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TECHNICAL PRESENTATION TITLE PRESENTER PAGE

Technical Session 1A – Health & Environmental Impacts of Nanotechnologies

Keynote Address: EH&S Research on Nanotechnologies: How Much Is Enough? David Rejeski D-3

Health and Environmental Implications of Engineered Nanoparticles Dr. Kevin D. Ausman D-4

Toxicity Assessment of Engineered Nanomaterials: Potential Human Health Effects Saber Hussain, Ph.D. D-5

Current Understandings on Environmental and Biological Effects of Human-Designed Nanomaterials Dr. Meng-Dawn Cheng D-6

Nanotechnology and the Environment: Applications, Implications and Prevention Barbara Karn, Ph.D. D-7

Nanotechnologies for Army Environmental Challenges Dr. John Cullinane D-8

Technical Session 1B – Metals Bioavailability and Risk Assessment

Keynote Address: Evaluating the Health and Environmental Risks of Metals in Soils Dr. Charles A. Menzie D-11

Relative Bioavailability of Metals from Soils: In Vivo and In Vitro Research Yvette Lowney D-12

Soil Metal Bioavailability in Relation to Metal Speciation Dr. J. A. Ryan D-13

Decreasing Toxic Metal Bioavailability with Various Soil Amendment Strategies Dr. Philip M. Jardine D-14

Soil Metal Bioavailability to Plants Dr. Rufus L. Chaney D-15

Metal Bioavailability to Soil Invertebrates: Challenges for Ecological Risk Assessment Roman P. Lanno, Ph.D. D-16

Technical Session 1C – Managing Threatened, Endangered, and At-Risk Species for DoD Sustainability

Keynote Address: The Marriage of Science and Management: Adaptive Resource Management Daniel M. Ashe D-19

Adaptive Resource Management: An Approach to Informed Decision-Making in the Face of Uncertainty Dr. James D. Nichols D-20

Managing Military Mission Risk through Adaptive Management” Thomas D. Heffernan D-21

Finding Space for Tortoises and Tanks: The Development of a Science-Based Translocation Plan for Desert Tortoises at Fort Irwin National Training Center

Dr. Todd C. Esque D-22

Putting Research on the Ground Dr. Tim Hayden and Bill Woodson D-23


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Technical Session 2A – Environmentally Benign Corrosion Protection Technologies

Keynote Address: Environmentally Benign Corrosion Protection – DoD Maintenance Expectations

Rear Admiral Stephen Heilman, USN (Ret) D-27

Computational Materials Design and Accelerated Qualification of New Alloys as Environmental Solutions Dr. Charles J. Kuehmann D-28

New Electroactive Polymers Coating as Replacements for Chromate Conversion Coatings Dr. John D. Stenger-Smith D-29

Industry Challenges to Commercialization of Environmentally Benign Corrosion Technologies of the Future

David A. Diehl, Ph.D. D-30

Ion-Exchanging Hydrotalcite Compounds: A New Class of Corrosion Inhibiting Pigments for Organic Coatings Dr. Rudolph G. Buchheit D-31

Technical Session 2B – Phytoremediation Technologies

Keynote Address: Phytotechnologies: Theory And Practice Dr. Jerald L. Schnoor D-35

Pathways for Biodegradation of Explosives in the Rhizosphere Dr. Jim Spain D-36

Case Study: Obtaining Regulatory Approval and Implementing Field Trials of Transgenic Plants in Phytoremediation

Dr. David J. Glass D-37

Engineering Transgenic Plants for the Sustained Containment and In Situ Treatment of Energetic Materials

Dr. Neil C. Bruce D-38

Advances in Rhizodegradation of Perchlorate during Phytoremediation Dr. Valentine Asongu Nzengung D-39

Environmental Remediation Using Engineered Wetlands Scott D. Wallace, P.E. D-40

Technical Session 2C – UXO Part I: Wide Area Assessment

Keynote Address: Unexploded Ordnance and Wide Area Assessment Issues on Capitol Hill Janine Benner D-43

ESTCP Wide Area Assessment Pilot Program Dr. Herb Nelson D-44

High Density LiDAR and Orthophotography in Wide Area Assessment Thomas Tomczyk D-45

Helicopter Magnetometry Characterization: Integrated Technology for Wide Area Assessment John E. Foley, Ph.D. D-46

Transect Design and Target Area Identification Approach for the Pueblo Precision Bombing and Pattern Gunnery Range #2 WAA Site

Brent Pulsipher D-47

Emerging Results – ESTCP Wide Area Assessment Pilot Program Dr. Anne Andrews D-48


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Technical Session 3A – Sustainable DoD Facilities and Communities

Keynote Address: The Army’s Sustainability Strategy: What’s Technology Got to Do with It? George Carellas D-51

Red-Yellow-Green Strategy for Mission Sustainment Anthony M. Parisi D-52 Green Buildings: Lessons Learned Dennis Creech D-53 Solar Energy Applications for Sustainable Facilities and Communities Dr. John P. Thornton D-54

Planning for Sustainability Summer L. Wilkes D-55 Thinking Like a System Kevin Palmer D-56

Technical Session 3B – Perchlorate Remediation and Treatment Keynote Address: Building on Lessons Learned from Perchlorate to Transform DoD Practices on Emerging Contaminants

Shannon E. Cunniff D-59

Treatment Technologies for Perchlorate-Contaminated Effluents Edward N. Coppola D-60

Perchlorate Treatment Technologies: Taking It to the Tap Heather L. Collins D-61

Remediation of Perchlorate in Soil: Emerging Views, Remediation Concepts and Case Study Evan Cox D-62

Passive Treatment Approaches for Perchlorate Dr. Robert C. Borden D-63 Active In Situ Treatment Systems for Perchlorate in Groundwater Paul B. Hatzinger, Ph.D. D-64

Technical Session 3C – UXO Part II: Emerging Detection and Discrimination Technologies

Keynote Address: Status of UXO Technologies and Challenges of Technology Transfer John Allan D-67

Geosoft Capabilities and Future Directions in UXO Software Nicholas C. Valleau D-68

Simultaneous Deployment of a Total Field Magnetometer and EMI Sensor for UXO David J. Wright D-69

Advanced UXO Discrimination: Preliminary Live-Site Results Using Remanent Magnetization Stephen Billings, Ph.D. D-70

A Multisensor System for the Detection and Characterization of UXO Dr. Erika Gasperikova D-71

A Shallow Water UXO Survey System Dr. Jim R. McDonald D-72


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Technical Session 4A – Marine Mammals and Military Operations

Keynote Address: Regulatory and Policy Considerations for Marine Mammal Research Steve Leathery D-75

Marine Mammal Acoustic Monitoring and Habitat Investigation, Southern California Offshore Region Dr. John A. Hildebrand D-76

Acoustic Behavior of Beaked Whales, with Implications for Acoustic Monitoring Dr. Peter L. Tyack D-77

Blainville’s Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon Densirostris) Real-Time Marine Mammal Detection And Localization David Moretti D-78

Predictive Habitat Modeling of Marine Mammals: Combining Archival Observations with Remotely-Sensed Oceanographic Data

Dr. Andrew Read D-79

Predictive Modeling of Cetacean Density from Line-Transect Surveys in the Eastern Pacific Ocean Dr. Megan Ferguson D-80

Technical Session 4B – Chlorinated Solvents – Management Options

Keynote Address: Perspectives from the Cleanup of Hill Air Force Base Robert Elliott D-83

Impacts of Source Zone Removal on the Dissolved Phase Plume Dr. Linda M. Abriola D-84

Recent Progress in the Granular Iron PRB Technology Dr. Robert W. Gillham D-85 Biostimulation to Enhance Reductive Dechlorination and Related Processes In Aquifers Fred C. Payne, Ph.D. D-86

Bioaugmentation for Chlorinated Solvent Remediation Dr. Hans Stroo D-87 Abiotic Mechanisms Involved in Monitored Natural Attenuation Dr. Michelle M. Scherer D-88

Technical Session 4C – “Green” Energetics

Keynote Address: Green Energetic Materials S&T: Past, Present, and Future Alfred G. Stern, Ph.D. D-91

Green Energetics – A UK Perspective Dr. M. Eamon Colclough D-92 Green Energetics Manufacturing Dr. Robert Bennett D-93 Ammonium Dinitramide as a First Generation Green Oxidizer Dr. Jeffrey Bottaro D-94

Nanophase Materials in Energetic Applications Dr. Kelvin Higa D-95 Green Propellants – Some Strategic Considerations Dr. David A. Ciaramitaro D-96

Technical Session Abstracts

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TECHNICAL SESSION 1A

HEALTH & ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF NANOTECHNOLOGIES

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Health & Environmental Impacts of Nanotechnologies Technical Session No. 1A

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KEYNOTE ADDRESS EH&S RESEARCH ON NANOTECHNOLOGIES: HOW MUCH IS ENOUGH?

DAVID REJESKI

Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars 1300 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.

Washington, DC 20004 (202) 691-4255

[email protected]

s nanotechnologies emerge, one of the critical questions facing policymakers is how much effort to expend on the study of environmental, health and safety issues. How much is

enough? How do we judge? This talk will explore the possible gaps in both our research and our regulatory structure, and what might be done to address these issues in both the short and long term. The analysis is based on an inventory of environmental, health and safety research being performed by the U.S. government as well as on-going work to assess the regulations affecting nanotechnology and their adequacy as a system to protect workers, consumers, and the environment.

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HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF ENGINEERED NANOPARTICLES

DR. KEVIN D. AUSMAN

Rice University Center for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology

6100 Main Street MS 63

Houston, TX 77005 (713) 348-8212

[email protected]

ngineered nanoparticles have recently become commercialized in a number of consumer products, and the types that are being produced in large-scale quantities are increasing

dramatically. However, the biological and ecological impacts of these nanoparticles have only begun to be explored experimentally. The public perception, public policy, regulatory, and commercialization issues surrounding this technical area will be discussed. The general approach being employed to address these issues at Rice University’s Center for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology (CBEN) and its offshoot organization the International Council on Nanotechnology (ICON) will be described. As an illustrative example, studies on buckminsterfullerene, a model hydrophobic nanomaterial, will be described.

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TOXICITY ASSESSMENT OF ENGINEERED NANOMATERIALS: POTENTIAL HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS

SABER HUSSAIN, PH.D.

Applied Biotechnology Branch, Air Force Research Laboratory 2729 R ST, Building 837, Area B

Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45434 (937) 904-9517

[email protected]

CO-PERFORMER: John Schlager, Ph.D.

anotechnology uses advances in chemical synthesis and physical scientific discovery to control and capitalize on the fundamental structure and behavior of matter at the level of a

few atoms or groups of molecules. Nanomaterial applications are emerging in multiple rapidly advancing research areas including health care, information technologies, materials sciences, manufacturing, instrumentation, energy, security and space exploration. Due to feature size, nanoparticles have been found to possess inherent invasive characteristics that easily breech physiological and cellular barriers and could generate potentially harmful tissue dysfunction effects. A chemical characteristic of nanomaterial is that it carries a geometrically increasing surface area to mass that creates high amounts of chemical surface reactivity and accelerated dissolution rates to increase toxicity impact of the materials. Although nanomaterials are currently being widely used in advancing technology, there is a serious lack of information concerning the human health and environmental implications of manufactured nanomaterials. The assessment of nanoparticle toxicity should be a fundamental requirement before large-scale production and technological implementation of novel materials. In view of their possible effect on human health our main focus is to define and/or classify nanoparticles based on the nature of their toxicity in in vitro models. The main focus of this presentation will be to discuss basic research applied to discover cytotoxicity and its relationship to potential human health concerns of nanomaterials. The use of these quick assessment in vitro reference studies on toxicity, serve to uncover critical mechanisms of toxic effects associated with nanoparticle interaction with the biological molecules.

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CURRENT UNDERSTANDINGS ON ENVIRONMENTAL AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF HUMAN-DESIGNED NANOMATERIALS

DR. MENG-DAWN CHENG

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1 Bethel Valley Road

Building 1505, MS 6038 Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6038

(865) 241-5918 [email protected]

aterials designed from units of dimension on the order of 1 to 100 nm have most of the atoms exposed to the surface of the structure, a fundamental difference from the bulk

material composed of the same atoms. Such a change in the surface atomic and electronic configurations of a material from its larger-size counterpart creates many interesting and unique properties that one typically does not see in larger size. For example, surface reactivity of gold (a noble metal) increased when the size of gold particles is reduced from micrometers to 10s of nanometers. Nanomaterials have received much attention lately by a wide range of technical and commercial sectors. Inorganic nanocrystals are being tested as super-surface coating materials for ships and submarines by the Navy; nano-sized metals are being tested for energetic applications by the Air Force and the Army. Carbon-based nanostructures are being exploited for hydrogen storage, sensors, catalyst support, imaging, and vector for drug delivery. Since a nanoscale structure is comparable in size to biological elements present in the environment, the dimensional similarity may make them directly accessible by microbes, insects, and phytoplankton, for example. The effects of the enhanced physical and chemical properties on biological units – cells, microbes, tissues, eco- and physiological systems are unknown at the present. No guidelines are available from leading regulatory agencies regarding safe production, handling, and use/application of the new materials at present; although one nanomaterial, fullerenes, has reached the review status by the National Toxicology Program and will be evaluated under section 5 of the Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA). Other new nanomaterials have not been evaluated. There are no standard methods are available from the National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) or the American Standards for Testing Materials (ASTM) regarding the measurement of these nanomaterials in environmental health and safety applications. Certified measurement of nanoparticles and other nanostructures remains to be developed. In this presentation, the potential environmental and health issues relevant to several nanomaterials will be discussed. A review of current literature data on the issues will be presented. Also we will show our recent study on a nanomaterial, nano-aluminum that is of tremendous interest to applications as an energetic material. We will describe investigations on the effects of nano-aluminum on a common environmental microbial species, which we use as a biological indicator in monitoring the potential release of the new nanomaterial into the environment. The responses from human and mice cells will be discussed. We will also present data from an investigation on the dynamic behavior of nano-aluminum charges generated in controlled-detonation experiments, and discuss the potential environmental and health impacts on the work force and soldiers who may be exposed to those materials and by-products generated from the use of these nanomaterials. Finally, we will briefly discuss an ongoing research program at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory that aims at developing advanced tools and methodology for investigating the environmental and biological effects of nanomaterials, and improving our understandings of the fate and transport of the materials in the environment.

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NANOTECHNOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT: APPLICATIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND PREVENTION

BARBARA KARN, PH.D.

Woodrow Wilson Center (detailed from US EPA) 1300 Pennsylvania Avenue

Washington, DC 20004 (202) 691-4318

[email protected]

anotechnology is changing the way we look at matter and how we design and manufacture products. New products with enhanced properties and functions are already in the

marketplace in sectors ranging, for example, from cosmetics to automobiles to electronics to sports equipment. While benefits arise from these new materials and products, there is the possibility of harmful effects. This paper will discuss nanotechnology applications that directly benefit the environment and those that indirectly benefit the environment. I will also discuss possible direct harmful effects from nanomaterials and products, indirect implications, and approaches to prevention. The take home message is that there is an opportunity with this new technology to do it right in the first place and prevent negative impacts before they happen.

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D-8

NANOTECHNOLOGIES FOR ARMY ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES

DR. JOHN A. PARMENTOLA (presentation given by Dr. John Cullinane)

Dept of Army, OASA(ALT), SAAL-TR 2511 Jefferson Davis Highway

Suite 9800 Arlington, VA 22202


he U.S. Army Science and Technology program is investigating a variety of applications of nanotechnology for detection and remediation of military unique compounds in the

environment. These activities include development of ultra-sensitive real-time detectors on the order of several molecules to greatly enhance maintenance of Army firing ranges by detecting military unique compounds and monitoring the efficacy of clean-up efforts. New concepts and models of genetic networks are being developed to define the molecular basis and effects of explosives neurotoxicity. The Army is also assessing the use of surface-modified nanoparticulate titania for directed pollutant degradation and to target and eliminate health threats both on the battlefield and during clean-up of suspected chemical weapons storage sites. Some future nanotechnology concepts will also be discussed.

