teacher attitudes efl syria

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Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373–398

Teachers� attitudes toward information and communicationtechnologies: the case of Syrian EFL teachers

Abdulkafi Albirini *

Department of Educational Policy and Leadership, Technologies of Instruction and Media Program,

203 Jennings Hall, 1735 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA

Received 18 August 2004; accepted 29 October 2004

Abstract

Based on the new technology initiative in Syrian education, this study explored the attitudes of high

school English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in Syria toward ICT. In addition, the study investi-

gated the relationship between computer attitudes and five independent variables: computer attributes, cul-

tural perceptions, computer competence, computer access, and personal characteristics (including computer

training background). The findings suggest that teachers have positive attitudes toward ICT in education.Teachers� attitudes were predicted by computer attributes, cultural perceptions and computer competence.

The results point to the importance of teachers� vision of technology itself, their experiences with it, and the

cultural conditions that surround its introduction into schools in shaping their attitudes toward technology

and its subsequent diffusion in their educational practice.

� 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Media in education; Secondary education; Country-specific development; Pedagogical issues

1. Introduction

The last two decades have witnessed a worldwide proliferation of information and commu-nication technologies (ICT, henceforth) into the field of education. The global adoption of

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doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2004.10.013

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E-mail address: [email protected].

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374 A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373–398

ICT into education has often been premised on the potential of the new technological toolsto revolutionize an outmoded educational system, better prepare students for the informationage, and/or accelerate national development efforts. In developing countries in particular, theabove promises have generated a whole set of wild speculations about the necessity of edu-cational reforms that will accommodate the new tools (Pelgrum, 2001).

Governments in most developing countries have responded to the challenge by initiatingnational programs to introduce computers into education. Doing so, these governmentshave added to their burden of debt ‘‘even though the costs are large and the payoffs mod-est’’ (Benzie, 1995, p. 38). Benzie indicates that national programs have been of limited suc-cess not only because they were formulated in non-educational realms, but also becausethey were not based on research. In Rogers� terms (1995), the ‘‘initiation stage’’, which de-mands information gathering and planning, seems to be missing in this headlong process oftechnology implementation. Young (1991) remarks that in many cases computers wereintroduced into schools not as a means, but as an end. Computers were provided withno supplementary measures to enable educators to develop positive attitudes toward thenew tools and to use them. This has often resulted in ad hoc approaches to implementa-tion. In this approach, technology availability is mistaken for technology adoption and use.However, As Baylor and Ritchie (2002) state, ‘‘regardless of the amount of technology andits sophistication, technology will not be used unless faculty members have the skills,knowledge and attitudes necessary to infuse it into the curriculum’’ (p. 398). That is, teach-ers should become effective agents to be able to make use of technology in the classroom.Ultimately, teachers are the most important agents of change within the classroomarena.

One developing country that is currently pursuing the technological track in education isthe Syrian Arab Republic. Recognizing the challenge of the ‘‘information age’’, the SyrianMinistry of Education has recently adopted a national plan to introduce computers andinformatics into pre-college education. To this end, the Ministry has inaugurated computer-equipped labs within secondary schools for general, vocational and technical education. Ithas also connected many schools to the Internet. In addition, the Ministry created a new spe-cialization in computer technologies in an effort to increase the number of computer expertsin society. According to The National Report (2000), the introduction of technology into theSyrian educational system aims ‘‘to keep pace with the progress and to reach efficient levelsof education’’.

Unfortunately, the implementation of technology into the Syrian schools has not been guidedby research. This has often been the case in most countries across the world. In particular, thetechnology implementation plans seem to be lacking consideration of teachers� reaction to thenew tools. Such inattention to the end-users� attitudes may engender unforeseen repercussionsfor ICT diffusion in Syrian schools. In his theory of Diffusion of Innovations, Rogers (1995) con-siders adopters� attitudes indispensable to the innovation-decision process. A number of studieshave shown that teachers� attitudes toward computers are major factors related to both the initialacceptance of computer technology as well as future behavior regarding computer usage (Koo-hang, 1989; Selwyn, 1997). This suggests that studies at the early stages of technology implemen-tation should focus on the end-users� attitudes toward technology. The current study was based onthis pressing need.

A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373–398 375

2. Review of the literature

As a recent educational innovation, the computerization of education is a complex processwhere many agents play a role. Forces at the micro-level of the educational system (teachersand students) may be influential in facilitating or impeding changes that are outside the controlof the ministries of education (Pelgrum, 2001). Unfortunately, much of the early research on com-puter uses in education has ignored teachers� attitudes toward the new machines (Harper, 1987).Studies focused on the computer and its effect on students� achievement, thus overlooking the psy-chological and contextual factors involved in the process of educational computerization (Clark,1983; Thompson, Simonson, & Hargrave, 1992).

Recent studies have shown that the successful implementation of educational technologies de-pends largely on the attitudes of educators, who eventually determine how they are used in theclassroom. Bullock (2004) found that teachers� attitudes are a major enabling/disabling factorin the adoption of technology. Similarly, Kersaint, Horton, Stohl, and Garofalo (2003) found thatteachers who have positive attitudes toward technology feel more comfortable with using it andusually incorporate it into their teaching. In fact, Woodrow (1992) asserts that any successfultransformation in educational practice requires the development of positive user attitude towardthe new technology. The development of teachers� positive attitudes toward ICT is a key factornot only for enhancing computer integration but also for avoiding teachers� resistance to com-puter use (Watson, 1998). Watson (1998) warns against the severance of the innovation fromthe classroom teacher and the idea that ‘‘the teacher is an empty vessel into which this externallydefined innovation must be poured’’ (p. 191).

