tank irrigation management system

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    CHAPTER 3

    CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABLE TANK

    IRRIGATION SYSTEM MANAGEMENT

    3.1 INTRODUCTION

    In this chapter, a conceptual framework to implement the

    restoration scheme of tank irrigation system for sustainable rural livelihood is

    developed based on the reviewed literature in the field of tank irrigation

    system management and impact of rehabilitation of tank irrigation system.

    Sustainable development was defined in the Brundtland report Our

    Common Future WCED (1987) as development that meets the needs of the

    present generation without compromising the ability of future generations tomeet their own needs. Subsequently, many authors have used the term

    sustainable development for specific development activities like sustainable

    agriculture, sustainable forestry, sustainable energy development, etc.

    A single development may be considered successful if it is weighed

    against its specific performance criteria. But to achieve sustainability, all the

    different aspects of development should be considered simultaneously.

    An integrated approach is essential for this study. Many research

    organizations and individuals have defined sustainability with regard to

    development in agriculture, forestry, land management, etc. The Consultative

    Group on International Agricultural Research (TAC/CGIAR, 1988, cited in:

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    Prinz, 1998) states that sustainable agriculture is the successful management

    of resources of agriculture to satisfy changing human needs while maintaining

    or enhancing the quality. Current irrigated agriculture could not be sustained

    until there is an improvement in water conveyance system and upgrading the

    irrigation efficiency with a drainage system.

    The major deficiencies that influence the sustainability of tank

    irrigation system are inadequate maintenance, reduction in storage capacity,

    heavy seepage losses in the delivery system and poor water management

    techniques. There is a pressing need to evolve and implement appropriate

    strategies that management be sound on technical, social, institutional andeconomic dimensions for sustainable development and management of tank

    irrigation systems (Arumugam and Mohan 1997).

    Farmers involved in implementing tank rehabilitation have to be

    helped to meet their felt needs primarily and their utmost cooperation has to

    be earned in carrying out rehabilitation program effectively. There are three

    factors that qualify the sustainable development of a system, which are: (a)

    survivability; (b) sustainability; and (c) efficiency [l/o]. Survivability refers to

    the conditions under which a system yields net profits above a certain

    minimum level. Sustainability indicates that if the demand increases then the

    net profit must also be increased without causing damage to the system,

    which results in the sustainable use of the system. Efficiency refers to the

    quantity produced in relation to the input use (output/ input) (Arumugam et al,

    1997).

    The experience with watershed development under the new

    participatory approach in India shows that the immediate results are positive

    in terms of rise in water tables, crop yields, employment and income of the

    participants (Rao, 2000).

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    3.2 WATER RESOURCES

    Irrigation tanks are one of the major water and common property

    resources in Southern Peninsular India. Declination of irrigation tanks

    threatens the agriculture productivity and water availability in the South and

    South East Asia especially in Southern Peninsular India and Sri Lanka. The

    literature on water resources of tank irrigation system identifies numerous

    reasons such as socioeconomic, institutional and physical for the decline of

    tank irrigation (Von Oppen and Subba Rao, 1980; Reddy, 1990; Reddy et al,

    1993; Janakarajan, 1991; Reddy, 1996; Gireesh et al, 1997).

    Historically, the decline in tank irrigation is linked with increasing

    population density. Tank degradations can be reversed through appropriate

    water conservation and management techniques, which enhance groundwater

    recharge, agriculture productivity and poverty alleviation in the rural area in

    India. These resources need rehabilitation which is given in a framework as

    shown in Figure 3.1.

    Tank rehabilitation options that can be used to restore to the

    original standards should be given priority. Desilting is an important option.

    However, as stated earlier in section 2.5, it has been observed that in a 10 year

    cycle, for only 3 years the tanks reach full storage, for five years deficit

    storage and for two years the tanks fail. Hence, desilting the tank fully is not

    economical as the benefits of desilting will be for only three years with tanks

    at full supply. Partial desilting can be done nearer to the lower sluice as well

    as around the periphery of the tank water spread area (Palanisamy, 2006).

