1.THE BRAHMA SUTRA

2. by Radhakrishnan.RECOVERY OF FAITH EAST AND WEST-SOME REFJJECTIONS THE BHAGAVADGlTA INDIAN PHILOSOPHY THE HINDU VIEW OF LIFE AN IDEALIST VIEW OF LIFE EAST AND WEST IN RELIGION RELIGION AND SOCIETY THE PRINCIPAL UPANISADS(Gcorgc Alien & Unwin) EASTERN RELIGIONS AND VESTERN THOUGHT(Clarenclon Press, Oxford) THE J>HAMMADADA(Oxford University Press) INDIA AND CHINA IS THIS PEACE? GHEAT INDIANS(Hind Kita.bs, Bombay) Edited by Radhakrishnan M A HAT M A s since they are not of much contemporary interest. Since the Upani$ads, the Bhagavadgitii, and the Brahma Siitra are said to have unity of purpose and meaning aikcirth_va, I have indicated wJ1at, to my mind, is this general purport. Mv views are based on experience, authority and n:flection. Tl{e commentator himself is a product of his times. He looks at the past from his own point of view. Just as rach indiviurii~laB.G. B.S. B.U.C.U. I.P. K.U. M.B.Ma.U. M.U. P.U. R.R.B.R.B.G.s.S.B.S.B.G.s.v.T.U.u. V.P. 14. PART ONE INTRODUCTION 15. CHAPTER IThe Brahma Sutra The Vedas THE V edas have rernained for centuries the highest religious authority for all sections of the Hindus. There are four V edas, f.?.g, Yajus, Sama and Atharvan. Each of them has four sections -samhita, 1 or collection of hymns addressed to the different deities; Brahmat;as, which describe sacrificial ceremonies and discuss their value; Ara1;1yakas, forest treatises which dispense with elaborate sacrifices but prescribe meditations on symbols; and the Upani$ads, which deal with the path of knowledge, jniina, rather than with the path of work, karma. In early times they were not written down but were handed down from preceptor to pupil. They were literally heard by the pupils and are called sruti. 2 Sruti and Smrti The authoritativeness of the Vedas in regard to the matters stated in them is independent and direct, just as the light of the sun is the direct means of our knowledge of form and colour; the authoritativeness of personal views, on the other hand, is of an altogether different kind since it depends on the validity of the sruti and is mediated by a chain of teachers and tradition. 3 The Vedas are the authoritative utterances of inspired seers claiming contact with transc('ndental truth. They are the statements of their metaphysical experience. Smrti will have to reckon with the sruti and should be consistent with it. Sruti has no authority in the realm of the perceptible. It is the source of knowledge in matters transcending senseexperience.' 1 Pii~zini liT. 3 94 sam: together; hita: put. vedasya hi nirapek$am sviirthe priimii1)yam t-aver iva ritpa-vi:;aye; puru$a-vacasiim tu muliintariipek~am vaktr-smrti-vyavahitatit. ceti viprakar~a!J. 13S.B. II.I. I.' srutis ea no atfndriya-vi~aye vijnanotpattau nimittam: S. on T.U.; cp. also S.B.G. XVIII. 66. pratyak~iidi-pramiirt-iinupalabdhe hi vi$aye .~rufeb priimar~-ya1h na pt-atyak$adi-vi$aye. 16. 20The Brahma SutraDarsana A system of thought is called a darsana 1 from the root drs, to see. 2 It is a vision of truth. The Upani$ads which relate these visions or experiences use the language of meditation, samiidhbha$ii. It is difficult to express the truths of experience through logical propositions, for the most appropriate response to the spiritual experience is silence or poetry. Every utterance is a weak attempt to deal justly with the mystery, the meaning which has been attained. A great deal of passion and ingenuity has been spent on the task of resolving contradictions and reconciling seemingly conflicting statements. The conclusions of the past are brought into agreement with the findings of the present. The scholastic developn1ents are also called darsanas.Astika and N iistika Systems of thought are distinguished into iistika and 1uistika. The former or the orthodox schools arc six in number, Sii:Jitkhya, Yoga, Ved{inta, l1imamsii, l'lyc"iya and V aise$Z:ka. They all accept the authority of the Vedas. The niistika or the unorthodox systems do not regard the Vcdas as infallible. It is said that the niistikas are the deniers of a world beyond the present. Commenting on Pa-~zini, 3 Patafijali n1akes out that {tstika is one who thinks that it exists and nii$lika one who thinks that it does not exist. Jaya.ditya makes out that an listika is one who believes in the existence of the other world, a ncistika is one who does not believe in its existence and a d$/ika is one who believes only in what can be logically demonstrated. 4 Manu holds that he who repudiates Vedic doctrines is a nastika. 5 Vai.Se$ika SiUra IX. 2. 13. Speculari, from which the word speculation is derived, means looking at something. It is not creation or construction but vision or insight. The Buddhists refer to views as ditthi, or Sanskrit dr!iti derived from the same root drs. Haribhadra in his $a4-dar.5ana-samuccaya (fifth century A. D.) and Madhava (fourteenth century) in his Sarva-darsana-sathgraha use darsana for a system of thought. 8 IV. 4 6o. asti-niisti-di${am matib. This suggests that the astika is one who believes in the other world, the nastika is one who does not believe in the other world, while the di~tika is a fatalist. ' para-lokab astUi yasya mati.- asti sa astikab ; tad-viparJto nastika[a pramii~iinupiitinf yasya matib sa di$/ikab. Kiisika on Pa~ini IV. 4 6o. Cp. Sa~rjilya U.: 'astikyam niima vedokta-dharmiidharmefu visvasab.' li Veda-nindaka II. 1 1. 12 17. Introduction21M ok!}a-sastra Every system of philosophy is a mok!}a-siistra and teaches the way to release from sa1hsara or bondage to time. The nature of release has been various]y conceived, insensibility, dissolution, isolation, life in God. Negatively all these views are agreed that release is from time; positively the accounts differ. They are all united that ignorance, avidyii, is the cause of bondage; knowledge, enlightenment, vidyii, /iicina, lead to release. Avdyii is not intellectual ignorance but spiritual blindness. MimiintsaVe are told that the Scriptures are endless, the knowledge to be derived from them is immense but the time is little and the obstacles are many. So we have to choose the essential Scriptures and study them even as the swan takes in on]y the milk which is mixed with water. 1 The task of reconciling the different Vcdic texts, indicating their mutual relations, is assigned to asastra called thellfimii?nsa which means investigation or inquiry. In the orthodox Hindu tradition, Mima1nsii is divided into two systems, the Pi7rvamimd1nsci by J aimini which is concerned with the correct interpretation of the Vedic ritual and Uttara-mimii1ilsti by Badarayal)a which is called Brahma-mimiims('i or Siirirakamimii?itsii which deals chiefly with the nature of Brahman, the status of the world and the individual self. Since it attempts to determine the exact nature of these entities it is also called nir~ziiyaka-siistra.The Brahma St"Ura is the exposition of the philosophy of the Upani!jads. It is an attempt to systematise the various strands of the Upani!}ads which form the background of the orthodox systems of thought. It is also called Uttara-mimii'lizsii or the mimiimsii or the investigation of the later part of the Vedas, as distinguished frmn the mimiimsii of the earlier part of the Vedas and the Briihmat.tas which deal with ritual or karma-kii~uja. All the commentators on the IJrahma Sutra agree that the Brahma Sutra was intended to be a summary of the teaching of the 1ananta-sastram bahu veditavyam alpas ea kalo bakavas ea vigltnab yat sara-bhulam tad upiisitavyam ha1hso yathii k~lram ivambu-mi;ram. 18. 22The Brahma SutraUpani$ads. The Brahma Siitra is also called the Vediinta Sutra1 or Sariraka Sutra. 2 It takes into account the systems of thought known at that time. Date and Author The author of the Brahma Sutra is Badarayai)a. 3 It may be assumed that the Pz"irva-mimihnsii, dealing as it does with ritual, arose at a very early period. Even in the Brahmat;ta literature, we find mention of the word mimii.msii in connection with the discussions of contested points of ritual. As the Uttaramimiimsii deals not with practice but with knowledge, and is concerned with the later parts of Vedic literature, it may have been formulated a little later than the Purva-mimiimsa. There are cross-references to Jaimini and Badarayal}a in the Purvamimii.msii Sutra and the Brahma St"Ura.' Since B.S. refers to almost all other Indian systems, its date cannot be very early. It was composed about the second century B.c. 5 There have been several attempts to represent the teaching of the Upani$ads in a consistent way and Badarayal}a in his Siitra gives us the results of these attempts. The references to the views of earlier teachers6 show how the author took into account other efforts at interpretation extending over many generations and summarised them. The ancient teachers quoted The Vedanta philosophy takes its stand on the Upani$ads, the B.G. and the B.S. The Upani~ads are smti, a part of the Veda, the B.G. is smrti. It is a part of the M.B. As smrti it supports sruti, and clarifies its meaning. I The body is .Sarfra, what resides in it is the sarJraka, the self. Ratnaprabhii, a commentary on S.B., holds that the B.S. is called .c;arfraka as it deals with the Brahman-hood of the individual soul: siirlrako jJvas tasya brahmatvavicaro mfmamsa. Baladeva adopts a different view. Brahman is embodied sarfra since the whole universe is the body of the Lord. a He is sometimes said to be Vyasa., literally the arranger. He is said to have arranged the Vedas in their present form. Cp. B.G. X. 37 'of the sages I am Vyasa'. ' According to Sabara, Badarayar;ta was respected by Jaimini who quotes him in support of his view of the self-evident character of knowledge. It is generally believed that BadarayaiJ.a was the teacher and Jaimini the pupil. 