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Teacher Education in Ireland:The induction and continuingprofessional development ofprimary teachersMaureen KilleavyPublished online: 02 Jul 2010.

To cite this article: Maureen Killeavy (2001) Teacher Education in Ireland: Theinduction and continuing professional development of primary teachers, EuropeanJournal of Teacher Education, 24:2, 115-132, DOI: 10.1080/02619760120095525

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European Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 24, No. 2, 2001

Teacher Education in Ireland: the induction andcontinuing professional development of primaryteachers

MAUREEN KILLEAVY

SUMMARY This paper presents an overview of initial teacher education in the Irish Republicand examines current developments in education with reference to the professional developmentof teachers. An analytical case study of the professional development of a year group of BEdgraduates from one Irish college of education during the � rst 10 years of their careers as primaryteachers is presented. This study focuses on these beginning teachers’ experience of the inductionprocess and their career pro� le in terms of progress and retention within the profession duringthe � rst 10 years of their teaching careers. The involvement of the group in further professionaland postgraduate studies is also examined and an analysis of salient relationships and patternsof association between the characteristics and earlier experiences of the cohort and their currentsituations is presented. The paper concludes with a discussion of the � ndings.

RESUME Cet article donne un apercu de la formation initiale des enseignants en Republiqued’Irlande et examine les progres actuels sur le plan de l’education au sujet du developpementprofessionnel des enseignants. Une etude de cas du developpement professionnel d’un groupe dediplomes d’un centre d’education irlandais pendant leurs dix premieres annees d’enseignement estpresentee. Cet article etudie de pres l’experience de laprocedure d’induction et du pro� l de la carrierede ces enseignants debutants par rapport au progres et aux taux de retention professionnels pendantles dix premieres annees de leur parcours professionnel. On y examine egalement la participationdu groupe aux etudes superieures et on analyse les relations importantes et les liens entre lescaracteristiques et les premieres experiences du groupe ainsi que sa situation actuelle. L’article setermine par une discussion des conclusions.

RESUMEN Este trabajo presenta una perspectiva general de la educacion inicial de los profesoresen la Republica irlandesa y examina el desarrollo actual en el plano de la educacion con referenciaal desarrollo profesional de los profesores. Se presenta un estudio analõ tico del desarrollo profesionalde un grupo de licenciados en educacion, graduados en el mismo ano, de un escuela de profesoradode EGB durante los primeros diez anos de su carrera como maestros. El estudio se centra en laexperiencia del proceso inductorio de estos profesores principiantes as õ como en su per� l de carreraen cuanto a la evolucion y la conservacion de la profesion durante las primeros diez anos de carreraen la ensenanza. Se examina tambien la participacion del grupo en estudios de postgrado y sepresenta un analisis de las relaciones y pautas de asociaciones entre las caracterõ sticas y las

ISSN 0261-9768 print; ISSN 1469-5928 online/01/020115-18Ó 2001 Association for Teacher Education in EuropeDOI: 10.1080/02619760120095525

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116 Maureen Killeavy

experiencias anteriores del grupo y su situacion actual. Se termina el trabajo con un debate de lasconclusiones.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Dieser Artikel gibt einen Uberblick der Grundausbildung fur Lehrer inder irischen Republik und betrachtet die zeitgenossische Entwicklung im Erziehungsbereich unterbesonderer Berucksichtigung der beru� ichen Entwicklung von LehrerInnen. Eine Fallstudie derberu� ichen Entwicklung der Gruppe von neuen LehrerInnen einer irischen Universitat wahrendder ersten zehn Jahre ihrer Laufbahn als Grundschullehrer wird dargestellt. Dieser Artikelbehandelt die beru� ichen Erfahrungen von Lehrern wahrend der Einfuhrungsphasen ihrerLaufbahn und deren Karrierepro� le, um die Fortschritte als auch die Persistenz einmal erreichterberu� icher Standards zu belauchten. Die Teilnahme der Gruppe in weiterfuhrende undpostgraduierte Studien wird auch untersucht, ebenso werden Analysen auffalliger Beziehungenund Assoziationsmuster zwischen den Eigenheiten und ursprunglichen Erfahrungen der Kohorteund ihrer gegenwartigen Situation vorgestellt. Der Beitrag schliesst mit einer Diskussion derErgebnisse.

Introduction

There are two models of initial teacher education in the Republic of Ireland, theconcurrent and the consecutive models, which, for the most part, are associated withprimary and secondary teacher education, respectively. In the concurrent model stu-dents follow a 3- or 4-year programme in education, practical teaching and oneacademic subject to degree level. The choice of degree subjects typically includesEnglish, French, Geography, History, Irish, Mathematics and Music. At the successfulcompletion of this type of programme, students are awarded a Bachelor of Education(BEd) degree, which quali� es them to teach in the primary school. For the majority ofprimary teachers this is the usual method of entry to the profession. However, duringtimes of teacher shortage, as is the case currently, the consecutive model has been usedas a method of dealing with the problem. Diploma courses of 18 months durationapproximately are being offered in the colleges of education for university graduateswho wish to enter the primary teaching profession.

The other model of teacher education is a consecutive one, in which graduates whohave successfully completed a degree course such as a BSc or a BA take a HigherDiploma in Education over a 1-year period. While this is the most usual method ofentry to the teaching profession at post-primary level, a limited range of concurrentmodel BEd programmes in speci� c subject specialisms providing a professionalquali� cation for post-primary teachers are also available. In addition, there is a smallnumber of non-university institutions which offer specialist teaching quali� cationswhich are accredited by the National Council for Educational Awards.