    This type of desilting is suitable for system and non-system tanks. Most of the

    tanks do not receive an adequate water supply and the chain systems of tanks

    have been almost broken. Hence, there is an urgent need to revive the tank-

    chains (tank cascade or chain of tanks) through appropriate modernization

    strategies for improving the supply channels connecting different tanks.

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    This highlight the needs for taking up modernization works at the

    chain-level i.e. by considering the entire hydrological boundary as a single

    unit rather than viewing individual tanks as separate entities for new

    investment (Palanisamy, 2006).

    Community wells should be installed in the tank water spread area

    to provide some supplementary irrigation to the non-well farmers during

    critical periods. Again, the farmers level of access to resources plays a

    critical role in the acceptability or appropriateness of the various technologies

    (John, 2002). If the land is a limiting factor to production, then practices that

    reduce the land area are unlikely to be embraced. If the labour is limited, then

    the gender division of labour and the timing of the various activities become

    critical to the adoption of technologies. And if capital is limiting by

    considering the traditional practice experiences of the farmers, experts and

    scientists could develop the appropriate technologies jointly with the people.

    Siltation over many years generally reduces the tank storage capacity. In the

    earlier years, farmers used to desilt the tanks using their bullock carts and

    manual labour with the aim of maintaining the tank storage as well as

    obtaining manure for their lands.

    Presently, it is becoming increasingly difficult to desilt by

    themselves due to the lack of bullock carts and the reduced spirit of

    Kudimaramath (community repair work). The Government cannot perform

    the desilting since it is too expensive to desilt the entire tank capacity. And

    also, it is difficult to dispose of silts outside the tanks. Partial desilting that

    helps to restore the original (10%) dead storage could be attempted as part of

    tank rehabilitation options to increase non-irrigation benefits of tank water

    particularly in the non-tank-irrigation season. The recharging of wells could

    also be improved. Partial desilting can be done nearer to the lower sluice as

    well as around the periphery of the tank water spread area (Palanisamy,

    2006). This type of desilting is suitable for system tanks and non-system

    tanks.

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    Figure 3.1 Framework for tank irrigation system degradation issues

    and appropriate management and conservation for

    sustainable development

    Problems of small water storage

    bodies like irrigation tanks, kulams

    etc,

    Silting and

    non-maintenanceof tanks

    Chocking of

    supply channel

    Deterioration of

    the traditionalirrigationinstitutions Non-

    maintenance of

    tanks

    Encroachment

    of foreshorearea, catchmentarea and supply

    channel

    Pollution

    from

    industries

    Restoration of Water Bodies

    Maintaining and repairing oftank bund, sluice and surplus

    weir and improving supply

    channel

    Desilting of tankbed area

    Proper maintenance of tanksystem through farmers

    participation aftermodernization and

    restoration

    SustainabilityImproving water storage,

    increasing ground waterlevel through recharge,

    preventing encroachment oftank bed area and supply

    channel etc

    Silting and non-maintenanceof tanks

    Social EquityEnsure equity,

    adequacy andreliability in

    water supply.

    Economic efficiencyHighest productivity both

    in agriculture and

    ecosystem, adequacy andreliability in water supply.

    SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

    Issues

    Cause

    Effect

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    In many tanks the supply channels feeding the tanks are heavily

    silted, and in several cases they are missing due to the combined effect of

    both siltation and encroachment.

    Restoration of the supply channels with original capacities will help

    capture the run-off water to the tanks. Tank siltation is one of the major

    causes for the reduction in the tank storage capacity. This is further

    aggravated by deforestation in the tank catchment area, by encroachers for

    firewood causing soil erosion during heavy rains. Hence, afforestation has to

    be taken up in the catchment area. This is further aggravated by deforestation

    in the catchment area, both by encroachers and tank irrigators to beintroduced in the tank.

    As per the social forestry programme, the Forestry Department is

    planting trees in the tank catchment and foreshore areas. In some cases, the

    water spread areas of the tanks are also used for planting the trees and after 10

    years the trees will be auctioned off. About 50% of the revenue from the

    auction will be given to the local Panchayat (Village level administrative

    body), which will be spent on tank and village improvement works.