According to Rogers (1995), people�s attitudes toward a new technology are a key element in itsdiffusion. Since Rogers uses the terms innovation and technology interchangeably (p. 12), the dif-fusion of innovation framework seems particularly suited for the study of the diffusion of ICT.Rogers� Innovation Decision Process theory states that an innovation�s diffusion is a process thatoccurs over time through five stages: Knowledge, Persuasion, Decision, Implementation and Con-firmation. Accordingly, ‘‘the innovation-decision process is the process through which an individ-ual (or other decision-making unit) passes (1) from first knowledge of an innovation, (2) to formingan attitude toward the innovation, (3) to a decision to adopt or reject, (4) to implementation of thenew idea, and (5) to confirmation of this decision’’ (Rogers, 1995, p. 161). Due to the novelty ofcomputers and their related technologies, studies concerning technology diffusion in educationhave often focused on the first three phases of the innovation decision process. This is also becausethe status of computers in education is, to a great extent, still precarious. In cases where technologyis very recently introduced into the educational system, as is the case of most developing countries,studies have mainly focused on the first two stages, that is, on knowledge of an innovation and atti-tudes about it.

Rogers� premise concerning individuals� shift from knowledge about technology to forming atti-tudes toward it and then to its adoption or rejection corroborates the general and widely acceptedbelief that attitudes affect behavior directly or indirectly (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Zimbardo, Ebbe-sen, & Maslach, 1977). Teachers� attitudes have been found to be a major predictor of the use ofnew technologies in instructional settings (Abas, 1995b; Blankenship, 1998; Isleem, 2003). Chris-tensen (1998) states that teachers� attitudes toward computers affect not only their own computerexperiences, but also the experiences of the students they teach. In fact, it has been suggested that


attitudes towards computers affect teachers� use of computers in the classroom and the likelihoodof their benefiting from training (Kluever, Lam, Hoffman, Green, & Swearinges, 1994). Positiveattitudes often encourage less technologically capable teachers to learn the skills necessary forthe implementation of technology-based activities in the classroom.

Knezek and Christensen�s (2002) analysis of several major cross-cultural studies completed dur-ing the 1990s and related to ICT in education suggests that teachers advance in technology inte-gration through a set of well defined stages, which sometimes require changes in attitude more sothan skills. According to Zimbardo et al. (1977), changing individuals� behavior is possible oncetheir attitudes have been identified. Zimbardo and his associates suggest that attitudes are madeup of three components: affect, cognition, and behavior. The affective component represents anindividual�s emotional response or liking to a person or object. The cognitive component consistsof a person�s factual knowledge about a person or object. Finally, the behavioral component in-volves a person� overt behavior directed toward a person or object (p. 20). Zimbardo et al. con-tend that ‘‘even though we cannot predict the behavior of single individuals, we should be able topredict that people (in general) will change their behavior if we can change their attitudes. . .’’ (p.52). The latter assertion explains to a large extent the wide interest in the study of the attitudestoward technology.

Unfortunately, the task of pinning down teachers� attitudes has not always been an easy one.Watson (1998) considers teachers� attitudes as the most misread impeding force in the integrationof computers in educational practices. As Zimbardo et al. (1977) note, the complexity of attitudesand their interrelationship with behavior and many other variables summons a considerations for‘‘the maze of variables and processes that could affect attitudes, beliefs, and action’’ (p. 53). Stud-ies have pointed to a wide range of factors affecting attitudes toward ICT. The variations in thefactors identified by different researchers might be attributed to differences in context, partici-pants, and type of research.

One of the major factors affecting people�s attitudes toward a new technology is the attri-butes of the technology itself (Rogers, 1995). Rogers identified five main attributes of technol-ogy that affect its acceptance and subsequent adoption: relative advantage, compatibility,complexity, observability, and trialibility. Thus, a new technology will be increasingly diffusedif potential adopters perceive that the innovation: (1) has an advantage over previous innova-tions; (2) is compatible with existing practices, (3) is not complex to understand and use, (4)shows observable results, and (5) can be experimented with on a limited basis before adoption.In this study, computer attributes was operationally defined as ‘‘the level of relative advantage,compatibility, complexity, and observability of the computers as perceived by high school Eng-lish as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in Syria’’. Trialibility was not examined becausethe majority of Syrian teachers may not have had the chance to experiment with computersbefore these were introduced into schools. Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) found that relativeadvantage, compatibility and observability were positively related to adoption, whereas com-plexity was negatively correlated. In his study in Trinidad and Togo, Sooknanan (2002) foundthat relative advantage, compatibility, and observability were significantly related to the teach-ers� attitudes toward computers. However, the results showed no relationship between com-plexity and teachers� attitudes.

Rogers (1995) and Thomas (1987) emphasized the importance of the cultural/social norms of agiven country to the acceptance of technology among its people. Potential adopters may resist a


technological tool because it may not fit within their micro- or macro-cultures. Thomas proposes,‘‘How acceptable a new technology will be in a society depends on how well the proposed inno-vation fits the existing culture’’ (p.15). Thomas refers to his hypothesis as the cultural suitability

factor. Both Rogers (1995) and Thomas (1987) note that few studies have considered the influenceof people�s cultural perceptions on their adoption of technological innovations. In this study,‘‘Cultural Perceptions’’ was operationally delineated to mean ‘‘Syrian EFL teachers� perceptionsof the value, relevance, and impact of ICT as it relates to the cultural norms in Syrian society andschools’’. Among the very few researchers examining cultural norms, Li (2002) explored the effectsof national culture on students� use of the Internet and the differences between Chinese and Britishstudents in terms of use of the Internet. The researcher found that there were differences in Inter-net experience, attitudes, usage, and competence between Chinese and British students. Most ofthese differences were related to students� national culture.