6 ]acobi thinks that the B.S. was composed sometime between A.D. 200 and 450. See journal ofthe American Oriental Society XXXI, p. 29. 8 Atreya Ill. 4 44 Kasakrtsna I. 4 22. Asma.rathya I. 2. 29; I. 4 20. Jaimini I. 2. 28, 31; I. 3 31. Badari I. 2. 30. Auc;lulomi I. 4 21; IJI. 4 45; IV. 4 6. Kar~r;1ajini III. 1. 9 BadarayaiJ.a I. 3 26; I. l 33 1 19. Introduction23 by Badaraya.J:l.a seem to have entertained different views on important points of doctrine. B.S. states the teaching of the Veda according to BadarayaQ.a and defends the interpretation adopted. Sutra The sutra style which aims at clarity and conciseness is adopted in all the philosophical systems as also in works on other subjects like domestic ceremonies, grammar and metres. It tries to avoid unnecessary repetitions. A sutra is so called because it suggests wide meaning. 1 It should be concise, indicative of its purport, (composed) of few letters and words, in every way meaningful. Such are what the wise ones called s1itras or aphorisms. 2 In the anxiety for economy of words which is carried to an excess the s itras are not intelligible without a i commentary. They arc packed with meaning which is inexhaustible. They are like shorthand notes of the teaching of the preceptor to the pupils. The B.S. strings together the V edanta texts like flowers. 3 In determining the purport of a sutra, the commentators adopt the principles formulated in the wellknown verse: that the beginning, the end, the repetition, the novelty, the objective, the glorifications and the argument-which are the canons for determining the purport. 4Contents of the Brahma Sutra The B.S. has four chapters or adhyiiyas and each of them is divided into four padas or parts. Each of these piidas is subdivided into adhikarat)as or sections made up of sittras or 1 Madhva on I. 1. I. Siltra is a thread, a string. Cp. Latin sutiira, English suture. bahvartha-siicaniit. Bhiimatf I. 1. 1. laghiini sucitarthani svalpak$ara-padiini ea sarvatab sara-bhutiini sutrii~y ahur ma1~J#~a(J. Cp. also alpiik$aram asandigdham saravat visvatomukham astobham anavadyam ea sutram siitra-vido vidulJ. vedanta-vakya-kusuma-grathanarthatviit siitrci~am. S.B. I. 1. 2. ' upakramopasamharav abhyiiso 'p urvata phalam artha-viidopapam ea lingam tatparya-nirttaye. Madhva quotes it in his commentary on I. I. 4 as from Brhat-samhitii. See also Srikal}.tha on I. I. 4 20. 24The Brahma S utraaphoristic statements. The number of sutras in each adhikara1,Ja varies with the nature of the topic dealt therein. Each section according to the commentators deals with a specific point, criticises the views of others and commends its own. The commentary is a reasoned statement of objections, ptirva-pak$a, and answers, uttara-pak$a or siddhiinta. According to the Piirvamfmiimsii, every section or adhikara~;ta has five factors: (1) vi$aya, subject-matter, (2) visaya, doubt or uncertainty, (3) prtrva-pak5a or the prima facie view, statement of an objection, (4) sddlu"inta or established conclusion or the final truth of an argument, (S) sa1izgati or connection between the different sections. If an adhikara~ta has more than one siitra, the first is the chief, mukhya, and the others are subordinate, gu~za, to it. Thecommentators, in spite of their different philosophical allegiances, do not vary much with regard to the arrangement of the topics or the meaning of the sutras or the reference to the sources or texts intended, the vz"$aya-viikyas. The first chapter deals with samanvaya. It attempts to offer a coherent interpretation of the different texts of the Upani$ads. We cannot be content with disconnected scraps of knowledge. Our science, our philosophy and our religion must become integral parts of a general pattern of thought. The method of reconciliation requires today to be extended to the living faiths of the world. The second chapter deals with avirodha and shows that the interpretation offered in the first chapter is not inconsistent with the writings of other sages and views of other systems. Even when the sutras were formulated, they reckoned with other views and objections from rival schools. Truth would not be sought so industriously if it had no rivals to contend against. The third chapter deals with siidhanii and is devoted to an exposition of the means for the realisation of Brahman. The fourth deals with phala or the fruit of knowledge. There are slight variations in the readings of the sutras in B.S. Sometimes one si:ttra is read as two or two as one. Sometimes the last word of a siitra is added to the beginning of the next one. These variations lead to divergent interpretations. Commenting on IV. 3 7-14, S. says, 'Some declare these sutras, which I look upon as setting forth the siddhanta, the final view, to state 21. Introduction merely the ptirva-pak$a or the opponent's view'. Since the sii.tras admit of varied interpretations one can honestly admit their validity and sti11 pursue one's own independent line of reflection. The acceptance of the st"Uras may have a tendency to cripple the discovery of new and fruitful methods of approach but as a matter of fact it has not been so. We have adopted S.'s reading as the standard and noted the divergences fr01n it. His numbering of the sutras is adopted.CHAPTER 2The Commentaries B.ADARAYA~Ain the B.S. mentions different interpretations of the teaching of the Upani$ads. Asmarathya1 adopts the bhedabheda relation. The soul is neither different nor nondifferent from Brahm,an even as the sparks are neither different nor non-different fron1 fire. The relation between the two is not one of absolute identity but of cause and effect. The bhedlibheda theory has received n1anifold expression among the commentators of the B.S. Bhartr-prapafica, Bhaskara, Yadavaprakasa, R., Nimharka, Vijfiana-bhik~u believe in the reality of the universe as well as its divine origin, in the distinctiveness of individual souls which are treated as centres of divine manifestation, moral freedom and responsibility and faith in a personal God, in the value of knowledge and love, devotion and service as means to the fulfilment of human nature. Auc;lulomi 2 holds that the individual soul is altogether different from Brahrnan up to the time of release. The soul is merged in Brahman when it obtains release. This view seems to be based on C.U. VIII. I2. 3; M.U. III. 2. 8. Bhiimatf quotes the following from the Pa1icaratra agama: 'Up to the moment of reaching emancipation the individual soul and the Highest Self are different. But the released soul is no longer different from the Highest Self since there is no further cause of difference.' 1I.2.29; I. 420.II. 421;Ill. 4 45; IV. 4 6. 22. 26The Brahma SutraThe difference or non-difference of the two depends on the difference of condition, bondage or release. Auc;lulomi's doctrine is known as satya-bheda-viida. Kasakrtsna1 holds that the individual soul is absolutely nondifferent from Brahman. The individual soul and the Highest Self are one. It is clear that even before BadarayaQa composed the B.S. there were different views about the teaching of the Upani!}ads.There have been many commentaries on the B.S. though only a few have come down to us. 2 NarayaQa PaQ~it in his flrfadhvavijaya-bluiva-prakiisikli mentions twenty-one commentators who preceded Madhva, though only three of them are known to us, S., Bhaskara and R. Many other commentaries were written after Madhva' s time, notable among them being those by SrikaQtha, Sripati, Nin1barka, Vallabha, Vijfiana-bhik~u and Baladeva. The chief systematic interpretations of the V ediinta are the Advaita, Visi$tiidvaita, Dvaita, Bhediibheda and Suddhiidvat"ta associated with the names of S., R., Madhva, Nimbarka and Vallabha. They all follow one or the other of the ancient traditions. S. is said to have followed V aniha-sahodaravrt#, H.. Bodhiiyana-vrtti, Madhva Haya-griva-brahma-vidyii and Sripati Agastya-vrtti. 1fany of these commentaries are not in the strict sense commentaries but are systematic expositions of varying doctrines. Even the most original of thinkers do not claim to expound a new system of thought but write commentaries on the three great works, the Upani$ads, the B.G. and the B.S. They use all their ingenuity to discover their views in these works or modify the views expressed in them or even reinterpret the obvious views which they find difficult to maintain. The aim of the commentators is to give a coherent interpretation of the B.S., taking into account the standards and criticisms of their time. They establish the relevancy of the B.S. to their age. Indian thinkers, even when they advance new views, do so in the name of an old tradition. They have a sense of humility and would endorse Hemacandra's statement 1 2I. 422.Yamunacarya mentions in his Siddhi-traya the names of Tanka, Bhartrprapanca, Bhartr-mitra, Bhartr-hari, Brahma-datta, S. and Bhaskara. 