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TECHNICAL SESSION 1B

METALS BIOAVAILABILITY AND RISK ASSESSMENT

Metals Bioavailability and Risk Assessment Technical Session No. 1B

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KEYNOTE ADDRESS EVALUATING THE HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS OF METALS

IN SOILS

DR. CHARLES A. MENZIE Menzie-Cura 2 West Lane

Severna Park, MD 21146 (978) 407-9385

[email protected]

he human health and environmental risks of metals in soils are governed in large part by matters of exposure. What is currently needed is a framework and supporting research to

enable risk assessors and managers to reduce the uncertainties associated with assessments and resulting decisions. While there are numerous factors that influence exposure, some are particularly important for metals and deserve special attention. Perhaps one of the most important is recognizing that the name of a metal as it appears in a periodic table such as “lead”, “mercury”, or “chromium” is not a reliable tag for evaluating either exposure or toxic effects. While it is now customary to reduce metals to these simple names, critically important information on exposure end potential effects is lost in translation. Environmental chemists and risk assessors familiar with metals recognize the subtleties of metal chemistry but, unfortunately, these nuances are not evident to many managers or the public. To some degree this is a communication problem but also reflects lack of solid and readily available information on the factors important for exposure. The following are particularly important for metals in soils: the form of the compound, matrix effects, the fractions of the soil important to consider, metal:metal interactions, soil chemistry, bioaccumulation and selective uptake, leachability, potential for transformation, and the manner in which the metals is taken into and managed by the organism. This presentation builds upon recent efforts on the part of NRC, EPA, and DoD and highlights factors that are especially key to consider for assessments.

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D-12

RELATIVE BIOAVAILABILITY OF METALS FROM SOILS: IN VIVO AND IN VITRO RESEARCH

YVETTE LOWNEY

Exponent 4875 Pearl East Circle

Suite 201 Boulder, CO 80301


CO-PERFORMERS: Michael Ruby (Exponent); Dr. Stephen Roberts (University of Florida);

Dr. Ronald Wester (UCSF); Dr. Rosalind Schoof (Integral); Dr. Stan Casteel (University of Missouri); Dr. Nissar Darmani (Western University)

etween July 2002 and May 2005, SERDP sponsored research (ER-1165) focused on understanding the bioavailability of metals in soils. The broad goals of this effort were to

better understand what metals drive remedial decisions at metals-impacted sites, evaluate the relative bioavailability of these metals in soil to human and ecological receptors, and to assess the potential for developing simple bench-top (in vitro) methods that might be predictive of the results observed in animals (in vivo). This presentation will provide a brief overview of the full breadth of research that was undertaken, and more detailed information regarding the study design and findings regarding the relative oral bioavailability and dermal absorption of arsenic from soils. Additionally, discussion of current progress toward developing in vitro methods for estimating the relative oral bioavailability arsenic from soil will be provided.

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D-13

SOIL METAL BIOAVAILABILITY IN RELATION TO METAL SPECIATION

DR. J.A. RYAN U.S. EPA

5995 Center Hill Avenue Cincinnati, OH 45268

United States (513) 232-6237

[email protected]

educing risk from elevated levels of lead (Pb) in soil involves removal or covering of the soil, or dilution of the soil by mixing with uncontaminated soil. Understanding that soil lead

bioavailability is related to metal speciation, and that in situ remediation techniques can alter metal speciation, EPA’s National Risk Management Research Laboratory (NRMRL) and DuPont Corporation established a collaborative effort to evaluate in situ remediation technologies. A field experiment at a Pb-contaminated urban site in Joplin, MO was established in the fall of 1996 as part of this collaborative effort. Reductions in Pb bioavailability (in vivo and in vitro) and changes in Pb geochemistry observed as a result of in situ treatment, demonstrate that reduction in soil Pb risk can be accomplished without soil removal. Development of a more robust data set is required to quantify the relationships between the various in vivo models, the various in vitro models, or an in vivo model and an in vitro model.

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DECREASING TOXIC METAL BIOAVAILABILITY WITH VARIOUS SOIL AMENDMENT STRATEGIES

DR. PHILIP M. JARDINE

Oak Ridge National Laboratory Bethel Valley Road

Building 1505, MS-6038 Knoxville, TN 37831-6038


CO-PERFORMERS: Jack C. Parker (Oak Ridge National Laboratory);

Mark O. Barnett (Auburn University); Scott E. Fendorf (Stanford University); Melanie Stewart (University of Tennessee)

his project supports the SERDP cleanup R&D mission by developing an improved understanding and predictive capability of the rates and mechanisms of enhanced metal

sequestration in DoD soils that have been treated with various organic and inorganic amendment strategies. The objectives of the project are to (1) investigate the strategic use of non-toxic, low-cost, commercially available chemicals and mineral solid phases to decrease the bioaccessibility of Pb, As, Cr, and Cd in soil, (2) develop remedial protocols that maximize toxic metal sequestration and minimize bioaccessibility for a wide range of soil types and mixed metal systems encountered at DoD sites, and (3) develop a spreadsheet based model to determine optimum soil remediation strategies, testing programs, and costs to meet risk targets with a specific level of confidence. Our approach integrates laboratory scale macroscopic fate and transport experiments with novel microscopic spectroscopy techniques to assess the kinetics and mechanisms of enhanced metal sequestration and decreased bioaccessibility as a function of various soil amendment strategies on numerous DoD soils throughout the country. The impact of three phosphate sources (volcanaphos, rock phosphate, and triple superphosphate) on numerous Pb contaminated DoD soils at a variety of loading levels has resulted in rapid and large decreases in metal bioaccessability. Likewise, Ca-polysulfide additions were effective at immobilizing Cd in contaminated soils. Peat amendments were very effective at decreasing the bioaccessibility of Cr(VI) in soil. The peat served as an excellent reductant that catalyzed the reduction of highly toxic and mobile Cr(VI) to the sparingly soluble Cr(III) species. X-ray absorption spectroscopy confirmed the formation and stability of Cr(III)-oxides. As(V) bioaccessability was highly dependent on the amount of Fe relative to the amount of As. Our modeling endeavors were able to predict changes in As bioaccessibility with Fe additions and thus optimize the process. Very low levels of As bioaccessibility (<10%) were found to be possible. We have also developed Neural Network Models (NNM) to estimate bioavailable metal concentrations for baseline conditions from site characterization data. Experimental data is currently being used to parameterize the model for computing the optimum amendment quantities and associated costs that are required to meet risk objectives with an acceptable level of confidence. The experimental and numerical results from this research will provide knowledge and information in previously unexplored areas of enhanced toxic metal sequestration and decreased bioaccessibility in soils to support DoD’s performance/risk assessment and decision-making process for military base site restoration.

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SOIL METAL BIOAVAILABILITY TO PLANTS

DR. RUFUS L. CHANEY USDA-ARS, Environ. Mgmt. & By-Product Util. Laboratory

Building 007, BARC-West 10300 Baltimore Boulevard Beltsville, MD 20705-2350


oils may become contaminated with a number of elements. Remediation decisions require information on risk of soil elements to plants and animals, and the effects of treatments to

remediate the potential toxic effects of the contaminating elements. Metals can be in highly phytoavailable forms in soils; e.g., high levels of Zn, Cu, Ni or Mn in strongly acidic soils can kill most plants. Besides effects on cover vegetation, metals can accumulate in plant biomass and injure wildlife which consume the plants. Thus the phytoavailability of elements in soils is a key part of any risk assessment or soil remediation decision. Besides risk to plants and consumers of plants, soil metals may comprise risk to wildlife through ingestion of soil rich in Pb or As. Assessment of the potential for food-chain transfer and toxicity of elements accumulated in plants has shown that for nearly all elements, phytotoxicity limits plant yield before the element residue in plants can cause chronic toxicity to small mammals or birds. At alkaline pH, soil Mo and Se can be bioaccumulated by plants, and plant residues may harm ruminant livestock or wildlife. Tungsten may be included in this category if soils are contaminated. Plant accumulation of these anionic elements is reduced at acidic soil pH (<6.0). Accumulation of cationic elements in plants seldom causes risk to food-chains. Elements such as Zn, Cu, Ni and Mn in strongly acidic contaminated soils can accumulate in plants but they injure the plants and cause substantial yield reduction before the concentration in aboveground biomass is a hazard to wildlife. When Cd contaminates without Zn, plants can accumulate hazardous levels of Cd in shoots. Most sites with Cd above background will have more than 100-fold higher Zn. Under this situation Cd accumulation in plants is limited by competition with Zn, and by Zn induced phytotoxicity. And when Zn is 100-fold Cd in plants, the Zn inhibits Cd absorption by animals. Thus most soils with Cd contamination will not have Cd risk because of co-contaminating Zn. Co is theoretically a food-chain poison because plants can accumulate Co concentrations that are harmful to ruminant livestock; however, Co is seldom a significant soil contaminant. Cationic elements accumulation in plants can be limited by making soils calcareous; adding high phosphate, and hydrous Fe and Mn oxides can increase metal adsorption and aid in persistent revegetation as shown at several Superfund sites.

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D-16

METAL BIOAVAILABILITY TO SOIL INVERTEBRATES: CHALLENGES FOR ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT

ROMAN P. LANNO, PH.D.

Ohio State University Department of Entomology

318 W 12th Avenue Columbus, OH 43210-1242


nderstanding the bioavailability of metals to soil invertebrates presents unique challenges, both scientifically and in the development of regulatory policy. Soil invertebrates include a

myriad of taxonomic groups comprising many species, families, and orders and their tremendous importance in nutrient cycling and the maintenance of soil structure and function is well recognized. The ecology of most soil invertebrates is poorly understood and many species have yet to be identified. There exists a great diversity of physiological mechanisms that soil invertebrates use to adapt to and detoxify metals in soil systems, ranging from exclusion to hyperaccumulation. Soil invertebrates often are important sources of metals in the diets of predators in higher trophic levels, so metal bioavailability to soil invertebrates may directly affect the trophic transfer of metals. Given the heterogeneous nature of metal distribution in soils and the great differences in metal metabolism by soil invertebrates, how is it possible to measure the bioavailability of metals to soil invertebrates? Metal exposure to soil invertebrates has traditionally been measured as total metal concentrations in the soil, but this measure of exposure often does not correlate well with bioaccumulation or toxicity, especially in comparisons involving soil differing in physical and chemical properties. Various measures have been employed in assessing the bioavailability of metals to soil invertebrates. Spectroscopic, staining, and histological techniques may provide a qualitative measure of metal bioavailability. Metal levels in aqueous weak salt extracts of soils often provide much better correlations with metal bioaccumulation or toxicity than total metal levels in soils. Organism total metal residues can provide a direct measure of metal bioavailability, while various fractions of metals in organisms can provide insights into critical body residues and potential of the trophic transfer of metals. Various models are being developed for the prediction of metal bioavailability to soil invertebrates, including regression models and metal speciation models such as the Biotic Ligand Model (BLM). This presentation will present an overview of the various methods for measuring and predicting metal bioavailability to soil invertebrates and discuss the major scientific and regulatory challenges likely to be encountered in understanding and utilizing the bioavailability of metals to soil invertebrates in ecological risk assessment.

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D-17

TECHNICAL SESSION 1C

MANAGING THREATENED, ENDANGERED, AND AT-RISK SPECIES (TER-S) FOR DOD SUSTAINABILITY

Managing TER-S for DoD Sustainability Technical Session No. 1C

D-19

KEYNOTE ADDRESS THE MARRIAGE OF SCIENCE AND MANAGEMENT: ADAPTIVE

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

DANIEL M. ASHE U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

1849 C Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20240


s in marriage, conservation successes are built upon a blend of understanding, passion, fidelity to the task, cooperation, flexibility and innovation, hard work, and old-fashioned

good luck. The first and last are indispensable ingredients. And if you believe the admonitions of Louis Pasteur -- Chance favors the prepared mind -- and football Coach Vince Lombardi -- Good fortune is the residue of design -- then all of these factors are interwoven into a fabric of success. But understanding is the foundation; the predicate upon which success is built. In conservation, understanding is achieved by the structured application of science, but too often science has been divorced from the process of management. Science is treated as an input to management and scientists are viewed (and mainly view themselves) as consultants: Managers ask questions; scientists provide answers; managers ask more questions; and scientists issue more answers. In adaptive resource management, science and management are married. Science impregnates a decision, but then becomes a parent of management; understanding is tempered by the learning that occurs in the course of observing and measuring the outcomes; new information needs are identified as those outcomes are compared to the original assumptions. New science is completed and better informed management is the offspring. Marrying science and management with explicitly stated and testable assumptions, and commitment to measuring and monitoring outcomes, are the heart of adaptive management. Faced with the challenges of large-scale ecological changes, we must commit ourselves to this marriage as we seek to follow Aldo Leopold’s admonition to “think like a mountain.” As natural resource managers, we bring passion, fidelity, cooperation, innovation, and hard work to our profession. Through the marriage of science and management, adaptive resource management promises to build our collective understanding of the natural environment. The interplay of all of these will increase the potential that chance and good fortune will complement our efforts. For this reason, adaptive resource management is emerging as one of the fundamental science practices within the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Pasteur and Lombardi would be impressed; Leopold would be proud.

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D-20

ADAPTIVE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: AN APPROACH TO INFORMED DECISION-MAKING IN THE FACE OF UNCERTAINTY

DR. JAMES D. NICHOLS

USGS (BRD), Patuxent Wildlife Research Center 12100 Beech Forest Road

Laurel, MD 20708 (301) 497-5660

[email protected]

daptive Resource Management (ARM) is referenced frequently and has come to mean many things. ARM is a formal decision process useful in making wise decisions in the face

of uncertainty. Forms of uncertainty typically encountered include environmental uncertainty, structural uncertainty (e.g., about system responses to management actions), partial controllability (indirect application of management actions), and partial observability (uncertainty associated with estimation). In order to implement ARM, or any informed decision process, the following elements are needed: (1) objectives, (2) management actions, (3) models of system response to management actions, (4) degrees of faith in these models, and (5) monitoring program(s). At each decision point, a decision is made based on objectives, available actions, the estimated state of the system, and the predicted system responses (usually based on models and relative degrees of faith in them). The decision itself may be developed using optimal control methodology or may simply be made by a manager. The decision usually involves a management action, and the action drives the system to a new state, identified by the monitoring program. The new state is compared with model-based predictions of system state, and faith is increased in those models predicting well and decreased in models predicting poorly. The process is repeated at the next decision point and iterated in this manner. This basic process has a strong theoretical basis, is transparent, and can be readily defended. With these strengths in mind, it is puzzling that the approach is not more widely used. The process can be used for many problems in wildlife management and conservation ranging from harvest management to conservation of endangered species.

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D-21

“MANAGING MILITARY MISSION RISK THROUGH ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT”

THOMAS D. HEFFERNAN

46th Test Wing Plans Office, Air Armament Center 101 West D Avenue

Suite 222 Eglin AFB, FL 32542


roactive management of threatened, endangered, and at-risk species (TER-S) for the benefit of the military mission has become a primary tool in work being done at military ranges

across the country. Such efforts ensure continued access to these national assets (the “ranges”) is sustained in order to better prepare the young men and women we ask to go in harm’s way. Keeping this military mission the prime focal point will be the main thrust of this presentation. Adaptive management fundamentals underly much of how this mission is being accomplished. This presentation will cover some basic assumptions, case histories, lessons learned, and a number of observations that may be of interest to the open air test and training range communities at large as well as those members of the academic & scientific communities that seek to serve them.