The procedures, extent and type of � eld experience during pre-service teachereducation programmes vary in accordance with the particular model of professionalpreparation followed by teacher education students. The concurrent BEd programmetypically involves approximately � ve block teaching-practice placement sessions to-talling 12 weeks in all. These are designed to provide student teachers with a variedrange of teaching experience in the school system. The � eld experience or teachingpractice element of the BEd programme has always been a very important part ofteacher preparation and no student is awarded a pass or honours grade in the BEddegree without an equivalent grade in practical teaching.

Field experience within the consecutive model usually extends for 5 half-days eachweek or the equivalent during the 1-year postgraduate diploma course. This experience

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includes attendance at school and observation of an experienced teacher together witha minimum of � ve periods of actual class teaching in the student’s subject specialism.Course work at the university also typically involves elements of � eld experience suchas microteaching, practical teaching methodology sessions and various supplementaryteaching activities. As in the concurrent model of teacher preparation, satisfactoryperformance in practical teaching is an essential requirement for the award of a passgrade, while an honours grade in practical teaching is a prerequisite for the award ofhonours in the � nal examination of the course.

The lack of provision for beginning teachers in Ireland, in terms of inductionsupport, has been of concern in recent years. According to the State Department ofEducation (1995), the support given to new teachers in terms of induction andprofessional development is critical in developing and applying the knowledge and skillsacquired during training and in forming positive attitudes to teaching as a career. Boththe In-career Development Unit and the Inspectorate of the Department of Educationand Science provide support for teachers by way of in-service courses. Such provisionis usually designed to meet new needs resulting from curriculum developments andchange within the education system. More extensive postgraduate teacher education isprovided by the universities and colleges of education by way of postgraduate degreeand diploma courses. However, these courses are usually aimed at experienced teachersand they are not designed to provide an induction function for beginning teachers. Infact, it is usually recommended that teachers have a number of years of professionalexperience before undertaking such courses.

Current Developments in Teacher Education in Ireland

Far-reaching proposals for developments in teacher education in Ireland, many ofwhich were heralded in Report of the National Convention on Education (1994), The WhitePaper on Education: Charting Our Education Future (1995) and other studies, arecurrently being translated into practical measures within governmental policy initiativesand legislation. Most of these initiatives evolved from investigations of existing educa-tional practices and provisions. For the most part such investigations are undertaken bybodies of relevant stakeholders set up by Ministerial decree and the ensuing legislation,statutory bodies and regulations derive largely from the recommendations of the bodiesin question. These developments include the Expert Advisory Review Groups onTeacher Education at First and at post-Primary level, the Teaching Council, theCommission on the Points System, The National Policy and Advisory DevelopmentCommittee, and the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment which is soon tobe granted statutory authority. All of these developments, most of which are under-pinned by recent legislation, carry major implications for the future of teacher edu-cation in the state.

Legislation is being enacted currently to establish a Teaching Council, which willreplace and extend the functions of the Teachers’ Registration Council. This newstatutory body will have responsibility for the professional accreditation of all teachersat both primary and post-primary level in Ireland. The role of the new body will includethe establishment of procedures and criteria for probation and entry to the profession,the determination of the suitability of quali� cations for accreditation, and the regularreview of teacher education programmes. This will represent a major development inthe professional regulation and standing of teaching in Ireland. Widespread agreementon this development has been achieved through the involvement of the representatives

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118 Maureen Killeavy

of the profession and the major stakeholders in the design and procedures of the newbody.

Perhaps the most important recent initiative in teacher education in Ireland hasbeen the establishment of two expert advisory bodies to review teacher education atprimary and post-primary levels in 1998 by the Minister for Education and Science.These bodies were required to examine and make recommendations on the content,organisation, structure and teaching practice element of teacher education pro-grammes. The post-primary review group was directed to carry out a comparativeanalysis between the consecutive and concurrent models of pre-service teacher edu-cation and to take account of curricular changes and new programmes designed torespond to the different needs of a diverse student cohort. The review groups were alsoasked to have regard to the particular requirements of children with special needs andthe problems of disadvantaged pupils. The remit of both groups is wide and it isanticipated that their reports and recommendations, which are due to be publishedlater in 2001, will have a major effect on the education of teachers in Ireland.

The Induction and Professional Development of Primary Teachers inIreland: a case study

The case study reported in this paper examines the professional development of a yeargroup of BEd graduates from one Irish college of education during the � rst 10 years oftheir careers as primary teachers. The study focuses on these beginning teachers’experience of the induction process and their career pro� le in terms of progress andretention within the profession during the � rst 10 years of their teaching careers. Theinvolvement of the group in further professional and postgraduate studies is alsoexamined and an analysis of salient relationships and patterns of association betweenthe characteristics and earlier experiences of the cohort and their current situations ispresented. The paper concludes with a discussion of the � ndings. The data on whichthe study is based were gathered in 1998 using a series of questionnaires designed forthe study. The response rate for the entire sample of 183 BEd graduates was 82% ofthe year group.

The Professional Development and Socialisation of Beginning Teachers

Research on the processes involved in learning to teach has identi� ed a diverse array offactors that contribute to the professional development of teachers. Calderhead &Shorrock (1997, p. 18), in their synthesis of research on learning to teach, concludethat ‘teaching and the processes of learning to teach are highly complex and place heavydemands of a cognitive, affective and performance nature, upon the student teacher.’While many of these factors relate to the characteristics of the individuals concernedand others derive from the varied aspects and experiences of the training institution,others derive from the beginning teacher’s early professional experiences in the school.These early experiences may take the form of induction programmes devised for thepurpose of helping new members of the profession or the less formal although powerfulsocialising in� uence of the school as a functioning institution and the driving force ofexperienced teachers at its helm.