In addition to computer attributes and cultural norms, previous research suggests that teachers�attitudes toward computer technologies are also related to teachers� computer competence. Intheir study of the correlation between teachers� attitude and acceptance of technology, Francis-Pelton and Pelton (1996) maintained, ‘‘Although many teachers believe computers are an impor-tant component of a student�s education, their lack of knowledge and experience lead to a lack ofconfidence to attempt to introduce them into their instruction’’ (p. 1). In this study, computercompetence was operationalized to mean ‘‘Syrian EFL teachers� perceptions about their computerknowledge and computer skills as measured by the instrument developed for this study’’. A largenumber of studies showed that teachers� computer competence is a significant predictor of theirattitudes toward computers (Berner, 2003; Na, 1993; Summers, 1990). Al-Oteawi (2002) foundthat most teachers who showed negative or neutral attitudes toward the use of ICT in educationlacked knowledge and skill about computers that would enable them to make ‘‘informed deci-sion’’ (p. 253).

Most studies examining computer attitudes have also reported a significant association betweencomputer access and teachers� attitudes toward computers (Na, 1993; Pelgrum, 2001). In his studyof Korean teachers, Na (1993) found a positive correlation between teachers� attitudes toward com-puters and computer ownership, accessibility to school computers, the level of accessibility toschool computers, and number of computer locations in the school. Na concluded that there wasa significant relationship between the proximity of computers and the number of access resources(home and school) on the one hand, and, on the other, teachers� attitudes toward computers.

3. The study

Given the importance of teachers� attitudes and the relationship of teachers� attitudes to theabove variables, the purpose of this study was therefore to determine the high school EFL teach-ers� attitudes toward ICT in Syrian education and then to explore the relationship between teach-ers� attitudes and factors that are thought to be influencing them, including perceived computerattributes, cultural perceptions, perceived computer competence, and perceived computer access.Teachers� personal characteristics (gender, age, income, teaching experience, school location, edu-cation, and teaching methods as well as computer training background) were also included in or-der to ensure maximum possible control of extraneous variables by building them into the design


of the study (Gay & Airasian, 2000). More specifically, the study investigated the followingquestions:

1. What are the attitudes of high school EFL teachers in Syria toward ICT in education?2. What are the teachers� perceptions of:

a. Computer attributes?b. Cultural relevance of computers to Syrian society and schools?c. Their level of computer competence?d. Their level of access to computers?

3. What is the proportion of the variance in the attitudes of teachers toward ICT in educationthat can be explained by the selected independent variables (as well as teachers� personal char-acteristics) and the relative significance of each independent variable in explaining the depen-dent variable?

The study focused mainly on EFL teachers because they were first to experiment with comput-ers in the Syrian context. This is partly because of their familiarity with English as ‘‘the main com-puter language’’ and also because much of the available software is for English language practice.Moreover, ‘‘The field of foreign language education has always been in the forefront of the use oftechnology to facilitate the language-acquisition process’’ (Lafford & Lafford, 1997, p. 215).

4. Methodology

This was a descriptive study of an exploratory nature. Creswell (2003) suggests that exploratorystudies are most advantageous when ‘‘not much has been written about the topic or the populationbeing studied’’ (p. 30). The target population in this study was high school EFL teachers in Hims(the largest Syrian province) during the 2003–2004 school year. The list of teachers was based onEFL teachers� Directory, which is maintained and updated on a quarterly basis by Hims Depart-ment of Education. The total number of high school EFL teachers in the Directory of the Depart-ment of Education was 887 (214 males, 24%; 673 females, 76%) as of the 30th of March, 2004.

A simple random sample of 326 subjects was selected to participate in the study. The specific pro-cedure used for sample selection was a ‘‘table of random numbers’’ (Gay & Airasian, 2000, p. 124).This procedure involved assigning each subject in the population to a number, and then selecting326 arbitrary numbers from the population. Since each number corresponded to a subject in thepopulation, the selected numbers formed the sample of subjects for the study.

Due to differences between the participants and cultural context of this study and those in pre-vious studies, a questionnaire was developed by the researcher to obtain the information needed forthe study rather than using existing instruments. The development of questionnaire was guided byextensive review of literature and scales used in different educational backgrounds (Al-Oteawi,2002; Bannon, Marshall, & Fluegal, 1985; Bear, Richards, & Lancaster, 1987; Christensen & Kne-zek, 1996; Gardner, Discenza, & Dukes, 1993; Gressard & Loyd, 1986; Harrison & Rainer, 1992;Isleem, 2003; Jones & Clarke, 1994; Meier, 1988; Na, 1993; Robertson, Calder, Fung, Jones, &O�Shea, 1995; Sooknanan, 2002; Swadener & Hannafin, 1987). The questionnaire consisted ofsix scales that correspond to the main variables of the study (Appendix A). The instrument was


evaluated by a panel of experts for content and face validity. The panel included three content ex-perts (Professors of educational technology and EFL), two bilingual experts, one measurement ex-pert, and four population experts (Syrian EFL teachers). Feedback from the panel of experts wasused mainly to ensure that the six scales measure the content areas of investigation and are cultur-ally and technically appropriate for the context of the study. The Cronbach�s a reliability coeffi-cients for the first four scales were: computer attitude = 0.90, computer attributes = 0.86,cultural perceptions = 0.76, and computer competence = 0.94. The computer access scale consistedof three statements that took into account possible locations where computers might be availablefor use by EFL teachers: at home, in school, and other places. Demographic variables were quan-tified by individual scores on eight items. The responses to all eight items were treated separately asdescriptive information that was correlated with the attitudes toward ICT. The questionnaire wastranslated into Arabic and then back into English to ensure its suitability for the participants.