P


D-22

FINDING SPACE FOR TORTOISES AND TANKS: THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SCIENCE-BASED TRANSLOCATION PLAN FOR DESERT TORTOISES AT

FORT IRWIN NATIONAL TRAINING CENTER

DR. TODD C. ESQUE United States Geological Survey

160 North Stephanie Street Henderson, NV 89074


CO-PERFORMERS: Dr. Kenneth E. Nussear (USGS); Philip A. Medica (USGS)

he desert tortoise is a federally protected species living on portions of Department of Defense installations, including the Fort Irwin National Training Center, as well as nearby

federal, state, and private lands. The U.S. Congress approved the expansion of military training activities into areas formerly set aside in desert tortoise Critical Habitat, and mandated the formation of a multi-agency committee to coordinate planning and implementation of desert tortoise translocations from those state and federal agencies that steward desert tortoises and their habitats. The U.S. Geological Survey coordinated development of a science-based translocation plan in cooperation with these and other entities. The translocation plan has three primary goals: (1) To provide for safe, humane, and successful translocation of tortoises from the expansion area with minimal impact to resident desert tortoises at translocation sites where translocated animals are released; (2) to study the translocated tortoises, resident tortoises, and tortoises studied as controls for the experiments in order to learn as much as possible about desert tortoises and their recovery; and (3) to define quantitative measures of success for translocation and provide metrics to evaluate success over multiple temporal scales. To meet the project goals, prospective translocation areas were evaluated using a decision support model developed by the University of Redlands. The simulation model provided insights into desert tortoise habitats that were previously unnoticed and led to changes in management actions, such as fencing an interstate highway. Translocation sites were selected from model results by consensus among members of the Conservation Mitigation Working Group (CMWG). The translocation plan describes procedures for selection of translocation sites, clearance of tortoises from expansion areas, translocation procedures, a discussion of potential methods, and parameters to evaluate the effectiveness of management actions. Development of the translocation plan was an iterative process involving multiple feedbacks from the CMWG, an anonymous peer view conducted by the Desert Tortoise Recovery Office of the US Fish and Wildlife Service, and further evaluation by an academic Science Advisory Committee. Implementation of the translocation plan is pending and important decisions about the implementation still need to be made. It is suggested that the translocation actions will be enhanced by: (1) incorporating monitoring actions into research activities for program integrity and cost effectiveness; (2) using a science advisory committee to prioritize and guide implementation of the research/monitoring activities; and (3) integrating the translocation plan with regional ecosystem conservation activities.

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D-23

PUTTING RESEARCH ON THE GROUND

DR. TIM HAYDEN US Army Engineer Research and Development Center

P.O. Box 9005 Champaign, IL 61826-9005


CO-PERFORMER: Bill Woodson (Consultant for Army Office of the Director of

Environmental Programs)

rmy’s threatened and endangered species (TES) research program serves all of the Department of Defense. It is supported strictly by funds designated for research and

supplemented by customer reimbursements. This program recognizes and exercises the opportunity to integrate and partner resources with the SERDP, the ESTCP, and outside organizations. The Army has interpreted adaptive management for TES research as an iterative process with users to consistently provide answers and new science for managers. Technology to support managers in a timely and scientifically sound way is the desired outcome. The challenge however, is for research to keep pace and react at the speed with which management must react (to paraphrase Army Lieutenant General Honore “researchers are looking at a calendar while managers are looking at their watch”). This presentation will describe how Army research attempts to keep pace with managers’ needs. It will use Army research projects studying the black capped vireo and golden cheeked warblers to illustrate how Army has used its research and development program, SERDP, and reimbursable funds to put new, sound management in place. The speakers will characterize adaptive management and the future in a research and development context using information presented in this session with a research/management focus.

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D-25


ENVIRONMENTALLY BENIGN CORROSION PROTECTION TECHNOLOGIES

Environmentally Benign Corrosion Protection Technologies Technical Session No. 2A

D-27

KEYNOTE ADDRESS ENVIRONMENTALLY BENIGN CORROSION PROTECTION – DOD

MAINTENANCE EXPECTATIONS

REAR ADMIRAL STEPHEN HEILMAN, USN (RET) Senior Fellow, LMI

2000 Corporate Ridge McLean, VA 22102-7805


s fiscal and physical resources continue to be strained while mission tasking remains high, combat systems must be maintained at the highest possible state of materiel readiness. A

significant threat to readiness is the susceptibility of equipment to corrosion. Corrosion is a threat, in some measure, to every combat and support system. A recent Defense Science Board Task Force, chartered by the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics, examined the problem of corrosion in the Department of Defense. Specific areas were indicated for particular Task Force attention, including the application of current and future technology to the needs of the weapon system support community. The Task Force was asked to analyze findings generated in these areas to determine where enhanced resourcing might provide significant advances in combat readiness. In the area of technology, one of the Services’ highest priorities is to gain access to environmentally-friendly corrosion prevention, mitigation and remediation materials. This is not just a challenge of science, but involves leadership awareness and commitment, procurement and sustainment policy issues, and cost considerations. The objective of this briefing is to put the challenge of replacing proven corrosion control materials in context -- from the perspective of the DoD weapon system maintainer. The barriers to progress are often found outside of the Science & Technology community. Continued progress in actually fielding and employing environmentally benign corrosion protection technology requires data, cross-functional cooperation and broad-based financial support. Our warfighters expect and deserve equipment which does not fail because of corrosion. They also deserve to be issued tools and materials which are safe to use. Proper definition of the issues and aggressive action will ensure that these expectations will be met.

A


D-28

COMPUTATIONAL MATERIALS DESIGN AND ACCELERATED QUALIFICATION OF NEW ALLOYS AS ENVIRONMENTAL SOLUTIONS

DR. CHARLES J. KUEHMANN

QuesTek Innovations LLC 1820 Ridge Avenue Evanston, IL 60201


systems approach, designated Materials by Design®, integrates processing, structure, property and performance relations in the computational design of materials as dynamic

multilevel structures. For high-performance alloy steels, numerical implementation of materials science, applied mechanics and quantum physics principles provides a hierarchy of computational models defining subsystem design parameters that are integrated through multicomponent computational thermodynamics and kinetics. Designed properties combine strength, toughness, corrosion resistance and impurity embrittlement resistance. Calibration of precipitation-strengthening models via atomic resolution microscopy has allowed quantitative design of nanostructured steels for ultrahigh strength, and a new corrosion resistant steel, S53 (SERDP PP-1224), has been designed to eliminate Cd plating requirements for landing gear applications. The design approach is now being extended to other alloy systems including Ni-base and Al-base alloys and examples will be covered. The process of introducing innovative new materials into commercial practice involves many steps and hurdles before the first successful applications can be accomplished. A new material must first be discovered or designed, then appropriate processing technologies developed, and, finally an adequate database of material behavior completed to allow a designer to incorporate the material into new products. Computational systems design of materials can significantly shorten the time and cost of the first step, replacing costly and time consuming empirical methods of discovery. The application of computational systems methods can greatly accelerate the development of processes and predictions of material behavior for the design engineer that often pace the qualification and commercial introduction of new materials. This involves the use of computational design tools to simulate processing conditions in manufacturing practice and the application of probabilistic models of materials behavior including fatigue and fracture toughness. Termed Accelerated Insertion of Materials (AIM) techniques by DARPA, these computational methods aiding materials qualification are being applied to the S53 alloy in a current ESTCP (PP-0304) program to reduce the cost, risk and time required to introduce the alloy and eliminate Cd plate in many DoD systems.

A


D-29

NEW ELECTROACTIVE POLYMERS COATING AS REPLACEMENTS FOR CHROMATE CONVERSION COATINGS

DR. JOHN D. STENGER-SMITH

China Lake NAWCWD 1 Administration Circle

Code 498200D China Lake, CA 93555


CO-PERFORMERS: Peter Zarras; Nicole Anderson; Roxanne L. Quintana; Andrew Guenther;

Nicholas Prokopuk; Cindy Webber; Lawrence Baldwin; Joni M. Pentony

AVAIR-WD has successfully synthesized a new electrically conductive polymers (BAM-PPV and MEH-PPV for example) in high yield and purity. BAM-PPV and MEH-PPV have

demonstrated excellent properties as a replacement for Chromium in conversion coatings. Testing the polymer system as a conversion coating under neutral salt fog conditions with full military coatings has also been performed. Scribed BAM-PPV and MEH-PPV Al 2024-T3 coupons containing various primers and topcoats are currently in a neutral salt fog chamber for over 2000 hours. The present state of electroactive polymers for corrosion control, as well as some historical background and future opportunities will be discussed.

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D-30

INDUSTRY CHALLENGES TO COMMERCIALIZATION OF ENVIRONMENTALLY BENIGN CORROSION TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE

DAVID A. DIEHL, PH.D.

PPG Industries, Inc. 4325 Rosanna Drive

Allison Park, PA 15101 (412) 492-5234

[email protected]

orrosion control technologies have been impacted by environmental legislation in the U.S. and abroad regarding the use of heavy metals (e.g., chrome, cadmium, lead), active metals

(tin, copper, arsenic)and solvents including volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) and those classified as hazardous air pollutants (HAPS). These trends are continuing and will further change the materials and approaches that are being used in the marketplace. The issues are well documented in the literature, and some perspectives on future will be presented. Other significant environmental issues are looming that will impact corrosion control and mitigation technologies. These concerns include environmental estrogens, greenhouse gasses, recyclability of materials, energy, and safety which will be discussed within the context of cost and performance.

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D-31

ION-EXCHANGING HYDROTALCITE COMPOUNDS: A NEW CLASS OF CORROSION INHIBITING PIGMENTS FOR ORGANIC COATINGS

DR. RUDOLPH G. BUCHHEIT

Ohio State University 477 Watts Hall

2041 College Road Columbus, OH 43210


ydrotalcites are a well known class of layered mixed metal hydroxides that demonstrate ion exchange. These compounds have a range of applications from water purification to

catalyst supports. The use of these compounds as environmentally friendly additives to paints for storage and release of inhibitors is a new and emerging application. In this presentation, the general concept of storage and release of inhibiting and buffering species from ion-exchanging hydrotalcite compounds added to organic coatings is presented. The unique aspects of the hydrotalcite structure and the ion exchange phenomenon that form the basis of the storage and release characteristic will be outlined. Examples of the high levels of corrosion protection imparted by use of these types of pigments in organic coatings applied to aluminum alloy substrates will also be shown. We have worked in detail with an amphoteric hydrotalcite ion exchanger comprised of a Zn-Al hydroxide lamellar host structure intercalated with exchangeable and inhibiting decavanadate anion (V10O286-). This compound is amphoteric in the sense that it exchanges both an anion, V10O286- , and a cation, Zn2+. The rationale used for selecting this particular compound for detailed study will be presented. The ion exchange isotherms and release kinetics that underlie the ion exchange behavior of this material will also be described. Evidence from electrochemical characterization illustrating the effect of vanadate and Zn2+ on the anodic and cathodic partial reactions in corrosion cell processes occurring under paint layers will be shown. How corrosion inhibition translates to corrosion protection during accelerated exposure testing by organic coatings containing this compound will be described. Subjects related to engineering aspects of coatings will also be discussed including pigment loading levels, the effect of coating permeability on protection and inhibitor release, pigment-resin compatibility and pigment stability.

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D-33


PHYTOREMEDIATION TECHNOLOGIES

Phytoremediation Technologies Technical Session No. 2B

D-35

KEYNOTE ADDRESS PHYTOTECHNOLOGIES: THEORY AND PRACTICE

DR. JERALD L. SCHNOOR

The University of Iowa 4119 Seamans Center

Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering Iowa City, IA 52242


CO-PERFORMERS: Sachiyo Tanaka; Laura B. Brentner; Benoit Van Aken

hytoremediation has been successfully utilized in demonstrations and full scale clean-up at sites contaminated with petrochemicals, chlorinated solvents, pesticides and fertilizers, and

energetic compounds. In this paper, we focus on phytoremediation for the long-term sustainable management of TNT, RDX, HMX, and perchlorate at testing and training ranges. Tools of molecular biology enable us to gain knowledge about how plants and associated rhizosphere microorganisms can metabolize and degrade these chemicals to innocuous end-products. Bacteria and plant genes which encode enzymes capable of these transformation reactions have been identified (gene expression analysis). Practical aspects of how to use phytoremediation as a technology for sustainable range management is explored in the conclusion of this keynote talk.

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D-36

PATHWAYS FOR BIODEGRADATION OF EXPLOSIVES IN THE RHIZOSPHERE

DR. JIM SPAIN Environmental Engineering

Georgia Institute of Technology 311 Ferst Drive

Atlanta, GA 30332-0512 (404) 894-0628

[email protected]

hytoremediation of explosives encompasses a remarkably wide range of processes including bacterial transformation in the rhizosphere, transformation by endophytes, and true plant

catalyzed metabolism. The rhizosphere is an extremely complex ecosystem where it is difficult to distinguish the relative contributions and interactions of plants, fungi, and bacteria. The situation is exacerbated by the wide range of explosives, each of which can behave very differently during phytoremediation. Compounds such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) that are transformed by cometabolism will be transformed faster in the rhizosphere than in similar soil without plants because of the presence of higher densities of microbes and electron donors in root exudates. Compounds such as hexahydro-trinitro-triazine (RDX) and CL-20 that can be biodegraded by specific bacteria able to use them as a nitrogen source can be degraded particularly well in the rhizosphere for the same reason. For example, the first bacterium reported to degrade CL-20 was an Agrobacterium isolated from garden soil and grown on organic acids. The soil Rhodococci that carry out the initial attack on RDX and the Methylobacteria that degrade the resultant dead-end product, 4-nitro-2,4 diazabutanal (NDAB) both require the addition of readily degradable carbon compounds. In contrast, the degradation of organic contaminants such as Dinitrotoluenes (DNT) that can serve as the sole source of carbon, nitrogen, and energy for bacteria can be inhibited in the presence of organic compounds. The rapid and recent evolution of bacteria able to degrade a wide range of nitroaromatic contaminants seems surprising if the catabolic pathways arose de novo. On the other hand, the presence of natural nitroaromatic compounds in soil and microbes with the biochemistry to degrade them would facilitate the more rapid evolution of the ability to degrade the xenobiotic nitroaromatic explosives. We have considered several natural nitroaromatic compounds that are commonly found in soil and searched for bacteria in the rhizosphere that can degrade them. 3-Nitrotyrosine is produced by nitric oxide mediated nitration of proteins in a wide range of organisms. Bacteria able to mineralize 3-nitrotyrosine are readily isolated from vegetated soil and the catabolic pathway includes denitration reactions similar to those in the downstream steps in DNT degradation. Our initial results suggest that the bacteria that degrade natural nitroaromatic compounds are likely progenitors of those that degrade explosives. It might, therefore, be possible to use the understanding of the natural catabolic pathways to stimulate the activity or evolution of bacteria that can aid in cleanup of explosives contaminated sites.

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D-37

CASE STUDY: OBTAINING REGULATORY APPROVAL AND IMPLEMENTING FIELD TRIALS OF TRANSGENIC PLANTS IN PHYTOREMEDIATION

DR. DAVID J. GLASS

Applied PhytoGenetics, Inc. 124 Bird Street

Needham MA, MA 02492 (617) 653-9945

[email protected]

CO-PERFORMERS: Andrew Heaton (University of Georgia); Jack Kozuchowski (City of Danbury, CT); Laura Carreira (Applied PhytoGenetics, Inc.);

Richard Meagher (University of Georgia)

hytoremediation research and commercial activity to date has largely utilized naturally-occurring plant species. Although native plants are often capable of effective remediation of

target contaminants, there are many potential strategies to improve phytoremediation performance through the use of transgenic (genetically engineered) plants. After many years of research, the past three years have seen the earliest of these approaches reach field application. Research field tests of transgenic plants are regulated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), under regulations that were first instituted in 1987 but progressively relaxed thereafter. Although USDA decided in 2003 that proposed field tests of transgenic plants for phytoremediation must go through a permitting process requiring submission of detailed information 120 days before a proposed test (as opposed to a simpler 30-day notification process available for most research field tests), the first permits for use of transgenic plants in phytoremediation were issued in 2003, and a total of at least seven such permits have been issued through the summer of 2005. The first commercial field trials of transgenic plants were conducted beginning in 2003, including two pilot-scale field projects by Applied PhytoGenetics, Inc. (APGEN). APGEN is the exclusive licensee of technology for phytoremediation of mercury, invented at the University of Georgia by Professor Richard Meagher, and in 2003 the company began field tests in Connecticut and Alabama of cottonwood trees engineered for mercury remediation. The site in Danbury, Connecticut is a 0.3 acre urban Brownfield site that is the former location of a hat factory, and the site in Alabama is at an industrial facility. At both sites, APGEN is conducting pilot-scale tests to determine the efficacy of the process to remediate mercury-contaminated soils. This presentation will briefly summarize strategies being contemplated for the use of genetic engineering to improve phytoremediation and the regulatory regime now in place for review and approval of such proposed uses. The presentation will describe APGEN’s ongoing field trials of mercury phytoremediation, and will present the results of these tests to the extent available.