The paucity of provision for teacher induction and in-service provision in the Irisheducation system is evidenced by the views expressed in the Review of National Policiesfor Education (OECD, 1991, p. 98) which suggest that ‘the best returns from further

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investment in teacher education will come from a careful planning and construction ofa nation-wide induction and in-service system using the concept of the teaching careeras its foundation.’ The situation did not improve signi� cantly in the following years and‘the arrangements provided for teacher induction in Ireland remained ad hoc andincomplete’ according to the Irish National Teachers’ Organisation (INTO, 1995,p. 94). The situation relating to the induction of beginning teachers in Ireland is notuncommon. Fullan (1982) reports that nothing is done to support for the vast majorityof new teachers in the USA in their � rst year in the classroom.

Principal teachers in Irish primary schools are currently required to take responsi-bility for the induction of beginning teachers (INTO, 1993). However, the fact that themajority of principal teachers at primary level are involved in full-time teaching dutiesin addition to their administrative responsibilities means that their responsibility for theinduction of new teachers, becomes according to the INTO (1995, p. 96), merelyanother ‘add on’ to an already busy and overcrowded schedule. The INTO goes on tosuggest that the role played by the primary Inspectorate of the Department of Edu-cation in the induction of young teachers bears more resemblance to a system of qualitycontrol imposed on initial teacher education than any constructive attempt to assist inthe induction of newly quali� ed recruits to the profession.

The role of the primary school inspectors centres on the award of the diploma,which beginning teachers receive when their classroom performance is assessed assatisfactory. This emphasis on the assessment of teaching performance makes it dif� cultfor the young teacher to use the Inspectorate for advice and support. Proposals outlinedin Charting Our Education Future (1995) suggesting that the principal teacher be givena role in recommending the beginning teacher for registration with the TeachingCouncil. This proposal and other accompanying recommendations of the White Paperadvocating a systematic approach to in-career development for teachers may, if imple-mented, improve the induction process. However, these proposals will take some timeto bear fruit because, as yet, only the initial stages in the setting up of the TeachingCouncil have been carried out.

Any discussion of induction into the teaching profession must take cognisance of theimportant role played by the school in the socialisation and development of beginningteachers. The school as an organisation, the ethos and values of the institution and theexperienced teachers who direct its operation exert a powerful enculturation in� uenceon the beginning teacher. The beliefs that are not only held within the school butbecome embedded within its practices and day-to-day operation exert a powerfulin� uence on the beginning teacher which may well override the effects of the traininginstitution. Zeichner & Tabachnick (1981) refer to this in� uencing process whereby thebeginning teacher’s experiences of the school dominate and overrule the practiceslearned in college as the ‘wash-out effect’. They view learning to teach in terms ofinduction into the institutional values and practices that predominate within the school.These values and practices are adopted by the beginning teacher and quickly supplantany values and practices deriving from the training institution with which they con� ict.

Beginning teachers in school are described by Lacey (1977) as negotiating their wayamongst the pressures of the new institution, changing to � t in with new values andpractices, going along with some that they may not in fact believe in to gain acceptancewithin the school. Lacey suggests that the adoption of the values and mores of theschool by beginning teachers is a major cause of the retreat from a child-centredapproach by new members of the teaching profession. Rust (1994) in a longitudinalstudy of two student teachers charted the development of students’ child-centred views

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120 Maureen Killeavy

TABLE I. Beginning teachers’ reports of their experiences during their 2-year inductionperiod in the primary school (n 5 151)

Target statement Agreement (%)

On the whole I managed well 76.2% (n 5 115)I was left to my own devices 57.0% (n 5 86)I found teaching to be a personally rewarding experience 51.6% (n 5 78)The school principal was very helpful to me personally 47.7% (n 5 72)The school principal was very helpful with regard to my classroom 39.7% (n 5 60)

teachingWhat I had learned during the BEd programme was of practical usefulness 26.5% (n 5 40)I experienced dif� culties associated with classroom management 22.5% (n 5 34)I found dealing with pupils from deprived backgrounds dif� cult 18.5% (n 5 28)I felt a need for support and guidance which was not forthcoming 17.9% (n 5 27)I experienced dif� culties dealing with parents 15.9% (n 5 24)I experienced dif� culties dealing with other members of staff 7.9% (n 5 12)I experienced dif� culties associated with my classroom teaching 6.6% (n 5 10)

of teaching and learning during the period of their initial teacher training. He reportsthat when faced with the practicalities of teaching during their early professionalemployment, these beginning teachers changed to more control-centred beliefs. Rustgoes on to suggest that � tting into the school, particularly its control-oriented ethos,mitigated against these young teachers developing their own teaching style. Calderhead& Sharrock (1997) report that the research on the socialisation of young teachers in theschool has highlighted the complex interactions that occur between an individual’svalue, beliefs, practices and those of the school and indicated the importance of theindividual young teacher’s capacity to negotiate and manoeuvre within a powerfulideological context.

Primary Teachers’ Experience of Induction: a case study of a year group ofBEd students at Our Lady of Mercy College of Education, Carysfort, Republicof Ireland

Beginning teachers’ experience of their induction into the primary teaching professionwas investigated using the Professional Lives of Carysfort Graduates Questionnaire(PLCG). Patterns of association between different facets of their induction experiencesduring the � rst 2 years of their teaching careers are also examined. Table I presents anoutline of teachers’ responses indicating which among any of 12 statements describedtheir personal experience of induction into primary teaching during their � rst earlyteaching career. The statements in this table are presented in rank order according tothe percentage respondent agreement in each case.