23. Introduction27pramii1;ta-siddhiinta-viruddham atra yat ldncid uktam mati-miindya-do$iil miitsaryam utsiiryya tad iirya-cttii~t prasiidam iidhiiya viSodhayantu. May the noble-minded scholars, instead of cherishing ill-will, kindly correct any errors here committed through dullness of intellect in the way of wrong statements and interpretations. The B.S. is held in such high esteem that anyone setting forth a new systen1 of religious and philosophic thought is at pains to show that his views are consistent with the meaning of the B.S. The views of the different commentators have been accepted by son1e sections of the people who look upon their teachers as infallible and their teachings above doubt and dispute. Vhen the different systems claim to represent accurately the 1neaning of the texts, we have to exa1nine them before we accept or reject them. Bodhayana was perhaps the first commentator but his work is not now available. The following commentaries on the B.S. will have to be taken note of:(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)S.A.D.788-820N irvse$iidvaita Bhediibheda Bhediibheda V si$!cidvaita DvaitaA.D. 1000 Bhaskara Yadava Prakasa A.D. 1000 A.D. 1140 R. A.D. 1238 l1adhva latter half of Nimbarka thirteenth cenDvaitiidvaita tury A.D. Saiva-visi$!iidvaita A.D. 1270 (7) Srikal).tha B hediibhediitmakaA.D. 1400 (8) Sripati visi$tadvaita (g) Vallabha A.D. 1479-1544 Suddhiidvata A.D. 1550 Bheda-viida (1o) Suka A.D. 16oo Atma-bralmzaikva(11) VijiUina-bhik!?u "' bheda-viida A.D. 1725 Acintya-bhediibheda (12) BaladevaOn each of these commentaries there are sub-comn1entaries, glosses, etc. 24. The Brahma S litraA. SAMKARA Sathkara About A.D. 780 Gau~lapada wrote a con1mentary on the JJf a~uji"tkya U. called the M ii~ujiikya-Kiirt'kii. His disciple Govinda was the teacher of S. (A.n. 788-820). S. is said to be the incarnation of Siva on carth. 1 S. was a naisthika-brahma-carin .. and his life was spent in exposition, discussion and organisation. Four of the mutts he established are well known, Dvaraka in the West, Piiri in the East, Badri in the North and Sp1geri in the South. His commentary is well known for its profundity of spirit and subtlety of speculation. 2 S. refers to the views of another commentator on the B.S. and his followers arc of the view that this other is the V rtti-kara. A dvata V ediinta Literature S.'s bha$ya on the B.S. was followed by a series of studies. 1fal}, they pervade the whole body by their intelligence. They are of three classes, pu~ti, marytida and pravt"ihu. The fl.rst class are the chosen ones who enjoy the grace of God and are ardently devoted to hi111. The second arc c_kvoted to God and worship hin1 through the study of the Scriptures. The last arc engrosseJ in worldly desires ami do not think of liod. For the jl7'a to enjoy all blessings along with J)rahman, it is necessary that it should possess all attributes as Brahman. The jfva is n1ade in the irnage of Brahman. It is not iinanda-maya but V hen it attains brahma-knowlcdgc it enjoys linanda. l t does not become iinanda-mava for then it would be the cn'ator of worlds like Hralmzan. The Supreme who is (tJZanda-maya giYes bliss to the fivas and cannot itself be the jiva. There is always a distinction between the giver ancl the receicr, the attained and the attainer. For the individual to know itself as pure intelligence, yoga or knowledge by special 'ision is essential. ~-Release and the nay to itVallabha holds that the knower of Brahman is absorbed in Ak$ara Brahman and not in Puru$oltama. If knowledge is associated with devotion the seeker is absorbed in P1tYU$otlama. There is a still higher stage where the Lord gives to some souls divine bliss. They share the joy of his company, nitya-lUa. l>hakti, of vhich Vallabha gives a detailed analysis, is the only 1neans to salvation. By it we reach release from birth and rebirth. The state of bhakti when we enjoy God with all our senses and mind is better even than release. Bhakti, for Vallabha, is prcmii and sevii, love and service. Through intense attachment to the Supreme one perceives him in all things, for they are all tnanifestations of God. Bhakti produces sarviitma-bhiiva. 86. I ntroducl'ion93There are two forms of bltal~ti, 1nar:yiida-bhaldi which is attainable by one's own efforts and pu${i-bhaAti which is attainable by the grace of God alone, without one's own effort. Vallabha adopts the latter position. Those who adopt this way gain release through the grace of the Supreme. They are eh'cted by God whether they l1ave acquired the requisite qualifications or not. This way demands complete surn~nder to the Supretne. Vallabha does not advocate renunciation or samnyrl.sa. Renunciation follows from bhaldi out of necessity and not out of a sense of duty. The path of knowledge brings its results after many births. The way of bhaldi is preferable. Sur Vas (A.n. 14R3- 1563) was Vallahha's chief disciple and he popularised Vallabha's teaching. Mira Bai (A.D. 1498--1573) in her songs brought out the full implications of the worship of Rlidhr7-Trahman is not directly the material cause of the world; it is only the substratum or the ground cause, adh$/hiina-lu'ira~ta. The relation between the upadhi and prakrti is one of the controller and the controlled. Through the instrument of prakrti, God is able to think or will. For in himself God is only pure consciousness. Prakrti acts as the upiidhi of God with its pure sattva. !(ala and adr$ta are also parts of prakrtt:. For Vijfiana-bhik~u, Bhagavan or Absolute God is different 1 1.1.2. 2asmiibhis tu prakyti-Ptt1'U$a-samyoga ISvareJ;Ja kriyate. I.I. 2. 88. Introduction95 from N iiriiya1;za or V isnu who are his manifestations even as sons are of the father. 1 Brahntan as God is responsible for the creation, maintenance and destruction of the world. Commenting on I. r. 2, Vijfla.nahhik~u states that the world is real and eternal, nt'tya. Vhile God creates changes, he is not affected by thern. Prakrti and purw~as are entities which abide outside God and arc coexistent with him. They arc moved by God for the production of the universe which is experienced and enjoyed by the purU$llS who are ultimately led to liberation beyond bondage. Puru$a and prakr# merge in the end in i svara by whose will the crl'ative process begins in prakrti at the end of each pralaya. JJrahman as 1s11ara brings into being puru.~a and pral~rh which arc already potentially exist:nt in God and connects the prakrti with purtt$a. God is all-pervasive, the cause of all and the inner controller. The ultimate principle is not 1S?Hlra which is the manifestation of pure consciousness in satt?,a-maya. body. 2 The Supreme Self does not undergo any change or transformation. He is tnore real than purw;a or pralqti and its colutes. The Individual SoulThe self is dt.,void of any connection (asa;iga). Its association with pral,rti is not direct contact. It is the reflection of the pure soul in the conditioning factors which turn it into a jfva or the individual. The self is pure consciousness and knowledge of objects is possible through the changes of anta1z-kara~z.a and buddh. 3 The j'ivas arc not unreal. While the individual souls and Brahman are indistinguishable in character (avibluiga), the reality of the individual souls is not denied. They arc said to be derived from God as sparks from fire. Though they resen1ble God in so far as they are of the nature of pure consciousness, they retain their individuality on account of their association with limiting conditions and so they appear as finite and lin1ited, different from Brahntan. 4 While the S(hhkhya system recognises Quoting the Bhiigavata, Kr~~Jas tu ld~agavan svayam, he explains that is a part of God even as the son is part of the father: atm kr~~w t'i,,~zub svayam paramdva1as tasya putravat siiA ~iid a~11.{a ity atthab. 3 ll' 3' 5. I IV. I. 3. ~ bhedabhedau vibhilgavibhaga-rupau kala-bhedcna avinuldhau aii)'01t)'iibluiNls 1Kr~rtaea jfva~lwahmatzor atyantika eva. I.1. 2. 89. g6The Bralzma Siitrathe individuality and separateness of the souls (puru$as) Vijfiana-bhik~u maintains that, in spite of their separateness, they are one in essence with Brahman and have sprung out of it. Then their destiny is fulfilled, they will be merged in Brahman. Brahman is the final goal of jiva but jiva is not one with Brahman. The ultimate state of realisation is entry into the ultimate being. It is a state of non-difference with it. At the time of release the individuals are not connected with any content of knowledge and are therefore devoid of any consciousness. Even in the state of dissolution, they enter into the great soul even as rivers enter into the ocean. The released soul is an atizsa, not an arhsin. The goal is st1yujya, attaining Brahmariipa and not aikya or oneness vvith Bralmtan. It is the happiness of living near God, saha-vtisa-blwf!.a-miitra. The rr.leased soul does not possess the powers of creation, etc., which are the prerogatives of j ~~vara. 1 To get to the presence of 1-Jralzman is the highest reward for the devotee. Vijaya-dhvaja, the commentator, writes mad-darsanam eva sarva-sreyasiim phalam iti. VijiUina.