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D-38

ENGINEERING TRANSGENIC PLANTS FOR THE SUSTAINED CONTAINMENT AND IN SITU TREATMENT OF ENERGETIC MATERIALS

DR. NEIL C. BRUCE

University of York Heslington

York, Unlisted YO10 5YW United Kingdom +44 1904 328777 [email protected]

CO-PERFORMERS: Elizabeth L. Rylott; Sharon Doty; Stuart E. Strand

he objective of this SERDP-funded project (ER-1318) is to engineer transgenic plants that can be used to contain and degrade energetic materials on testing and training ranges. With

their extensive root systems, plants have a remarkable ability to extract compounds from the surrounding environment. Unfortunately, for explosives pollution, this approach is hindered by the inherently low endogenous ability of plants to degrade the explosives 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), in part due to the phytotoxicity of these compounds. Our aim is to engineer plants for optimal bioremediation, and significant progress has now been made towards this goal. We have engineered both tobacco and Arabidopsis plants expressing a bacterial nitroreductase (nfsI) gene from Enterobacter cloacae with increased resistance to the explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT). One of the overall aims of phytoremediation is to decrease toxicity of contaminated soil to allow the indigenous microflora to flourish and contribute to the remediation process. Importantly, we have demonstrated that these transgenic plants can successfully recover and maintain the functional and genetic diversity of the rhizosphere bacterial community in acutely polluted soil. We are concurrently investigating the phytodegradation of RDX. Our work shows that the bacterial gene xplA, which allows the bacterium Rhodococcus rhodochrous strain 11Y to metabolize RDX, is active when expressed in plants, indicating a breakthrough in the development of low cost in situ phytoremediation methods for the treatment of RDX contaminated soil and ground water. We have discovered that xplA encodes a novel cytochrome P450 (CYP177A1) where the P450 domain is fused to a flavodoxin redox partner. Transgenic Arabidopsis expressing XplA were observed to efficiently remove RDX from liquid media and soil. As a model system for RDX phytoremediation in the field, Arabidopsis expressing XplA were grown in RDX contaminated soil and found to be resistant to RDX phytotoxicity, producing shoot and root biomasses higher than wild type plants. The major objective of our project is to generate transgenic plants that can contain explosives at contaminated sites. The transformed plants must be appropriate for growth on these sites and are of known utility. In particular, they must be robust, fast growing with extensive root systems. Poplars fit this description well. Towards this end we have successfully now introduced the genes xplA and nsf1 into poplar. Information about the properties of these transgenic plants and potential applications for phytoremediation will be presented.

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D-39

ADVANCES IN RHIZODEGRADATION OF PERCHLORATE DURING PHYTOREMEDIATION

DR. VALENTINE ASONGU NZENGUNG

University of Georgia 210 Field Street

GG building, Room 308 Athens, GA 30602


CO-PERFORMERS: Dr. Walter O'Niell (PLANTECO Environmental);

Dawit Yifru (University of Georgia)

lthough phytoremediation technologies have been approved for cleanup of many types of contaminants, there are currently few case studies of phytoremediation of perchlorate. The

lingering concern expressed by most site owners and regulators is that plants mainly take up and phytoaccumulate perchlorate in their tissues, which would have to be harvested and disposed of to address future liability. Predictive models and actual measurements confirm plant uptake and accumulation of significant amounts of highly soluble contaminants such as perchlorate. In recent studies, we have demonstrated that the rhizosphere can be manipulated to biostimulate and enhance rapid degradation of perchlorate by bacteria, a process called rhizodegradation. Two main mechanisms of phytoremediation of perchlorate have been identified: (1) uptake and phytodegradation, and (2) rhizodegradation. Uptake and phytodegradation of perchlorate is a relatively slower process than rhizodegradation. Phytodegradation of perchlorate in plant tissues has been confirmed through the detection of perchlorate degradation products (chlorate and chlorite) and degradation of perchlorate with crude plant extracts. The uptake of perchlorate by plants increases under aerobic conditions, low dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and high nitrate concentrations in the rhizosphere. Perchlorate uptake increases the potential of phytoaccumulation and poses ecological risks either by its accumulation in the food chain or recycling into soil and water when the plants senesce. We have evaluated the potential of perchlorate recycling by collecting and analyzing different species of trees and grasses growing at field sites for two years. Our data suggests that some plants such as salt cedar (Tamarisk ssp.) recycle perchlorate. Rhizodegradation uses anaerobic microbes and plant exudates/enzymes in the rhizosphere to rapidly degrade perchlorate to chloride with chlorate and chlorite as intermediate metabolites. Our results indicate that supplying optimum doses of DOC to the rhizosphere reduces the duration of the lag-time during which uptake of perchlorate dominates. Additionally, successful biostimulation of rhizodegradation minimizes perchlorate uptake and reduces the cleanup time. Sterilized and unsterilized DOC extracted from agricultural waste (mushroom compost and chicken litter) and acetate was equally effective in biostimulation of rhizoremediation of perchlorate. The solid and liquid amendments offer two advantages over in-situ bioremediation: (1) faster degradation kinetics over the entire site, and (2) process sustainability, which will lower operations and maintenance costs. Data from multiple studies will be presented to show that the ecological risk posed by phytoaccumulation and the potential for recycling of perchlorate can be minimized by designing phytoremediation systems to enhance rhizoremediation.

A


D-40

ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION USING ENGINEERED WETLANDS

SCOTT D. WALLACE, P.E. North American Wetland Engineering

4444 Centerville Road, Suite 140 White Bear Lake, MN 55082


ngineered wetland systems can be used to successfully remediate a wide variety of substances, many of which are relevant to Department of Defense facilities. Wetland

technology began with the harnessing of the biogeochemical cycling of natural wetland environments. Whether deliberate or not, the de facto utilization of natural wetlands for waste processing dates back to construction of the first urban sewer systems, or essentially 9,000 years (Bertrand-Krajewski, 2003). By the late 19th century, collection and treatment of sewage wastes from urban areas became widespread, and sewage farming experiences in the United Kingdom resulted in the understanding between rates of sewage application and the processing ability of natural treatment systems (Hiley, 1994). In Australia, constructed wetlands were proposed to deal with wastewater at the single-home level (Brix, 1994) and in the United States, wetland technology was developed into advanced vertical flow treatment systems (Monjeau, 1901). However, in the early 20th century, many approaches to wastewater treatment were abandoned in favor of mechanical treatment processes based on activated sludge technology. It was not until the 1970’s that renewed interest in wetland technology developed in the United States, based on the processing capabilities of natural wetlands receiving sewage effluents (Spangler et al., 1976). Application of natural marsh concepts to create free water surface wetlands occurred at the same time as a parallel technology track, which was the evolution of subsurface flow wetlands. This technology was developed in the early 1960’s (Seidel, 1973) and became a preferred option in Germany for small-scale treatment works by the 1970’s (Kickuth, 1977). By the late 1980’s, this technology had spread across Europe (Cooper and Boon, 1987) and to North America (Steiner et al., 1987). The last 15 years have seen a rapid evolution in wetland technology worldwide. At the forefront of this technology development have been engineered wetland reactors. These wetlands are designed with support systems to achieve the necessary redox conditions, nutrient balances, substrate conditions, and ion exchange capacity to drive specific treatment mechanisms. As such, they can be considered “hybrid” systems that combine some attributes of natural and mechanical treatment technology. At the present time, engineered wetlands have been used to remediate a variety of waste streams. These include domestic sewage; landfill leachates, petroleum hydrocarbons, chlorinated organic compounds, and airfield deicing runoff. This presentation will focus on the current “state of the art” in terms of full-scale field application of engineered wetland systems.

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D-41


UXO PART I: WIDE AREA ASSESSMENT

UXO Part I: Wide Area Assessment Technical Session No. 2C

D-43

KEYNOTE ADDRESS UNEXPLODED ORDNANCE AND WIDE AREA ASSESSMENT ISSUES ON

CAPITOL HILL

JANINE BENNER Rep. Earl Blumenauer

2446 Rayburn House Office Building Washington, DC 20515


CO-PERFORMER: Judah Ariel (Rep. Earl Blumenauer)

his presentation outlines the views of Congressman Earl Blumenauer on the issues of military sustainability and unexploded ordnance (UXO) on current and former Department

of Defense sites. It will outline his past and future efforts to enhance the funding for research and development that will lead to new technologies for the detection and discrimination of UXO, highlighting the additional funds added for the Wide Area Assessment Pilot Program. Finally, the presentation will articulate his vision for the newly formed UXO Congressional Caucus.

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D-44

ESTCP WIDE AREA ASSESSMENT PILOT PROGRAM

DR. HERB NELSON Naval Research Laboratory

Code 6110 Washington, DC 20375-5342


pproximately 1,400 DoD sites, comprising about 10 million acres, are suspected of containing unexploded ordnance (UXO). A typical site is thousands of acres; many exceed

10,000 acres. Using traditional methods, remediation of such large areas would cost tens of billions of dollars. However, according to some estimates, no more than 20 percent of those 10 million suspected acres are actually contaminated with UXO. Thus, finding a technology or combination of technologies to accurately delineate the contaminated areas on each site would significantly reduce the actual area that would require a site investigation and response, allowing limited cleanup resources to be used more effectively. The Defense Science Board (DSB) Task Force on Unexploded Ordnance issued a series of recommendations about this problem in their December 2003 report [http://www.acq.osd.mil/dsb/uxo.pdf]. Recommendation 1 was “Institute a national area assessment of the identified 10 million acres [of land involved].” They elaborate on this recommendation saying “The Task Force envisions an intensive five-year campaign to assess all 10 million acres with the goal of delineating where the UXO are and where they are not. This campaign would use the full range of techniques and instruments including the helicopter-borne sensor where applicable.” ESTCP is charged with promoting innovative, cost-effective environmental technologies by demonstrating and validating those technologies. In response to the DSB Task Force report and recent Congressional interest, ESTCP has designed a Wide Area Assessment Pilot Program that consists of demonstrations at three FUDS sites (Pueblo Precision Bombing Range #2, Former Kirtland Bombing Targets N1 and N3, and the Military Wash Area in the Borrego (CA) Maneuver Area) to validate the application of a number of recently developed and validated technologies as a comprehensive approach to Wide Area Assessment. The objectives of this pilot program are to: • Demonstrate the effectiveness of investigation technologies in supporting decisions

concerning large former range areas. The role of those technologies includes: (1) Locating areas of concentrated use of munitions (e.g., target areas, open burning/open detonation areas); (2) Characterizing the nature and extent of munitions contamination to support planning, prioritization, and cleanup decisions; and (3) Collecting data that will support decisions on areas where there is no indication of munitions contamination.

• Understand the effects of site specific factors such as terrain, vegetation, and ordnance

type that will affect applicability and limitations of the technologies.

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D-45

HIGH DENSITY LIDAR AND ORTHOPHOTOGRAPHY IN WIDE AREA ASSESSMENT

THOMAS TOMCZYK

URS Corporation 1501 4th Avenue

Suite 1400 Seattle, WA 98101


CO-PERFORMERS: Dale Bennett (URS Corp.); Dave Neufeldt (Terra Remote Sensing, Inc.)

RS Corporation and Terra Remote Sensing, Inc. were awarded Environmental Security Technology Certification Program funding to perform a Wide Area Assessment

demonstration project at a site in New Mexico. The overall objective of the project is to utilize LiDAR and orthophotography to identify features indicative of Munitions Response Sites on the ground surface, (e.g., craters, burial trenches, vehicle tracks, or target debris). Specific performance objectives include the establishment of the following: • Appropriate densities of LiDAR points to delineate specific feature types and sizes. • Appropriate resolution of orthophotos to best delineates surface features. • Probability of detection of specific feature types at various data densities. • False alarm rate for each feature type at various data densities. • Positional accuracy of identified features. • Ability of LiDAR and orthophoto data to contribute to classification of patterns of

disturbance. • Ability of LiDAR and orthophoto data to contribute to conceptual site models. LiDAR and orthophotography data collection was performed at the 5000-acre project site over three consecutive days in August 2005. Approximately 25 gigabytes of LiDAR and orthophoto data were received and processed, including digital photos at 10 and 20 cm pixel sizes, and four separate LiDAR flights were flown to collect data at altitudes of 300, 450, and 900 meters. The combination of LiDAR and orthophotos revealed features on the ground surface that may not have been detected with a single technique. Small objects on the ground surface, which could not be easily distinguished from the LiDAR data, were visible on the orthophotos, while some target features such as bulls-eyes and crosshairs, as well as craters, which were not visible in the photos, could clearly be seen in the LiDAR-derived surface models. Increasing the data density of both LiDAR and orthophotos resulted in an increase in the detection rate of features on the ground surface. For LiDAR, this effect was pronounced between the 900 meter flight and the 450 meter flight, but diminished thereafter.

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D-46

HELICOPTER MAGNETOMETRY CHARACTERIZATION: INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY FOR WIDE AREA ASSESSMENT

JOHN E. FOLEY, PH.D.

Sky Research, Inc. 15 Douglas Road

Lowell, MA 01852 (978) 458-9807

[email protected]

CO-PERFORMERS: Raul Fonda; Sky; Meggan Pickner; Larry Devries; Jerrod Davis

ide Area Assessment (WAA) is a scaled application of remote sensing and geospatial technologies, designed to efficiently map unexploded ordnance (UXO) and ordnance-

related features (ORFs) of a munitions response area (MRA). WAA mapping technologies can be classified into three types according to acquisition rate, feature resolution and data acquisition cost per unit area: high airborne, low airborne, and ground systems. Helicopter-based magnetometer technology (HeliMag) is a low airborne technology that provides highly efficient digital geophysical mapping for UXO with detection and feature discrimination capabilities approaching ground-based methods. HeliMag deployments are limited primarily by terrain, vegetation and on-site structures which affect safe low-altitude flight. HeliMag datasets are integrated with other WAA technologies, including LiDAR, Very Large Scale Orthophotography and Hyperspectral Imaging datasets from high airborne systems. HeliMag data is currently being collected for ESTCP’s WAA Pilot Program at Kirtland AFB Precision Bombing Ranges in New Mexico and Pueblo Precision Bombing Range #2 in Colorado. Integration of the HeliMag datasets with the high airborne and ground system datasets allows for multiple-sensor delineation and cross-confirmation of target and range features and derivation of munitions and explosives of concern spatial distribution patterns. The goal is to establish technically achievable and regulator-acceptable processes for characterizing large MRAs, including the delineation of associated Munitions Response Sites (MRS), and provision of reliable data to support regulatory disposition of non-MRS portions of the MRA and to support risk analysis and cost estimation by site remediation contractors. This system is also currently being deployed for production surveys over the Former Lowry Bombing and Gunnery Range in Colorado test plot and over five separate bombing targets. The HeliMag system includes integration of an array seven total field Cesium vapor magnetometers interfaced to a data acquisition computer mounted in a Bell 206 Long Ranger helicopter, with real-time kinematic GPS for navigation and sensor positioning. Merged HeliMag sensor and position data files are converted to magnetic anomaly maps using Geosoft Oasis montaj. Anomalies are selected and classified and converted to vector point tables for inclusion into the GIS-based conceptual site model for further analysis and MRS characterization modeling. Filtered sensor data points are also interpolated into magnitude surface rasters using GIS-based interpolation scripts and incorporated into the geodatabase as seamless images for visualization and background for the anomaly point displays.

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D-47

TRANSECT DESIGN AND TARGET AREA IDENTIFICATION APPROACH FOR THE PUEBLO PRECISION BOMBING AND PATTERN GUNNERY RANGE #2

WAA SITE

BRENT PULSIPHER Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

P.O. Box 999, MS-K6-08 Richland, WA 99352


CO-PERFORMERS: John Hathaway (PNNL); Craig McKinstry (PNNL);

Sean McKenna (SNL); Barry Roberts (SNL)

STCP is conducting a Wide Area Assessment demonstration project to evaluate and demonstrate several pertinent technologies on actual sites. Statistical tools developed by

PNNL and SNL for transect design, target area identification and delineation, and anomaly density estimation were chosen along with other technologies for this demonstration. This presentation will focus on the approach and assumptions used to determine the spacing for and number of transects required to ensure a high probability of detecting high anomaly density target areas. The presentation will show the use of Visual Sample Plan (VSP) software for transect design and for flagging and bounding suspect target areas using actual geophysical transect data. The effects on the approach with and without additional information from Lidar and high resolution photography data will also be discussed.

