idea

behind the Buddhist approach – that every person should constantly develop him or

herself, and that actions should essentially create appropriate conditions to support

coexistence in society and within nature – is a rather universal responsibility. This idea

can also be associated with spiritual and ecological wisdom in different religions and

cultures, such as the harmony and balance of the Taoists, or the circle of life and death of

the Native Americans. Because of these similarities, this approach could be an alternative

way of developing sustainable education in Thailand, and also act as an exemplar for

sustainable educational practices in other contexts.

Notes

1. The implementation of “weak sustainability”, which is set out in Our Common Future (WCED,1987) and which has dominated the official discourse, is still based on the primary objective ofgrowth. From this viewpoint, the basic requirement is that the overall stock of natural capitalremains constant over time, which in reality never happens. A sustainable level of growth inmaterial consumption is therefore a misleading use of the term sustainability. By contrast,“strong sustainability”, which is set out in Limits to Growth (Meadows, Meadows, Randers, &Behrens, 1972) and Beyond the Limits (Meadows, Meadows, & Randers, 1992), draws attentionto the “missing elements” in economic calculations, including the value of all environmentalassets (Turner, 1993, p. 13). Because human beings live in nature, not with or against nature,destroying nature also means threatening the very survival of humankind. The implementationof this concept is guided by the understanding that the natural capital stock should not bedestroyed, which is also clearly stated by proponents of the “deep ecology” movement.

2. The Thai government’s approach towards sustainable development, as stated in the 7th and 8thPlans (1992–2001), was mostly related to the idea of balancing the three issues of ecology,economy and society (so-called weak sustainability or economic sustainability), rather than the

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idea of strong sustainability or ecological sustainability. Fortunately, in the present developmentPlan, the 10th National Economic and Social Development Plan (2007–2011), promotion ofpersonal ethics, including environmental ethics, and sustainable behaviours, such as self-sufficient lifestyles and sustainable patterns of production and consumption, have beensuggested along with sustainable community development. However, since the policy has justbeen launched, its implementation and achievement need to be assessed in further research.

3. Both lifelong learning and innovative educational technology have been a focus since the 6thEducation Development Plan (1987–1991, BE 2530–2534).

4. These five innovations are translated from Thai:ICT and According to

the Ministry of Education (2003b), autonomous schools are focused on new managementapproaches; the pilot schools were public schools that are independently operated and managedlike private schools. Buddhist-approach schools apply Buddhist principles in the learning processas well as in school operation and management. Bilingual schools use languages as the main toolsof the learning process. With collaboration with five universities, information and communicationtechnology (ICT) schools have focused on the implementation and development of ICT as thetool for learning activities and school management. The plans and strategies for talented childrenhave placed emphasis on learning techniques to support different special abilities, such aslinguistic, musical, logical science and mathematical, and bodily-kinesthetic skills.

5. P.A. Payutto or Venerable Phra Dhammapitaka is one of the most influential monks in Thailand.He served as Deputy Secretary-General of the Buddhist University, and has lectured extensivelyin Thailand and overseas. His writings cover not only traditional Buddhist principles but alsoBuddhist perspectives on modern academic themes. In the Buddhist-approach school project, hisideas and writings about the Buddhist approach to education have been recognised and used asprimary references for the implementation of the approach.

6. These notions are based on a survey of several Buddhist-approach schools in the lower northernpart of Thailand and two pioneer schools in Bangkok.

7. Thawsi School formally applied the concept to school practice in 1998, 5 years before thegovernment was to put it into formal education in 2003. Moreover, the school also participatedin development of the government project and policy by providing suggestions based onexperience at the school.

8. This phrase is translated from Thai:9. Unfortunately, most of the educational activities in provincial schools are mainly based on a

predominantly transmissive methodology, an instructive and imposed approach. The childrenrarely have a chance to learn from their environments. Only a few schools use their localenvironments to support educational activities. Meanwhile, rural people tend to change theirlifestyle from a pattern of self-reliance to a modern urban life that relies on economic activity,which is associated with self-interests and, frequently, overconsumption. This change discourageschildren from developing practices of self-reliance and being a good member of society.

10. Thai Father’s Day is the King’s birthday on December 5, while Mother’s Day is the Queen’sbirthday on August 12. Thus the ceremonies on these days are not only for fathers and mothersbut also for the King and Queen.

11. Dharma means the doctrine or teaching of the Buddha. It also refers to the truth of Nature.12. In the Thai language, the first character of the terms for a family ( ), a temple ( ) and a school

( ) could be combined as a new word that means excellence or merit, or that meanscombination (Wongyuen, 2004). These new words can imply that the idea of integrated actionwill create the result of excellence.

13. According to the concept that education is training for proper living, education should begin inthe family as soon as the child is born. The parents may be considered the child’s first teachers.In fact, they still maintain this role even after the child goes to school.

14. However, if the expansion is not sufficiently inclusive, such as only having concern for theimmediate society, their actions may create prejudices, discrimination and injustices. To use thisconcept to support human development, precautions against negative effects are essential.

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