-bhik~u holds that the seekers nuty reach bralnnatva but they cannot attain para-brc~hmafml. After the completion of enjoy1nent with Bralunan, 2 the~ S('Cure release frmn rebirth. Those who attain to l~tira~za-Drulunan have no return. Vijiianabhik~u holds that one can get to !?tir)'a- nrahman and not to kiira~ta- Brahman.Bha/di as love is the way to the highest realisation. To know Brahman, the aid of the Slhhkh.ya systctn is essential. 3 Vhcn the seeker realises his nature as pure consciousness and that God is the being frmn which he has derived his existence, hy which he is tnaintained and to which he will ultimately return, his false attachment to the ego disappears. Cp. Bhiigavata TI. 9 20. vara1iz varaya bhadra~h te vare5am mabhiva1ichitam sarva srryalz. pari/.riima!l pu~nstlm mad-darsaniivadhil). 1 tad-bhoga-samapty-anantaram. I Vijfi1ina-bhik$l1 quotes from Vyasa-smrti: suddhiitma-tattva-vijnana1n samkhyam ity abltidhiyate. 1 90. Introduction L.97BALADEVABaladeva Baladeva is said to have lived about the beginning of the eighteenth century. He is the author of 1nany works of which the chief are his cmnmcntary on the B.S. known as Govindablui$ya, Siddluinta-ratna, Gftii-hhz~~a~za, which is a commentary on the B.G., and Pramc_va-ratnii.vali. His views are based on the doctrines of .l.Vladhva and the teachings of Caitanya. The Supreme Bengal Vat'$~lavsm developed by Caitanya (A.D. 1485-1533) is greatly influenced by the teachings of Maclhva. Caitanya's doctrine is not pure dualistn but what is called acintya-bhcdiib/z.eda. It etnphasises not only the transcendent majesty (aisvar_ya) of the Lord, but also his sweetness of Inotivc (miidhur_ya-rfipa). The chanting of the Divine nan1e is exalted. 1 .Jiva Gosvamin, Rupa Gosvamin and Baladeva are among the followers of Caitanya. Madhva's influence is found in Baladeva's insistence on the concept of vise$a and the difference between i.~vara, j'iva and the world. He also wrote a work called l{r$Uacaitan_vli.mrta which sets out the essence of Caitanya's teaching. In his comtnentary on the B.S., Baladcva followed Suka's commentary on the same work. Siddhcinta-ratna speaks of five tattvas or realities which are the satne as those admitted by Hari-vyasa-deva. 2 Pra.meyaratnlival lays down nine pra.meyas or propositions: (r) The Lord is the highest reality; (2) He is known from Scripture alone; (3) The universe is real; (4) The difference between the Lord and the individual souls is real; (5) The individual souls are real and are servants of the Lord; (6) The individual souls are different from one another and there are five grades of souls; (7) Release consists in the attainment of the Lord; (8) Vorship of the Lord is the cause of release; (g) There arc three sources of knowledge, perception, inference and Scripture, the last being the most authoritative and reliable. 1ICp ..lfdi-pura~ta465. na niima-sadrsath jfzanam na nama-sadrsa1il vratam 'ta nama-sadrsatil tf,hyiinam na nama-sadrsaJil phalam. tathil hi Hvara..jfva-prakrti-kala-karmii~ti pailt"a-tattva1ti sruyante.D 91. g8The Bra/una St7traBrahman is Ir$~la, Vt"$~ltt or Hari. He is the Personal God possessed of infinite auspicious qualities. He is nir-gu~za in the sense that he is free frmn the three gu~zas of prakrt, sa-gu~la in that he has innmnerable auspicious qualities. He is pure consciousness and bliss. He is mighty and n1ajcstic and yet sweet and loely. He has great solicitude for his devotees. He gives his own self to thc1n. 1 His powers and attributes are inconceivable, acintya, and n1ysterious. The Lord is all-pervading, yet aton1ic. He is of the size of a span, dwelling actually in the heart of his devotees. He is just and impartial and yet shows special grace to his devotees. He is the creator of all and yet is hin1srlf unmodified, without any parts and yet possessed of parts, itntnea~urahlc and yet measured. 2 The attributes of the Lord arc not different fron1 the Lord; they are nothing except the Lord himself. Even as the coil constitutes the serpent and is not separated from it but is yet the attribute of the serpent, so is it with the attribute's of the Lorcl. 3 Or as the sun is essentially light, yet the substratun1 of light, so the Lord though essentially of the nature of knowledge, is yet the substratum of the knowledge as well. 4 The Lord is both knowledge and knower, substance and attribute. 5 The Lord has no internal differences. 6 He is not a concrete whole of different attributes, as a tree is a concrete whole of fruits, flOvcrs, roots and leaves. He is one essence throughout and every one of his attributes is identical with him and not a part, separate from him and as such every one of the1n is full, perfect and unchangeable.7 The Lord has three powers, parli-sakti, apar{t-.~al;:ti and avidyii-saldi. The first is Vi$~tu-sakti or svariipa-sakti, the second f{$elrafita and the third karma, nu'iyii or tamas. 8 The parti-sakt-i is threefold, samvit or jfiiina-sakti or the power of consciousness, sannidhi or bala-sakti or the power that gives existence and hliidini or la,iyii-sakti, vhich is the power that gives bliss. Through the first the Lord who is knowledge knows vidyayii paritu~to haris svabhaldiiya iitmiiJ~aH~ dadiiti. Ill. 4 1. 3 III. 2. 28. Il. I. 27. Ill. 2. 29. & III. 2. 30. 7 III. 3 13. III. 2. 28. 8 vi~tttt-sakti!l para proktii k~etraj,lakhya tathapara avidya-karma-samjfianyii tytfya saktir i~yate. Prameya-ratnavali I. 1I 92. Introduction99himself and imparts knowledge to the souls. Through the second, the Lord existent by nature gives existence to space, time, matter, souls and karma. Through the third, the Lord who is blissful by nature enjoys himself, and gives bliss to others. The aparii-sakti and avidyii-sakti consist respectively of souls and matter. The Lord is both the efficient and the material cause of the universe. He is the efficient cause through his part.i-sakh and is the material cause through his aparii and avdyii saktis. 1 Vhen the latter powers are manifested in gross forms, the universe of souls and matter arises. As the operative cause the Lord is unchangeable; as the n1aterial cause he is subject to tnodification or pari~1iima. The changes are effected in his powers but he remains unchanged. God's actions are not in any way detern1ined by motives but they flow spontaneously from his own essential nature through his enjoyment of his O-vn nature as bliss. The world is an effect, the development of pralqti which is also called mliyii or avid_yli. It is originally the equilibrium of the three gu~zas but it is set in motion by a glance of the Lord. The world is real, for God who is reality cannot produce anything which is unreal. During praluya or dissolution souls and matter remain merged in the Lord. Time is said to be an eternal, non-intelligent substance, a power of the Lord without beginning and enrl. 1arma is also an important factor. God is not capricious. He creates the world strictly in accordance with the past deeds of ihc souls. The three substances, matter, tin1e and ka.rma are coeternal with ihe Lord and subordinate to him. The Lord in the act of creation takes account of them. The Lord is possessed of a celestial nonmaterial form or body, 2 which has the attributes of being, consciousness, bliss and all-pervasiveness. Though the Lord is ordinarily imperceptible to the senses, in absorbed devotion he is perceptible to the senses of the devotee. The devotee sees him with his purified mind even as he sees external objects. 3 The form or body of the Lord is not different from the Lord but is identical with him. It is only as an aid to meditation that the tasya nimittat71am ~lpadanatvat1cabhidllfyate. tatradyam pa,J.khyii saktimad,apet)a, dvitfyam t11. tad-anya-sakti-dvayadvaraiva. I. 4 26. 1I11.I.31. III.2.24-7 93. IOOThe Brahma S utradevotees conceive of his body as distinct fron1 him. When the Lord is said to be forn1less, it 1neans that he does not possess the form but is the form itself. 1 The Lord has a multitude of forms through which he n1anifests himself. These arc his avatiiras or incarnations. Though the Lord is not limited by these fonns, he is fully manifest in each one of them. Some of the incarnations are partial and some fulL In Kr$Fa we have a fuii incarnation. Besides this essential form of Kr$~ta, the Lord has also other energy forms, viliisa-riipa such as Naraya1)a, Vasudcva, Sarhkar~al)a and Aniruddha. 2 Besides the full and partial incarnations, there are certain exalted souls like N~irada and Sanat-Kumara who are called tivesiivatiiras. They are not to be worshipped since they do not possess all the attributes of the Lord.3 The Supreme appears in many places and this is possible on account of his marvellous powers. 4 The I ndivdual Soul The indiYidual soul is by nature eternal, i.e. without beginning and without end and self-luminous. It is both knowledge and knower, an cnjoyer and an actin: agent. These qualities belong to the soul in bondage and release. It is not, however, an independent agent like the Lord. In every act, the soul, the body, the different scnsr-organs, various kinds of energies and the Lord are inolved. 