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SIF - Tana River, Tana Delta, Ijara, Lamu Assessment report – May 2013

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Tana River, Tana Delta, Ijara, Lamu,

Assessment report

May 2013

1. Introduction

SIF has been operating in Ijara district, Garissa county since 2012. As the organization intends to

expand its operations and in order to address the issues that are relevant to people’s livelihoods,

there was need to conduct an assessment that would provide information for proposal development

and lay baseline for future programs.

SIF then carried out a field assessment between the 22nd of April and the 8th of May 2013 in Ijara

district, south of Garissa County, Tana River and Tana Delta districts of Tana River County and Lamu

County.

The general objective of the assessment was to get a comprehensive understanding of the local

development dynamics, challenges and perspectives in the sub region in order to propose relevant

programs towards livelihoods resilience building and livelihoods diversification as well as natural

resources management and disaster risk reduction. A specific objective was to assess the WASH

situation specifically in order to propose WASH programming.

This report presents in a first part, the findings of the assessment and in a second part,

recommendations and potential programmatic areas in which SIF could involve itself.

2. Context

This south-east part of Kenya comprising the south of Garissa

county, Tana River County and Lamu county is classified in the

Arid Lands of Kenya (except for Lamu) but has not received much

donor attention compared to other parts such as Turkana,

Marsabit, Wajir and the overused term of Mandera triangle yet,

the issues at stake are the same: recurrent droughts within the

overall climate change context, the survival of the pastoralist

livelihood in the context of increased human and livestock

demographic pressure and environmental degradation; access to

safe drinking water and basic sanitation in the settlements. Ijara

district finds itself furthermore marginalized for being far from its

regional administrative centre Garissa, and for bordering Somalia

where on the other side we find Al-Shabaab’s stronghold, theatre

of the Kenya forces military operations.

Fig.1 Arid and Semi arid lands of Kenya


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To these general issues we can add more specific ones to this sub region such as floods along Tana

River causing temporal displacement of people and damages to infrastructures more or less on a

yearly basis; conflicts between communities from different ethnic backgrounds leading at times -

most often during electoral periods - to deadly clashes such as the ones which happened in Tana

Delta between late 2012 and early 2013; the economic development of Tana Delta through large

scale commercial irrigation and the future implementation of Lamu port. This last issue may change

greatly the physical, economic and social landscape in the region for the next decade.

3. Approach and methodology

The team was composed of the program coordinator for Kenya/Somalia, the program manager for

Ijara, one food security enumerator and one hygiene

promoter. The approach for the assessment has been

more of qualitative information collection rather than

quantitative data collection in order to get an holistic

understanding of the context, challenges and issues at

stakes whether at the district level whether at the

community level. Guidelines had been elaborated

prior to the assessment in order to have a checklist of

the information to be collected.

Focus group discussions have been conducted at

community level1. Key Informant Interviews have also

been conducted 2 among GoK and humanitarian

stakeholders as well as community stakeholders or

simple community members. Ad hoc site visits were

also made 3 . Three market surveys have been

conducted in Hola, Garsen and Masalani and 10 HH

have been interviewed in order to get data on source

of income, debts and expenditures patterns as well as

hygiene and sanitation practices. Fig. 2 Garsen regional livestock market place

1 Kilelengwani, Tana Delta with agropastoralist Orma Community; Boni Junction, Ijara with Farmers/Hunters &

Gatherers Boni community; Hulugho, Ijara with pastoralist Abdallah community 2 District Commissioner of Tana Delta; District Agricultural Officer Tana Delta; Kenya Red Cross Society (KRCS)

Tana Delta Officer; Lamu Drought Management Officer (DMO); County Secretary for Lamu; Former chief of Koreni, Lamu - Abdallah community; Businessman in Koreni; Wasanya Elder, Koreni, Lamu; Kamba farmer in Koreni; Secours Islamique France (SIF) Hygiene promoter in Masalani Ijara; Pastoralists in Rahma, Ijara; Farmer in Kilindini, Tana River Farming Pokomo community; German Agro Action (GAA) Program manager, Hola, Tana Delta; Tana River County DMO; Chief of Wachu location and assistant chiefs of Kurawa and Oda sublocations, Chief of Hubbi location, Hulugho division; Elder from Ilkambere location, Hulugho division; Elder from Sarira location Hulugho division 3 Garsen, Masalani and Hola Market places; Kilelengwani and Charra destroyed houses; Farming Self help

Group in Hola producing fodder supported by VetAid ; flooded farms on Tana River, Kipendi, Wenje; Boni farms in Boni Junction, Ijara.


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4. Findings

A. Arid Lands of Tana River and Ijara the emptied spaces

vs Tana Delta and Lamu the attraction pole

The pastoral areas of Tana River and Ijara dry lands have become more and more unreliable for

livestock keeping. This is mainly due to the slow but surely depletion of its rangelands caused by a

combination of factors such as erratic rainfalls patterns in one hand and overgrazing livestock

population in the other hand. The livestock populations of Tana River and Ijara have been depending

on Tana Delta and Lamu wet rangelands respectively during the dry season and this dependency has

been increasing over the time. As by now, for example, the herds from Ijara are spending more time

in Lamu, counting for 8 months of the year, than in Ijara with 4 months of the year spent there only.

Jan Feb March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct Nov. Dec.

Lamu Ijara Lamu

Fig. 3 Somalis Abdallah’s Livestock migration seasonal calendar

Tana Delta and Lamu have seen their population increasing and more land been put into use with

new settlements of small scale farming from expanding local communities (Bajunis, Swahilis), other

farmers communities in kenya (Kikuyus, Luos, Kambas) or pastoralists communities (Ormas,

Abdallahs) settling down there permanently. The Commercial farming in Tana Delta with TARDA4

irrigated rice schemes5 has also put large portions of formerly grazing land into use. Even if further

development of Tana Delta with implementation of Jatropha plantations for biofuel and sugarcane

plantations is yet to happen as the project is at a pilot stage, large portions of land have been

allocated and have therefore reduced the access to land so, the traditional grazing land has shrunk.

