Teaching Writing Teaching Writing EffectivelyEffectively

Research & PracticeResearch & PracticeTimothy Shanahan

University of Illinois at Chicago

shanahan@uic.edu

www.shanahanonliteracy.com

Writing: The Neglected “R”Writing: The Neglected “R”

Of the “3 Rs,” writing has been accorded the least attention

Notion has been that reading is a widely needed skill, but that writing is an elite skill

The National Reading Panel did not consider writing research (though it was on the list of topics that it considered)

According to the National According to the National Commission on Writing…Commission on Writing…

More than 90% of mid-career professionals indicate that writing is important in their work

Writing is essential for success in higher education, and yet more than 50% of college freshmen have serious writing problems

Fewer than 30% of elementary and high school students meet NAEP’s writing proficiency standards

National Assessment National Assessment

Grade

Below

Basic Basic Proficient Advanced

4 16% 60% 23% 1%

8 16% 56% 27% 1%

12 22% 55% 22% 1%

According to NAEP…According to NAEP…

Students can write, but they cannot produce writing at high levels of skill, maturity, and sophistication

Few students can produce precise, engaging, and coherent prose

Fewer than a quarter can write convincing, elaborated responses with compelling language

Two Basic IssuesTwo Basic Issues

What does research say about writing instruction?

What is the connection between writing and reading?

The PThe P33A Writing CurriculumA Writing Curriculum

Purpose Writers need to write for a variety of purposes

Process Writers need to engage successfully in the writing process

Product Writers need to produce effective pieces of writing

Audience Writers need to meet the needs of a variety of audiences

Research ReviewResearch Review

Best review of writing instruction in the past 20 years:

Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 445–476.

Graham & Perin ReviewGraham & Perin Review

Examined 123 experimental and quasi-experimental studies of writing instruction grades 4-12

Studies covered 11 different approaches to the teaching of writing

Quality of writing was the outcome measure

Process Writing ApproachProcess Writing Approach

Extended writing opportunities

Writing for real audiences

Engaging in the writing process

High levels of student interaction and ownership

Personalized individual feedback and (perhaps) some systematic instruction

Explicit InstructionExplicit Instruction

Grammar Explicit systematic instruction of parts of speech and sentences

Sentence combining Creating more sophisticated sentences through combination of sentences

Strategy instruction Teaching strategies for planning, revising, editing

Summarization Explicit systematic instruction in how to summarize text

Text structure Explicit systematic instruction in text organization

ScaffoldingScaffolding

Prewriting Engaging students in prewriting practice

Inquiry Helping students plan by analyzing data

Procedural facilitation External prompts: guides, heuristics

Peer assistance Having students work together

Models Examinations of specific types of text

Product goals Assigning writing goals

Feedback Information is provided on the adequacy of the writing

Alternative ModelsAlternative Models

Word Processing Provides technological support for students to use computers for writing and revising

Extra writing Increased opportunities to write or to engage in a particular type of writing

Graham & Perin ResultsGraham & Perin Results

d n

Strategy instruction .82 20

Summarization .82 4

Peer assistance .75 7

Product goals .70 5

Word processing .55 18

Sentence combining .50 5

Prewriting .32 5

Process approach .32 21

Inquiry .32 5

Models .25 6

Grammar -.43 11

Graham & Perin Results (cont.)Graham & Perin Results (cont.)

Process writing had a moderate effect on student writing in grades 4-6 when the teachers received professional development and no effects in grades 7-12

Grammar was the control in all but one study (it was not effective in any study)

Strategy instruction was effective across all grade levels, but bigger effects on struggling students

Graham & Perin Results (cont.)Graham & Perin Results (cont.)

Impossible to draw meaningful conclusions on text structure instruction (too few students, results too varied, etc.)