Following Dillman�s (1978) recommendations, a letter of recruitment, a letter of informedconsent, and a return envelope accompanied the questionnaire. Letters of support by the Syr-ian Ministry of Education and the Director of English in the Department of Education wereused for accessing the schools and teachers. A total of 326 questionnaires were distributedover a period of three days from the 27th to the 29th of April, 2004. The questionnaires weredelivered in person to school principals of each participant or group of participants (when twoor more sample teachers were from the same school). Principals in turn distributed them tothe teachers. Three days before the deadline, school principals were asked via phone to remindteachers to complete the questionnaire. The questionnaires and the accompanying forms werecollected in person from school principals from May 12th to May 14th. The principals of sixschools where some teachers did not complete questionnaires were asked for a three-dayextension for collecting the rest of the questionnaires from teachers. By May 17th, a totalof 320 questionnaires were collected from the participants. The response rate was 98.16%.The rate was high enough to avoid further survey distribution. Six out of 320 were not usablefor data analysis because they were not completed. Only 314 were analyzed, representing avalid response rate of 96.32%. The data were analyzed via SPSS. 12 statistical package.Descriptive statistics were used to describe and summarize the properties of the mass of datacollected from the respondents (Gay & Airasian, 2000, p. 437). Multiple regression analysiswas used to determine the proportion of the variance in the attitudes of teachers towardICT in education that could be explained by the selected independent variables and the rela-tive significance of each in explaining the dependent variable. By convention, an a level of 0.05was established a priori for determining statistical significance. Prior to conducting the anal-ysis, the scoring of all negatively stated items was reversed.

5. Main findings

5.1. Research question one: teachers’ attitudes toward ICT in education

Participants were asked to respond to 20, Likert-type statements dealing with their attitudestoward ICT in education (Appendix A). The items were designed to measure the affective domainof computer attitude (items 1–6), cognitive domain (items 7–15), and behavioral domain (items

Table 1

Distribution of mean scores on the attitude toward ICT scale

Scale Percent (%) Mean SD

SD D N A SA

Affect 0.3 0.6 13.7 62.4 22.9 4.00 0.5

Cognition 0.0 1.0 12.4 65.9 20.7 4.05 0.4

Behavior 0.3 2.9 8.3 58.3 30.3 4.13 0.5

Overall attitude 0.0 0.6 11.8 65.0 22.6 4.05 0.38

SD, strongly disagree (1); D, disagree (2); N, neutral (3); A, agree (4); SA, strongly agree (5).


15–20). Computer attitudes of EFL teachers was represented by a mean score on a 5-point scale,where 5 (Strongly Agree) represents the maximum score of the scale and 1 (Strongly Disagree)represents the minimum score. Table 1 illustrates the distribution of mean scores on the Attitudetoward ICT scale.

As Table 1 illustrates, teachers� overall attitudes toward ICT were positive with an overallmean score of 4.05 (SD = 0.38). The respondents� positive attitudes were evident within theaffective (mean = 4.00), cognitive (mean = 4.05) and behavioral (mean = 4.13) domains.Eighty-five point three percent (85.3%) of the respondents had positive (62.4%) or highly posi-tive (22.9%) affect toward computers. These respondents reported that they had no apprehen-sion of computers, were glad about the increase of computers, considered using computersenjoyable, felt comfortable about computers, and liked to talk with others about computersand to use them in teaching. Within the cognitive domain, most of the respondents agreed(69.9%) and strongly agreed (20.7%) that computers save time and effort, motivate studentsto do more study, enhance students� learning, are fast and efficient means of getting informa-tion, must be used in all subject matters, make schools a better place, are worth the time spenton learning them, are needed in the classroom, and generally do more good than harm. In thebehavioral domain, the majority of the respondents expressed positive (58.3%) or highly positive(30.3%) behavioral intentions in terms of buying computers, learning about them, and usingthem in the near future.

5.2. Research question two: teachers’ perceptions in terms of factors related to attitudes toward ICT

5.2.1. Computer attributesParticipants were asked to respond to 18, Likert-type statements dealing with their perceptions

about the relative advantage of computers (items 1–5), their compatibility with teachers� currentpractices (items 6–10), their simplicity/non-complexity (items 11–14), and their observability(items 15–18). Overall, respondents� perceptions of computers� attributes were somewhat positivewith an overall mean score of 3.7 (SD = 0.38) (Table 2).

Respondents� positive perceptions varied across the four computer attributes examined inthis study. Teachers� responses were most positive about the relative advantage of computersas an educational tool (mean = 4.04; SD = 0.59). Less positive were teachers� perceptions ofthe compatibility of computers with their current practices (mean = 3.54; SD = 0.54). Whilethe majority of respondents indicated that computer use suits their students� learning prefer-

Table 2

Distribution of mean scores on the computer attributes scale


SD D N A SA

Advantage 0.3 1.0 12.7 64.7 21.3 4.04 0.59

Compatibility 0.3 2.6 43.0 51.0 3.2 3.54 0.54

Complexity 0.0 4.8 36.9 51.3 7.0 3.48 0.67

Observability 0.0 3.8 28.3 51.3 16.6 3.70 0.68

Overall attributes 0.0 1.3 29.0 64.4 5.4 3.70 0.38



ences and level of computer knowledge and is appropriate for many language learning activ-ities, most of them were uncertain about whether or not computer use fits well in their cur-riculum goals, and the majority reported that class time is too limited for computer use.Similarly, teachers� perceptions of the simplicity of computers (i.e., ‘‘complexity’’ before thenegative items were reversed) were also midway between neutral and positive (mean = 3.48;SD = 0.67). Most of the teachers� responses were split between positive and neutral aboutwhether it is easy to understand the basic functions of computers, operate them, and use themin teaching. Lastly, teachers� responses on the observability subscale indicate somewhat posi-tive perceptions (3.70, SD = 0.68). Most of the respondents reported that they had seen com-puters at work and as educational tools in general and in the Syrian educational context inparticular.