5 The soul is not, howe,cr, an automaton. Free will on the part of the agent is assured. Even as the acts of the soul in the present life are determined by those in former lives, it can shape its future. God determines the souls in accordance with their nature. Though God is capable of changing the nature of the individuals he does not do so. 6 He leaves it to the free wi11 of the individual. The soul is a part, an effect and a power of the Lord and is both different and nondifferent from him. It is not a part as a chip cut off from the 2 8 Ill. 2. 14. Ill. 3 15. Ill. 3 21, 23. 4 ekam eva svarupam acintya-.~aktya yugapat sarvatravabhaty eko'pi san; sthanani bhagavad-avirbhiivaspadiini tad-vividha-l'ilasraya-bhutani vividhabhavavanto bhaktas ea. Ill. 2. I 1. 6 Cp. B.G. XVIII. 14. na ea karma-sapek~atvena fSvarasya asvatantram . . . anadi-jtvasvabhavanusare~a hi karma karayati svabhiivam anyatha-kartum samartho'pi llasyapi na karoti. II. 1. 351 94. I ntrod,u.ctionIOIrock is a part of the rock. It is a part in the sense of being subordinate to the Lord, separate from him and yet related to him as the created and the ruled. In one sense the individual soul and the world arc different from Bralunan; in anotlwr sense they arc non-different as effects of Brahman. The relationship of difference-non-difference is incomprehensible by intellect and is known only through the Scriptun:s. The union of Rl~dhii and Ir!J1:Za symbolises the intimate communion between 1nan and God. The soul is atomic in size and we have a plurality of souls. There arc differences among souls owing to their past deeds an. Thf~Y are produced through the will of God and disappear through his will in the waking stage. 2 Vhat is the relation between the Lord. and the sentient souls and. the non-sentient matter? The latter are the effects of the Lord and so an~ non-diff~_!rent from hin1. They are also different because they are ruled anJ supported by the Lord. The rdation of unity of the Lord to the plurality of the world is be~rund our grasp. Baladeva recognises difference between the Lord and the soul for it is the basis of all devotion bnt does not make the difference absolute like :!fadh'a for the eHect cannot be absolutely different fron1 the cause. The world and the souls belong to God. 3 Bondage results frmn turning one's face away from the Lord resulting in the obscuration of OIH"'s real nature. Release consists in turning one's face tovards the Lord.Release The freed soul is different from the Lord in that it is atmnic while the Lord is all-pervading and it lacks the power of creation which belongs only to the Lord. The freed soul has a distinctive individuality and is under the control of the Lord. The freed souls are collaborators of the Lord and can assume many forms. The freed soul is in union with the Lord, resides in the same world as the Lord, attains his nature and attributes tII. 3 42IIll.2.I-5a sa,valra tadlyalza-jliiinarthall. 95. 102The Brahma Sittraand is in proximity to hitn. 1 It, however, retains its separate individuality. Baladeva does not admit jivan-mukti. Rhakt Bhakti is the sole and direct cause of salvation. Bhakti is prcmrl or intense love and not up(isana or tneditation. According to Baladea, dhylina or n1editation is one forn1 of bhakti. Vhen God is worshipped in a litnited fonn, he reveals himself in that same fonn to the devotee, though he rcn1ains as the allpervasive being. Bhal-ti invohcs negatively a strong dislike for all objects other than the Lord and positively an intense love of God, vait('igya and prenui. The former is produced by the knowledge of the imperfection and transitoriness of all worldly objects and the knowledge that attachment to thern produces endless rebirths while the latter is engendered by the knowledge of the Lord and his attributes of omniscience, omnipotence, loveliness, etc. Devotion is based on knowledge of the self and the world and of the Lord. Bhakti is jFziina-vise$a. BaladcvEVOTION 1Need for Heligous DevoNon It is often said that man is incurably religious. l-Ie nntst ha,e some object or person or cause on which to fix his devotion. The instinct, if we may ca11 it hy that narnc, may become pcrvcrt~d and abused hut the need is there. It must he turned to an ideal which is genuine, grounded in truth, an idf'al that touches the deepest springs of tnan's inner life. Vhat a man hdieves has a determining influence on his character. There arc some thinkers hoth in the East and the West who feel that man's capacity for integration, for the growth of tl1e individual into a person would be unintelligible unless we have a Divine Personality. McTaggart's notion of a community of p(~rsonalities living in a kind of spiritual void is not tenable, for the direct apprehension of value which transforms the individual into a person implies an ideal personality who embodies the value apprehended. It is possible for atheists and agnostics to lead virtuous lives. They rnay be unaware or unmindful of the divine source of all. Existentialists of the school of Sartre struggle to seck some rneaning for human life in a godless universe. If 'C grant that the world has n1eaning, it mfans that it has a purpose. The reality of God does not, hmn'Ycr, depend on our views. Our irreligion does not entail the suspension of divine acting. 2 Bhakti Bhaldi is conscious recognition of and wholehearted response to the source of al1 goodness, the Divine. It is said 'in this world, not vows, not pilgrimages, not yoga practir.rs, not study of Scriptures, not sacrificial rites, not philosophical discourses; only devotion can give us freedom'. 3 Sec B.G., pp. 58-66. Cp. St. Augustine: 'Thou hast always been with nw but I have nnt S learning that includes enquiry into all the systems of thought? In all the three worlds vho is there n1ore blessed than the person whose heart is always steeped in deYotion to the Supreme Lord?'" The Bhiigavata Purti~za says: 'The devotPes arc my heart and I am the heart of the devotees. They know no one else than me; I know no one else than thcm.' 5 bhojaniirchiidtmc rinhi1i1 t' rdlzii km'Vallli r'ai:~~zavii~ yo'sau vi.~vanz-bharo d!?lmb sa ki1i1 dasiinuf>t>k :~alc. Cp. sarvadii sarua-k{ilc: ;u niisti tr :~am amai1galam < )'f $iilil h rdisth 0 bJtagatJii H n1a1iga fc"i.ya.tanam hari fl. diisyam aih;at'ya-viidnza jnatfuiim tu haromy altam. M.B. sa kfrtyanui'lab 5fghram eviivirbhavati anublui.vayati ea bhaktatz 8o. ' kim jaJZmauii sakala-vartla}anottamena? k1m vidy1J)'ti sakala-Histm-viciirava.tyii? yasyiisti cetasi sadii. pammda-bhakti!z t28ko'nyas tatas tri-bhuvamP~tru~o ' stidhanyab. Bt'ahma-smnhitii .6sli.dhavo hrdayam mahyam sadhunii1it hrdaya.,n tvaham mad-anyat tc tJa ji'hwnti niiha.1i1 tebhyo maniigapi.IX. 4 8. 161. 170Liberty irit4Love. 163. 172The Bralzma Stitrahave appeared in so many parts of the heathen world .... These were the apostles of a Christ within.' 1 'As many as are led by the Spirit of God, these are the sons of God.' Man in his deepest being is one with God. The goal of life is to enter into the realisation of this hidden unity. Boehme asks 'were we not in the beginning made out of God's substance? Vhy should we not also abide therein?' 2 Villiam Penn said: 'It is better to be of no Church than to be bitter for any.' 3 Kabir says that he is 'a child of Allah and Riinz'. He did not find it necessary to identify himself with any religious faith but was df'voted to spiritual realisation. Religious intolerance does not make for world unity. Religions which aim at the conversion of the whole world to their own doctrines aim at the religion of pow(r which amounts to sacred egoism, to spiritual pride. Reason should teach us to doubt our own infallibility. Unless we do it there is no chance for toleration in the world. If VC arc conYinced of the absolute truth of our revelation and the falsity of others, how can we tolerate those who spread error and lead others astray? It is essential for us to note that while we are convinced of the infallibility of the truth we adopt, others may be equally convinced of the infallibility of their own doctrin('S. From ancient times, Hinduism adopted a view which would not hurt the religious susceptibilities of others. It enabled the Hindus to welcome the Jews, the Christians, the Parsecs and the Muslims.4 11 Of the Supet--sensual Life. The Spirit of Prayer. Even Karl Barth admits that 'our concepts are not adequate to grasp the treasure of our experience'. Kari Jaspers says: 'Theology turns the alternative "God or Nothing" into a very different one : "Christ or Nothing" with Christ promptly made synonymous with the doctrine of some Church, and obedience to God equally obedience to that Church and its dogmas.' Existentialism aud Hmnanism, E.T. (1952), p. 94 A. N. Whitehead observes : 'It would be impossible to imagine anything more unchristian than Chri~tian theology. Christ probably would not have understood it,' quoted by H . E. Fosdick in his The Liv-ing of These Days (1956), p. 268. M. Loisy thinks that St Paul was chiefly responsible for imposing an alien mythology on the life and teaching of Jesus. There is a gap between Jesus of the Gospels and the redeemer of St Paul. 4 'The result of the honourable place given by the rajas to the Christians, and of their assimilation in social custom to their Hindu neighbours, was that they were accepted as a caste, and often thought of their community in this way. They ranked after the Brahma~las and as equals of the Naya,.s. Many Christians would claim that there was Brahmar;a convert blood in the community and that for this reason they were superior to N iiyars. 