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D-48

EMERGING RESULTS – ESTCP WIDE AREA ASSESSMENT PILOT PROGRAM

DR. ANNE ANDREWS SERDP/ESTCP

901 North Stuart Street Suite 303

Arlington, VA 22203 (703) 696-2117

[email protected]

nder the Wide Area Assessment (WAA) Pilot Project, ESTCP has been demonstrating technologies that can identify and characterize the portions of suspected munitions-

contaminated sites that actually contain munitions, as well as identify those areas that are free of contamination. The program has two main objectives: To demonstrate technologies on a large scale under real world conditions and to understand the technical capabilities and limitations of the technologies for broader application to other sites. Multiple technologies have been applied to each of three 5000-acre sites. Analysis will focus on the relative contributions of the technologies, both singly and combination, to the overall characterization and understanding of the site. The technologies include: • High altitude airborne LIDAR and Orthophotography • Low altitude helicopter-borne magnetometry • Statistically planned ground transects collected with towed magnetometer and

electromagnetic induction (EMI) arrays. Initial validation geophysics surveys have been completed. Areas of interest identified by the WAA technologies have been mapped at 100% coverage by ground-based towed array systems. The primary goal of these surveys has been to confirm target areas and to establish cultural and other background responses to aid in interpretation of the WAA data. Additional ground-based geophysics, digging, and on-the-ground reconnaissance are planned for early 2006. The contribution of each technology at each site to conclusions regarding areas of confirmed munitions contamination, areas that show no evidence of munitions contamination, and the corresponding level of certainty will be evaluated, as will the required scope of validation activities. To the extent possible, the pilot project will address the applicability of these technologies to sites beyond those characterized in the pilot program. This talk will provide a snapshot of the current results and emerging conclusions of this program.

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D-49


SUSTAINABLE DOD FACILITIES AND COMMUNITIES

Sustainable DoD Facilities and Communities Technical Session No. 3A

D-51

KEYNOTE ADDRESS THE ARMY’S SUSTAINABILITY STRATEGY:

WHAT’S TECHNOLOGY GOT TO DO WITH IT?

GEORGE CARELLAS Army Environmental Center

101 Marietta Street, Suite 3120 Atlanta , GA 30303

(404) 524-5061, Ext. 226 [email protected]

roviding good technology has always been difficult and challenging. After all, change itself is difficult and challenging, with Technology Transfer quickly becoming a very complex,

tricky business. The Army has embarked on an exciting, aggressive new strategy for the environment which builds on the success of the past 15 years with technology becoming an even more essential component for meeting its suststainability goals. This presentation will discuss that strategy and the unique opportunities afforded to the technology community. In fact, the Army’s new Strategy is specifically designed to break down walls and barriers, allowing Technology Transfer to be more focused, more meaningful, more rewarding, and more sustainable. You will ultimately determine the success of the Army’s strategy; so it is very important that the Army’s strategy help you succeed. This presentation will focus on how it all fits together...and why!

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D-52

RED-YELLOW-GREEN STRATEGY FOR MISSION SUSTAINMENT

ANTHONY M. PARISI Naval Air Systems Command Ranges Department

575 I Avenue, Suite 1 Point Mugu, CA 93042-5049


CO-PERFORMER: Dwight Deakin (Air Force Flight Test Center, Edwards AFB, CA)

he Tehachapi area of California is one of the most productive wind resource areas in the country. It also lies within the R-2508 Complex and under several low-level Military

Training Routes (MTR) and Special Use Airspace (SUA). Based on National Green Energy Policy, there is increasing pressure to expand the wind generation capacity in the area from a current 600 Mega Watts (MW) to 4,000 MW using taller, more efficient turbines. As these turbines get taller, they can significantly impact the low-level (Most are 200 ft Above Ground Level (AGL) and some are as low as surface) SUA and MTRs that are critical to both testing and training. Turbine heights are currently nearly 400 feet (blade tip to ground) and will exceed 500 feet in the near future. Additionally, the number of turbines and locations of the farms can impact critical quiet radar testing areas and Terrain Following Routes. The sustainability/encroachment leads for the Naval Air Systems Command Weapons Division and the Air Force Flight Test Center worked with the wind industry to identify the areas currently developed and those targeted for expansion. In addition, a DoD group composed of operators, airspace experts and sustainability professionals was formed to define those areas the industry could develop with various height limits that wouldn’t impact the testing and training mission. All mapping of wind resource areas and military operating areas is GIS based. Agreement was reached with the industry on height and location limitations using a color coded system (“Red-Yellow-Green”). Kern County, the jurisdiction responsible for private land use in the affected area, adopted an ordinance to implement the system and included a color-coded map in the ordinance. The ordinance applies to all structures, not just wind turbines. Since the ordinance applies only to land under county jurisdiction, discussions with other land-use jurisdictions in the area, e.g. BLM and surrounding counties, are underway and reaction is positive. There has also been interest in Nevada and Arizona and at the National level. Lessons learned: (1) Early engagement with both individual project proponents and industry associations is critical. (2) A robust GIS system that utilizes accurate data that can be shared with the industry, project proponents and land use jurisdictions is essential. (3) Engaging land use decision makers from a regional (joint DoD) perspective is crucial to the success of the negotiations. (4) A dedicated DoD lead (physically located in the area) is also crucial to success and will help build the necessary relationships and keep the project moving forward.

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D-53

GREEN BUILDINGS: LESSONS LEARNED

DENNIS CREECH SOUTHFACE

241 Pine St., N.E. Atlanta, GA 30308


reen building is the design, construction and operation of facilities to save energy, water and natural resources while enhancing occupant health, comfort and productivity. This

presentation will discuss the principles of high-performance green buildings and their surrounding environments; provide an overview of emerging green building materials and design strategies; and review educational resources and market trends.

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D-54

SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE FACILITIES AND COMMUNITIES

DR. JOHN P. THORNTON

National Renewable Energy Laboratory 1617 Cole Boulevard Golden, CO 80401


nergy from the sun can be used for heating water, the generation of electricity, space heating and producing hydrogen and other chemical feed stocks. Used alone or in conjunction with

other renewable resources such as wind or geothermal, solar energy technologies can be used to create totally self-sufficient facilities or to contribute to self-sustaining communities. The successful design of a self-sustaining facility or community does not happen by change. It results from the application of well-proven approaches and design methodologies that are readily available today, as well as the careful selection of materials and equipment. The use of solar technologies in sustainable facilities has been demonstrated repeatedly. The primary barrier still remaining to the widespread use of solar technologies is cost. Cost can often be kept at manageable levels by taking full advantage of energy efficient design, materials and equipment to drive a proposed facility’s energy use to a minimum. Every BTU or watt not used is one that doesn’t have to be generated. Solar can also contribute substantially towards creating a sustainable community. Since the concept of a sustainable community implies other needs such as transportation, a designer should consider using all available renewable resources and technologies, including alternative fuels such as biodiesel or ethanol. Similar to a self-sustaining building, the lowest cost will result from the aggressive application of energy efficiency. This presentation will show examples of solar technologies that can be used for facilities consisting of a single building or for an entire community. It will also outline an approach that has been successfully used by the staff of NREL and other national laboratories to incorporate solar technologies into fully self-sustaining facilities while minimizing cost, and which can be expanded towards the development of self-sustaining communities. Examples will be provided to demonstrate how the individual steps in the process affect the resulting design.

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D-55

PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABILITY

SUMMER L. WILKES Marstel-Day, Inc.

218 North Lee Street, Suite 300 Alexandria, VA 22314


he idea of sustainability is not a new one. Indeed, it has been the goal of those interested in a good quality of life for centuries. To put it simply, sustainability is a dynamic process for

meeting the needs of both the present and the future through clear thinking and sound planning, without compromising or forsaking some needs to meet other needs, and keeping those needs met for the long-term. It is both effectiveness and efficiency, the using and maximizing of resources to their fullest potential, and even generating more from less. In the realm of urban and community planning, it means those solutions that facilitate the formation of great neighborhoods, safe and healthy and vibrant cities and towns, and intact natural ecosystems, while at the same time using land in a way that reduces costs and aids social and economic productivity. It is in this light that ideas will be discussed for making Department of Defense facilities and communities more sustainable. During the presentation, examples of the latest thinking on sustainable community design will be discussed, particularly solutions generated by innovative “green building” and other cutting edge environmental organizations, and by the Congress for the New Urbanism, a group of planners and architects who are in the forefront of community design for maximum quality of life. Many solutions generated in the civilian realm are readily applicable to military installations and the interface between military lands and the communities that surround them. Effective planning technology will also be highlighted, in particular the use of “charrettes” or public workshops to build design consensus. Design charrettes are a powerful tool for bringing together diverse interests and disciplinary expertise to explore options and generate practical ideas and potential solutions. Charrettes encourage discussion beyond conventional thinking, and tend to sensitize participants to the needs of all parties involved. They can be an effective and efficient means for testing ideas, strategies and the feasibility of design solutions that seek to incorporate multiple goals and interests. Existing communities can be retrofitted and new communities can be built to be increasingly sustainable using the intelligence we have today, if the right policies and partnerships are in place. The presentation will briefly mention some ways on how to structure such policies and partnerships to achieve goals of sustainability.

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D-56

THINKING LIKE A SYSTEM

KEVIN PALMER SAIC

245 Ridge McIntire Road Charlottesville, VA 22903


n this presentation, information will be provided on the Army’s approach to creating sustainable installations. Specifically, discussion will cover (1) how the Army is exploring

installation and community “systems” to resolve sustainability considerations; (2) how it is developing an understanding of their installation systems; and (3) how system solutions may be used to simultaneously reduce operational cost, environmental impacts, and safe guard community well-being. Examples will be presented of installation system solutions that the Army is exploring, developing, and implementing in their efforts to create sustainable installations.

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D-57


PERCHLORATE REMEDIATION AND TREATMENT

Perchlorate Remediation and Treatment Technical Session No. 3B

D-59

KEYNOTE ADDRESS BUILDING ON LESSONS LEARNED FROM PERCHLORATE TO TRANSFORM

DOD PRACTICES ON EMERGING CONTAMINANTS

SHANNON E. CUNNIFF OADUSD(ESOH) - MERIT

3400 Defense Pentagon Suite 1500

Washington, DC 20301-3400 (703) 604-1529

[email protected]

he situations of perchlorate contamination at Massachusetts Military Reservation and Aberdeen Proving Grounds have demonstrated that emerging contaminants can halt training

and testing on ranges and thus affect readiness. Building on the lessons learned from perchlorate contamination, DoD is establishing Materials of Evolving Regulatory Interest Team (MERIT) to address environmental, health, and safety concerns related to materials that are not currently regulated, or that may be subject to new regulatory standards. These materials were, are, or may be used by DoD. MERIT is pursuing strategic process reforms, scanning the horizon for emerging issues, ensuring more cohesive assessment and management of risks, and creating and conducting effective communications with customers and stakeholders. Each of these areas will be discussed. This presentation will review how MERIT is organized, and explain how it interfaces with the science and technology communities. It will inform session participants how they can join the MERIT community to receive, search and/or provide information to help reduce risks to DoD mission success by addressing emerging contaminants. This presentation will also review current emerging contaminant challenges facing DoD and provide participants an early warning on chemicals with increased potential of regulation. This presentation will likewise provide an overview of key activities being conducted by the MERIT community to identify research gaps and priorities related to emerging contaminant issues.

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D-60

TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES FOR PERCHLORATE-CONTAMINATED EFFLUENTS

EDWARD N. COPPOLA

Applied Research Associates, Inc. 430 West 5th Street, Suite 700

Panama City, FL 32401 (850) 914-3188

[email protected]

CO-PERFORMERS: Steve Baxley (Applied Research Associates, Inc.); Andrea Davis (Applied Research Associates, Inc.)

The capability to treat effluents from the demilitarization and production of energetic material in an economical and environmentally acceptable manner is essential to the current and future operations of DoD installations. The focus of this presentation is ex-situ treatment technologies for groundwater remediation and aqueous effluents from demilitarization and production of propellants, explosives, and munitions that contain perchlorate, nitrate, and other energetic materials. The status of two, full-scale biodegradation systems located at ATK Thiokol Propulsion, Promontory, Utah, and at Hodgdon Powder Company’s Pyrodex gunpowder production plant near Herington, Kansas will be discussed. Preliminary data will be presented on the treatment of effluents from insensitive explosive formulations such as PAX-21 and AFX-757 that contain perchlorate and other energetic compounds. Treatment of ion exchange brine and similar high-strength effluents from primary treatment processes will provide flexible, efficient, treatment approaches for diverse applications. Treatment of waste brine using membrane bioreactors and the treatment of high-strength wastewater using non-regenerable ion exchange processes will also be discussed.


D-61

PERCHLORATE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES: TAKING IT TO THE TAP

HEATHER L. COLLINS California Department of Health Services

Government Center 464 West 4th Street, Suite 437

San Bernardino, CA 92401 (909) 383-4328

[email protected]

ince perchlorate detections first surfaced in the source waters of domestic water supplies in 1997, water utilities and regulatory agencies have, out of necessity, come to depend on

technology to reduce the concentrations of perchlorate to acceptable levels to minimize the health risk in water that is served to their customers. The implementation, operation, and approval of perchlorate treatment technologies for the production of potable drinking water require additional barriers from those of remedial installations for non-potable purposes. It is important to build treatment barriers to be reliable in order to ensure consistent quality of product because they represent the only barrier between the source water and the consumer. The growing concerns and high costs associated with perchlorate treatment serve to illustrate the technical and economic ramifications of attempting to reverse the environmental impacts of past practices. Risk managers and regulators recognize that decisions made regarding the use of impaired sources, given the uncertainty and limitations associated with current scientific tools, will never be risk-free. No human engineered endeavor is without risk, but with appropriate barriers (including watershed protections, monitoring, testing, treatment, process control, and industrial source control programs), the risk associated with marginal sources is tolerable. Currently, one of the least expensive and most applied technologies to date for full-scale drinking water plants is ion exchange. Biological reduction is seeing increasing application in remediation situations and one configuration of this process has received conditional acceptance from the California Department of Health Services. While biological reduction of chlorate to chloride ion is viewed to be an effective alternative, only demonstration scale projects have been performed. There are currently no permitted full-scale installations. In California, the biological fluidized bed reactor, together with ion exchange is expected to be identified as the two technologies that are cost-effective based on full-scale field applications. These technologies are capable of reducing perchlorate to below the 4 ppb quantitation level. This presentation will provide an overview of the treatment technologies which are currently installed, operating and permitted for the production of drinking water. Other environmental technologies in the process of being evaluated at the pilot and demonstration scale will also be highlighted. The successful implementation of any alternative treatment process results from carefully measured responses as the process is evaluated from pilot to full-scale studies.

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D-62

REMEDIATION OF PERCHLORATE IN SOIL: EMERGING VIEWS, REMEDIATION CONCEPTS AND CASE STUDY

EVAN COX

Geosyntec Consultants 130 Research Lane, Suite 2

Guelph, ON N1G 5G3 (519) 822-2230, Ext. 237

[email protected]

ontamination related to the production, handling and use of rocket propellants, explosives, flares and fireworks has been identified as a national problem affecting the drinking water

supplies of more 20 million people in the North America. Over the past seven years, significant resources have been devoted to the development and commercialization of remediation technologies for perchlorate-impacted groundwater, and particularly drinking water. During this period, the remediation of perchlorate-impacted soils has gone largely ignored. Now, as most sites begin to achieve containment of perchlorate in their groundwater, regulators and site owners are beginning, with increasing frequency, to turn attention to the problem of perchlorate contaminated soils, in an effort to curtail continuing impacts form soil to groundwater and surface waters. While at first glance, soil concentrations at many sites are already below preliminary remedial goals (PRGs; 7.8 mg/kg residential; 100 mg/kg industrial), the ability of perchlorate to impact groundwater and surface water through infiltration or overland flow will likely require estimation of site-specific cleanup levels (SSLs) for many sites, and these SSLs are likely to be orders of magnitude lower than the PRGs. For example, at two sites in Santa Clara Valley, California, site-specific cleanup levels of 0.02 and 0.05 mg/kg were derived for remediation of perchlorate-impacted soils, and these values have been adopted by regulatory agencies as remediation goals for the respective sites. Of the remediation options available for perchlorate-impacted soils, bioremediation appears to be the most promising and cost-effective. Bacteria present in soil at almost all sites can readily biodegrade perchlorate to innocuous end products when provided with carbon-based electron donors. The key challenge to successful soil bioremediation is delivery and mixing of the electron donors with the perchlorate-affected media. Shallow, accessible soils (e.g., to depths of 15 feet) can be treated by either excavation and ex situ anaerobic composting (a process first reported by Cox et al., 1999) or by surface infiltration of electron donors (a process first reported by Borch et al., 2001), provided soil permeability is reasonable. Early applications of these technologies demonstrated effective bioremediation of soils containing perchlorate in excess of 3,500 mg/kg to less than 0.3 mg/kg within weeks to months. Treatment of deeper soils presents unique challenges for electron donor delivery. Specifically, projects attempting deep injection/infiltration of electron donors through large vadose zones (e.g., greater than 30 feet thickness) have often been unable to control and effectively monitor the distribution of the added amendments, limiting the ability to properly validate bioremediation performance. While the concept of gas-phase electron donor addition (e.g., ethanol vapor, propane, hydrogen) has been discussed in open forum since at least 2000, there is unfortunately still little compelling laboratory or field data to support this approach at field scale. This presentation will summarize the current status of soil remediation technologies, and will highlight the status of emerging technologies to address complex perchlorate remediation challenges in deep subsurface environments and low permeability materials.