5.2.2. Cultural perceptionsIn general, participants� responses to the 16 items on the Cultural Perceptions scale were some-

how midway between neutral and positive (mean = 3.38, SD = 0.44) (Table 3). The majority of therespondents had positive (64.7%) or highly positive (21.3%) perceptions about the relevance ofICT to Syrian society and schools. Notably, most of the respondents indicated that students needto know how to use computers for their future jobs. Moreover, most of them stated that comput-ers will contribute to improving their standard of living and that knowing about computers earnsone the respect of others and ensures privileges not available to others. In addition, the majorityof the respondents indicated that computers do not increase their dependence on foreign coun-tries, dehumanize society, or encourage unethical practices.

However, the fact that respondents saw ICT as culturally appropriate for Syrian schools andsociety did not prevent them to indicate that there are other social issues that need to be addressed

Table 3

Distribution of mean scores on the cultural perceptions scale


SD D N A SA

Cultural perceptions 0.3 1.0 12.7 64.6 21.3 3.38 0.44


Table 4

Distribution of mean scores on the computer competence scale


No

competence

Little

competence

Moderate

competence

Much

competence

Computer competence 43.3 39.5 16.6 0.6 1.78 0.67


before implementing computers in education, that computers are proliferating too fast, and thatalternative computers which better suit the Arabic culture and identity are needed.

5.2.3. Computer competenceComputer competence was represented by a mean score on a 4-point, scale ranging from 1 (no

competence) to 4 (much competence). Table 4 illustrates the distribution of mean scores on the 15-item computer competence scale.

The majority of the respondents had no (43.3%) or little (39.5%) computer competence in han-dling most of the computer functions needed by educators. Sixteen point six (16.6%) of therespondents had moderate computer competence, and less than one% (0.6%) possessed muchcompetence. On average, the respondents reported that they had ‘‘Little Competence’’(mean = 1.78; SD = 0.67) in computer uses, including software installation, printer usage, produc-tivity software, telecommunication resources, basic troubleshooting, graphic application, gradekeeping, educational software evaluation, organization tools, and virus removal.

5.2.4. Computer access

Participants were asked to rate their level of access to potential computer places: at home,school and other places. Computer access of EFL teachers was represented by a mean score ona 5-point scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 5 (Daily) (Table 5).

As Table 5 illustrates, ‘‘Home’’ was the respondents� most frequent place of computer accesswith 57 (57%; n = 179) of them having access to it either daily (30.6%; n = 96), biweekly or threetimes a week (9.6%; n = 30), weekly (7.6%; n = 24), or monthly (9.2%; n = 29). Schools came sec-ond with 33.4 (33.4%; n = 105) of the respondents having access to it either daily (5.1%; n = 16),biweekly or three times a week (4.5%; n = 14), weekly (7.3%; n = 23), or monthly (16.6%; n = 52).Only 25.5 (25.5%; n = 80) of the respondents had access to computers in places other than home

Table 5

Distribution of mean scores on the computer access scale


Never Once a month Once a week 2–3 Times a week Daily

Home 43.0 9.2 7.6 9.6 30.6 2.75 1.76

School 66.6 16.6 7.3 4.5 5.1 1.65 1.12

Other (cafes, friends, relatives,

university, work)

74.5 11.8 7.0 4.1 2.5 1.48 0.97

Overall access level 40.8 34.7 17.5 6.7 0.3 1.96 0.86


and school. These places included Internet cafes, friends, relatives, university, and private work.The mean score on the Computer Access scale was 1.96 (SD = 0.86), which indicates that a typicalteacher had access to computers almost once a month.

5.3. Research question three: proportion of variance in teachers’ attitudes explained by the

independent variables

To determine the proportion of the variance in the attitudes of teachers toward ICT in edu-cation that could be explained by the selected independent variables, a multiple regressionanalysis was performed. Following Gay and Airasian�s (2000) recommendations, simple corre-lations (using Pearson and Spearman analyses) were first performed to identify independentvariables that individually correlate with the dependent variable (attitudes toward ICT). Thesevariables were used in the multiple regression equation to make a more accurate prediction ofthe dependent variable and to show the proportion of variance in the dependent variable ex-plained by the selected independent variables. The independent variables that individually cor-related with the dependent variable were: computer attributes (r = 0.74, p < 0.05), culturalperceptions (r = 0.62, p < 0.05), computer competence (r = 0.30, p < 0.05), computer access(r = 0.17, p < 0.05), and computer training (r = 0. 15, p < 0.05). Spearman rank correlationsyielded no significant relationships between teachers� attitudes and any of the demographicvariables (with the exception of computer training background). The summary of the multipleregression results are presented in Tables 6 and 7. The results indicated that 58% of the var-iance in computer attitude was explained by the independent variables included in this study(Table 6). The test statistic was significant at the 0.05 level of significance (F(5, 313) = 87.94;p < 0.001).