In Lamu also, grazing areas are being demarcated, fenced and claimed as private ranches more or

less legally in the context of the prospect of the development of Lamu port. The future Lamu port

represents a huge force of attraction and the human migration to Lamu is already a phenomenon

putting the county under pressure as “everyone coming in needs a piece of land” to settle on and/or

to cultivate. According to the Drought Management Officer of Lamu, the development of Lamu, if no

proper planning of Lamu port is done, will be more of a threat than an opportunity: it will become

unsustainable.

As the arid lands of Tana River and Ijara can hardly support its livestock population and the

traditional dry season grazing areas of Tana Delta and Lamu are shrinking over time, the pressure felt

in Tana River and Ijara by its own livestock and livestock from the North of Garissa County is being

transferred as a ripple effect down southwards to Lamu and Tana Delta. This has resulted into a

drastic reduction of nomadic movements in terms of geographical scope and led into pastoralists

versus farmers conflicts. The main cause of conflict is land occupation and access to resources –water

and pasture- but this has also been instrumentalized in Tana Delta by local political leaders who, in

order to win elections planned to wipe out communities other than theirs during election time to

4 Tana & Athi River Development Authority is a parastatal institution.

5 2000 Ha of irrigated rice scheme


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ensure that their voter’s base remains the most numerous to propel them to victory. Interviewed

persons reported that “people fight everyday: livestock tramples on the farms and animals are being

slashed”. However, in Lamu and Ijara, this kind of incidents are still under control as mechanisms are

in place to prevent and solve the conflicts: young herders are being instructed by elders not to bring

animals near the farms; when an incident happens, compensation follows; in Koreni, Lamu where

several communities live together, elders from different communities happen to meet at their own

initiative as a committee to discuss the problems in the area.

The conflict issue is not limited to pastoralists versus farmers. Wildlife vs farmers is another recurrent

issue in Tana Delta and Lamu. In Tana River arid lands, the pastoralists Ormas and Wardeis cannot

cross to Garissa county for grazing as a consequence of a past conflict between them and Somalis in

the 60’s but Somali livestock can migrate into Tana river Grazing land during adverse conditions .

Therefore the livestock’s movements of Tana River county are limited to a small region with little

exchange with other regions.

The neighboring war torn Somalia is also affecting the security along the border with consequences

on livelihoods and trade: livestock movements across the border to Santaro, in lower Juba, are

limited to times of drought as pastoralists are being heavily taxed (1 head for 30 animals) by Al

Shabaabs for Jihad and Zakat; movements of persons are also limited as they can be mistaken for

parties involved in the conflict; rainfed farming has become extinct, clearing of farms has stopped as

burning of stumps and bushes called the attention of KDF6 and led to air strikes according to

interviewed persons, farms have since then been invaded by bush; hunting & gathering is a highly

suspicious activity; traders have left the area as the conditions did not allow business to prosper, the

livestock market closed down in 1992. Therefore the local economy has been brought down: in

Hulugho, Ijara district there is only one truck for the whole town7 and the economy is not able to

create employment. According to elders in Hulugho, since 1992, the town has suffered banditry

attacks more than 10 times; since 2004, about 30% of the town population has migrated to Dadaab

refugee camp and since 2008, the informal trade between Kenya and Somalia has been totally halted

due to the presence of Kenyan Forces. Today, about 85% of the population relies on food aid which

was last received 7 months ago.

The insecurity in Somalia has also affected the fishermen of Lamu, because of fishing restrictions due

to insecurity in Somali waters. Kenyan fishermen are idle while Somali fishermen are active and

Kenyan traders buy fish in Kiunga from the last ones based in Raskamboni.

Lastly, the indigenous minority and marginallized people of Lamu wetlands and Ijara coastal forest,

the Wasanyas and Boni traditionally hunters & gatherers may be the communities most affected by

the changes in the region. The Wetlands and Boni forest are shrinking, with consequently less

wildlife; moreover hunting became illegal and controlled by the (KWS) Kenyan Wildlife Services. As

hunting & gathering becomes an obsolete livelihood, they are trying to adopt other livelihoods such

as farming and livestock keeping without much success so far. According to Lamu DMO, “they will

become extinct if not given special attention; they need to know their rights and they need special

protection”.

6 Kenya Defense Forces

7 Approximately 1200 HH in town, 4000 HH in the location


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CLIMATE CHANGE + Livestock owned by pastoralists from Ijara spends more time of the year in Lamu coastal rangelands than Ijara arid lands: 8 months in Lamu 4 months in Ijara

DEMOGRAPHIC PRESSURE

+ DEVELOPMENT OF LAMU PORT Risk of unsustainable development:

more threats than opportunities

The development of Lamu port coupled with demographic pressure

is affecting the ecosystem accelerating the effects of

climate change

more frequent droughts >> >more aridlands less wetlands >> rangeland degradation >> pastoralist livelihood becomes unreliable in aridlands > more pressure on wetlands

Population growth >>> More Land occupation: ranches,

farms, settlements >> Land disputes & land grabbing Conflicts Human vs wildlife

Increased exploitation of resources: timber from Boni forest, pasture, water

Economic prospects >> >> Migration Land allocation for infrastructures

and future town centres

Opacity around the development plan>>

>> lack of legal framework

Increased pressure on natural resources: grazing land turned into farming land >> reduction of nomadic

movements > livestock stepping on farms > Conflicts Pastoralists vs Farmers

Hunting & gathering becomes obsolete > Marginalization of

Indigenous people Boni & Wasanyas by other communities

economically or politically stronger

Fig.2 Infography on Lamu County development’s issues at stake


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B. Pastoralism, Riverine farming and other livelihoods’ framework

Pastoralism and farming are the main livelihoods in the sub region with a regional economy

organized around them. Fishing, hunting & gathering, honey harvesting being part of it, are two

livelihoods on a lower scale. Casual work cannot be underestimated as a tangible contribution to the

households’ economy in some communities. Rainfed farming outside the wetlands of Tana Delta and

lamu is disappearing. Solidarity mechanisms play an important part in the survival of the poorest

members of the Somali communities. Firewood collection is another backup of the household

economy in pastoral areas.