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D-63

PASSIVE TREATMENT APPROACHES FOR PERCHLORATE

DR. ROBERT C. BORDEN North Carolina State University

Mann Hall, Stinson Street Campus Box 7908

Raleigh, NC 27695 (919) 515-1625

[email protected]

CO-PERFORMERS: Tony Lieberman; Christie Zawtocki; Sheri Knox

roundwater and surface water contaminated with perchlorate is a major environmental issue for the US Department of Defense (DoD) due to the use, release and/or disposal of solid

rocket fuel and munitions containing ammonium perchlorate. Perchlorate is a highly mobile, soluble salt that sorbs poorly to most aquifer materials. However, recent research has shown that a diverse array of bacteria can anaerobically degrade perchlorate to chloride and oxygen. These organisms appear to be widespread in the environment and can use a variety of different organic substrates as electron donors for perchlorate reduction. SERDP and ESTCP are supporting research on a variety of passive treatment approaches for management of perchlorate plumes including use of emulsified edible oils for in situ anaerobic bioremediation, organic mulch permeable reactive barriers, and monitored natural attenuation. Biologically active permeable reactive barriers can be formed to control downgradient migration of dissolved perchlorate by injecting emulsified soybean oil through lines of temporary or permanent injection wells. At a rocket manufacturing facility, a single injection of emulsified oil was effective in reducing perchlorate concentrations from over 10,000 µg/L to less than 4 µg/L for over two years. Based on the success of this initial pilot study, emulsified oil is now being used to treat the upgradient perchlorate source area. Anaerobic biodegradation of perchlorate can also be enhanced using mulch biowalls. As groundwater is transported through the biowall by the natural hydraulic gradient, perchlorate is degraded by naturally occurring bacteria using the mulch and compost as an electron donor. A biowall is being constructed and monitored to evaluate perchlorate treatment efficiency and develop design criteria of these systems. Ideally, biowalls could operate effectively for 5 to 10 years with little or no maintenance. At some sites, Monitored Natural Attenuation (MNA) alone may be appropriate for management of perchlorate plumes. Preliminary monitoring results at sites throughout the US suggest that perchlorate may be degrading without any human intervention using natural and/or anthropogenic organic carbon as an electron donor for perchlorate reduction. At other sites, source removal in conjunction with advective and dispersive transport may be effective in reducing perchlorate concentrations to below regulatory levels. Detailed monitoring studies are now beginning at two sites to document the rate and extent of perchlorate attenuation under ambient conditions.

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D-64

ACTIVE IN SITU TREATMENT SYSTEMS FOR PERCHLORATE IN GROUNDWATER

PAUL B. HATZINGER, PH.D.

Shaw Environmental, Inc. Lawrenceville, NJ 08648


CO-PERFORMERS: Jay Diebold, P.E., P.G. (Shaw Environmental);

Mark Goltz, Ph.D. (Air Force Institute of Technology); Thomas A. Krug, M.Sc., P.E. (Geosyntec Consultants); Scott Neville (Aerojet); Randy Cramer, Ph.D. (IHDIV NSWC);

H. Eric Nuttall (University of New Mexico)

aboratory studies reveal that perchlorate-reducing bacteria are indigenous in many groundwater aquifers and that these organisms can utilize a wide variety or organic and

inorganic substrates as electron donors for perchlorate reduction. These data suggest that in situ treatment of perchlorate in groundwater through electron donor addition will have broad applications. There are two primary approaches to delivering electron donor to the subsurface: (1) engineered treatment systems that actively mix soluble electron donors into groundwater, usually via groundwater recirculation; and (2) passive systems with slow-release electron donors that utilize natural groundwater flow for substrate distribution. This presentation will focus on the design and application of active in situ treatment systems. Several different designs have undergone field testing, including both continuous and intermittent groundwater extraction-reinjection systems and horizontal flow treatment wells (HFTWs), which establish a groundwater recirculation zone without bringing water to the surface. The main advantage of active treatment systems is that they provide wide zone of influence and superior mixing of electron donor with perchlorate-contaminated groundwater. The key disadvantage is that the system pumping wells are prone to biofouling, which leads to significant maintenance issues and costs. The results from three SERDP/ESTCP-funded field projects employing different active treatment system designs will be presented. The first demonstration, which was conducted at the Indian Head Division, Naval Surface Warfare Center (IHDIV NSWC) in Indian Head, MD, utilized a groundwater extraction-reinjection design to mix electron donor and buffer into a shallow aquifer impacted with perchlorate at levels as high as 230 mg/L. The second demonstration, which is ongoing, is examining the effectiveness of a HFTW system for in situ perchlorate treatment within a deep aquifer at the Aerojet site in Rancho Cordova, CA. Various biofouling control and treatment approaches tested during this field study will also be discussed. The third project is being conducted at the Longhorn Army Ammunition Plant (LHAAP) in Karnack, TX. This demonstration system employs a series of injection and extraction wells, which serve as a cut-off barrier for perchlorate emanating from a closed landfill. Rather than running continuously, however, these wells are designed to pump only intermittently to promote electron donor mixing throughout the barrier. After the mixing period, the barrier operates as a passive treatment system. The design, operational parameters, and field data from all three systems will be discussed.

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D-65


UXO PART II: EMERGING DETECTION AND DISCRIMINATION TECHNOLOGIES

UXO Part II: Emerging Detection and Discrimination Technologies Technical Session No. 3C

D-67

KEYNOTE ADDRESS STATUS OF UXO TECHNOLOGIES AND CHALLENGES OF

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

JOHN D. ALLAN NAEVA Geophysics, Inc.

P.O. Box 7325 Charlottesville, VA 22906


urrently, UXO contamination assessments and remediation are being carried out with a variety of geophysical techniques, both analogue and digital. Techniques are selected on a

project-by-project basis based on site conditions, cost, project manager past experience and preference, projected land use, QA plans, and degree of regulator oversight. In some cases, such as in severe terrain conditions or highly contaminated (saturated) sites, digital geophysical mapping (DGM) may not be appropriate or useful. But on many sites that are suitable for DGM, significant barriers to the use of digital methods and advanced post processing techniques exist. These barriers limit the current use of proven methods and hinder the successful transition of newly developed technologies. There are no regulations requiring use of digital mapping methods … these decisions are typically left to the individual project manager. They tend to favor “quick, simple, and low cost methods” to meet their scheduling and budgetary goals. Digital techniques and advanced processing procedures are not necessarily, or at least are not perceived as necessarily consistent with these goals. Regulator QA is sporadic and variable in degree. Implementation of discrimination techniques is in its infancy, and is being applied, in some cases, without full consideration as to the consequences. The needed risk / benefit analysis dialogue has not yet taken place, much less approached resolution. Implications of transferring newly developed technologies:…“If I build it, they will come” … not necessarily! Significant challenges to acceptance of new sensors and discrimination techniques remain.

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D-68

GEOSOFT CAPABILITIES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN UXO SOFTWARE

NICHOLAS C. VALLEAU Geosoft, Inc.

85 Richmond Street West 8th Floor

Toronto, ON, Canada M5H 2C9 (416) 369-0111, Ext. 348

[email protected]

eosoft has been developing commercial software for UXO detection and analysis for over 10 years. “UX-Detect” has become an industry standard for UXO geophysics data

processing, mapping and analysis, including automated target picking and size/depth/weight analysis. Supported by ESTCP funding since 2001, Geosoft has also worked with USACE to develop an extensive suite of tools to deal with QA/QC issues and other specialised requirements for UXO detection. Initial development of this “DoD QAQC” package focussed primarily on USACE Quality Control and Quality Assurance requirements. The package has now been renamed to “UX-Process,” to reflect the expansion of functionality for improved survey planning, data corrections and detection methods. The software operates within Geosoft’s Oasis montaj (OM) data processing environment. Many research advances in UXO analysis and discrimination, as well as other areas such as survey planning, are now approaching maturity. Oasis montaj provides a common database structure and powerful graphical and mapping capabilities for integrating these emerging technologies and algorithms. This integration approach benefits software users as they can access the capabilities from different research groups, working coherently in one environment. It also benefits the R&D groups by making their technology available to the industry without having to build specialised data handling, viewing and mapping capabilities which are not part of their core business of R&D. AETC’s UX-Analyze project, including algorithms developed by UBC / Sky Research, is already built into this environment and is currently in peer review and testing stages. The current UXO tools are provided in two separate menu systems within Oasis montaj (UX-Detect and UX-Process). To accommodate new and improved analysis and discrimination capabilities over the next few years, a new menu system is being developed to incorporate all current and future developments into a seamless workflow for the user. Both commercial and public domain software tools will be included in such a way that the user will follow a logical workflow regardless of which combination of available UXO modules is loaded on their computer. Geosoft has created a first draft of this workflow design, with implementation planned for 2006. In the longer term, there are a number of exciting directions. Geosoft will continue to be an implementer of new UXO software technologies being developed by the R&D community. Web-based services are already being implemented for many software applications. Improved rapid access to public or secure geospatial data will enhance communications and response times significantly. Geosoft is involved in initiatives on these technology fronts and they will be examined for relevance in the UXO industry as appropriate.

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D-69

SIMULTANEOUS DEPLOYMENT OF A TOTAL FIELD MAGNETOMETER AND EMI SENSOR FOR UXO

DAVID J. WRIGHT AETC Incorporated

120 Quade Drive Cary, NC 27513


CO-PERFORMER: Hollis H. (Jay) Bennett (USACOE ERDC)

lectromagnetic induction (EMI) and total magnetic field surveys are the two primary geophysical technologies used for UXO detection. Handheld EMI sensors perform better

against shallow UXO items, and can detect non-ferrous sub-munitions. Cesium vapor magnetometers are effective against large, deep ordnance items that handheld EMI sensors cannot detect; however, they do not respond to non-ferrous objects. On sites requiring the use of both technologies, the cost of collecting these data sets is significantly reduced if they could be collected simultaneously in a single survey. In addition, simultaneous data acquisition provides precise relative positioning of the two data sets. This precision, particularly in the vertical dimension, is a prerequisite for the successful application of advanced joint/cooperative inversion algorithms currently under development. The technical barrier to simultaneous collection of EMI and total magnetic field data lies in the deleterious effect of the EMI transmitted field on the magnetic field measured by the Cesium vapor magnetometers. These magnetometers will track low frequency oscillations of the magnetic field, but at frequencies >>200 Hz they simply measure the average effect of these oscillations. Thus, the large amplitude, low frequency components of a time domain EM field distort the measured geomagnetic field; but a constant wave, frequency domain EM (FDEM) sensor operating at >>200 Hz only induces an offset in the measured magnetic data. The magnitude of this offset is a function of the strength and orientation of the transmitted EMI field relative to the Earth’s geomagnetic field vector. In 2003, AETC successfully integrated a Geometrics model 823A Cs magnetometer with a prototype FDEM sensor (EM73) operating at a single frequency of 9.8 kHz. This sensor was built by Geonics Limited specifically for this project. In a follow-on project completed in 2005, the same magnetometer was integrated with a GEM-3 EM sensor. This is a commercially available multi-frequency sensor produced by Geophex Ltd. We will discuss the technical issues involved in these projects and present the results of bench and field tests.

E


D-70

ADVANCED UXO DISCRIMINATION: PRELIMINARY LIVE-SITE RESULTS USING REMANENT MAGNETIZATION

STEPHEN BILLINGS, PH.D.

Sky Research, Inc. 445 Dead Indian Memorial Road

Ashland, OR 97520 (604) 506-9206

[email protected]

CO-PERFORMER: Clif Youmans (Montana Army National Guard)

ost unexploded ordnance are steel and therefore ferromagnetic. On impact with the ground, any remanent magnetization is partially erased so that a round’s magnetization is

predominantly induced. Consequently, a discrimination method can be developed using magnetic data based on estimating remanent magnetization for different munition items. This theory is being tested in SERDP project MM-1380 (Advanced UXO Discrimination Using Magnetometry: Understanding Remanent Magnetization), and preliminary data has shown that remanent magnetization can be used successfully to improve discrimination performance and reliability. Between October 2004 and June 2005, Sky Research collected magnetic survey data over 280 acres at Chevallier Ranch, a Montana Army National Guard live site. The data has been processed and interpreted and approximately 5,500 anomalies have been identified. For each anomaly, the magnetic remanence discriminant was calculated using the UXOLab package. Because the expected munition items present at the site were known, the data was interpreted to classify the anomalies as specific munitions types or as non-munitions items. However, for validation purposes this information was not used to make any excavation decisions. This enabled the performance of this discrimination metric to be evaluated without bias, as would occur if the remanence estimation occurred after the validation information was available. The entire 280 acres have been validated and 2,277 anomalies have been excavated, out of which 144 UXO have been recovered (99 live-rounds and 45 emplaced rounds). Our research shows that had the remanence discriminator been used to make excavation decisions, less than 1/3 of the anomalies excavated thus far would have been required to recover all detected UXO. Therefore, significant cost savings could have been achieved had remanent magnetization been used for discrimination. In addition, a closer look at rounds with high predicted remanence shows that most of them had some type of data problem (incomplete coverage, inaccurate positioning). We formulate a “Figure of Merit” for each anomaly that can be used to further improve discrimination performance.

M


D-71

A MULTISENSOR SYSTEM FOR THE DETECTION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF UXO

DR. ERIKA GASPERIKOVA

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory One Cyclotron Road

MS: 90R1116 Berkeley, CA 94720


CO-PERFORMERS: H.F. Morrison (LBNL); A. Becker (LBNL); J.T. Smith (LBNL)

n optimally designed field prototype of an active electromagnetic system has been developed for detection and characterization of UXO. The field prototype system is based

on a triaxial transmitter, and eight pairs of differenced receivers. The transmitter-receiver assembly together with the drive electronics and signal detection hardware, as well as the battery power and global positioning system (GPS) receiver, is mounted on a small cart to assure system mobility. An important feature of the design is that the principal polarizabilities and size of a metallic target can be determined from a single position of the platform. The system employs a bipolar half-sine pulse train current waveform with an optimal period and duty cycle. Eight receiver coils are placed horizontally along the two diagonals of the upper and lower planes of the two horizontal transmitter loops. The pairs are the coils that are symmetric through the center point of the transmitter coil configuration. Critically damped flat air core coils are used to sense the target signal. Each sensor is linked to an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and a computer interface. The heart of the computer interface is a field programmable gate array (FPGA). This device will process the data, and control the on board memory to allow either direct transfer of the raw data into the computer or, for faster processing and display of results, directly average a certain number of frames (10 to 100) before transfer. Currently all data are transferred into the computer for full interpretation. The field prototype system has successfully recovered depths and polarizabilities of various UXO targets. This research was funded by the U.S. Department of Defense under ESTCP Project # MM-0437.

A


D-72

A SHALLOW WATER UXO SURVEY SYSTEM

DR. JIM R. MCDONALD AETC Incorporated

120 Quade Drive Cary, NC 27513 (919) 653-0215

[email protected]

CO-PERFORMERS: Chester F. Bassani (AETC); David J. Wright (AETC)

ith SERDP (MM-1322) and ESTCP (MM-0324) support, AETC has developed and demonstrated a marine UXO survey system designed for use in shallow water (<20 ft).