Inquiry studies were all done at grades 7-12 and had small-to-moderate effects

All of the peer assistance studies were significant (grades 4-12)

Lots of unexplained variability in size of effect for word processing

ConclusionsConclusions

It is evident that there are many writing instruction procedures that have reasonably large and reliable impacts on students’ writing quality (strategy teaching most effective, but many other things work, too)

ConclusionsConclusions

Lots we don’t know:

1.Need to regroup these studies by content of teaching (separate from instructional process and facilitation of writing)

2.Need more “complete” studies (combining successful routines that fit together)

Reading-Writing RelationsReading-Writing Relations

Shared knowledge and process

Author-audience relationships

Collaborative uses

Reading-Writing RelationsReading-Writing Relations

Tierney, R. J., & Shanahan, T., (1992). Research on the reading-writing relationship. Handbook of Reading Research (vol. 2).

Shanahan, T. (2006). Relations among oral language, reading, and writing development. Handbook of Writing Research.

Shared knowledge-processShared knowledge-process

There are sizeable correlations among various measures of reading and writing

Children’s decoding skills and spelling skills are related

Children’s vocabulary and text structure ability are related to comprehension

High amounts of shared variance in multivariate studies

Shared knowledge-process Shared knowledge-process (cont.)(cont.)

Instruction in reading can improve writing achievement and instruction in writing can improve reading achievement

Invented spelling improved decoding skills (NRP, 2000)

Summarization, modeling, sentence combining and writing in response to literature and expository text have all been found to improve writing and reading

Author-audience relationshipsAuthor-audience relationships

Awareness of author is an essential dimension of critical reading

Awareness of readers is an essential dimension of writing quality

Engaging in reflective reading and writing activities is useful for developing these insights

Collaborative UsesCollaborative Uses

Reading and writing can be used in combination to improve the accomplishment of various tasks (such as learning)

Writing about what one reads can improve understanding and recall

The reading within revision is essential to writing quality

ConclusionsConclusions

Research clearly demonstrates that reading and writing are closely allied—depending upon similar knowledge and skills, providing essential insights across the modes of language, and increasing the ability of students to learn effectively

Teaching WritingTeaching Writing

Given the research that has been conducted, what would an effective writing program look like?

Principle 1Principle 1

Writing instruction and practice would take place daily and would be of sufficient duration to develop quality writers.

Principle 1 (cont.)Principle 1 (cont.)

30-45 minutes per dayTime for both instruction and useDon’t hesitate to encourage writing

practice in all subjects and tasks

Principle 2Principle 2

Writing fluency would be an early goal and instruction would foster fluency in a variety of ways.

Principle 2 (cont.)Principle 2 (cont.)

Young children obviously suffer from difficulty in writing sufficient amounts

Teach spelling and handwriting

Peter Elbow’s work on turning off your editor (limit the amount of early editing)

Writing marathons

Principle 3Principle 3

Writing instruction would be closely connected to reading instruction.

Principle 3 (cont.)Principle 3 (cont.)

Writing using what you have learned in reading

Writing about what you read (summaries and critiques)

Writing to help you think about what you read (write before you speak)

Writing to a model (pattern writing)

Principle 4Principle 4

Writing instruction would include explicit strategy instruction in how to write effectively in grades 4 and up

Principle 4 (cont.)Principle 4 (cont.)

Modeling

Explicit instruction in the what, when, how, and why of strategy

Guided practice

Opportunity to use it collaboratively with peers

Opportunity to use it independently

Principle 5Principle 5

Writing instruction would focus on communication and include opportunities for social collaboration

Principle 5 (cont.)Principle 5 (cont.)

Write for real audiencesWrite for a variety of audiences

(reflection, conversation, correspondence, publication)

Cooperative work

Principle 6Principle 6

Writing would be taught and practiced within the subject areas

Principle 6 (cont.)Principle 6 (cont.)

Each discipline has its own kinds of writing and levels of precision

Opportunity to write extended essays

Useful ResourcesUseful Resources

Culham, R. 6+1 Traits of writing. New York: Scholastic.

Fisher, D., & Frey, N. Scaffolded writing instruction. New York: Scholastic.

Graham, S., et al. Best practices in writing instruction. New York: Guilford.

Temple, C., et al. The beginnings of writing. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Timothy ShanahanUniversity of Illinois at Chicago

shanahan@uic.edu

www.shanahanonliteracy.com