An initial appraisal of this table indicates that over three-quarters of respondents or75.2% (n 5 115) considered that they had managed well in their � rst 2 years teaching.This is con� rmed by the fact that only 6.0% (n 5 9) reported having had dif� cultiesassociated with their classroom teaching. However, it is remarkable that almost two-thirds of the group or 65.3% (n 5 85) reported that they were left to their own devicesduring their early teaching careers. Further, while 39.7% (n 5 59) reported that theirschool principal had been helpful with regard to their classroom teaching, over 60.0%

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of beginning teachers received no practical professional help during the period of theirinduction into the profession.

This is not an indication, however, that these school principals were indifferent tothe needs of the new members of the profession in their schools. The fact that almosthalf the respondents 47.0% (n 5 71) reported that the school principal had been veryhelpful to them personally (considerably more than those reporting that they hadreceived professional help from their principal) is an indication that school principalswere concerned for the wellbeing of new members of their staff. However, principalsmay also have been wary of taking on an advisory role that could have been construedas professional interference. While 51.6% (n 5 78) of respondents who found theirexperience of teaching in their � rst 2 years in the profession to be a rewarding one,26.5% (n 5 40) reported that they found what they had learned during the BEdprogramme to have been useful in their practical teaching.

The most common area of dif� culty cited by respondents was classroom manage-ment, which was noted as a problem by 22.5% (n 5 34) of the group. The dif� cultiesassociated with dealing with pupils from deprived backgrounds was cited by 18.5%(n 5 28) of respondents. While the majority of teachers who were left to their owndevices were content with the situation, the 27 teachers (17.9%) who felt in need ofhelp which was not forthcoming, represent a considerable problem. While someprogress has been made since this group completed their � rst 2 years teaching inproviding support for young teachers during their induction period, further develop-ments are necessary in this area. The other areas of dif� culty mentioned by respondentsconcerned the teacher’s relationships with pupils’ parents and with other staff mem-bers. This may well point to a lack of provision in pre-service teacher educationprogrammes in this regard.

Patterns of association between the various aspects of beginning teachers reportedexperiences of their early professional lives are outlined in Table II.

Two interesting patterns of association that seem to indicate the existence of abipolar dimension in teachers’ experience of induction are revealed in this table. Theseassociations, which are the strongest statistically and the most consistent among thepatterns identi� ed, relate to perceived classroom success on the one hand, and toperceived lack of support and guidance on the other. The analysis indicates that thoseindividuals who considered that they managed well overall were also most unlikely tohave experienced problems with either classroom management or teaching. Suchteachers also tended to have found teaching to be a rewarding experience and regardedwhat they had learned during the BEd programme as practically useful in the class-room. At the other extreme were those students who reported a lack of support andguidance in their early classroom experiences. These teachers were most likely to havedif� culties with classroom management, and to have been left to their own deviceswithout the professional or personal help of the school principal.

A further examination of this table reveals that those teachers who experienceddif� culties in classroom management were also most likely to have found their practicalteaching to have been problematic, to have experienced a lack support and guidanceand to have had dif� culties in dealing with parents. The results here also indicate thatgraduates’ early experience of teaching having been rewarding was associated withhaving had a professionally and personally helpful principal, and with having found theBEd programme to have been practically useful in the classroom. It appears, therefore,that induction dif� culties rarely occurred in isolation but tended to have been associ-ated with other problems. Conversely, beginning teachers who experienced their early

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122 Maureen Killeavy

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TABLE III. Comparison of the current professional position of the cohort 1 year and 10years after graduation

Original sample, Original sample, Recent sample,1 year after 10 years after 10 years aftergraduation graduation graduation

Type of teaching position held (total n 5 183) (total n 5 183) (n 5 151)

Principal teacher 0.0% (n 5 0) 8.7% (n 5 16) 10.6% (n 5 16)Vice-principal or post of responsibility 0.0% (n 5 0) 5.5% (n 5 10) 6.6% (n 5 10)Teaching Assistant (permanent position) 25.7% (n 5 47) 54.1% (n 5 99) 65.5% (n 5 99)Temporary or substitute position 71.0% (n 5 130) 4.4% (n 5 8) 5.3% (n 5 8)Occupation other than teaching 2.7% (n 5 5) 9.8% (n 5 18) 11.9% (n 5 18)Missing data 0.5% (n 5 1) 17.5% (n 5 32) n.a.

teaching as rewarding tended to have managed well with the professional and personalhelp of the principal. The career progress of these teachers was tracked for a further 8years with a view to ascertaining the determinants of career satisfaction and advance-ment in terms of the attainment of a permanent position and of promotion within theprofession.

Career Pro� les of Teachers during the 10 years after Graduation

The professional progress of the group in terms of the number of permanent positionsand principalships secured during the 10 years after the completion of the BEd degreeis outlined in Table III. The percentages detailed in this table are given both for the151 respondents, 10 years after graduation, and for the entire year group of 183 BEdgraduates. Ten years after graduation, 125 graduates or 82.8% of respondent (repre-senting 62.3% of the original sample) had secured permanent teaching positions incomparison with the situation 1 year after graduation when just over one-quarter ofgraduates 25.7% (n 5 47) were in permanent posts. While no student had secured aposition of responsibility 1 year after graduation, by 1996, 10.6% (n 5 16) of respon-dents had become school principals while a further 6.6% (n 5 10) had been appointedto positions of responsibility. Temporary or substitute posts were occupied by 71.0%(n 5 130) of graduates at the end of their � rst year in professional employment.However, after 10 years in the labour market, a comparatively small proportion of thecohort at 4.4% (n 5 8) were in non-permanent teaching positions. Five students or2.7% of the original cohort were not employed as teachers 1 year after completing theirBEd. Ten years after leaving college 11.9% (n 5 18) of respondents had becomeinvolved in occupations other than teaching.