The air foil-shaped sensor platform has two actuator-controlled elevators to control depth, altitude and attitude. The sensor platform incorporates 8 cesium vapor magnetometers (0.6 m horizontal spacing) and a time-domain EM system with a single large transmitter coil and 4 separate receiver coils. The sensor platform is towed by a 30-foot pontoon boat, which houses the data acquisition system and auxiliary electronics required for controlling and monitoring the sensor platform. The sensor platform has two operating modes: altitude mode for maintaining a constant altitude above the bottom; and depth mode for maintaining a constant depth below the water surface. The attitude and depth of the sensor platform is controlled by an autopilot, which feeds output commands to the starboard and port actuators. The autopilot utilizes attitude information from a tactical grade inertial measurement unit (IMU), velocity data from the real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS system, heading from the sensor platform magnetic compass, altitude above bottom from the platform sonar altimeter and water depth from the platform pressure sensor. The data acquisition system uses a separate GPS unit for the synchronization of the system PC clock to the GPS UTC time. It also employs a software/hardware solution to record the actual time of serial data arriving into the serial port hardware buffers, thus eliminating any timing inaccuracies caused by Windows OS latency to service interrupts. All onboard computers are synchronized via a network time protocol (NTP), thus maintaining all computer clocks synchronized to UTC. The system’s first demonstration took place in the North Carolina Currituck Sound, adjacent to the former Duck Naval Target Range. Approximately 300 acres were surveyed using the magnetometer and EMI sensor arrays. An overall target location accuracy of ±30 cm was achieved. A total of 100 targets from the 500-target dig list were re-acquired and dug by UXO-qualified divers. Approximately 50% of the recovered targets were UXO items associated with the former range.

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D-73


MARINE MAMMALS AND MILITARY OPERATIONS

Marine Mammals and Military Operations Technical Session No. 4A

D-75

KEYNOTE ADDRESS REGULATORY AND POLICY CONSIDERATIONS FOR MARINE

MAMMAL RESEARCH

STEVE LEATHERY National Marine Fisheries Service

1315 East-West Highway Silver Spring , MD 20910


n the U.S. scientific research permits are an exception to a moratorium on human activities that have the potential to disturb, injure, or kill marine mammals. Thus, activities conducted

under such permits should not only conform to accepted professional standards for sound scientific methods, they must also be consistent with the purposes and policies of the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) and, where applicable, the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Under the MMPA, there is an explicit imperative to ensure that human activities do not diminish marine mammal species and populations beyond the point at which they cease to be a significant functioning element of their ecosystem. The ESA further directs federal agencies to actively seek to conserve listed species and to utilize their authority to conserve the ecosystems upon which listed species depend. The MMPA, ESA, and their implementing regulations further constrain the circumstances under which an exception to the moratorium can be granted–research on marine mammals and endangered species must be consistent with the purposes and polices of these Acts. In addition to being bona fide science, activities conducted under a research permit must be humane and should not present any unnecessary risks to the health and welfare of marine mammals. Research should not, by itself or in conjunction with other activities, have a significant adverse effect on marine mammal populations. It is, therefore, incumbent upon permit applicants to justify why they should be granted an exception to the moratoriums, and, in the case of ESA-listed species, why their research cannot be accomplished with non-ESA listed species. It is also essential that permit applicants ensure that their research will not be unnecessarily duplicative or result in unnecessary stress, pain, suffering, or other adverse effects.

I


D-76

MARINE MAMMAL ACOUSTIC MONITORING AND HABITAT INVESTIGATION, SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA OFFSHORE REGION

DR. JOHN A. HILDEBRAND

Scripps Institution of Oceanography University of California San Diego

La Jolla, CA 92093-0205 (858) 534-4069

[email protected]

he Southern California Off-Shore RangE (SCORE) is a region with frequent naval operations and seasonally abundant marine mammals. Acoustic techniques have the

potential to provide an efficient method for assessing marine mammal populations in areas of naval interest such as SCORE. With Navy and SERDP (SI-1189) support, a multi-year study of marine mammal presence was conducted using both acoustic and visual techniques. The primary objective of this project was to develop methods for acoustic monitoring of marine mammals and to compare acoustic methods against conventional ship based and aerial visual methods for estimating marine mammal seasonality and relative abundance. From August, 2000 to February, 2004, 1215 days (3120 instrument-days) of continuous acoustic data were recorded using acoustic recording packages (ARPs) in the SCORE region. These data reveal significant changes in blue whale call type production both with season and among monitoring sites. Diel calling patterns may serve as an indicator of seasonal feeding activity. To understand the relation between acoustic and visual methods, concurrent visual and acoustic monitoring experiments were conducted aboard the R/P FLIP, a stationary stable platform. The FLIP data suggest significant differences in visual and acoustic detection rates and locations, underscoring the complimentary nature of these two methods. The development of habitat models to predict marine mammal presence in the SCORE region is needed to improve environmental risk assessments and marine mammal protection compliance. Extensive environmental data for the SCORE region is available from the California Oceanic Cooperative Fisheries Investigations (CalCOFI) project, which encompasses five decades of measurements off the southern California coast. By initiating visual and acoustic marine mammal surveys in collaboration with the CalCOFI project, an improved understanding of marine mammal seasonal distribution and relative abundance can be achieved. As the first year of a multi-year effort, visual and acoustic monitoring has been conducted on quarterly CALCOFI cruises, employing a line transect survey protocol. Acoustic survey data were collected using a towed hydrophone array and sonobuoys. Additional long-term acoustic data is being collected in the SCORE region using bottom-mounted, high-frequency acoustic recording packages (HARPs). The CalCOFI environmental data, marine mammal visual and acoustic data, and satellite data will enable modeling of marine mammal distribution and abundance in the SCORE region.

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D-77

ACOUSTIC BEHAVIOR OF BEAKED WHALES, WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR ACOUSTIC MONITORING

DR. PETER L. TYACK

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution MS #50

Woods Hole, MA 02543 (508) 289-2818

[email protected]

CO-PERFORMERS: Dr. Mark Johnson (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution); Dr. Peter Teglberg Madsen (University of Aarhus); David Moretti (NUWC Code 71)

eaked whales (Cetacea: Ziphiidea) of the genera Ziphius and Mesoplodon have been reported to mass strand during naval sonar exercises, and the ability to mitigate such

negative effects is of increasing importance. Beaked whales dive for long periods and are difficult to sight at the surface. New results suggest that passive acoustic monitoring for beaked whales will be a much more effective means of monitoring for their presence. A new non-invasive acoustic recording tag was attached to beaked whales of two species, Mesoplodon densirostris and Ziphius cavirostris. The tag recorded high-frequency clicks during deep dives. The tagged whales only clicked at depths below 200 m, down to a maximum depth near 2000 m. During each foraging dive, both species produced thousands of short, directional, ultrasonic clicks with no significant energy below 20 kHz. The source level of these clicks is in the range of 200–220 dB re 1 _Pa at 1 m with a center frequency near 40-50 kHz. Given knowledge on the source level, frequencies, and directionality of beaked whale clicks, along with the precise orientation and location of beaked whales clicking during foraging dives, it is possible to model the “acoustic footprint” of foraging dives. These data can be used to estimate the probability of detecting the presence of beaked whales by listening. Critical parameters include the density of sensors and the listening time needed to achieve adequate detection probability. Using the observed dive behavior of 10 tagged beaked whales of genera Ziphius and Mesoplodon, the detection performance for random or regular array of sensors and for slowly moving platforms was simulated. Results demonstrate that for continuous listening, a detection probability of >99% may be achieved with acoustic sensors spaced 4 or less km apart. This modeling result has been confirmed during groundtruthing cruises at the AUTEC range in the tongue of the ocean.

B


D-78

BLAINVILLE’S BEAKED WHALE (MESOPLODON DENSIROSTRIS) REAL-TIME MARINE MAMMAL DETECTION AND LOCALIZATION

DAVID MORETTI

NAVSEA Division Newport Code 71, Building 1351

Newport, RI 02841 (401) 832-5749

[email protected]

CO-PERFORMERS: Nancy DiMarzio (NAVSEA Division Newport), Susan Jarvis (NAVSEA Division Newport), Ronald Morrissey (NAVSEA Division Newport),

Jessica Ward (NAVSEA Division Newport)

he Office of Naval Research (ONR) Marine Mammal Monitoring on Navy Ranges Program (M3R) has developed real-time tools to detect and localize marine mammals. A simple

hard-limited Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm is used to detect the presence of animal vocalizations and then the detection times are passed to tracking computers. Detected calls across widely-spaced sensors are aligned using a data association algorithm. Time Differences or Arrival (TDOAs) are then calculated and passed to a hyperbolic multilateration localization algorithm. These tools developed by ONR have been extensively tested at the Atlantic Undersea Test and Evaluation Center (AUTEC) in the Bahamas. All 82 bottom-mounted hydrophones were monitored and recorded. A range display is provided to alert the user to activity and a spectrogram monitor display for any sensor can be activated on demand. If animal vocalizations are detected on at least 3 sensors, a position is calculated. The tools have been tested in-situ with visual observers to verify the species. Blainville’s beaked whales (Mesoplodon densirostris) have been detected and observers vectored to the animals. Focal follows were executed while the animals were on the surface. Feeding dives were reported and the animals were detected, localized, and visually verified. These include short finned pilot whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus), sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus), rough-toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis), melonheaded whales (Peponocephala electra), and pantropical spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuate).

T


D-79

PREDICTIVE HABITAT MODELING OF MARINE MAMMALS: COMBINING ARCHIVAL OBSERVATIONS WITH REMOTELY-SENSED OCEANOGRAPHIC DATA

DR. ANDREW READ

Duke University/Duke University Marine Laboratory Nicholas School of the Environment and Earth Sciences (NSEES)

Levine Science Research Center/135 Duke Marine Lab Road Box 90328

Durham/Beaufort, NC 27708/28516 (252) 504-7590 [email protected]

CO-PERFORMER: Dr. Patrick Halpin (Duke University Marine Lab)

redicting expected habitat areas of marine mammals is critical for many emerging conservation and management planning activities. The development of empirical models

based on the largest observation sample sizes and longest periods of time possible offer the best available solutions to satisfy this need. In this analysis, individual observations from more than 30 large aerial and ship borne survey datasets covering the United States Atlantic coast and Gulf of Mexico were spatially and temporally referenced with a suite of environmental predictor variables derived from bathymetric and satellite derived oceanographic data. Environmental predictors were both directly sampled from satellite data, such as sea-surface temperature (SST) and chlorophyll, and depth as well as derived products, such as slope and distance from shoreline, shelf break, SST fronts, and chlorophyll aggregations. The marine mammal survey data were collected by NOAA Fisheries Science Centers and individual researchers and cover the early 1990’s to the present. The datasets were processed and collated through the OBIS-SEAMAP program (http://seamap.env.duke.edu) for this analysis. Multivariate statistical models (CART, GLM, GAM, Bayesian approaches) were developed and tested to estimate species habitat usage areas for 17 guilds of marine mammal species in the two study regions. These habitat models were then evaluated for their efficacy and robustness as applied to past, current, or future oceanographic conditions. Post-hoc model evaluation methods, such as the application of Receiver-Operator Characteristic (ROC) curves, are evaluated to provide model users with additional tools for more appropriately relating model choices to specific management applications. This project (SI-1390) was funded by SERDP.

P


D-80

PREDICTIVE MODELING OF CETACEAN DENSITY FROM LINE-TRANSECT SURVEYS IN THE EASTERN PACIFIC OCEAN

DR. MEGAN FERGUSON

NOAA Southwest Fisheries Science Center 8604 La Jolla Shores Drive

La Jolla, CA 92037 (858) 546-7000

[email protected]

CO-PERFORMERS: Dr. Jay Barlow (SWFSC); Dr. Lisa Ballance (SWFSC); Dr. Karin Forney (SWFSC); Dr. Steve Reilly (SWFSC); Dr. Paul Fiedler (SWFSC);

Dr. Jessica Redfern (SWFSC)

he Navy and other users of the marine environment must be able to estimate cetacean density within their operational areas in order to comply with the requirements of the Marine

Mammal Protection Act, the Endangered Species Act, and the National Environmental Policy Act. The goal of this SERDP-funded research (SI-1391) is to develop methods to model and predict cetacean densities within any arbitrarily defined region using habitat variables. Model development is based on extensive ship survey data collected in summer/fall 1986-2002 by the Southwest Fisheries Science Center (SWFSC) in the eastern Pacific. Evaluation of the seasonal predictive ability of similar models in the California Current region will incorporate year-round aerial survey data. This talk highlights the technical accomplishments of the research and provides a brief introduction to works in progress. Specifically, this presentation will highlight the development of a method that predicts cetacean density on relatively small spatial scales by relating cetacean encounter rates (number of groups per unit distance) and group sizes to habitat variables using generalized additive models (GAMs). With this methodology, the effect of the scale of the unit of observation on the predictive abilities of cetacean-habitat models will be explored using eight years of data from the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. Four species or species groups were selected to represent a broad range of habitat preferences, and GAMs were developed at five spatial scales varying from 10 km trackline segments to 160 km segments. For all four species, the ability of the best-fit GAMs to predict the observed species distributions varied more among years than among the spatial scales. These results suggest that unexplained environmental variability has a greater impact on the ability to predict cetacean distributions than the scale of the unit observation. Analyses have also begun that will allow for evaluating the seasonal predictive ability of these cetacean-habitat models. In particular, cetacean density has been estimated in the California Current region from aerial surveys spanning the early 1980’s to the present. In order to estimate cetacean densities from the early 1980’s, it was necessary to identify and account for biases in the older data. The resulting time series provides density estimates in all seasons. Finally, the presentation will highlight work in progress for this SERDP project, including comparing cetacean-habitat models developed using remotely sensed versus in situ versus modeled oceanographic data, developing methods to quantify and incorporate cetacean prey into models, and estimating variance for cetacean density estimates.

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D-81


CHLORINATED SOLVENTS – MANAGEMENT OPTIONS

Chlorinated Solvents – Management Options Technical Session No. 4B

D-83

KEYNOTE ADDRESS PERSPECTIVES FROM THE CLEANUP OF HILL AIR FORCE BASE

ROBERT ELLIOTT

75 Civil Engineering Group - Environmental Restoration Branch 75 CEG/CEVR

7274 Wardleigh Road Hill AFB, UT 84056-5137


ill Air Force Base is currently undertaking one of the largest environmental cleanup efforts within the Air Force. With a history of weapon system maintenance and waste disposal

dating back to the 1920’s, Hill and its associated facilities are currently conducting cleanup of twelve chlorinated solvent plumes. These plumes cover over 1600 acres of contamination; 1000 of which have moved off of the installation into residential areas. The program spans investigation of newly discovered plumes to mature cleanup systems. Vapor intrusion into homes overlying several plumes was identified in 2002. Nearly 300 homes have been identified as having vapor intrusion problems and over sixty mitigation systems have been installed. Future cleanup costs are estimated at $300M through 2028 with $208M expended to date. Cleanup efforts have ranged from Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (DNAPL) removal to dissolved phase pump-and–treat systems. A variety of innovative approaches have been tested and/or implemented at the site including iron reduction, surfactant enhanced DNAPL recovery, cometabolic bioremediation, biopolishing (enhanced reductive dechlorination), air sparging, phytoremediation, etc. Given the timeframe and cost associated with cleanup, Hill continues to seek improved technologies for monitoring and cleanup. Current emphasis is being placed on monitoring and understanding of vapor intrusion and on improving performance monitoring to increase our understanding of remedial system effectiveness and identify opportunities for remedial process optimization.