Pastoralism

Pastoralism as a livelihood, is becoming overstretched geographically and economically. The herds –

cattle and shoats - are in constant further search of pasture reaching areas as far as Tana River for

Livestock from Hulugho near the Somalia border for example. The Livestock population from Ijara

spends the most time of the year in Lamu County, to the point that part of the Abdallah community

has permanently settled there for the past 10 years and still relies on Ijara for government veterinary

services. For the household economy, pastoralism is also overstretching it as families have adopted a

sedentary pattern of life in townships and do not remain anymore around the flocks. This has

consequences on the milk availability at homestead level, “some homes here in Rahma have no milk

to cook tea”, and cash availability as there is no stock around to be sold when need of cash arises.

Households then contract debts until some cash is brought back after selling stock on one of the two

regional markets.

Garsen in Tana Delta and Garissa are the two livestock markets. There is a possibility that another

livestock market would open in Witu, Lamu county. Hulugho, near the Somalia border used to be

another one but was closed down in 1992, after the civil war erupted. Garsen market is controlled by

a cartel of brokers, meaning that the livestock keepers cannot deal directly with the buyers, both

need to give a commission to the brokers who run the market. These brokers act as gate keepers and

limit other actors to enter the market where offer and demand could be balanced; therefore the

market is not open as it should be. The bigger portion of animals is taken to be slaughtered in

Mombasa. Garsen market attracts the great majority of the stock from Tana River, Tana Delta and

Lamu and also a good part of Ijara Livestock. Some livestock owners from Ijara prefer to rely on the

more remote Garissa market in order to avoid double taxation for coming from a different county

than Garsen, Tana Delta. There is a smaller market Bangale in the North East of Tana River also and

small stock is also sold in Mokowe near Lamu town, for Lamu town and Mombasa market. Livestock

owners usually inform themselves about the prices through mobile phones.

Livestock diseases are naturally more prevalent in wetlands than in arid lands where the climate is

more humid and livestock population is more dense. Main diseases are Trypanosomias – main vector

being tsetse fly with the highest prevalence in and around Boni forest – Foot & Mouth, CBPP

(Contagious Bovine Pleural Pneumonia) and Anthrax. Ectoparasites – ticks- are also prevalent among

flocks. Vet drugs are available in local shops, but according to SIF’s veterinary doctor, the dosages

used are not correct – the livestock keepers tend to use a smaller dose in order to save on costs- and


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have created drug resistance. Drug resistance is as much a problem as pasture depletion according to

SIF’s vet doctor. However, when there is an outbreak of disease, livestock keepers can rely on GoK

veterinary services through the DVO (District Veterinary Office)

Fig.4 Livestock seasonal migration patterns in the subregion of Lamu, Tana Delta, Tana River and Ijara

Dry season movement

Rain season movement Episodic movement

Market place

Endemic tsetse fly area

Tana River pastoralists face another challenge when it comes to breeding. Pastoralists from the

North Eastern province have access to a gene pool from places as far as Moyale, Isiolo and even

Ethiopia and Somalia. In Tana river, due to past conflicts between Ormas/Wardes and Somalis, the

first cannot cross the Tana River to bring their animals to the market, to graze or to breed. Livestocks


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movements and also breeding is limited to a small region – The west of Tana River Kitui - Mwingi

parts of the larger Ukambani not being a pastoral area. Therefore the stock is weakening; the

productivity is decreasing due to limited and not renewed gene pool in the region.

Lack of water, lack of pasture, disease prevalence, conflicts with farmers, weakening breed are

reported as the main problems by pastoralists and as a consequence of these, decreased livestock

productivity which impacts on the households economy. High level of illiteracy is another huge

constraint reported by stakeholders in the livestock sector.

Pastoralism dropping out is a real trend accentuated during drought times with no reversing

mechanism meaning that once this livelihood is lost, the household will have a very low probability to

get a living through it again.

Fig.5 Orma agropastoralist homesteads, Tana delta


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Farming

Farming is practiced by farmers in the strict sense and agropastoralists mainly in the coastal margin:

Tana Delta and Lamu with rainfed agriculture and also along Tana river banks with the practice of

flood recession agriculture mainly, meaning planting occurs when the floods subside from the farms.

Irrigation with engine pumps is rare, and the past attempts of implementation of this technology

were not deemed successful. Rainfed farming towards the arid lands has been compromised by

erratic rainfall patterns which cannot anymore sustain the development and growth of the crops at

their early stages.

The land tenure is about 1,5 acres per household. The number one limiting factor for farming in the

sub region being land preparation, it is hard for a household to manage to plough more than one

acre and a half manually on their own. Some farmers resort to hire a tractor for ploughing services

which costs about 2.500 Ksh/acre and save them a lot of labor force. Oxen ploughs are not very

common. The greatest majority of farmers do not have title deeds for the land they plough.

The main crops are maize and pulses – green grams for Tana Delta/Lamu and beans further North in

Tana River. Mango tree culture plays an important role in the local economy8 generating good

revenues and moreover this crop is not very demanding in terms of cultural operations with the

harvest being the main operation. Cassava plays also an important role not at the economic level but

in terms of food security as Cassava is a biannual crop which tuber root can be harvested at any time

and therefore does not follow a seasonal pattern. Cassava is then a fallback for the hunger season or

hunger gap which occurs before the long rains season harvest: May-June-July. Apart from mangoes,

the main cash crops are banana, tomato, onions, kales or sukuma wiki , cowpea or kunde, Capsicum

(sweet or chili pepper, pili pili) and water melon. Rice is practiced on minor and commercial

irrigations schemes in Tana Delta9 and also on some small scales farms along Tana River. Cashewnut

is another tree culture which generates revenues but on a much lower scale than mango. Finally

Sesame, groundnut and sweet potato can also be cultivated but are the less common of the above

crops, cotton has been mentioned but is marginal.