    Supply channel desilting helps to receive the water properly from the

    river. Channel desilting also helps in getting the benefit by two ways. The

    first one is during rainy seasons. Heavy flows coming from the river may

    directly enter the tank and fill it up to its full capacity, which may help the

    farmers to achieve high productivity. The recharge of groundwater may also

    be at its highest level. The second is during non-rainy seasons. With the sluice

    gates closed, water may stagnate in the channel, which can be used for

    irrigation by gravity or by pumping. This may also help to recharge the

    groundwater.

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    3.3 STAKEHOLDER CONTRIBUTION FOR TANK

    IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

    Conserved tanks and ponds will serve a long lasting multiple uses

    supporting various communities including urban areas. Based on situations,

    either conservation or development or both assume significance. The

    challenges to conservation and development are technological challenges for

    restoration, conservation and development, institutional challenges for

    revival, conservation and development, and financial and human resources

    challenges for revival and redefining the role of the state, research

    institutions, resource institutions and NGOs and the local community(DHAN, 2002).

    The situation, therefore, calls for major changes in governance and

    management, activism of the locals, research in engineering and tank fed

    agronomy, funding by the governments and donors. The desired changes can

    be brought about only when the various stakeholders are brought to a

    common platform to share their views on the need for a sustained

    management. Presently, the tanks have many stakeholders such as the

    Irrigation Department, the Local Panchayats, the Revenue Department, the

    Agricultural Department, Forest Department and the local people. The

    functions of various stakeholders towards sustainable development of tank

    irrigation system are highlighted as on Figure 3.2.

    There are many stakeholders in the tank and tank related programs,

    of which the Government agencies, farmers and technologists are important.

    The Government officials, institutions and farmers should be invited for a

    meeting to listen to each others views on the tank systems. The meeting

    should focus on the status of tanks, tank fed agriculture, tank improvement,

    tank administration and encroachment.

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    Figure 3.2 Tank restoration schemes for sustainable management of

    tank irrigation

    Multi stake holder decision making for

    restoration of tanks

    Technologist

    Maximising Tank

    water Productivity

    Techniques of

    groundwater

    recharge

    Farmers Government

    Status of tanks and its

    improvement needed

    Past uses of tanksTank restoration and

    its need

    Awareness

    Training

    Performance

    support

    Performance

    evaluation

    Changes in livestock

    economy, changes inhousing facilities,

    changes in farms and

    house hold assets,

    growth of socialinstitution, changes in

    farm and nonfarmactivities, employmentopportunities etc.

    Productivity (yield) ofland, value of land andlivestock holding, family

    income and Employment

    Social Development

    Economic wellbeing

    Environmental

    sustainability

    Changes in

    groundwater table

    Changes in cropping

    pattern throughimproved

    groundwater table

    Cause

    Effect

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    Based on these aspects, an enabling solution has to be decided.

    Perspectives of technologists are important, which should get integrated in the

    decision making to increase the farm productivity. Recent technologies have

    been used to improve the tank irrigation and also they have been used for

    maximizing tank productivity, groundwater recharge and other tank services.

    Micro-irrigation encompasses drip and sprinkler technologies.

    The intended framework considers three key areas as equally

    important. Figure 3.2, presents the relationship among the three key network

    of active stakeholders (Technologist, Government and Farmers), as well as

    the three objectives to be achieved (social equity, economic efficiency andenvironmental sustainability). The multi stakeholder involvement in decision

    making is very important for achieving all the three objectives.

    Different stakeholders are involved in tank irrigation and hence,

    any decision towards the tank renovation program should be finalised after a

    consultation among the different stakeholders. Encroachments and siltation in

    waterspread areas and the supply channels, catchments degradation,

    deterioration of the traditional irrigation institutions, improper water

    management at farm level are some of the major problems confronting tank

    irrigation in the State.