H


D-84

IMPACTS OF SOURCE ZONE REMOVAL ON THE DISSOLVED PHASE PLUME

DR. LINDA M. ABRIOLA Tufts University, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

200 College Avenue Anderson Hall, Room 105

Medford, MA 02155 (617) 627-3237

[email protected]

CO-PERFORMERS: Ke Li (Tufts University); Dr. C. Andrew Ramsburg (Tufts University); Captain John A. Christ (USAF Academy); Dr. Kurt D. Pennell (Georgia Institute of

Technology); Frank Loeffler (Georgia Insitute of Technology)

he selection of aggressive source zone treatment as a management strategy at sites contaminated by dense nonaqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs) can be supported by an

accurate assessment of the potential benefits of partial mass removal. These potential benefits include reductions in source longevity, reductions in source zone concentrations, reductions in downstream mass flux, and improvements in the amenability to successful follow-on treatment or plume attenuation. Under SERDP Project ER-1293, researchers at Tufts University and the Georgia Institute of Technology are developing assessment tools to characterize the DNAPL source zone, predict mass recovery, and quantify potential benefits of treatment. This presentation describes important project findings based upon laboratory and modeling studies of Perchloroethylene (PCE) mass recovery in heterogeneous sandy media. Natural subsurface heterogeneity is shown to give rise to very nonuniform DNAPL saturation distributions and downstream concentration profiles. Potential mass removal efficiency is shown to be closely linked to DNAPL architecture, with greater efficiencies being achieved under scenarios with higher ganglia-to-pool (GTP) mass ratios. The associated impact of mass removal on downstream contaminant mass flux and plume evolution, however, is more difficult to predict. Modeling results indicate that simplified (stream tube or analytical) approaches used to estimate mass flux reductions often fail to capture observed behavior, particularly in pool dominated source zones and at high removal levels. Research suggests that incorporation of site-specific mass flux information can improve mass flux prediction accuracy. Unfortunately, site mass flux estimates are often based upon limited field data. Efforts to quantify mass flux and its associated uncertainty suggest that a high spatial sampling frequency or a staged sampling approach is needed to provide accurate estimates. Biostimulation within the source zone has the potential to further reduce downstream concentrations and mass flux. Predictions of the influence of source zone microbial activity on plume evolution are discussed in the context of laboratory studies employing reductive dechlorinator strains. Microbial enhanced dissolution is explored in relation to population kinetics, carbon source, and source zone architecture. Modeling results highlight the importance of considering dimensionality and process coupling in any assessment of treatment impact on downstream plume characteristics.

T


D-85

RECENT PROGRESS IN THE GRANULAR IRON PRB TECHNOLOGY

DR. ROBERT W. GILLHAM University of Waterloo 200 University Ave. W.

Waterloo, ON, Canada N2B 3J4 (519) 888-4567, Ext. 4658

[email protected]

he use of granular iron for in situ degradation of chlorinated organic contaminants in groundwater was patented in 1989, first appeared in the refereed literature in 1994 and the

first commercial application occurred in 1994. Over the past decade it has developed from an emerging technology to one that is widely accepted, with currently over 120 installations at commercial sites. This presentation will review some of the advances made in the technology over this period of time, including our understanding of the processes, methods of installation, and greater understanding regarding long-term performance issues and economics. Also, current areas of interest regarding further development of the technology will be presented such as application to a wider range of groundwater contaminants, sequential treatment, improved predictive models, and application to source-zone management. Future developments such as the emergence of nano-scale iron will also be addressed.

T


D-86

BIOSTIMULATION TO ENHANCE REDUCTIVE DECHLORINATION AND RELATED PROCESSES IN AQUIFERS

FRED C. PAYNE, PH.D.

ARCADIS G&M Inc. 25200 Telegraph Road Southfield, MI 48034


iostimulation is a treatment strategy in which aquifer chemistry is modified through reagent injections, creating suitable habitat for contaminant-destroying bacteria and fungi.

Destruction occurs directly through metabolic reactions or indirectly through production of reactive byproducts. In most cases, the aquifer bacteria populations that develop in response to habitat modification can achieve contaminant-destroying metabolism. Injection of cultured bacteria (bioaugmentation) has been used in addition to biostimulation in a limited number of cases to accelerate the development of suitable bacterial populations. Biostimulation has become a very popular approach for the treatment of aquifers contaminated by chlorinated solvents. For most sites, biostimulation is less expensive than chemical or thermal aquifer treatment approaches, although the process requires a longer period of operation. Biostimulation entails injection of readily degradable carbon (carbohydrate, for example) into a solvent contaminated aquifer, shifting the aquifer to strongly anaerobic chemistry. There are three known mechanisms by which aquifer bacteria can destroy chlorinated solvents and all can be supported through biostimulation: Reductive dechlorination is a form of anaerobic bacterial metabolism in which the chlorine-carbon bond on a solvent molecule serves as an oxidizer for molecular hydrogen displacing the chlorine (or bromine) atom on the solvent molecule. The mean oxidation number for carbon atoms in the solvent molecule is reduced by the exchange, hence the term reductive dechlorination. Reductive dechlorination was the initial target of the biostimulation method for chlorinated solvent treatment. Abiotic dechlorination occurs when solvent molecules react with low-redox transition metal minerals in the aquifer matrix (the iron sulfide minerals pyrite or mackinawite, for example). These minerals are formed by the reaction products of anaerobic bacterial metabolism; one important example is the production of sulfide by sulfate reducing bacteria which supports formation of iron sulfide minerals. Anaerobic oxidation denotes low-redox bacterial metabolism in which the solvent molecule is oxidized, ultimately generating carbon dioxide or methane. Studies suggest there are several pathways for solvent oxidation, some of which rely on dissolved iron or manganese minerals as an oxidizer for solvent molecules. This presentation provides data from several projects to illustrate the use of biostimulation for treatment of chlorinated solvents in aquifers including Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (DNAPL) source zone and reactive barrier applications for perchloroethene and trichloroethene treatment. The paper also describes strategies that enhance abiotic dechlorination and anaerobic oxidation.

B


D-87

BIOAUGMENTATION FOR CHLORINATED SOLVENT REMEDIATION

DR. HANS STROO HGL, Inc.

300 Skycrest Drive Ashland, OR 97520


ioaugmentation has become an increasingly popular technology for the remediation of chlorinated ethenes. However, it is a controversial and confusing practice, and the state of

the art is rapidly evolving. This critical review will summarize the history of bioaugmentation and its current technical and regulatory status, and identify the key outstanding research needs. The review is based on interviews with leading vendors of bioaugmentation cultures regarding their experiences, culture growth and application procedures, QA/QC practices, as well as their perspectives on the key technical issues. The review will include initial guidance on the selection and design of a bioaugmentation approach, as well as lessons learned from several case studies.

B


D-88

ABIOTIC MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN MONITORED NATURAL ATTENUATION

DR. MICHELLE M. SCHERER

University of Iowa Civil and Environmental Engineering

4105 Seamans Center Iowa City, IA 52242


CO-PERFORMERS: Robert Handler (University of Iowa);

Tim Pasakarnis (University of Iowa); Sharon Smith (University of Iowa); Hashim Al-Hosney (University of Iowa); Dr. Gene Parkin (University of Iowa); Dr. Richard Valentine

(University of Iowa); Dr. Edward O’Loughlin

espite recent indication from field data that nonbiological mechanisms play a role in the attenuation of chlorinated solvent plumes (e,g., Ferrey et al. 2004), it is still not clear what

abiotic reductants are responsible. The goal of our SERDP project (ER-1369) is to measure the extent and rate of chlorinated ethene reduction by a series of chemically and microbially generated reductants under a range of natural conditions. During the first year of the project, we collected, synthesized, and characterized a variety of reductants and measured the rate of Perchloroethylene (PCE) and Trichloroethylene (TCE) reduction in batch reactors. In contrast to some reports in the literature (Lee and Batchelor, 2002a and 2002b), we observed little transformation of PCE and TCE over a two month period with most of the reductants we evaluated including adsorbed Fe(II), biologically produced FeS, reduced natural organic matter, and chemically synthesized green rusts. We did, however, observe PCE and TCE reduction in the presence of chemically synthesized mackinawite (FeS) as has been previously reported in the literature (Butler and Hayes, 1999; Sivavec and Horney, 1997), as well as in the presence of biologically produced green rust. Interestingly, it appears that minerals produced in the presence of microbes have significantly different reactivity than chemically synthesized minerals, despite similar solution conditions. We are currently exploring several potential hypotheses to explain this behavior, including sample handling procedures, particle size effects, differences in surface chemistries, and presence of microbial exudates.

D


D-89


“GREEN” ENERGETICS

“Green” Energetics Technical Session No. 4C

D-91

KEYNOTE ADDRESS GREEN ENERGETIC MATERIALS S&T: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

ALFRED G. STERN, PH.D.

Naval Surface Warfare Center, Indian Head Division 101 Strauss Avenue

Indian Head, MD 20640-5035 (301) 744-4419

[email protected]

n overview of a number of DoD and DOE efforts toward environmentally acceptable preparations of “green” energetic -binders, -plasticizers, -oxidizers, -monopropellants,

primary explosive ingredients; and their applications in the formulation, processing, and demil of future propellants and explosives will be presented. Specific areas of research and development to be covered include: (1) Syntheses of recoverable binders, such as energetic and inert thermoplastic elastomers (TPE’s) in both conventional and supercritical (SC) solvents; (2) Nitrations utilizing non-ozone depleting solvents and non- volatile organic compounds (VOCs) employing a unique nitrating agent; (3) Improved syntheses of novel oxidizers, monopropellants, and novel gas generants; (4) Biocatalytic/biomemtic syntheses of energetic ingredients and/or their precursors employing bioorganisms and/or novel enzymatic reactions in aqueous media; (5) Efforts toward converting current DoD explosive stockpile inventories into useful ingredients for both military and commercial uses; and (6) Attempts at developing non-heavy metal primary initiating materials as lead azide and styphnate replacements. This presentation will focus primarily on past and current green energetic material S&T development efforts, although topics addressing past and present demil efforts will be mentioned. Lastly, general perspectives on future green energetic material S&T research and development directions and challenges will be discussed.

A


D-92

GREEN ENERGETICS – A UK PERSPECTIVE

DR. M. EAMON COLCLOUGH QinetiQ

Fort Halstead Sevenoaks

Kent, Unlisted TN14 7BP United Kingdom

England 001 1959 515631

[email protected]

urrent and future legislation in the UK and Europe is driving an increased amount of research into technologies to provide ‘clean’ solutions to everyday problems. This paper will

cover briefly the changes in legislation in Europe, both current and anticipated, that could affect work with energetic materials and will describe the likely impact on use of energetic materials in weapons systems. The paper will discuss in more detail work that we have carried out on ‘green’ technology in each step of the life cycle of energetic materials from synthesis, through formulation and use, to disposal. Finally the paper will address how these technologies can be transitioned from research idea to industrial use.

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D-93

GREEN ENERGETICS MANUFACTURING

DR. ROBERT WARDLE (presentation given by Dr. Robert Bennett)

ATK P.O. Box 707, M/S 240

Brigham City, UT 84302-0707 (435) 863-6156

[email protected]

CO-PERFORMERS: Robert R. Bennett (ATK); Steven Velarde (ATK); Andrew Sanderson (ATK)

uch of the emphasis on environmental impact of the chemical industry including energetic materials and systems containing them has been on the primary impact of the material

itself. We agree that this is a significant area for effort and improvement. However, the majority of life cycle waste for nearly all munitions is generated before the item leaves the factory. An old saying around the DoD energetic materials industry states that we make large waste acid handling plants that produce energetic materials as a minor by-product. The ratio of pounds of waste generated per pound of energetic is remarkably high. Those who operate these facilities do a wonderful job at containing and minimizing the amount and impact of any waste. Any effort to improve on the environmental status of energetic materials must focus a significant effort on reducing this waste stream as well as considering the rest of the life cycle. We will report in this paper efforts at ATK to reduce overall environmental impact by reducing the waste stream in the manufacture of energetic materials. A few representative case studies will be quickly cited that span from improving the waste stream from process optimization to developing a different synthetic route to eliminate undesirable species to development of new energetic materials with more environmentally sound life cycle.

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D-94

AMMONIUM DINITRAMIDE AS A FIRST GENERATION GREEN OXIDIZER

DR. JEFFREY BOTTARO SRI International

333 Ravenswood Avenue Menlo Park, , CA 94025


CO-PERFORMERS: Mark Petrie (SRI); Paul Penwell (SRI); Allen Dodge (SRI);

Ripudaman Malhotra (SRI)

MMONIUM DINITRAMIDE: PROTOTYPE GREEN ENERGETIC BOTTARO, PETRIE, PENWELL, MALHOTRA, DODGE SRI INTERNATIONAL----The technology of the

dinitramide salts (all direct derivatives of ammonium dinitramide) enjoys two advantages over preexisting technology. First, the manufacture of ammonium dinitramide (hereafter ADN) is itself an environmentally sympathetic technology. Also, the application of ADN to a wide variety of propulsion systems is far more environmentally sympathetic than the state-of-the-art technology in place. These issues will be discussed in the context of modern systems and challenges. Possibilities for application of dinitramide salts in automotive airbags, firearms, satellites, and diesel fuel additives will be illustrated.

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D-95

NANOPHASE MATERIALS IN ENERGETIC APPLICATIONS

DR. KELVIN HIGA NAWCWD

1900 N Knox Road STOP 6106

China Lake, CA 93555 (760) 939-1656

[email protected]

anophase materials have become of significant interest to the DoD because of its potential to enhance weapon performance and to provide new capabilities. Nanoenergetic composites

may impact a wide gamut of areas including primers for small & medium caliber ammunition, flares & pyrotechnics, propellants, explosives, igniters, stun grenades, micro-electronic machines (MEMs), anti-tamper for electronic devices, and defeat against chemical & biological agents. In recent years, nanoenergetic composites have been investigated as a “Green Energetic” alternative in lead-free primers for small and medium caliber ammunition in joint efforts between the Army, Navy, and DOE, funded by SERDP/ESTCP. The goal is to eliminate the use of lead-azide and lead-styphnate in DoD primer formulations while meeting DoD performance requirements. They are also being investigated as igniters for CAD/PAD systems, flare ejectors, and as electric matches. Enhanced performance of compositions utilizing nano materials have been demonstrated by NSWC Crane in “Environmentally Green Flares”, by NAWCWD in propellant burn rate enhancement and enhanced detonations in explosives. The DoD will continue to explore the use and eventual deployment of nanophase materials for enhanced weapons performance. Therefore, understanding the potential associated environmental & health risks are paramount. The small particle size of nanophase materials has both a positive and negative environmental aspect. For anti-bacterial applications, the small size enables cell wall penetration and cell destruction. However, this also represents and inhalation and skin penetration hazard for humans and animals. Nanophase materials in the environment could have both a positive and negative impact, simultaneously. Some nanophase by-products could serve as catalysts for the breakdown of halocarbons reducing air, water and ground pollution. The fate and effect of nanophase materials are under investigation by the EPA, SERDP, Army, and Air Force.

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D-96

GREEN PROPELLANTS – SOME STRATEGIC CONSIDERATIONS

DR. DAVID A. CIARAMITARO Naval Air Warfare Center, Weapons Division

Code 474100D 2400 E. Pilot Plant Rd. Stop 5202

China Lake, CA 93555-6107 (760) 939-7341

[email protected]

CO-PERFORMERS: David L. Dean; Peter Zarras

ften, the propellant formulator is asked, “Why don’t you remove component X from your formulation and replace it with component Y in its place?” Generally, the argument for

replacement is that Y is better than X: more environmentally-innocuous, more energetic, more affordable, or better in some other way. The suggestion is always well-meaning, nearly always sounds logical, and frequently even sounds feasible. Unfortunately, such a substitution is a practical impossibility in nearly every case. A solid propellant formulation is a composite mixture of carefully-specified ingredients, highly characterized, and with a critical mission to perform. The components are formulated to meet a list of safety, compatibility, sensitivity, mechanical and ballistic requirements using much trial-and-error, and the “drop-in” substitution of a new ingredient, without any other formulation change, very seldom works, and never works well enough to fulfill the promise implied by the substitution, while still maintaining the requisite qualities of the original formulation. Thus, an environmentally-friendly propellant formulation must be developed with that aim in mind from the beginning. The environmental impact from cradle to grave must be taken into account. The various environmental burdens associated with the manufacture of each ingredient, as well as those burdens associated with the manufacture of the propellant and the rocket motors made with it, need assessment. The propellant formulation also needs to be engineered for disposal with the minimum associated environmental burdens. In addition to the cost of this strategy, an “interest payment,” in the form of increased performance, easier manufacture, more safety in storage and use, decreased cost, or some other consumer-luring attribute must be made. This “payment” must be commensurate with the high costs associated with the development and characterization of the original propellant, plus those of the new one which will replace it. Methods of “clean, agile” manufacture of ingredients, continuous and/or recyclable methods of manufacture of propellants, and environmentally-friendly disposal/recycle methods will be discussed. In addition, the problems associated with the marketing of such a propellant to the manufacturer and consumer will be touched upon. The environmentally-innocuous propellant, which still has the requisite market interest, will certainly be expensive and difficult to perfect, but it is feasible nonetheless, and is eminently more feasible than the search for the perfect drop-in ingredient. Approved for public release, distribution unlimited.

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