Fig. 6 Main crops seasonal calendar Tana River

8 KAPPAP – Kenya Agricultural Productivity and Agribusiness Program is a GoK/World Bank program with a

industrial plant for mango transformation into dried mango chips aiming at improving Mango value chain. 9 Hewani scheme for small scale farmers is the main one with 100 acres, 1 acre/farmer. El Nino in 97 damaged

part of the irrigation infrastructures put in place in the early 90’s in Tana Delta.

Land prep Irrigation Pest/disease ctrl Transplanting Flowering Planting Weeding Harvest Clearing

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Cereals/pulses Long rains season Short rains season Irrigated rice

Kales/WatermelonTomatoes Optional

CapsicumMangoes

July SeptemberAugustMay DecemberOctober NovemberAprilJanuary February MarchCrop

June


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Fig. 7 Some of the farming commodities markets and flows – local, regional, national or own consumption -

in Tana Delta

BANANA

MANGO

WATERMELON

CASH CROPS

TOMATO/PEPPER

GREEN GRAMS

COWPEAS

BEANS

MAIZE

KASSAVA

SWEET POTATO

CASHEW NUTS

Equatoria nuts ets.

Garsen

RICE

TARDA

NATIONAL MRKT


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Fertilization is not much practiced as the soils –heavy clay to loamy soils- are fertile enough and not

yet exhausted in the sub region. Farmers reuse their own seeds for the planting season generally and

it is hard to find certified seeds on the market except for horticultural seeds. Although pests and

disease control is mentioned in the above calendar, the great majority of small scale farmers have no

resources to apply pesticides on their crops when pests or diseases occur.

There are a few farming groups, but they exist mostly because support is given to them in terms of

capacity building, training or farms inputs, rather than for the purpose of commercializing their

products together or buying inputs together as it is generally the purpose of most of the farmers

organizations (cooperatives, associations) worldwide.

Fig. 8 First row: successful Kamba farmer in Lamu - second row and third row left: pokomo farm properly

tilled and with intercropping practice, partially flooded along Tana River - third row right, not very promising

harvest on this Boni farm in Boni forest.


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Floods on the farms constitute a threat as they can damage crops when they are too heavy or delay

planting time; but this phenomenon is part of the farming livelihood. Floods allow the soil to fill up

with maximum moisture content for the crop to get the best start and also, the silt deposited on the

soil acts as a booster fertilizer for the new crop. However this year, floods seemed to have been in

excess due to above average rainfall in the highlands of kenya and also because the excess waters in

the dams of Kindaruma, Seven folks and Massinga were released in huge quantities into Tana River.

The displacements of populations following floods around Tana river and in Tana Delta do not usually

constitute a humanitarian crisis as the floods are anticipated every year. The migration that follows,

even though it represents a challenge, is also anticipated; the households come and settle in camps

reusing the same tarpaulin distributed a few years before to them. The floods last up to 2 to 4 weeks,

then the situation goes back to normal after the water recesses.


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Wealth group matrix

The following table presents the three main livelihood categories – farmers, agropastoralists,

pastoralists – versus the levels of wealth encountered in their communities.

Category Poor 30 – 50 % Middle 40 – 55 % Better off 5 – 10 % Coping

mechanisms

Farmers

< 1.5 acre - Reuses the seeds from

the previous campaign - Mainly cultivates food

crops (1 cereal – 1 pulse + cassava)

- Casual work in other farms to meet the HH food needs part of the year

- Limited tools (Panga – Jembe)

Very vulnerable < 1 acre

1.5 – 2 acres - Works on the farm

only - Reuses seeds - Able to hire tractor

or oxen-plough to plough part of the farm

- Cultivates food and cash crops

- Has skills and practice intercropping with various crops (Cereals – Pulses – oils)

> 2 acres - Cultivates food and cash crops - Owns livestock - Hires a tractor for ploughing - Hires casual workers for weeding and harvest - Able to buy and apply pest & disease control chemicals - Buys certified seeds - Able to get extension services

- Casual work on other farms, in urban centres or for commercial farms - Fishing in rivers and ponds - Hunting - Handcraft making Abnormal coping mechanisms - Consumes the

seeds for next campaign planting

Agropastoralists

< 1 acre < 3 heads of cattle < 10 shoats - Milk is for HH

consumption only - Food crops mainly (1

cereal + Cassava)

Very vulnerable No livestock

1 acre 3 – 10 heads of cattle 10 – 30 shoats - Sells milk on daily basis - Sells heads on the regional market - Food crops (cereals, pulses, Cassava)

>1 acre 20 – 40 heads of cattle 30 – 40 shoats - Produces cash crops

with food crops - Sells heads on the

regional market - Sells milk on daily

basis

- Casual work, migration to urban centres

- Fishing and hunting

Abnormal coping mechanisms - Repeated sale of

stock

Pastoralists

< 10 heads of cattle < 30 shoats - Sells heads on the

local market - Milk is for HH

consumption only Very vulnerable < 5 cattle < 20 shoats

10 – 30 heads of cattle < 80 shoats - Sells heads on the

regional market - Sells milk on the

local market

> 50 heads of cattle > 80 shoats - Sells heads on the regional market - Sells milk on the local market - Owns a donkey cart - Able to regularly

access GoK veterinary services

- Firewood sale - Contracts debts - Begging for Zakat Abnormal coping mechanisms - Migration to

Dadaab refugee camp

- Repeated sale of stock


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Other livelihoods and household economy

Most communities and their members depend on more than one livelihood. The table following

presents the main secondary livelihoods practiced in Tana river, Ijara, Tana Delta and Lamu.