    Restoration program is carried out before understanding the general

    characteristics about tank system and perspectives of farmers, technologists

    and the Government. Integration of stakeholders (Government, farmers and

    technologists) in decision making for rehabilitation/restoration/renovation,

    modernization and desilting etc., is very important for achieving long term

    sustainability. Lacking of any one of the stake holder participation in

    decision-making may lead to immediate short-term benefit, but it will lead to

    long term unsustainability.

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    3.4 RESTORATION SCHEMES OF TANK IRRIGATION

    SYSTEMS

    Managing tank irrigation systems is a complex phenomenon.

    Therefore, its management requires a variety of physical, social and economic

    policies and techniques, all aimed at minimizing the adverse consequences of

    natural disaster events to improve and enhance the quality of life of the

    community. Rehabilitation of tank irrigation systems results in an augmented

    supply of irrigation water, better recharge of groundwater, improved quality

    of drinking water, increased production and productivity, enhanced

    employment opportunities and better well-being of the stakeholdercommunities. For a sustainable tank irrigation system management through

    development (restoration) programme that the restoration programmes should

    be sound on environmental, social and economic dimensions. Any restoration

    programme must start with identifying the problems of tank irrigation system

    through perspectives of farmers, improvement of the tank water productivity,

    groundwater recharge and other tank support services, which should be

    collaborated by the perspectives of technologists and finally the government

    should allocate the funds not only for infrastructure development but also for

    institution building and awareness programmes (Deivalatha and Ambujam,

    2010).

    Now a complete rehabilitation is not possible due to the fact, that

    tanks are very old structures. Certain limited components of rehabilitation

    works like partial desilting of tanks, desilting of channels, tank bund

    strengthening etc. may be possible to get the expected benefits of agricultural

    productivity through increased groundwater recharge. However, the major

    stakeholders involved to implement these restoration works have to be made

    aware of the expected positive impact. Results of the these restoration works

    being the benefit of environmental well being through increased agricultural

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    irrigated land, socio economical benefit of food security, productivity of

    yield and profitability of farm income and also the investment amount is

    financially feasible, which are clearly indicated in Figure 3.3.

    Figure 3.3 Restoration schemes for tank irrigation systems

    Stakeholders involved in implementation of

    restoration schemes of tank irrigation

    system

    Stakeholders of

    Tank Irrigation

    System

    Water user groups,

    NGO, Technologists

    and Government

    officials

    Restoration works like partial desilting oftanks, desilting of supply channel and tank

    bund strengthening etc.

    Changes in Groundwaterrecharge

    Changes in well water level

    Pumping duration of wells,

    Well yield

    Changes in irrigated area etc.

    Changes in crop yield

    Changes in farm income

    Changes in income for landless labours

    by increasing employment opportunity

    Increased water

    availability

    Improved agricultureproductivity

    Socio Economic

    Impact

    Food security

    Productivity ofcrop yield

    Profitability offarm income

    Ecological Impact

    Increasing irrigated cropping

    area and cropping intensity and

    fodder availability for protecting

    environmental well being by

    conserve the basic natural

    sources of agricultural land and

    rural water bodies

    Financially

    feasible

    Investment

    scheme of tank

    irrigation System

    Tank irrigation system management through restoration scheme for

    Sustainable livelihood

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    3.5 IMPACT OF IMPLEMENTATION OF RESTORATION

    SCHEME IN TANK IRRIGATION SYSTEM

    For a successful and sustainable tank irrigation system

    management, it should be protected from the issues of degradation and

    maintained for a good production. It should involve the relevant stakeholders

    in implementing the tank restoration schemes particularly the community

    from problem identification to all levels of planning. It should give combined

    benefit for a solution of the restoration project.

    For a tank irrigation system to be sustainable through restoration

    schemes, multidimensional impacts of ecological, social and economic

    benefits all need to be assessed as explained in Figure 3.4. These

    multidimensional impacts of the restoration scheme of tank irrigation system

    project are studied in detail.

    Sustainable benefits of technical measures for ecological impact,

    social and economic measures for socio economic impact and economic

    feasibility are also studied in detail and the factors indicating the

    sustainability of each element are determined.