As Table 7 illustrates, the results of multiple regression indicate that three variables affect theteachers� attitudes toward ICT at the 0.05 level of significance. The following are the absolute

Table 6

Analysis of variance

Sources Sum of squares DF Mean square F value R2 Adjusted R2 p

Model 47.10 5 9.41 87.94 0.59 0.58 <0.001

Error 33.00 308 0.11

Total 80.03 313

Table 7

Multiple regression on dependent variable (computer attitude)

Variable Unstandardized b Standardized b t p

Computer attributes 0.60 0.57 11.03 <0.001

Cultural perceptions 0.29 0.25 5.02 <0.001

Computer competence 0.07 0.10 2.18 0.030

Computer access 0.04 0.06 1.50 0.14

Training 0.02 0.03 0.71 0.481


values of the standardized estimate (b) of these factors from largest to smallest: computer attri-butes (b = 0.57, t = 11.03, p < 0.05), cultural perceptions (b = 0.25, t = 5.02, p < 0.05), andcomputer competence (b = 0.10, t = 2.18, p < 0.05). The analysis suggests that the independentvariables explaining the greatest amount of variance in computer attitudes are in order ofpredicative value: computer attributes, cultural perceptions, and computer competence(Table 7).

6. Discussion

The study investigated the attitudes of high school EFL teachers in a large Syrian provincetoward ICT and the relationship of teachers� attitudes to a selected set of independent vari-ables. Teachers� attitudes toward ICT have been universally recognized as an important factorfor the success of technology integration in education (Rogers, 1995; Watson, 1998; Woodrow,1992). Findings from this study suggest that participants had positive attitudes toward ICT ineducation. The respondents� positive attitudes were evident within the affective, cognitive andbehavioral domains. Such optimism cannot simply be attributed to the novelty of computersin Syrian education (Salaberry, 2001). The participants seemed to have totally accepted therationale for introducing ICT into schools and were able to base their judgments on under-standable reasons. Thus, the majority of respondents considered computers as a viable educa-tional tool that has the potential to bring about different improvements to their schools andclassrooms.

Teachers� positive attitudes exhibit their initiation into the innovation-decision process (Rogers,1995). It seems that teachers have already gone through the Knowledge and Persuasion stages(Rogers, 1995) and are probably proceeding to the Decision phase. As many theorists have indi-cated, attitudes can often foretell future decision-making behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Hav-ing formed positive attitudes toward ICT in education, participants are expected to be using ICTin their classrooms once computers become more available to them. In fact, the behavioral sub-scale of the computer attitude scale showed that the majority of teachers had the intention to learnabout computers and to use them in the near future. This symbiotic relationship between attitudestoward ICT and its use in the classroom has been widely reported in the literature (e.g., Blanken-ship, 1998; Isleem, 2003).

The findings of the study indicated a very strong positive correlation between teachers� atti-tudes toward ICT in education and their perceptions of computer attributes. The findings areconsistent with Rogers� Innovation Attributes sub-theory. An examination of individual com-puter attributes shows that respondents were most positive about the relative advantage ofcomputers as an educational tool. However, teachers� perceptions of the compatibility ofICT with their current teaching practices were not as positive. The majority of them wereuncertain about whether or not computers fit well in their curricular goals. The disparity be-tween technological demands and the existing curricula has often been a major hindrance fortechnology integration (Ojo & Awuah, 1998). As the responses of the participants indicate,the Syrian educational landscape seems to be no exception. Besides, most of the participantsconsidered that the class time is too limited for computer use. This problem has also beenemphasized in the literature (Becker, 1998). Teachers� concerns about the incompatibility of


computers with the existing curricula as well as the lack of time for computer use indicatethat educational change cannot simply be attained by placing computers in schools (Hodas,1993). For a change to occur, many renovations need to be made at the structural level aswell as the pedagogic level. Otherwise, a consistent mismatch will occur between the industrialmodels of schooling and the information-age teaching/learning devices. Salamon (2002) refersto this mismatch as a ‘‘Technological Paradox’’ resulting from ‘‘the consistent tendency of theeducation system to preserve itself and its practices by the assimilation of new technologiesinto existing instructional practices’’ (pp. 71–72). Hence, the introduction of ICT innovationsinto education requires equal innovativeness in structural, pedagogical and curriculumapproaches.

Interestingly, cultural perceptions were the second most important predictor of computer atti-tudes in this study. This conclusion points to the need for considering cultural factors in studiesconducted in developing countries. The majority of respondents regarded computers as perti-nent to both Syrian schools and society and viable means for improving education and stan-dards of living in general. What should not go unnoticed, however, is that the majority ofthe respondents felt the need for computers that better suit the Arabic culture and identity.It has often been noted that people who have not been quite influential in the design and devel-opment of ICT would prefer a localized version of these technologies (Damarin, 1998). In addi-tion, many of the respondents saw that there are more important social issues to be addressedbefore implementing computers in education. Therefore, it was not a surprise that almost all ofthe respondents agreed that computers are proliferating too fast. The above conclusion impliesthat balancing resource allocation among the competing areas of need is a critical issue in devel-oping countries.

Previous research has pointed to teachers� lack of computer competence as a main barrier totheir acceptance and adoption of ICT in developing countries (Al-Oteawi, 2002; Na, 1993; Pel-grum, 2001). The results of the current study support and extend the findings from previousresearch. The majority of respondents reported having little or no competence in handling mostof the computer functions needed by educators. This finding did not support the assumptionthat teachers with low level of computer competence usually have negative attitudes towardcomputers (Summers, 1990). On the other hand, the fact that computer competence was signif-icantly related to teachers� attitudes supports the theoretical and empirical arguments made forthe importance of computer competence in determining teachers� attitudes toward ICT (Al-Ote-awi, 2002; Berner, 2003; Bulkeley, 1993; Na, 1993). In addition, the relationship between com-puter attitudes and competence suggests that higher computer competence may foster thealready positive attitudes of teachers and eventually result in their use of computers withinthe classroom.