'It was in consequence of this position that the St Thomas Christians, so far 164. I ntroducton173 The Hindu believes that, varied as all these religions are, behind them all is the san1e fire. The experience of the fire, though it speaks with many tongues, carries the satne message. They all speak of the one realm of spiritual being. Of course, there are characteristic differences among the great religions. They do not all teach the satne doctrines of God or of man or of the world or provide the same kind of ritual, myth or norm of behaviour. But these differences are not enough to justify discord and strife. There n1ay be mutual education among religions if they peacefully coexist and there is no doubt that all the religions have helped to produce saints of an exalted character. Ve should be lacking in charity, even piety, if we denied the high character of sanctity in other religions than our own. 1 Many of the living faiths arc passing through selfcriticisnl, are getting infected with secularism and humanism and the loss of the vision of God. Many of the leaders regard themselves as the priests of a nev religion. Ve need not a new religion but a creative vitality in the practice of the old, the recognition that the Kingdmn of Heaven lies within man, in his ckpths, in his integrity, in his inmost truth. God is the potentiality of every Inan. Image lVorship There is such a thing as prati!wpl'isa1lli or syn1bol worship. This is an aid to worship. 2 The sytnbolic is not the imaginary. as our evidrahma S fitraSlowly we get beyond the sytnbol to the object symbolised. Until we reach the Highest, we gain rewards great or smal1, according to our airns and objects. 1 S. observes that on account of our imperfections we connect the Omnipresent Lord with lirnited abodes. 2 'hnage worship is the first, doing japa and chanting mantras is the middlP; n1editation or mPn1al worship is superior; reflection on one's own true nature is the highest of all. ' 3 Image worship is a tncans to realisation. Vhen "VC gain our ends, the means fall away. Lamps are useful so long as we live in darkness, but when the sun arises they cease to be of any help. Kahir sings: 'There is nothing hut water at the holy bathing places; and I know that they are useless, for I have bathed in thc1n. Tlw in1ages arc alllifdess, tht.y cannot speak; I know for I have cried aloud to tht'm. Tlte Pu.rli~la anLl tlw ()urtin. are tnerc ords; lifting up the curtain, I have sePn. ' 4The .l vahirtZs The theory of avai luda;i; !Ji, :1c'ali . ~; , T ;tlsc !; _ 1'. C. S.n. l. I . q. 3 pralhnmii pra.tin/(i-fzijii jaj>ab stc )tl'lil,zi 11uulhyamiiI I.ut!Ltmli mti.na,f j ) ttjti su 'Jw111 Jti}ti ut!alltntfu?: /(i. Evc:n in . ld1aila ledii11la it is acnpted as a preparation f.,r pure contemplation. u lfam o brc.llu llu .'ad{Jft( i:u dh_' tilla-Mui ~a ::; fa 111adhyan;rtb ;:,/ulir jupu (u/haJJ ,y the Indwelling Spirit of the Divine. Hlima says: 'I look upon rnyself as a man, Rlima, the son of Dasaratha. May the Lord il5rah1Jul] tdl me who I am, where I belong and whence I come.' 3 1'r.~~za hy the n1watvv. Perpetuity which is a form of time is differe treated as suggesting rlifferent objects of Ineditation. It says 'Know me only' and then '1 am life, the intelligf:'nt self, meclitatP. on me as life, as immortality' and concludes 'And that life. indeed, is that intf'lligcnt self, blessed, imperishable, immortal'. As the beginning and the conclusion are seen to be similar, the whole passage must be taken as referring to one and the same type of meditation. Again, we have passages where life is treated as equivalent to Brahman. Besides, the characteristic marks of Brahman are assigned to life. The V rttikiira gives a different interpretation, that the section aims at enjoining three kinds of meditation on Brahman as life, as intelJigent scJf and in itself. So Brahman is the topic of this section, whether in its own nature or in the form of its two adjuncts of the individual soul and life. Bhaskara omits 'iisritatviid iha tad-yngc'it'. R. argues that the threefold view of Brahman is quite appropriate: (i) meditation on Brahman in his own nature as the cause of the world, (ii) meditation on Brahman with the totality of the enjoying souls as his body, (iii) meditation on Brahman with the objects and means of enjoyment for his body. 2 Srika1,1tha follows R. in holding that the three kinds of meditation on the Lord are (I) svarupet;a, in his own nature, (2) bhoktr-sariret;a, 1yatha viimadevaJ:r, parasya brahmartaJ:r. sarvantaratmatvanz sarvasya tacchartratva1il sarfraviicinariz .~abdiinam sarfri~i paryavasanam pasyann aham iti svatma-sarirakam param brahma nirdisya tat samanadhikarartyena manu~ suryadiny vyapadisati. R. 1 nikhila-kararta-bhutasya brahmartaJ:r, svarupe~anusandhiinam, bhoktr-varga~ sarlrakatvanusandhanam, bhogya~bhogopakararta-sarfrakatvanusandhanam. 257. Text, Translation and Notes as having the totality of enjoying souls for his body, (3) bhngya-rupc1Ja, as having the objects and means of enjoyment for his body. In this first part of the first chapter of the B.S. we get an indication of the governing principle that gives life to the great structure of Hinduism. H.egardccl from the outside, it n1ay have the appearance of a confuseci mass of conflicting ideas, a congeries of contradictory elements, a complex of varied forces. There is, however, an identity, not mechanical but organic. To understand it we must live in the Hindu life-stream. Then we can know its full meaning and complete reality and feel the forces which pulsate through the whole body. .'e should not get imprisoned in our ideas as intellectuals do or in our flesh as sensualists do. Enlightenment comes only with selfsurrender and we do not surrender ourselves so long as we cling to our ideas. V hen reason leads us to experience, we know the meaning of life. This expericnce is variedly interpreted but the interpretations are no subs tit utc for the experience. 258. Section 1 (1-8)MIND AS BRAHMAN Certain other passages which arc not clear about their reference to Brahman are taken into consideration in this part. The eight sutras of this first section show that the being which consists of mind, whose body is breath, etc., mentioned in C.U. Ill. 14, is not the individual soul but the Highest Brahman.I. 2. 1. sarvatra prasiddhopade5iit (That wmich C01tsists of mi1td is Brahman) because of the teacln'ng of what is well known everywhere. sarvatra: everywhere; prasiddha: well known; upadesat: because of the teaching. The passage considered is C.U. Ill. 14. The doubt arises whether what is pointed out as the object of meditation by means of attributes such as 'consisting of mind', etc., is the individual soul or the Highest Brahman. For it is the individual soul that is connected with mind, etc., and not Brahman 'who is unborn, without breath and without mind, pure' .1 Since we are asked to meditate with a calm mind, the object of meditation need not be Brahman. The other descriptions, 'He to whom all works, all desires belong', 'He is my self within the heart, smaller than a grain of rice, smaller than a grain of barley', apply to the individual soul. The object of meditation indicated by the qualities of 'consisting of mind', etc., is the inciividual soul. The objection is answered by the sutra which says that all the V cdiinta passages speak of the cause of the world. H.. says that the text which declares Brahman to be without mind and breath is meant to deny that the thought of Brahman does not depend on a mind and that its life does not depend on breath. 2 I. 2. 2. vivall#ta-gu~wpapatte5 ea And because quali#es desired to be expressed are approptiate (in Brahman). vivak~ita: desired or intended to be stated; 3 gtttta: qualities; ~tpapatte}J: because appropriate; ea: and. The qualities useful in meditation belong to Brahman alone. He is satya-samlcalpa, having true purpose. This applies to the Highest Self which has unimpeded power to create, maintain and dissolve the 1 1 1M.U. 11. I. 2; P.U., p. 68o. mana-iiyattam jnanam prii1Jiiyattam sthitarh ea brahma1)o ni5edhati. vaktum i$la1il vivak$itam. 259. Text, Translation and Notes271world. 1 Similarly in C.U. (VIII. 7. 1) the Self is said to be 'free from sin'. It is omnipresent like iikiisa, space. See also S.U. IV. 3; B.G.XIII. 13. I. 2.:~.anupapattes tu na siiriraJ;.But, as (the qualities desred to be expressed) do not belo11g (to the individual soul, the self denoted by mano-maya, etc.), is not the embodied one. an-upapattcJ;.: not belonging to; tu: but; na: not; siiriraJ;.: embodied one. The qualities of 'consisting of mind' and so on are applicable only to l>ralmum and not the individual soul. It is true that God resides in the body but he is outside as well and is all-pervading. See C. U. III. 14. :1. The individual soul resides in the body alone since he experiences the effects of his action in the form of pleasure and pain through the body. The attributes of 'having true resolves', etc., arc appropriate only to the Highest Lord and not the individual soul. Srikar~tha begins a new section (3-8) here, which considers whether the passage in the Mahii-NiiriiyatJa U. (XI. 3) refers to J./iirc~vat;a or Sva. Srika:tJtha concludes that it refers to Siva and not to N iircivana. ' .I. 2. 