Additional analysis indicated that most of those the group who remained in theteaching profession had a high opinion of their professional competence. This is borneout by the self-evaluation of the sample regarding their professional ability 10 yearsafter graduation. The vast majority of teachers rated their teaching as good, if notexcellent, a relatively small group 4.6% (n 5 7) of respondents rated their teaching asfair and no individual rated their teaching as poor. It is of interest that these ratings donot re� ect students’ interview ratings on entry to college the purpose of which was toassess their suitability as future teachers, nor did these self-evaluations relate to anyassessment of students’ practical teaching performance in the course of BEd pro-gramme.

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TABLE IV. The attainment of a principalship in a primary school differentiated bythe extent of teachers’ involvement in sports activities as undergraduates; analysis

of variance

Students’ involvement in sports activities

Mean weeklyType of position involvement df F ratio sig.

Principals 16 6.7 hours2 4.52 0.01

Assistant teachers 131 4.4 hours(non-principals)

Signi� cance: p* , 0.05, p** , 0.01.

The group of teachers who had achieved promotional posts during their � rst 10years in the profession was examined in an effort to identify any factors or in� uencesin their background of teacher training which might be linked to their advancement.However, none of the academic, socio-economic or demographic characteristics of thisgroup on their entry to college, their academic or professional achievement in thecourse of the BEd programme as reported by Killeavy (1993) were found to beassociated with their promotional record in teaching. When patterns of associationbetween the extent of their involvement as undergraduates in a wide range of collegeactivities and the status of their subsequent teaching position were examined, only onesigni� cant relationship was identi� ed. Table IV outlines teachers’ promotional statusdifferentiated by the extent of their involvement in sports activities while at college.

The single factor which distinguished principals from the generality of other stu-dents who become classroom teachers was the extent of their involvement in sports asundergraduates. The 16 principals in the cohort devoted an average of almost 2 hourseach week to sporting pursuits in excess of the time expended in such activities by othermembers of the sample. The only other distinguishing factor of those teacherswho became principals, which was identi� ed in the analysis, related to teachers’self-evaluation 10 years after graduation. Additional analysis revealed that when theself-evaluation of principals was compared to that of the other respondents it was foundthat while 43.75% (n 5 7) of principals rated themselves as ‘excellent’, only 25.19%(n 5 31) of respondents rated themselves equally highly. It should be noted that neitherthe achievement of a postgraduate quali� cation nor involvement in in-service educationwas associated with professional advancement for these teachers.

Teachers’ Involvement in Further Professional Studies and Education

The extent of respondents’ involvement in short in-service courses is detailed in TableV, which summarises the frequency with which teachers took part in such trainingduring the 10 years since graduation.

Over four-� fths of respondents, 84.1% (n 5 137), took part in at least one in-servicecourse and most members of the group took part in more than one such course. TheState Department of Education and Science grants teachers 3 days’ additional leaveduring term time to compensate for days spent attending in-service courses duringthe Summer vacation. It should be noted, however, that many teachers undertookin-service courses to inform themselves of new developments in education or to follow

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TABLE V. Teachers’ involvement in in-service education during the 10 years since theirgraduation

Extent of in-service Respondents Extent of in-service Respondentseducation (%) education (%)

No in-service course 15.9% (n 5 24) 5 in-service courses 11.3% (n 5 17)1 in-service course 11.9% (n 5 18) 6 in-service courses 7.3% (n 5 11)2 in-service courses 14.6% (n 5 22) 7 in-service courses 6.6% (n 5 10)3 in-service courses 15.9% (n 5 24) 8 in-service courses 6.0% (n 5 9)4 in-service courses 7.3% (n 5 11) 10 courses and over 3.3% (n 5 5)

a particular area of interest. Further, teachers for the most part are responsible for thecost of such courses.

When the relationship between teacher involvement in in-service courses and theiracademic attainment on entry to college, the extent of their involvement in undergrad-uate activities and their achievement in the BEd degree were investigated, threesigni� cant patterns of association were identi� ed. Table VI reveals that those individu-als who participated in in-service education as teachers had devoted signi� cantly lesstime to recreational activities during their time as students at Carysfort College ofEducation than those teachers who did not take part in in-service courses.

Signi� cant patterns of association were also found between two measures of aca-demic achievement and teachers’ participation in in-service education. Those teacherswho took part in in-service training performed signi� cantly less well than thoseindividuals who had no such involvement, both in terms of points awarded in theLeaving Certi� cate examination and in terms of academic attainment in the BEddegree. It seems, therefore, that the more academically pro� cient teachers in the cohortplace considerably less value on the merits of in-service education than their lessacademic peers.

TABLE VI. Teachers’ involvement in in-service courses differentiated by the extent of theirrecreational activities as undergraduates, their academic attainment on entry to college

and academic achievement in the BEd; analysis of variance

Undergraduate characteristics

Extent of Academic Achievementrecreational attainment in their

activities Leaving academic subjectIn-service hours per week Certi� cate points in the BEdcourses n mean score n mean score n examination

Non-participants 24 17.8 hours 24 383.38 24 58.45%Participants 158 13.3 hours 156 366.96 159 55.37%F ratio 6.10** 7.21** 3.79**

Signi� cance: p* , 0.05; p** , 0.01.