Computer access has often been one of the most notorious impediments to technology adoptionand integration worldwide (Abas, 1995a; Pelgrum, 2001). Findings from the current study sub-stantiate this globally felt barrier. While a relatively high percentage of the respondents (57%)had computers at home, only 33.4% of the respondents had access to computers at school. Thelatter percentage gives a clear indication of the insufficiency of computers at schools, particularlyfor teacher use. As noted above, the paucity of computer resources available for teachers has beenwidely reported in the literature as a major obstacle to technology integration in education (e.g.,Abas, 1995a; Na, 1993). Although the shortage of computers did not seem to have notable impact


on the teachers� attitudes toward ICT in this study, it may theoretically have its effects on theirfuture uses of ICT in the classroom.

7. Conclusion

Given the recent presence of technology in their schools, developing countries have the respon-sibility not merely to provide computers for schools, but also to foster a culture of acceptanceamongst the end-users of these tools. Hence, the study of teachers� attitudes becomes indispens-able to the technology implementation plans. As Sheingold (1991, cited in North Central RegionalEducational Laboratory, 2003) notes, the challenge of technology integration into education ismore human than it is technological.

The findings of this study may be specific to EFL teachers in Syrian education, but their impli-cations are significant to other educators as well. Teachers� positive attitudes in the current studyhave a special significance given the limitations characterizing the current status of ICT in Syrianschools: insufficient computer resources and teachers� lack of computer competence. It is thereforeessential for policy-makers to sustain and promote teachers� attitudes as a prerequisite for derivingthe benefits of costly technology initiatives. Since positive attitudes toward ICT usually foretellfuture computer use, policy-makers can make use of teachers� positive attitudes toward ICT tobetter prepare them for incorporating ICT in their teaching practices.

One of the main barriers to technology implementation perceived by the teachers in this study isthe mismatch between ICT and the existing curricula and the class-time frame. It follows thatplacing computers in schools is not enough for attaining educational change. The introductionof ICT into education requires equal innovativeness in other aspects of education. Both policy-makers and teachers share this responsibility. Policy-makers should provide additional planningtime for teachers to experiment with new ICT-based approaches. This may be attained by reduc-ing the teaching load for the teachers.

Other barriers reported in this study were teachers� low level of access to school computers,which may have played a role in teachers� modest computer competence so essential to futurecomputer use. Such conclusion points to the invariable importance of technology resources forthe success of technology initiatives across the world. This also implies that technology initiativesshould include measures for preparing teachers to use computers in their teaching practices.Teachers� preparation necessitates not merely providing additional training opportunities, butalso aiding them in experimenting with ICT before being able to use it in their classrooms. If deci-sion-makers want to involve teachers in the process of technology integration, they have to findways to overcome the barriers perceived by the teachers.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my indebtedness for the participants who gave me their time to completethe surveys. I am also grateful for my brother Ahmad, who facilitated much of the contacts withthe Ministry of Education, the Department of Education, principals, and teachers. I am thankfulto Mr. Nibhan Addakar, the Director of English in the Department of Education, for his kindcontribution to the completion of the study.


Appendix A. Study instrument (Arabic version)


Appendix B. Study instrument (English version)

The Ohio State University Attitudes toward Computer TechnologyGeneral Instructions: The purpose of this questionnaire is to examine your attitudes toward the

introduction of information technology into Syrian education. The questionnaire consists of sixsections. Each section begins with some directions pertaining to that part only. As you begin eachsection, please read the directions carefully and provide your responses candidly in the formatrequested.

Section (1): Instructions: Please indicate your reaction to each of the following statements bycircling the number that represents your level of agreement or disagreement with it. Make sureto respond to every statement.


Stronglydisagree

Disagree
Neutral Agree Stronglyagree
1.
Computers do not scare me atall
1
2 3 4 5
2.
Computers make me feeluncomfortable
1
2 3 4 5
3.
I am glad there are morecomputers these days
1
2 3 4 5
4.
I do not like talking withothers about computers
1
2 3 4 5
5.
Using computers is enjoyable 1 2 3 4 5 6. I dislike using computers in
teaching
1 2 3 4 5
7.
Computers save time andeffort
1
2 3 4 5
8.
Schools would be a betterplace without computers
1
2 3 4 5
9.
Students must use computersin all subject matters
1
2 3 4 5
10.
Learning about computers is awaste of time
1
2 3 4 5
11.
Computers would motivatestudents to do more study
1
2 3 4 5
12.
Computers are a fast andefficient means of gettinginformation
1
2 3 4 5
13.
I do not think I would everneed a computer in myclassroom
1
2 3 4 5
14.
Computers can enhancestudents� learning
1
2 3 4 5
15.
Computers do more harmthan good
1
2 3 4 5
16.
I would rather do things byhand than with a computer
1
2 3 4 5
17.
If I had the money, I wouldbuy a computer
1
2 3 4 5
18.
I would avoid computers asmuch as possible
1
2 3 4 5
19.
I would like to learn moreabout computers
1
2 3 4 5
20.
I have no intention to usecomputers in the near future
1
2 3 4 5