    The conceptual framework outlined here can be applied to

    developmental schemes of tank irrigation systems not only in Tamil Nadu but

    also elsewhere in the world with similar situations, which will be explored

    and explained in the following sections. The overall performances of tank

    irrigation system developmental programme have been examined in the state

    of Tamil Nadu. It is pointed out that tank irrigation system developmental

    activities have made significant positive impacts on bio-hydrological aspects

    such as surface runoff water harvesting, production and productivity of crops,

    changes in cropping pattern and cropping intensity.

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    Figure 3.4 Multidimensional impacts of tank irrigation system

    restoration schemes

    Multidimensional impact of Restoration

    schemes of tank irrigation systems

    Technical Measures Social Measures

    Changes in groundwater

    recharge

    Changes in well water level

    Pumping duration of wells,

    Well yield

    Changes in irrigated area etc

    Changes in literacy rate

    Changes in farms and house hold

    asset

    Changes in farm and nonfarmactivities

    Employment opportunity

    Ecological Impact

    Increasing irrigated cropping

    area and cropping intensity

    and fodder availability forprotecting environmental well

    being.

    Economic Measures

    Socio Economic Impact

    Food Security

    Productivity of crop yield

    Profitability of Farm income

    Changes in crop yieldChanges in farm income

    Changes in income for landless labours

    by increasing employment opportunity

    Increment benefit of

    crop farm income bycropping area, cropping

    intensity and

    crop yield

    Investment amount ofrestoration schemes

    Investment Appraisal

    techniques

    IRR

    Benefit Cost Ratio

    Pay Back Period

    Benefit Cost Index

    Financial Feasibility

    Tank irrigation system management through restoration schemes forSustainable rural livelihood

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    These activities have shown significant positive impact on water

    table, recharging wells and employment opportunities for rural people, food

    security, water availability for cattle and other domestic purposes etc. The

    overall economic impacts have been evaluated in terms of Net Present Value

    (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR). There is

    no single indicator to evaluate the success of tank irrigation system

    developmental activities. Hence, a feasible approach may be to compare the

    performance of a variety of indicators. Such performance indicators may

    reflect the diversity of the project objectives. These include raising agriculture

    productivity, recharging groundwater for irrigation and drinking, reducing

    productivity of non-cultivable land, increasing cultivable land, creating

    employment, promoting collective action and building or strengthening social

    institutions.

    3.5.1 Evaluation Measures for Tank Restoration Schemes

    Technical measures: Some technical measures may include the changes in

    groundwater recharge, changes in well water level, pumping duration of

    wells, irrigated area, and additional area brought under cultivation and

    protecting environmental well beings

    Socio economic measures: Socio economic measures are used to evaluate the

    restoration schemes of tank irrigation systems. Social measures are changes in

    literacy rate, changes in farms and household asset, changes in farm and

    nonfarm activities, employment opportunity and food security etc. Economic

    measures are changes in crop yield, changes in farm income and changes in

    income for landless labourers by increasing employment opportunity are

    using for assessing the socio economic impact of restoration scheme for tank

    irrigation system management.

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    The economic measures are also used to evaluate worth of the

    project by comparing the values of goods and services generated or conserved

    with the cost for assessing its effect on social welfare need and viability.

    There are various undiscounted and discounted measures available to evaluate

    the projects (Gittinger, 1982).

    The undiscounted measures ignore the time value of money and

    simply evaluate the worth of the projects. Discounting measures such as Net

    Present Worth (NPW), Benefit Cost Ratio and Internal Rate of Return are

    used for this purpose.

    Key points from the above frameworks are summarized given in

    table 3.1. It was used to know about problems of irrigation tanks, solutions to

    siltation and evaluation tools for the impact of restoration of irrigation tanks.

    Table 3.1 Summary of key points for conceptual framework for

    sustainable tank irrigation system

    Sl.

    no Description

    key points for

    analysis Output for the study Remarks

    1 Water Resources

    Declination of

    small water bodies

    like lakes,

    reservoirs,

    irrigation tanks

    etc., threatens

    agriculture

    productivity and

    water availability

    in the South and

    South East Asia

    especially in

    Southern

    Peninsular India

    and Sri Lanka.