Livelihood Types of populations involved into

Honey harvest & sale - although bee populations have reduced and with droughts, honey production has decreased

All communities except urban: pastoralists, farmers, agropastoralists, hunters & gatherers

Donkey cart transport services for construction materials, water and firewood mostly

Urban and pastoralists communities mostly due to the long distances between settlements and township centres

Motorbike - taxi services Urban, farming communities, Boni & Wasanyas, communities where population density is high and there is demand for rapid transport; performed by youth mainly

Firewood collection & sale (with or without a cart)

Pastoralist communities mainly

Poultry keeping at household level All communities ; undertaken by women mainly

Charcoal burning & sale Tana Delta /Lamu farming and agropastoralists communities

Casual labor for companies TARDA, KENSALT (Salt farms in Malindi)

Tana Delta /Lamu farming and agropastoralists communities

Casual labor on farms for better off farmers Farming communities, Boni & Wasanyas; youth mainly

Casual labor in urban centres All communities; youth mainly

Fishing in rivers and pounds for own consumption and/or sale

Farming communities in Tana River, Communities in Lamu and Tana Delta

Hunting Hunters & gatherers (Boni & Wasanyas), pastoralists communities around Boni forest, communities in Lamu. Gathering practice (fruits, roots) is fading away.

Timber and pole cutting & sale Farming communities along Tana river, Communities in Tana Delta, Lamu and Boni Forest.

Sand for construction excavation & sale Farming communities along Tana river

Boat fishing Coastal communities

Handcraft making: vegetable mats, wooden stools, etc…

Hunters & gatherers communities (Boni & Wasanyas), Pokomo communities along Tana river; performed by women mainly

Fig.9: Secondary livelihoods and types of populations involved.

There are several reasons for undertaking an activity other than farming or pastoralism. Both farming

and pastoralism can be unreliable (crop failure, floods, drought), and diversification of livelihoods is a

way to mitigate the risks or cope with losses from the main livelihood. Many times, farming or


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pastoralism alone cannot support the household throughout the year10. Another reason is that all

communities and their members, even hunters & gatherers are now involved in a monetary economy

where cash needs are ever rising: these secondary livelihoods provide more of a source of income

than a source of food (except hunting and fishing meant for food consumption mostly) for the

households. Finally, youth tend to engage themselves in other opportunities than the traditional

ones followed by their parents: migration to urban centres for casual employment, casual

employment on farms, driving a motorbike.

It is extremely difficult for an outsider to estimate the weight of hunting as a livelihood among Boni &

Wasanyas communities traditionally hunters & gatherers. According to the DMO of Lamu, farming in

these communities still remains a window, they continue to pursue hunting as their main activity.

However, hunting is viewed as poaching, and therefore deemed illegal and punishable by the law

(payment of fines, prison serving). Boni & Wasanyas will deny in front of any outsider being involved

in such activity. Finally, in view of the development trend in Lamu and Boni forest and the

subsequent exploitation of its resources, hunting & gathering may not take these communities

another decade; they need to start to adopt alternative livelihoods in order to survive.

It is also difficult to weigh the importance of casual labor in the households’ economy but formal or

informal employment opportunities have always been mentioned as a fall back or as part of income

generation except in Hulugho near Somalia border where the local economy was described as too

small to create other job opportunities than herding livestock. This trend is surely going to be

accentuated in the perspective of the economic investments in and development of Tana delta and

Lamu port.

Fig. 10 Timber, Mango and Sand on the banks Tana River

According to the survey’s results realized at household level, we saw that casual labor is a constant in

income generation, half of the respondents declared to be involved in it. Naturally, farming and

livestock keeping were declared to be the main activities, followed by poultry keeping, honey

harvesting, motorbike operation, mat making, petty trade and local business. 1 to 2 members of a

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As an example, a farmer with one acre can harvest 2 bags of maize/season, 4 bags/year; This makes 360 Kg of maize produced in a year for the HH food needs. The average HH comprises 6 members and one member consume in average 10 Kg of Maize in a month. This makes the HH maize needs to be at 720 Kg/year, meaning the maize harvest can cover the household’s needs only up to 6 months in a year.


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household contribute to income generation and 2 to 3 contribute to food production. The average

monthly income respondents declared varies between 5,000 Ksh and 8000 Ksh which seems to

account for only 1 out of the 2 HH members involved in income generation and not the income

generated by the whole HH as expenditure patterns are above incomes patterns: on average a

household spends 11,000 Ksh in a month11. Sugar is the main post of expenditure with 2 to 3,000 Ksh

spent. Majority of the respondents have debts (from 500 up to 12,000 Ksh).

The household economy as for many other parts in Kenya is divided between the husband and wife

where both generate income from different sources and both have different responsibilities when it

comes to expenditures. As an example, in pastoral communities, the HH male head generates income

from the sales of stock and the female head of the household generates income from the sales of

milk. For the expenditures, the HH male head will be in charge in paying school fees and clothing as

well as medical expenses when the HH female head will cover food expenses.

C. Markets and local economies

Except for the parts of Ijara and Lamu along the Somalia border which are economically marginalized

due to insecurity and a poor road network mainly, the livelihoods in the sub region seem to be quite

well integrated in the regional and national markets landscape: livestock is marketed up to

Mombasa, cash crops are being bought by buyers from Nairobi, Mombasa or Ukambani.

Following are the findings of the market survey

conducted in the main markets: Hola in Tana

River, Garsen in Tana Delta, Masalani in Ijara. The

prices fluctuate between the different market

places and along the year depending on the

availability of commodities at local level and the

passability of the roads. However, the prices

between the different market places stay more or

less under the same bracket and the shops and

stalls are well supplied.

Fig.11 Masalani market place

In Tana Delta, the local markets are experiencing a downturn due to the clashes between July 2012

and January 2013 and consequent displacements of people. The trade has been disrupted and, as

people have lost their livelihood, their purchasing power has drastically reduced.

11

Excluding in some surveys clothes and health expenditures which were given as a lump sum and not on a monthly basis.