4. karma-kartr-vyapadesiic eaAnd because activity and agent are (separateZy) mentioned. karma: activity; kartr: agent; vyapaddiit: being mentioned; ea: and. The passage considered here is C.U. Ill. 14. 4. 'Into him, I shall enter, on departing hence.' Here the object of meditation is declared to be different from the meditator who is the individual souL One and the same thing cannot be both subject and object. The embodied soul cannot possess the qualities mentioned in the Upani$ad. Brahman which possesses these qualities cannot be the embodied self. R. puts it clearly. 'The soul which obtains is the person meditating and the Highest Brahman that is to be obtained is the object of meditation. Brahman, therefore, is something different from the attaining soul. '2 Srika:tJtha suggests that the Supreme Self is Siva and not N iiriiyat;a as he is the object to be worshipped and N iiriiyatJa is the worshipper.I. 2. 5. sabda-vise$iit On account of the difference of words. sabda: word; vise$at: on account of difference. satya-samkalpatvam hi sr$/i-sthiti-sa,hrti~v apratibaddha-saktitvat paramatmano'vakalpate. 1 prapta jfva upasakal), pt-apyanJ para?il brahmopasyam iti praptir anyad evedam iti vijflayate. 1s. 260. 272The Brahma SiitraThe passage considered is in the Satapatha Brcihma1Ja. (Like a grain of rice or a grain of barley or a millet seed or the kernel of a millet seed thus that golden person is in the sc1f.' 1 Here Brahman indicated by the word person in the nominative is distinct from the individual soul indicated by the locative. The two are different as they arc denoted by different words. SrikaiJtha argues on scriptural authority that the Snpremc Being $i'l'a is other and higher than Niiriiya1Ja, niiriiya1Jiil param brahma. Nimharka refers to C.U. III. J..J. 3 and 4.I. 2. 6. smrtes ea And on account of smrti. smrte(t: on account of smrti; ea: and. The passage considered is B.G. XVIII. G. 1. S. points out that the difference is not to be taken as real and that it is due to limiting adjuncts. Space or iiluiSa, though in reality unlimited, appears limited owing to certain adjuncts such as jars and other vessels. Vhen we grasp the truth that there is only one Universal Self, there is an end to the whole practical view of the world with its distinctions of bondage, release and the like. 2 R. finds it easy to explain these sutras. He says that the Highest Self is free from al1 evil and is not subject to the effects of works as the individua] soul is. The difference is maintained bPtwecn the individual soul who is the meditating subject and the Highest Self which is the object of meditation. 3 For ~rikaiJtha Niiriiyat;a is the worshipper, different from 5>h:a.I. 2. 7. arbhakaukastviit tad-vyapadesiie ea neti ccn 11a, nicliyyatvr"id evam 1yMnavac ea If it be said that (Brahman is) not (referred) because nf the smallness nf the abode and is so designated (we reply that t't is) not so because (Brahman) is to be meditated thus. and (this is to be understood) like space. arbhakaukastviit: because of the abode being small: tat: that; vyapaddiit: being (so) designated; ea: and; na: not; #i: so; cet: if; na: not; niciiyyatviit: being meditated; evam: thus; uyomavat: like, akiisa. For the purposes of meditation, the omnipresent Brahman may be said to occupy a limited space. Although present everywhere, S. says, the Lord is pleased when meditated upon as limited in, for example, l yatha vrihir va yavo va syiimako vii syiimiika-ta'tldulo vaivam ayam antat'iitman purtt$0 hiratlmaya!J. X. 6. 3 2. 1 yatha gha!a-karakady-upadhivasiit aparicchinnam api nabhab paricckinnavad avabhasate, tad-vat grht.tetv atmaikatve bandha-mok$iidi-sarva-vyavahat'a-parisamaptir eva syiit. a siirirakam upiisakam param-iitmanatiz copasya1il smrtir dat'sayati. 261. Text, TranslaUon and Notes2 73connection with the eye of a needle. The Lord of the entire universe nmy be said to be the Lord of Ayodhyii, so the Supreme Self abiding everywhere may very well be denoted as abiding within the hea.rt.l We worship the Supreme through an image, yathii salaKrii11te hari/:t. ~. For S. the limitations are not real. So we cannot say that if Brahman has its abode in the heart and these heart-abodes are different in different bodies, it is aficcted by the imperfections of the different bodies. For H., the Supreme Lord is designated to occupy a small abode only for purposes of meditation. 2 Balacleva remarks that the Lord may dwell in the heart of man because he is possessed of inconceivable powers. I. 2. 8. satizbhoga-priiptr iti cen na, vaise$yiit If it be said that (because the 'individual soul and the Universal Self are one) there may arise experience (of pleasure and pain for the Universal Self also) it is not so si11ce there is difference in nature (of the two). sambhoga: experience; prapti/:t: attainment; iti: so; cet: if; na: not; vaisqyiit: on account of difference. The embodied self acts and enjoys, acquires merit and demerit and is affected by pleasure and pain and so on; the Universal Self is of a different nature: it is free from all evil, etc. On account of the difference between the two the experiences of the individual soul do not affect the Supreme Self. Sec M.U. Ill. 1. I. The individual soul undergoes pleasure and pain because it is subject to karma, whereas the Lord is not subject to it. It is not living in the body but subjection to karma that involves a soul in the experiences of pleasure and pain. Bhaskara holds that simply because the Lord abides in the heart, it does not foJlow that he shares its experiences. Coexistence and consequent interrelationship do not imply the sharing of the same attributes. The ether, for example, though in connection with a burning place, does not burn itself. R. means by vaise$yat, on account of the difference of the cause of en j oymcn t, hetu.-vaise$yfit. Nimbarka means by vaise$yiit, on account of the difference of nature between the individual soul and Brahman. 1 1sarvagato'plsvaras tatropiisyamat;a/;1 p,-asfdati. ata upasanartham eviilpatva-vyapadda/;1. 262. The Brahma Siitra274Sec#on 2 (9-10) THESUPI~ElIESELF AS THE EATER OF THE WORLD1. 2. 9. attii carlicara-grahat,tiit The eater (is the llighest Self) on account of the taking in of (whatever is) movable and t'mmovable. attii: eater; cariicara: movable and immovable; grahattiit: on account of taking in. The passage considered is Katha U. I. 2. 25, where the Briihmat,tas and the Ksatrivas are treated as food and death itself as a sauce. 1 The doubt arises whether the eater is fire (agni) or the individual soul or the Highest Self. B.U. I. 4. 6 suggests fire and M.U. (Ill. 1. I) says that the Supreme Self looks on without eating. Against these objections, the sutra affirms that the Supreme Self is the eater for he consumes or absorbs in himself the movable and the immovable worlds. 2 The Briihmat,tas and the K$atriyas are mentioned as representatives of the whole world. Vhen the Upani$ad says that the Self does not eat but looks on, it means that the Self is not subject to actions. Graha1;1-a may mean understanding or taking in or eating. Brahman is the eater because the movable and the immovable worlds are understood here as the food or because the two worlds arc taken in. I. 2. 10. prakara1Jiic ea And on account of the topic under discussion. prakara1;1-iit: on account of the context; ea: and. The general topic discussed in the Katha U. I. 2. 18, 22-23 is the Highest Self and so we should take it as the topic in that context.Section 3 (11-12) THE SUPREME AND THE INDIVIDUAL SELVES IN THE CAVEI. 2. 11. guhiim pravi!}tiiviitmiinau hi tad-darsaniit The two who have entered into the cave are the selves (the indiv-idual soul and the Supreme Self) because that is seen. guhiim: into the cave; pravi$tau: who have entered; iitmiittau: the (two) selves; hi: because; tat: that; darsaniit: is seen. The passage considered is Katha U. I. 3. 1. Are the two selvess. P.U., p. 621. 2 sarva-vediinte ~u sr $/i-sthiti-samlzara-kiirat)atvena brahmataala prasiddhatviil. 263. Text, Translation and Notes275~nt~ll~gence (buddhi) and ~he individual soul {jiva) or are they themd1v1dual soul and the H1ghest Self? Both alternatives seem to he possible. The opponent says that the reference is to the individual soul and intelligence: (i) For the cave is a small and special place and the Infinite Self cannot enter it. (ii) The statement that they enter the world of good deeds obviously refers to the individual soul and intelligence for they arc subject to the law of karma and not the Highest Self (B.U. IV. 4. 23). (iii) Again, the analogy of shade and light applies to the individual soul and intelligence, for the former is intelligent and the latter buddhi is treated as non-intel1igent, jarja. The answer is given to these points: (i) As the two beings arc said to be of the same nature, iitmiinau, the reference should be to the individual self and the Supreme Self and not to the inrliYidual soul and buddhi. (ii) If a special local position is assigned to the Omnipresent SPlf, it is for the purpose of meditation. See J{atha U. I. 2. 