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TABLE VII. Teachers’ involvement in postgraduate education (n 5 43)

Level of award Number Quali� cation Number

Higher degrees inPhD 2

Education and related areas18 MEd 10

MA in Education 6

Postgraduate quali� cations inHigher Diploma in 13

Education and related areas16 Educational Administration

Higher Diploma in Psychology 3

Other academic quali� cations 9 Primary degree 3and degrees non-Education Other quali� cations non-degree 6

Teachers Involvement in Postgraduate Studies

The types of postgraduate quali� cation obtained by the 28.5% (n 5 43) of respondentsto the CPCG who took part in further studies after leaving college is detailed in TableVII.

One of the most popular postgraduate courses was a diploma programme ineducational administration, which was undertaken by 13 teachers While such aquali� cation was taken primarily as a career-enhancing measure, it was also viewed asa prelude to studying for a master’s degree. Sixteen members of the group, orapproximately 11% of respondents, completed studies to master’s degree level duringtheir � rst 10 years as teachers. Ten of these degrees were in Education and a further sixwere in various other subject areas including Irish, Development Studies and BusinessStudies. Two members of the group had been awarded PhDs, and both of theseindividuals were teaching at university level 10 years after their graduation. Althoughsome teachers reported completing studies abroad, most members of the group hadobtained their postgraduate quali� cations in Ireland.

An examination of patterns of association between teachers’ involvement in post-graduate studies and their characteristics on entry to college as reported by Killeavy(1993) revealed no statistically signi� cant relationships. However, two types of under-graduate involvement for students at Carysfort were found to be associated with theirsubsequent involvement in postgraduate education. Table VIII reveals that thoseteachers who completed postgraduate degrees had devoted more time to the activities

TABLE VIII. Teachers’ attainment of a postgraduate degree differentiated by theirinvolvement in students’ union and in cultural activities during the BEd programme;

analysis of variance

Undergraduate activity

Postgraduate Students’ weekly students’ Students’ weekly culturaldegree n union activities mean score activities mean score

Higher degree 18 1.8 hours 6.0 hoursNo higher degree 133 0.4 hours 3.9 hoursF-ratio 6.51** 5.10*

Signi� cance: p* , 0.05; p** , 0.01.

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TABLE IX. Attainment of a postgraduate degree differentiated by attainment in the BEddegree examination; analysis of variance

Students’ attainment in the BEd degree

History of Teaching AcademicPostgraduate Education Practice subject Sociologydegree n mean score mean score mean score mean score

Higher degree 18 64.88% 61.11% 59.21% 67.07%No higher degree 133 60.88% 57.76% 55.91% 62.75%F-ratio 6.83** 4.64* 4.11* 3.60*

Signi� cance: p* , 0.05; p** , 0.01.

of the students’ union and to cultural pursuits as undergraduates than their peers whodid not pursue higher degrees subsequently.

The examination of relationships between teachers’ involvement in postgraduatestudies and their earlier academic performance in the BEd examination, summarised inTable IX, yielded four statistically signi� cant patterns of association. This table revealsthat those 18 teachers who went on to complete postgraduate degrees had outper-formed their classmates in the BEd examination in History of Education, Sociology ofEducation in their practical teaching performance and in their academic subject area.The results therefore, seem to indicate that student attainment in the BEd, the gradeswhich they obtained in classroom teaching, and the extent of their involvement incultural and political activities while at college are predictive of in-career postgraduatecareer achievement.

Retention and Attrition among BEd Graduates

Ten years after graduation, 18 individuals had left teaching to take up another pro-fessional occupation. No distinguishing features relating to the academic or professionalachievement of such individuals either at entry to the college or in their BEd degreeexamination was identi� ed. When other student entry characteristics were examined inthis regard, gender emerged as the only signi� cant differentiating factor. Eighteenindividuals had changed their professional occupation during the 10 years since leavingCarysfort College. This group comprised 23.1% (n 5 6) of the male respondents and10.6% (n 5 12) of female respondents to the CPCG. Two other factors distinguishedthe group of graduates who had taken up an alternative career. Thirteen of the 18members of this group had taught abroad since graduation and 12 individuals hadachieved further quali� cations since the award of the BEd degree

The alternative professional occupations taken up by those respondents who did notremain in primary teaching are detailed in Table X. Two-thirds of the alternativeoccupations noted here are interesting in that they represent other caring areas such asdevelopment work, psychology or speech therapy. The other careers taken up bygraduates which were very different from teaching, such as that of barrister, airline pilotor horse dealer, were indicative of long-standing interest in these areas on the part ofthe individuals in question. Therefore, the attrition among the BEd graduates need notnecessarily be seen as indicative of adverse attitudes to primary teaching. Rather, theseindividuals who had changed their occupations made a point of commenting that theywould consider returning to teaching at some point in the future.

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TABLE X. The alternative career occupations of individuals (n 5 18) leaving primaryteaching

Accountant 1 Editor of Irish language paper 1Administrator 1 Horse dealer 1Airline pilot 1 Journalist 1Barrister 1 Research 2Clinical psychologist 2 Speech therapist—self employed 1Community development 1 Teacher at second level 1Development work abroad 2 University lecturer 2

The reasons suggested by those individuals within the group of 1986 Carysfortgraduates who did not remain in the primary teaching profession for their change ofcareer are detailed in Table XI. The data in this table are presented in rank order basedon the total number of statements assented to by the individuals concerned. It isnecessary to point out that as respondents could indicate that more than one of thereasons suggested applied to them, the percentages in this table do not add up to 100%.An initial examination of this table reveals that the most prevalent reasons are indicativeof respondents’ attraction to travel, to avail of an exciting opportunity or to engage infurther study. Some 83.3%, or 15 of the 18 students who had taken up alternativeprofessional occupations, af� rmed that they would consider returning to their originalcareer in teaching at some point in the future.