17

Commodity Unit Price in KSH

Hola Garsen Masalani

Farming

commodities

Maize Kg 20 40 Not Available

Beans Kg 70 60 75

Tomato Kg 115 120 130

Onion Kg 80 100 75

Hot pepper Kg 80 150 120

Sukuma Wiki Bundle 15 35 20

Mango Pc 20 10 N/A

Banana Pc 5 10 5

Livestock

commodities

Sheep Head 2,500 3,500 4,000

Goat Head 3,500 4,000 - 4,500 5,500

Cattle Head 25,000 22,000 28,000

Cattle lamb Head 10,000 10,000 13,000

Milk Bottle 1.5 L 40 25 50

Ghee Bottle 1.5 L 350 220 400

Sour milk Bottle 1.5 L 30 20 N/A

Skin Pc 80 70 50

Hide Pc 300 400 130

Natural resources

Firewood - 5 (pc) 100 (bundle) 400 (bundle)

Charcoal Sack 250 400 300

Honey Bottle 1.5 L 400 300 500

Labor Daily wage Day 100 200 – 250 400

D. The Tana Delta clashes humanitarian recovery situation

Tana Delta has a long history of clashes between Orma and Pokomo communities, the first one

consisting of pastoralist communities and the second being farmers communities. They are

neighbors, trade with each other in times of peace and in some locations like Charra, Tarrassa

division they live in the same settlement, each sub-community side by side separated by a weather

road. Their kids go to the same schools, they only do not happen to intermarry. The conflict between

the two is often referred as “conflict over natural resource use” but the main conflict drive is pure

land occupation in the context of the growing demography and incidental destruction of livelihoods.

The typical root case of decades lasting conflicts is when a head of cattle from an Orma herd steps in

a Pokomo farm and partially destroys the crops. The animal is then slashed on the legs with a panga

(machete) by the farmer which creates another loss on the pastoralist’s side. Both parties are

contemplating their loss and none is compensating the other as it usually happens when such

incidents occur between farmers and pastoralists. This creates ground for animosity and the

resentment is fed by further incidents until they take another twist: from voluntary livelihood

destruction, one of the part in conflict goes up to murder of some individuals involved in the

incidents. This creates a cold war12 between communities. What seems to bring the cold war to an

open conflict is election time. Tana Delta clashes occur before each general election and stop as soon

as the elections are over. Local leaders from one community exploit the animosity between the two

12

Expression used during a FGD in Kilelengwani


18

communities and plan attacks on the other community in order to displace its members from the

area and remain with the voter base from their own community.

The last wave of clashes occurred between July 2012 and January 2013 (general elections were held

in March 2013): 183 people were killed, 33,417 people displaced13, 34,470 people affected by the

conflict14 more than 700 houses were burnt15, other properties and community assets were also

destroyed and stolen: granaries, crops, small stocks (sheep & goats), cattle, waterpumps, irrigation

structures and equipments. Houses were looted: ironsheets, doors, door frames were removed and

taken away. All schools closed in Tana Delta by January 2013 following the insecurity after 2 school

children were killed on their way to school. Kilelengwani16, Charra - Wachu-Oda17 and Shirikisho

locations were the most affected by the clashes; those are the areas were the people are now

returning to after staying in IDP camps. To add on the clashes, 2,100 Households were affected by

floods in Tana Delta18 by end of April, some of the same communities affected by the clashes were

also affected by the floods.

In some locations like Kurawa, the chiefs anticipated the clashes, called for public barazas19 and

successfully prevented the conflict to spread to their area. According to area chiefs in Charra

location, the MRC (Mombasa Republican Council), major player in the secessionist movement from

Kenyan Coast, played an active role in the clashes: both parts Ormas and Pokomos hired MRC

members at some point to go and fight the other community.

The KRCS has responded to the emergency setting up IDP camps, providing medical services and food

rations in the camps and towards the IDPS integrated among the host communities. Since April, in

order to encourage return of the displaced people to their original location, the KRCS has been

supporting them in the reconstruction of their house with iron sheet and timber. Team & Team

international is working on the rehabilitation of damaged hand pumps. The GoK deployed security

forces and a put curfew for 6 pm to 6 am in Tana Delta. Now the returnees need to rebuild their lives,

starting with their homes and restart their livelihoods, after missing the first farming campaign of

2013 (planting takes time in April). By the end of April, 70% of the IDPS had returned to their original

village according to Tana Delta DC but the situation is yet to be back to normal: the business is still on

hold, no farming is going on, the movements and trade are still limited by fear of insecurity, the

teachers have not returned to their classroom.

13

According to OCHA, April 2013 14

According to KRCS 15

According to KRCS – 800 according to KIRA (Kenya InterAgency Rapid assessemnt) 16

Kilelengwani and Riketa in Konemansa sublocation were the 2 villages afftected – Orma communities 17

Chamwamanamuma (Pokomo), Nduru (mixed), Semikaro (Pokomo), Kikomo (Orma), Odole (Orma), Mwanja (Orma), Darga (Orma), Chimikisho (Pokomo) 18

According to KRCS 19

A baraza is a meeting on the public place where the whole population is invited to attend


19

Fig. 12 Homesteads destroyed and IDP camp of floods affected people (down right)


20

E. The indigenous minority people of Lamu and Boni Forest the Boni and

Wasanyas at risk

The Bonis also called Awer and Wasanyas also called Sanye may constitute the most vulnerable

group in the sub region. Half a century ago they used to be around 25,000 and today their population

has reduced to 4,00020. Bonis live in and around Boni forest between Lamu County and Ijara district

of Garissa county and Wasanyas live in Lamu County21. They are categorized in the same group, but

they appear to share only the same ancestral livelihood of hunting & gathering as they do not speak

the same language and do not seem to have the same ethnic affiliation.

Marginalization, discrimination and stigmatization are at the root of the problem. The GoK counts 42

tribes in kenya, however, hunters & gatherers such as Ogiek, Bonis & Wasanyas are considered as

“others” in the last census. The term Boni itself means “primitive” in Somali language and there are

openly called in that derogatory manner by other communities in cosmopolitan town centres of

Lamu. They do not have area chiefs22 to represent them as well as the GoK at their location level.