12; T.U. II. 1. (iii) The attribute of existing in the sphere of gootl works, no doubt, belongs to the individual soul only and not to Brahm.an, thougl1 it may apply to Brahman in a figurative vay, even as a group of men is described as having an umbrella though only one of them has it. (iv) The individual soul and the Supreme Self are correctly described as being disparate in nature. They are not the same. I. 2. 12. 1ise~attiic ea And on accn11nt of the dist1lctve qualities (tnen!z"oncd). vise$a~zit: on account of distinctive qualities; ea: and. J{af/za V. (I. 3. 3 and 9) speaks of the body as the chariot and the individual soul as the charioteer making his journey from the world of becoming, smhsiira, to final release. Another passage (I. 3. 9)1 speaks of the Highest Self as the abode of Vi$1J1t. Th(' individual soul is said to be the meditator and the Supreme Self the object of meditation. The two who have entered the cave have distinctive qualities. The passage from the M.U. (Ill. 1. 1 and 2) which refers to two birds, one eating the fruit, the other abstaining from eating but looking on, refers to the individual soul and the Suprc1nc Self. S. quotes Pai1igi-rahasya Briihma?Ja which discredits the two interpretations of (i) the individual soul and buddhi, and (ii) the individual soul and the Supreme Self and holds that the being which eats the fruit is the internal organ by means of which a man dreams and the being which merely looks on without eating is the individual soul, who is really not the enjoyer but the Supreme Brahman. The dualism exists only within the sphere of experience. R. refers to Katha U. 1. 20 and says that the question raised by Naciketas relates to the problem of release. When a man qualified for release dies and is released from bondage, a doubt arises as to his existence or non-existence. Philosophers are not agreed about the 1See P.U., pp. 624-5. 264. The Brahma Sutra nature of release. Some hold that the Self is constituted by consciousness only and release consists in the total destruction of this essential nature of the Self. Others deflne release as the passing away of ignorance, a7.'idyii. It is sometimes said that the Self is itself nonconscious like a stone but possesses in the state of bondage certain distinctive qualities as knowledge and so on. Release consists in a total removal of these qualities, the Self remaining in a state of pure isolation. 1 R. declares that release consists in the intuition of the Highest Self which is the natural state of the individual souls and wh1ch follows on the destruction of ignorance, m:id_yii, i.e. the influence of the beginningless chain of works. 2Section 4 (13-17)THE PERSON WITHIN THE EYE IS BRAH .U AN I. 2. 13. antara upapatte~ The Person within (the eye is Brahman) on account of aj)propriateness. antara);,: the Person within; upapatteh: on account of appropriateness. The passage considered is C.lJ. IV. 15. 1. The point is raised that it may refer to the image of some person standing before the eye, or the individual soul who sees the forms of objects through the eye, or the sun, the deity of the sense of sight which causes the eye to sec (B.U. V. 5. 2). It cannot refer to Cod. The sutra says that the Person in the eye is the Highest God for immortality and fearlessness are mentioned as his characteristics. The eye is described as his abode. The other features mc'ntioned in C. U. IV. 15. 2 apply only to God. I. 2. 14. sthiiniidi-vyapaddiic ea And on account of the statement of place and other things. sthiincidi: place and other things; vyiipadesiit: on account of the statement; ea: and. The objection is raised that the omnipre:sent Brahman cannot be confined to the eye. The answer is that it is not the only locality that is assigned to the Lord. Earth and so on are mentioned as his residence (B.U. Ill. 7. 3). Not only place but name and form are attributed to Brahman (C.U. I. 6. 7. 6). Brahman, though devoid of qualities, is spoken of as possessing qualities for purposes of kecid vitti-matrasy iitmana!z sva,-upocchitti-lak~artam mok$am acak$ate. anye vitti-matrasyaiva satu'vidyastamayam. apare pa$ii1;lakalpasyatmano jnanadyase$a-vai5e$ika-gurtoccheda-lak$artam kaivalya-rupam. 2 jfvasyanadi karma- rupavidya- tirohita- svarupasyavidyoccheda purvakasviibhavika-paramatmanubhavam cva mok$am acak$ate. 1 265. Text, Translation and Notes277meditation. To assign a definite locality is not contrary to reason, since it serves the purpose of meditation. }{.mentions that the Highest is directly intuited by those who practisr )'Of!.a or concentration of mincl.I I. 2. 15. sukha-visi~tiibliidlziinad eva ea On account also of the moztion only (if what is characterised by pleasure. sukha: pleasure; uisi~!a: characterised by; abhidhiincit: on account of mention; e1'a: only: ea: and. Hralmzan whicl~ is spoken of as being characterised by pleasure ai.. the beginning of the section (C. U. IV. 10. 4) is also referred to in the present passage. 2 H. here has another sutra which is not found in ~., Bhn.skara and Baladeva. Nirhbarka and SrikarJtha have it. ata eva ea sa brahma: Also for that very reason, that is Brahman. ata!t: for that reason; l'Va: alone; ea: and or also; sa: that; brahma: Rrahman. iiJ..:iisa which is denoted by kha is also Brahman. C.U. IV. 10. 5. I. 2. l G. srutopa n~o.;afkagatyaoltidii m7c ea A !so un account l~( the tnottion of the path if him u:/w has hcurd the Upani$ads. sruta 1tpanifjatka gati: the path of one who has heard the Upani~ads; abhidhiiniit: on account of the mention; ea: also. The passage considered is Prasn.a U. I. 10 which describes the path of the gods, dc1a-yiina. See also C.U. IV. 15. 5; B.G. VIII. 24. From all tlwse it follows that the person in the eye is no other than Brahtnan. srutopanifjatl?a is one by whom the Upani~ad has been directly heard from a teacher. Vediinta-1.austu.bha.I. 2. 17. anavasthiter asambhavac ea nctara!z(The Person in the eye is) no other (than the Highest Self) because of the non-permanence (of others) and o1z account of tlze mpossibiUty. anavastkite!z: because of non-permanence; asambhaviit: because of impossibility; ea: and; na: not; itara!z-: other. To the objection raised that the Person in the eye is either the reflection of someone standing before the eye, or the individual soul or the self of some deity, the answer is given that all these are nonpermanent. Since immortality, fearlessness are ascribed to the Person in the eye, it can only be Brahman. SrikaiJtha takes this as a separate section dealing with the question whether the Person of the size of a thumb (AI iihiinariiya1Ja 1 1sii.k$ii,tkii:ra-vyapadeso'pi yogibhir drsyamanatvad upapadyate. P.U., p. 413. 266. The Brahma Stitra U. X. 6. 3) is the Lord or someone else and concludes that he is the Lord and not any other on account of the non-permanence of others and the impossibility of any other view.Section 5 {18-20) THE INDWELLING SPIHITI. 2. 18. a11taryiimy adhidat'tiidi~u tad-dharma-vyapaddiit The Indwelling Spirit of gods and others (is the Self) for his(characteristic) marks are mentioned. antaryiimi: inner controller, indwelling spirit; adltidaiviidi~u: in gods and others; tat: his; dlzarma: defining or characteristic marks; vyapadesiit: on account of mentioning. H.. , Nimbarka read this sutra in a slight1y different wa}', antar_yamy adh-daiviidht'-loklidi~u: The indwelling spirit of gods, the worlds and others. The passage in question is B.U. Ill. 7. 1. Vho lives inside and controls all? Is he the self of some deity, or a _yngin who has acquired extraordinary powers or the Highest Self or some other being? The answer is given that it is the Highest Self for his qualities are mentioned. The universal rulership implied in the statement that, dwelling within, it rules the entire aggregate of created beings, inclusive of the gods is an appropriate attribute of the Highest Self, since omnipotence depends on the Omnipotent Ruler being the cause of all things. The qualities of selfhood and immortality belong to the Highest Self. He is decJarecl to be different from the deities of the earth, etc. The objection that the Highest Self cannot be a ruler for he has no organs of action is untenable because organs of action may be ascribed to him since those whom he rules possess organs of action. If it is argued that the admission of an internal ruler in addition to the individual self will force us to assume again another and yet another ruler, ad infinitum, the answer is that there is no ruler other than the Highest Self. So the internal ruler is the Highest Self. Vacaspati suggests that the Highest Self is not different from the individual self. 1 R. quotes ~.U. (Ill. 19) 'he secs without eye, hears without ear'2 and comments: what terms such as 'seeing' and 'hearing' really denote is not knowledge in so far as it is produced by the eye and the ear, but the intuitive presentation of colour and sound. In the 1na canavasthii, hi niyantrantaram tena niyamyate kith tu yo jfvo niyanttl alokasiddha~. sa paramatmaivopadhyavaccheda-kalpita-bheda/1. BhamatJ. I P. u. 729JO. 267. Text, Translation and Notes279c~se of the ind_ivi