Disappointment with the experience of teaching related both to frustration with thereality of classroom teaching and the unwelcome consequences for teachers of theirpublic role in the community. It is necessary to point out that this latter pressure wasa recurrent theme among many respondents who had continued within the teachingprofession. Such remarks as ‘I don’t know of any other professional body which allowsitself to be scrutinised and criticised so publicly and so frequently’ typi� ed the view ofa considerable number of respondents. Two individuals in the group suggested thatthey had never wanted to be teachers and one of them said that, ‘I only � nished theBEd degree to please my parents, I never wanted to teach.’

While dif� culties relating to a certain boredom and disappointment with teachingwere mentioned as reasons for changing career, no member of the cohort reportedleaving the profession because they considered themselves to have been inadequate asa teacher. This is borne out by the comparison of the self-evaluations of those members

TABLE XI. The reasons suggested by those members of the 1986 cohort no longer in theprimary teaching profession for their change of career

Ambition to travel and work abroad 37.50% (n 5 6)An exciting opportunity presented itself 37.50% (n 5 6)A desire to engage in further study 37.50% (n 5 6)The reality of classroom teaching was a disappointment 31.25% (n 5 5)I found the public position of the teacher in the community repressive 25.00% (n 5 4)I could not get a permanent teaching position 18.75% (n 5 3)I did not get the place I wanted at third level and I took what was on offer 12.50% (n 5 2)I wanted to teach at a higher level 12.50% (n 5 2)I only � nished my BEd to please my parents, I never wanted to teach 6.25% (n 5 1)The salary was inadequate 6.25% (n 5 1)I did not feel adequate to the task 0.0% (n 5 0)I married and decided to stay at home while the children were young 0.0% (n 5 0)I married and decided to retire from teaching for good 0.0% (n 5 0)

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TABLE XII. Professional satisfaction of members of the cohort who continued in theteaching profession and those in other professions compared

Very satis� ed Satis� ed Not satis� ed

Teachers (n 5 133) 25.6% (n 5 34) 62.4% (n 5 83) 12.0% (n 5 16)Non-teachers (n 5 17) 41.2% (n 5 7) 41.2% (n 5 7) 17.5% (n 5 3)

of the cohort who remained in teaching with those of their peers who changed theircareers presented in Table XII. This table reveals that while the levels of satisfaction arehigh for both groups, a greater percentage of individuals who left the teaching pro-fession and took up alternative occupations were somewhat more satis� ed than thosemembers of the cohort who remained in teaching. A possible reason for this is the factthat 15% of teachers who expressed themselves as being ‘satis� ed’ or ‘very satis� ed’with the professional aspects of their position were not satis� ed with the possibilities forcareer development, particularly in terms of the promotional opportunities available tothem.

This was an aspect of the profession widely commented upon by respondentswho were also dissatis� ed that their innovative efforts and their extra-curricular activi-ties were not rewarded. In fact, some respondents mentioned that such innovativepractices were looked upon with some suspicion by their colleagues.

Patterns of association between teachers’ retention within the profession and theirinvolvement in various college activities as undergraduates are outlined in Table XIII.The analyses outlined in this table reveal that those individuals who had left teachingto take up alternative careers had, as students, devoted more time to recreational,students’ union and cultural activities than the group who remained in the teachingprofession. These results may indicate that the broader spectrum of varied non-academic interests indicated by such involvement is predictive of changing careerhorizons. It may also be an indication that the interests of those individuals who do notremain in the teaching profession seem to have been less centred on the moreprofessionally related aspects of the training environment.

Discussion

The period of induction into the profession for this group of beginning teachers was arewarding one with most of the cohort managing well. However, there was no evidence

TABLE XIII. Continued involvement in the teaching profession differentiated by the extentof student involvement in undergraduate activities during the BEd course; analysis of

variance

Undergraduate activities

Weekly recreational Weekly students’ Weekly culturalCurrent career n activities union activities activities

Alternative career 18 22.1 hours 1.8 hours 6.1 hoursTeacher 133 13.8 hours 0.5 hours 3.9 hoursF-Ratio 10.92** 7.19** 5.62*

Signi� cance: p* , 0.05; p** , 0.01.

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130 Maureen Killeavy

that any constructive induction programme was available to these young teachers, orthat their school principal actively assisted them with their classroom teaching. On thecontrary, more than half the group reported being left to their own devices with regardto their professional duties, although the school principal was found to be helpful toindividuals in a personal, as opposed to a professional capacity. In-service provision hasbeen greatly strengthened in Ireland through the work of the National Council forCurriculum and Assessment, the Education Centres and the support services of theIn-career Development Unit of the Department of Education and Science. However,the paucity of provision for induction programmes for beginning teachers, highlightedby the OECD (1991), continues to exist.

The investigation of graduates’ early teaching also indicated the existence of abipolar dimension to beginning teachers’ experiences of induction. Young teachers whoconsidered that they had managed well were unlikely to have had dif� culties withclassroom management or teaching during their induction. On the other hand, gradu-ates who reported a lack of guidance during their induction period were most likely tohave experienced problems with classroom management and to have been left to theirown devices without either the professional or personal assistance of the schoolprincipal.