Bonis can resort to the police when needs arise as they mentioned it, but for the Wasanyas, the

situation is different. According to a Wasanya elder, they are usually harassed by the police and

when a problem arises in the public space, they are often pointed out to endorse the role of

scapegoats. As another example of the discrimination they face, the same elder mentioned that his 3

sons are educated up to secondary level but

none of them is employed; for both Bonis and

Wasanyas, the only job opportunity they can

get is casual work on the neighboring farms

and if the Bonis declared to be paid fairly (300

Ksh/day), the wage Wasanyas get is far below

the minimum wage with 100 Ksh/day23. To

date the Wasanyas do not have any of its

community member formally employed nor

have any representation in the political arena

even at the local level.

Fig.13 Boni Forest around Boni Junction settlement

These two communities are witnessing land grabbing with fake surveyors coming around and setting

up beacons then claiming and fencing the land as theirs. They fear to be expelled from their farms at

any time especially for the Wasanyas in Lamu24. They also witness as outsiders exploit the forest for

charcoal burning or timber. Bonis declared that they play an essential role in protecting Boni forest

and preventing intruders to enter it but this role is not recognized by the GoK. They do not access

information about their constitutional rights or about the issues at stake in the region such as Lamu

20

Organisation for the Development of Lamu Communities (ODLC) 21

Boni settlements: Milimano, Basuba, Mangai, Boni Junction, Pandanguo – Wasanya settlements: Dai, Mamarani, Batikalale, Maakanda. One settlement comprises around 50 households. 22

The Area Chief is the representative of the executive power of the GoK at the location level 23

Minimum wage is usually 250 Ksh 24

Wasanya elder interviewed in Lamu : « A rich person can shoot you and you will just die like an animal »


21

port development. Bonis stated that the support declared to have been given to them was actually

not delivered: ALRMP (Arid Land Resource Management Program – GoK/World Bank) housing

project, sponsoring the education of 7 children never happened; NGO’s come and organize fake

seminars were the only real activity undertaken is thumb printing the attendance list.

The unsustainability of their livelihood is another root of the problem as hunting constitutes an illegal

activity and community members get beaten for petty reasons such as hunting birds. They tend to

practice shifting agriculture more or less successfully, the support programs in this regard have

brought limited results (KRCS failed to implement a farming support program in the past); on the

farms visited the only crops present were maize and cassava planted in a random manner. The

poverty levels they encounter themselves in, do not seem to give them the capacity to invest into

such activity like farming as they are in constant search of an income to meet their basic needs.

Therefore, as they plough other people’s farm they cannot liberate time to plough theirs and get

trapped in this poverty cycle one season after the other. Honey harvest and handcraft making as

secondary livelihoods have limited impact on the households’ economy. The whole population is

targeted by KRCS food distributions.

Fig. 14 Homesteads in poor (first and second left) and better off (right) condition, Boni junction


22

F. Water & Sanitation in brief

The main focus about Water & Sanitation was given to Ijara district, in Garissa county. In Tana river

and Lamu, attention has been given to address the matter even though the situation is far from being

perfect: people are generally using pit latrines, have access to shallow wells with hand pumps even

piped water from boreholes in some places in Lamu county. However, access to water in Lamu

islands is a huge concern. The population growth coupled with the reduction of rainfalls on Lamu

coast with consequent drying up of streams, wells and salinization of the water in the wells has

overstretched the water availability: a jerrican of potable water in Lamu town is sold at 50 Ksh when

in the main land it is sold at 5 Ksh. On top of the economic burden on the households, instead of

looking for their livelihoods they spend overtime looking for water.

In most parts of Ijara district, in the pastoral areas as well as in the townships, the only water

available is from dams and water pans, there are no wells, no boreholes. Water pans get

contaminated as soon as the running water fills in (the running waters carry silt and all kind of solid

particles left on the ground on its way to the water pan, feces being part of them). Water pans also

get contaminated at fetching water time or when some people bath in them, demonstrating poor

hygiene practices.

According to SIF’s hygiene promoter, ¾ of Ijara population defecate in the open. People do not dig pit

latrines as most of them recently settled in urban centres and are yet to adopt urban life habits ie.

defecating in a pit latrine. In Rahma village with 120 HH, there is not a single pit latrine. There are still

open resistances, verbally expressed, against the idea of defecating in a hole. According the

community members, in Hulugho there is still a lot of land around the township where to defecate.

There is also an embarrassment about entering the pit latrine in the view of other people according

to SIF’s hygiene promoter: when people go and defecate in the open they can pretend they are going

for other errands such as firewood collection.

However, when it comes to knowledge about factors and vectors of transmission of such diseases

like malaria and diarrhea, people are able to respond correctly. SIF’s hygiene training in Ijara district

has helped in this regard and people have changed or adopted new hygiene practices: to use a jug to

fetch water, to wash hands with soap, to boil water, to bath more frequently between others.

In public institutions such as primary and secondary schools, the WASH situation is not any better.

When there should be 1 toilet

for 25 girls and 1 toilet + urinal

for 50 boys according to

UNICEF standards, as an

example, in Hulugho Girls

secondary, there are 2 latrines

for almost 300 girls. The table

below presents the number of

toilets versus the school

enrollment in Ijara district for

the most attended schools.

School Enrollment

Number of toilets

Handwashing facilities

Boys Girls

Rahma Primary 72 69 3 -

Korissa Primary 237 119 3 -

Ijara Primary 311 194 13 -

Ijara Girls Primary 0 280 7 2

Gumarey Primary 217 93 9 -

Khalankhal Derow Primary 72 63 4 -

Ruqa Primary 70 62 4 -

Hajji Girls Secondary 0 312 12 -

Hulugho Girls Secondary 0 289 2 -


23

G. Humanitarian actors WWW matrix

Where Who What

Tana River County

GAA – German Agro Action

AAH – Action Against Hunger

Team & Team

Samaritan purse

KRCS

International Medical Corps

Food security / WASH

Food security

WASH

Food security/Relief

Relief

Healh

Ijara, Garissa county

SIF – Secours Islamique France

World Vision

KRCS

Food security / Livelihood

support / WASH

Activity on hold

Relief

Lamu County KRCS Relief

The main comment we can make about the humanitarian actors in the sub region is that there is a

gap between Tana river arid lands and Ijara district. Tana river has received quite some attention

when it comes to WASH, food security and livelihood support but Ijara is yet to receive support from

the donor community yet the living conditions and livelihoods are similar as well as the humanitarian

and development issues at stake.