    Maintaining and

    repairing of tank bund,

    sluice and surplus weir

    and improving supply

    channel. Partial

    desilting can be done

    nearer to the lower

    sluice as well as

    around the periphery

    of the tank water

    spread area. Proper

    maintenance of tank

    system through

    farmers participation

    after modernization

    and restoration

    Sustainability

    Improving water

    storage, increasing

    ground water level

    through recharge etc

    Social Equity

    Ensure equity,

    adequacy and

    reliability in water

    supply.

    Economic efficiency

    Highest productivity

    both in agriculture

    and ecosystem,

    adequacy and

    reliability in water

    supply.

    Problems and

    solution for

    tank irrigation

    system

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    2 STAKEHOLDER

    CONTRIBUTION

    There are many

    stakeholders in the

    tank and tankrelated programs,

    of which the

    Government

    agencies, farmers

    and technologists

    are important.

    Solution for problems

    of water storage

    bodies i.e. Silting and

    non-maintenance of

    tanks ,Chocking ofsupply channel,

    Deterioration of the

    traditional irrigation

    institutions Non-

    maintenance of tanks,

    Encroachment of

    foreshore area,

    catchment area and

    supply channel and

    Pollution from

    industries

    Sustainability

    Social Equity

    Economic

    efficiency

    Problems and

    solution fortank irrigation

    system

    3 DECISIONMAKERS FOR

    RESTORATION

    SCHEMES

    Technologist

    Farmers

    Government

    officials

    Technologists

    Maximising tank

    water productivity and

    techniques of

    groundwater rechargeFarmers

    Status of tanks and its

    improvement neededPast uses of tanks

    Tank restoration and

    its needGovernment officials

    Awareness, Training

    Performance supportand

    Performance

    evaluation

    SocialDevelopment

    Economic

    wellbeing

    Environmental

    sustainability.

    Problemsand solution

    for tank

    irrigation

    system

    4 STAKEHOLDEROF TANK

    IRRIGATION

    SYSTEM

    Identifying the

    problems of tankirrigation system

    throughperspectives of

    farmers,

    technologists andgovernment

    Restoration works like

    partial desilting of

    tanks, desilting ofsupply channel and

    tank bund

    strengthening etc.Increased water

    availability Improved

    agricultureproductivity

    Ecological

    Impact,

    Socio Economic

    Impact

    Financially

    feasible

    Sustainable

    livelihood

    Problems and

    solution for

    tank irrigationsystem

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    5 IMPACT OF

    IMPLEMENTAT

    ION OF

    RESTORATION

    SCHEME

    Multidimensional

    impact of

    Restorationschemes of tank

    irrigation systems

    Technical Measures

    Social MeasuresEconomic Measures

    Socio Economic

    Impact Food Security

    Productivity of crop

    yield

    Profitability of

    Farm income

    Ecological Impact Increasing irrigated

    cropping area and

    cropping intensity

    and fodderavailability for

    protecting

    environmental well

    being.

    Financial Feasibility IRR Benefit Cost Ratio

    Pay Back Period

    Benefit Cost Index

    Analysis for

    sustainabilityof system

    after

    restoration

    3.6 SUMMARY

    Sustainability means maintaining environmental assets or at leastnot depleting them. Rapid depletion of essential resources coupled with the

    degradation of land and atmospheric quality indicates that man has not only

    exceeded its current social carrying capacity, but actually reduced the future

    potential and biophysical carrying capacities by extinguishing essential

    natural capital stock (Rwelamira, 1999).

    To attain sustainable rural livelihood through restoration schemes

    for tank irrigation system, the multi stakeholders have to be involved in

    implementing the restoration programme. To achieve sustainable management

    of tank irrigation systems for livelihood and the conservation of natural

    resources as well as poverty alleviation, there is a need to identify appropriate

    technologies for tank irrigation system management that are affordable and

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    cost effective. Sustainable tank irrigation system management needs to be

    supported by adequate institutional arrangements and must be economically

    viable. The framework developed in this chapter can be used to evaluate tank

    irrigation system projects.