Despite the poor employment prospects for teacher education graduates at the endof the 1980s and the haphazard nature of their induction, most of the cohort hadsecured permanent teaching positions 10 years after leaving college. Moreover, aconsiderable majority considered that they were effective members of the profession.These factors would seem to verify the effectiveness of the undergraduate trainingprovided in the BEd programme. The one-tenth of the group who become principalswere not distinguished from their peers except in relation to their greater involvementin sports activities while at college. This may con� rm the belief that school authoritiesplace a high priority on teachers’ ability to promote sporting activities in the school. Itmay also indicate that the competitive nature of sporting activities may well be re� ectedin a competitive attitude to promotional advancement in the teaching profession.

Most of the BEd graduates who did not continue in the teaching profession and whoopted for an alternative career chose to be involved in a caring area related toeducation. Those individuals who changed their professional occupation to an areaunrelated to teaching did so to ful� l other long-standing ambitions rather than from adesire not to continue in teaching. It is notable that almost all of this group reportedthat they would consider returning to teaching at some time in the future.

Levels of professional satisfaction among all BEd graduates were high, although ahigher percentage of those who had changed career and were no longer in teaching werevery satis� ed with their current occupations. The most common cause of dissatisfactionwith their career development cited by teachers was the lack of promotional opportuni-ties in the profession. It seems, therefore, that the BEd graduates began their teachingcareer as generally con� dent and capable professionals despite the absence of anyorganised induction programme. These beginning teachers managed well in their earlyteaching posts and the small number of the cohort who had taken up alternativeprofessional occupations did not rule out returning to classroom teaching in theprimary school

Over four-� fths of teachers took part in in-service education at some point duringthe 10 years since graduation. The academic achievements both at entry to college andin the BEd examination of those teachers who undertook no in-service training tendedto be superior to those of teachers who had taken part in in-service courses since

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graduation. Most of the postgraduate studies undertaken by BEd graduates tended tobe in Education, or in related areas such as Psychology. Those teachers who achievedpostgraduate degrees tended to have outperformed their undergraduate peers in theacademic area, in Education and in practical teaching in the BEd degree. Differencesbetween these two groups were also consistent but not signi� cant in examinations in the� rst and second year of the BEd programme.

This bipolarity seems to re� ect the notion which Cortis (1977) addressed in hisstudy The Social Context of Teaching, and it represents a long-standing dilemma inteacher education concerning the dif� culty in developing in parallel, the ability to‘understand’ teaching and to ‘perform’ teaching among beginning teachers. The resultsof this particular case study support the existence of this dichotomy in the relationshipbetween academic performance in the BEd and the later professional developmentpro� le of the cohort. The tendency to consider all college-based courses as ‘theory’ andall school-based experience as ‘practice’ has led some teacher educators to opposingpositions in regard to the manner and the timing of such provision in teacher educationcourses. Korthagen (1988) and Russell (1988) suggest that students can bene� t fromthe theoretical study of education only after practical classroom experience. Smyth(1987) takes an opposing point of view, and argues that students should have atheoretical, critical, understanding of classroom processes before beginning classroom-based teaching practice so that they avoid the uncritical replication of existing practice.It would seem to be preferable, however, to attempt to integrate the two approachesrather than stressing either one at the expense of the other. In this way the bipolartheory/practice dimension, which seems to underpin both pre-service and practisingteachers’ academic attainment and professional interests and orientations, could bebridged and beginning teachers encouraged to develop the facility to contextualisetheory and to conceptualise practice.

REFERENCES

CALDERHEAD, J. & SHORROCK, S.B. (1997) Understanding Teacher Education (London,The Falmer Press).

CORTIS, G. (1977) The Social Context of Teaching (London, Open Books).DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE IRELAND (1998) Report of the Steering Com-

mittee on the Establishment of a Teaching Council (Dublin, Government StationaryOf� ce).

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, IRELAND (1994) Report of the National Convention onEducation (Dublin, Government Stationary Of� ce).

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, IRELAND (1995) Charting Our Education Future, WhitePaper on Education (Dublin, Government Stationary Of� ce).

FULLAN, M. (1982) The Meaning of Educational Change (New York, Teachers’ CollegePress, Columbia University).

IRISH NATIONAL TEACHERS ORGANISATION (1993) In-service Education and Training ofTeachers (Dublin, Irish National Teachers’ Organisation).

IRISH NATIONAL TEACHERS ORGANISATION (1995) Educating Teachers: Reform and Re-newal (Dublin, Irish National Teachers’ Organisation).

KILLEAVY, M. (1993) The academic, socio-economic and demographic pro� le ofentrants to primary teaching in Ireland: a comparative study, Irish EducationalStudies, 11, No. 1, pp. 268–285.

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KORTHAGEN, F.A.J. (1988) The In� uence of learning orientations on the developmentof re� ective teaching, in: J. CALDERHEAD (Ed.) Teachers’ Professional Learning(Lewes, Falmer Press).

LACEY, C. (1977) The Socialisation of Teachers (London, Methuen).ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT (1991) Review of

National Policies for Education (Paris, OECD).RUSSELL, T. (1988) From pre-service teacher education to � rst year of teaching: a

study of theory and practice, in: J. CALDERHEAD (Ed.) Teachers’ ProfessionalLearning (London, Falmer Press).

RUST, F.O. (1994) The � rst year of teaching: it’s not what you expect, Teaching andTeacher Education, 10, pp. 205–218.

SMYTH, J. (1987) Educating Teachers: Changing the Nature of Pedagogical Knowledge(London, Falmer Press).

ZEICHNER, K.M. & TABACHNICK, B.R. (1981) Are the effects of university teachereducation ‘washed out’ by school experience, Journal of Teacher Education, 34,pp. 7–11.

Correspondence: Maureen Killeavy, Education Department, University College Dublin,National University of Ireland, Bel� eld, Dublin 4, Ireland.

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