H. Program recommendations

In order of priorities:

Priority 1

Geographical and social scope

Tana Delta Communities affected by clashes and floods

Potential donor French Embassy, SIF Key words Recovery, Buidling resilience, Conflict mitigation, Protection Sector 1 Livelihoods Subsector Farming support Seeds and tools distribution Subsector Livestock Small stock restocking for vulnerable female heads of households Sector 2 Relief Food distribution, NFI distribution (kitchen equipment, beddings)


24

Priority 2


Ijara Boni forest – Lamu Bonis and Wasanyas communities

Potential donor SIF

Key words Buidling resilience, livelihoods diversification, Protection, advocacy, Human rights

Sector 1 Livelihoods Sub sector Livelihoods diversification – Income generation - Basic poultry production at household level: distribution of chicks, poultry basic shelter

construction, training - Improved honey production with groups Subsector Pastoralism support Distribution of small stock at household level Subsector Farming support - Pilot projects such as distribution of seeds of short maturation sorghum variety, training on

sorghum transplanting methods Sector 2 Advocacy – Protection - SIF study from the HQ advocacy department

Priority 3


Ijara district – public schools Primary and Secondary school children

Potential donor UNICEF Key words Hygiene, sanitation Sector WASH Sub sector Sanitation UNICEF standards blocks pit latrines & urinals for boys, and blocks pit latrines for girls Hand washing facilities Subsector Hygiene CHAST training Subsector Access to water Roof water harvesting facilities in Schools: Concrete water storage tanks connected to the gutters of the schools’ roofs


25

I. Conclusion

There is a lot to be done when it comes to addressing humanitarian needs of Bonis & Wasanyas

communities, Tana Delta’s communities affected by clashes and floods, pastoralist communities.

Many challenges are to be met: convincing donors to shift some of their attention from Mandera

triangle down southwards; implementing programs along Somalia border with the overall insecurity

constraints, being effective in implementing quality programs in order to be perceived as a solid

actor by the donor community in the Horn of Africa.

25 Monitoring Rangeland Health: A Guide for Pastoralist Communities and Other Land Managers in Eastern

Africa Version II By Corinna Riginos and Jeffrey Herrick

Priority 4

Geographical and social Scope

Tana River – Ijara Pastoralists and farmers

Potential donor OFDA/USAID – in consortium with GAA Keywords Buidling resilience, strengthening livelihoods, Disaster Risk Reduction Sector 1 Livelihoods Sub sector Animal health Adhoc vaccination and treatment at diseases outbreak times. Vaccination and treatment infrastructures : Crushes in pastoral areas Subsector Pastoralism livelihood support - Pastoralist Field School (PFS) with a focus on two issues :

1- Rangeland management and fodder production

Rangeland demarcation and rangeland monitoring for dry season grazing using the “monitoring rangeland health” guide, C. Riginos, J. Herrick25

Small fenced perimeters around urban centres to keep small milking stock and produce fodder during rains.

2- Breeding management and improvement for Tana River stock. Exchange visits between PFS from Tana River and Ijara.

- Market yards in urban settlements - Pilot on livestock products hides and skins value chain with Garissa market Subsector Farming livelihood support - Collective marketing trough farmers’ associations (training) - Donkey carts for improved access to market (support to farmers associations) - Seed capital and seeds multiplication (Seed banks) for women group - Kitchen gardens and Greenhouses pilot projects - Treadle pump irrigation projects (support to farmers associations) - Oxen ploughs for expanding land tillage Subsector Conflict prevention mitigation Community dialogue between Pokomos riverine farming communities and pastoralists Abdallahs communities; between Ormas/Wardeis pastoralist communities and pastoralist Abdallahs. Sector 2 WASH Subsector Sanitation Building of VIP pit latrines at household levels in urban centres with community participation: the household dig the pit latrine, SIF builds the foundation, the slab and the superstructure. Subsector Hygiene promotion CLTS, PHAST methods at community level with gender emphasis: Mothers speak to mothers


26

Acronyms list

AHH Action Against Hunger

ALRMP Arid Land Resource Management Program

CHAST Children Hygiene and Sanitation Training

CLTS Community Led Total Sanitation

DC District Commissioner

DMO Drought Management Officer

DVO District Veterinary Office

GAA German Agro Action

GoK Government of Kenya

HH Household

IDP Internally Displaced People

KWS Kenya Wildlife Services

KDF Kenya Defense Forces

KRCS Kenya Red Cross Society

Ksh Kenyan Shilling

MRC Mombasa Republican Council

OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian affairs

PHAST Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation

PFS Pastoralist Field School

SIF Secours Islamique France

TARDA Tana & Athi River Development Authority

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

WASH Water Sanitation and Hygiene


27

Contents

1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1

2. Context ............................................................................................................................................ 1

3. Approach and methodology ............................................................................................................ 2

4. Findings............................................................................................................................................ 3

A. Arid Lands of Tana River and Ijara the emptied spaces ............................................................... 3

vs Tana Delta and Lamu the attraction pole ....................................................................................... 3

B. Pastoralism, Riverine farming and other livelihoods’ framework ............................................... 6

Pastoralism ...................................................................................................................................... 6

Farming ............................................................................................................................................ 9

Wealth group matrix ..................................................................................................................... 13

Other livelihoods and household economy .................................................................................. 14

C. Markets and local economies .................................................................................................... 16

D. The Tana Delta clashes humanitarian recovery situation ......................................................... 17

E. The indigenous minority people of Lamu and Boni Forest the Boni and Wasanyas at risk ...... 20

F. Water & Sanitation in brief ....................................................................................................... 22

G. Humanitarian actors WWW matrix ........................................................................................... 23

H. Program recommendations ...................................................................................................... 23

I. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 25

Acronyms list ................................................................................................................................. 26

tana river, tana delta, lamu, ijara assessment … assessment...sif - tana river, tana delta, ijara,...

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