Section (2) Instructions: Please indicate your reaction to each of the following statements by
circling the number that represents your level of agreement or disagreement with it. Make sureto respond to every statement
Stronglydisagree

Disagree
1
Computers will improveeducation
1
2 3 4 5
2
Teaching with computersoffers real advantages overtraditional methods ofinstruction
1
2 3 4 5
3
Computer technology cannotimprove the quality ofstudents� learning
1
2 3 4 5
4
Using computer technology inthe classroom would make thesubject matter moreinteresting
1
2 3 4 5
5
Computers are not useful forlanguage learning
1
2 3 4 5
6
Computers have no place inschools
1
2 3 4 5
7
Computer use fits wellinto my curriculumgoals
1
2 3 4 5
8
Class time is too limited forcomputer use
1
2 3 3 5
9
Computer use suits mystudents� learning preferencesand their level of computerknowledge
1
2 3 4 5
10
Computer use is appropriatefor many language learningactivities
1
2 3 4 5
11
It would be hard for me tolearn to use the computer inteaching
1
2 3 4 5
12
I have no difficulty inunderstanding the basicfunctions of computers
1
2 3 4 5
13
Computers complicate mytask in the classroom
1
2 3 4 5

Appendix B (continued)


Stronglydisagree

Disagree
14
Everyone can easily learn tooperate a computer
1
2 3 4 5
15
I have never seen computersat work
1
2 3 4 5
16
Computers have proved to beeffective learning toolsworldwide
1
2 3 4 5
17
I have never seen computersbeing used as an educationaltool
1
2 3 4 5
18
I have seen some Syrianteachers use computers foreducational purposes
1
2 3 4 5
Section (3) Instructions: Please indicate your reaction to each of the following statements bycircling the number that represents your level of agreement or disagreement with it. Make sureto respond to every statement

Stronglydisagree

Disagree
1
Computers will not make any difference inour classrooms, schools, or lives
1
2 3 4 5
2
Students need to know how to usecomputers for their future jobs
1
2 3 4 5
3
Students prefer learning from teachers tolearning from computers
1
2 3 4 5
4
Knowing about computers earns one therespect of others
1
2 3 4 5
5
We need computers that suit better theArabic culture and identity
1
2 3 4 5
6
Computers will improve our standard ofliving
1
2 3 4 5
7
Using computers would not hinder Arabgenerations from learning their traditions
1
2 3 4 5
8
Computers are proliferating too fast 1 2 3 4 5 9 People who are skilled in computers have
privileges not available to others
1 2 3 4 5
10
Computers will increase our dependenceon foreign countries
1
2 3 4 5
(continued on next page)



Stronglydisagree

Disagree
11
There are other social issues thatneed to beaddressed before implementingcomputers in education
1
2 3 4 5
12
The increased proliferation ofcomputers willmake our lives easier
1
2 3 4 5
13
Computers dehumanize society 1 2 3 4 5 14 Working with computers does not
diminish people�relationships with one other

1
2 3 4 5
15
Computers encourage unethicalpractices
1
2 3 4 5
16
Computers should be a priorityin education
1
2 3 4 5
Section (4) Instructions: Please indicate your current computer competence level (i.e., both yourknowledge of and your skill in using computers) regarding each of the following statements. Makesure to respond to every statement

Nocompetence

Littlecompetence

Moderatecompetence

Muchcompetence

1
Install new software on acomputer
1
2 3 4
2
Use a printer 1 2 3 4 3 Use a computer keyboard 1 2 3 4 4 Operate a word processing
program (e.g., Word)
1 2 3 4
5
Operate a presentationprogram (e.g., PowerPoint)
1
2 3 4
6
Operate a spreadsheetprogram (e.g., Excel)
7
Operate a database program(e.g., Access)
1
2 3 4
8
Use the Internet forcommunication (e.g., email &chatroom)
1
2 3 4
9
Use the World Wide Web toaccess different types ofinformation
1
2 3 4



Nocompetence

Littlecompetence

Moderatecompetence

Muchcompetence

10
Solve simple problems inoperating computers
1
2 3 4
11
Operate a graphics program(e.g., Photoshop)
1
2 3 4
12
Use computers for gradekeeping
1
2 3 4
13
Select and evaluateeducational software
1
2 3 4
14
Create and organize computerfiles and folders
1
2 3 4
15
Remove computer viruses 1 2 3 4
Section (5) Instructions: Please identify how often you have computer access in the followingcontexts:

Daily
2 or 3times a week
Once a week
Once a month Never
1
In your home 1 2 3 4 5 2 At school (computer lab
or library)
1 2 3 4 5
3
Other (like Internetcafes, etc.)
1
2 3 4 5
Section (6) Instructions: Please indicate you response to the following questions by checking theappropriate boxes:

1 What is your genderh Male h Female2 What is your age? h 20–29 h 30–39 h 40–49 h 50–59 h60 and over3 What is your monthly average household income in Syrian Liras? h 5000–9000 h10,000–

14,000 h15,000–19,000 h 20,000–24,000 h 24,000 and over4 Including the current year, how many years have you been teaching?

h 1–5 h 6–10 h 11–15 h 16–20 h over 205 In what type of school do you teach h Urban h Suburban h Rural6 What is your highest completed academic degree?

h Teacher Certificate h Bachelors h Master�s7 Have you ever attended any training course, workshop, or seminar on using computers?

h No h Yes.If ‘‘Yes’’, please specify the number of hours and/or days: - - - -hours - - - -days


8 What is the teaching method you use most often?h Active discussionh Collaborative activitiesh Demonstrationh Hands-on learningh Lecturingh Role playingh Computer-assisted instructionh Other (please specify):

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