Impacting Rapid Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle CommercializationSystem Cost Reduction and Subcomponent Performance Enhancement

David L. Wood III

Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) powered by proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEFC) and fueled by hydrogen o� er the promise of zero emissions with excellent driving range of 300-400 miles and fast refueling times of less than fi ve minutes; two major advantages over battery electric vehicles (BEVs). FCEVs face several remaining major challenges in order to achieve widespread and rapid commercialization. Many of the challenges, especially those from an FCEV system and subsystem cost and performance perspective are addressed in this book.

Chapter topics include:

• impact of FCEV commercialization • new hydrogen infrastructure cost

comparisons• stack bipolar plate corrosion protective

coatings• onboard chemical hydride storage• new hydrogen sensors• simulation of onboard hydrogen

storage strategies• vehicle air supply systems• FCEV energy management• optimization of hybrid FCEV

powertrains

About the Editor David Wood III, is Senior Sta� Scientist, Roll-to-Roll Manufacturing Team Lead, Fuel Cell Technologies Program Manager, and UT Bredesen Center Faculty

Member at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) researching novel electrode architectures, advanced processing methods, manufacturing science, and materials characterization for lithium ion batteries and low-temperature fuel cells. He manages programs and fi nancial operations on hydrogen infrastructure issues, polymer electrolyte fuel cells, and lithium ion batteries. He has been employed at ORNL since 2009.

His industrial and academic career began in 1995. He was employed by General Motors Corporation and SGL Carbon Group in applied research and development related to automotive and stationary proton-exchange fuel cell (PEFC) technology. Later work at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) and Cabot Corporation, focused on elucidation of key chemical degradation mechanisms, development of accelerated testing methods, and component development.

TU-001ISBN: 978-0-7680-8256-2

9 780768 082562

Wood III

Impacting Rapid H

ydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Comm

ercializationSystem

Cost R

eduction and Subcomponent Perform

ance Enhancement

AUTOMOTIVEImpacting Rapid Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle CommercializationSystem Cost Reduction and Subcomponent Performance Enhancement

David L. Wood III

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Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Introduction: Impacting Rapid Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) Commercialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

Chapter 1: Disruption as a Strategy: Technology Leadership Brief. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Drivers of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Disruptive Effects of an Automaker Forcing Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . .2Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Chapter 2: Retail Infrastructure Costs Comparison for Hydrogen and Electricity for Light-Duty Vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . 7

Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9Number of Hydrogen Stations by Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11Number of EVSE Stations by Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Hydrogen Station Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13EVSE Station Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15Total Capital Costs per City and Capital Costs per

Mile Traveled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15Total Fuel Costs per Vehicle Mile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Discussion: Variability of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26EVSE Station Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

A1 Cost Estimates for Level 1 Residential EVSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26A2 Cost Estimates for Level 2 Residential EVSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28A3 Cost Estimates for Level 2 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30A4 Cost Estimates for DC Fast Charge (DCFC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

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Chapter 3: Nanometers Layered Conductive Carbon Coating on 316L Stainless Steel as Bipolar Plates for More Economical Automotive PEMFC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Experimental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

Surface Morphology and Phase Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38AFM and ICR Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

Chapter 4: Chemical Hydrides for Hydrogen Storage in Fuel Cell Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

Chemical Hydride Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51Modeling Solid AB Reactor Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Solid AB—Flow Through Reactor (Auger) Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53Solid AB—Fixed Bed Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

Modeling Fluid AB Reactor Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58Slurry Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58Solvated AB Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

Chapter 5: Hydrogen Sensors for Automotive Fuel Cell Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Automotive Hydrogen Technology and Hydrogen Sensor Safety . . . . . .66Hydrogen Sensors in the Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

Measuring Hydrogen—Automotive Sensor Specification . . . . . . . .68Typical Environmental Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69Operating Principle for Hydrogen Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70

Typical Challenges in the Measuring Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71Change of the Thermal Budget Over Time—Positive/

Negative Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72Delamination of Sensor Chip Surface Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74Embrittlement of Surface Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76Kirkendall-Effect at the Bond Pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77

Present and Future Hydrogen Sensor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81

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Chapter 6: Development of a Vehicle-Level Simulation Model for Evaluating the Trade-off between Various Advanced On-board Hydrogen Storage Technologies for Fuel Cell Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Vehicle Model: HSSIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84Fuel Cell Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88Model Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89Model Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

Chapter 7: Air Supply System for Automotive Fuel Cell Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99

Fuel Cell System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100Air Supply System for Fuel Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104

Previous Generation Air Supply System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105Current Generation Air Supply System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107Future Generation Air Supply System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110Comparison of the Three Generations of Air Supply Systems . . .113

Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115

Chapter 8: Hybrid Electric System for a Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle and Its Energy Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Description of the Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118Dimensioning of the Powertrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119Dimensioning of the Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120Fuel Cell and Battery Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121

Fuel Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122

Energy Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123Global Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124Global Optimization Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126Local Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128Local Optimization Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132

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Chapter 9: Control System for Sensing the Differential Pressure between Air and Hydrogen in a Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell (PEFC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

System Configuration [9-2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136Cathode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137Anode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137Modeling of Air Supply System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138

Modeling of Air Supply System [9-2], [9-3], ]9-4] . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138Flow Characteristics around Orifice [9-4] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139Linearization of Mass Flow Rate around Orifice [9-4] . . . . . . . . . .140Pressure Dynamics [9-4] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140Derivation of Linear Model of Air Supply System

[9-2], [9-3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140Design of Continuous Sliding Mode Control

System [9-2], [9-3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143Preparation for Configuring Hydrogen/Air Pressure

Control System [9-2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144Transfer Function from Reference Value to Plant Output

in a 2 DOF Control System Using a Minimal Order Observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144

Application to a Sliding Mode Servo Control System with a Minimal Order Observer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145

Configuration of Differential Pressure Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146The Case of Increasing Pressure [9-2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147The Case of Air Pressure Displays Higher Response under a

Condition of Decreasing Pressure [9-2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148The Case of Hydrogen Pressure Displays Higher Response

under a Condition of Decreasing Pressure [9-2] . . . . . . . . . .149Configuration of the System for Controlling the Hydrogen-Air

Pressure Difference within a Specified Range . . . . . . . . . . . .149Experimental and Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150

Chapter 10: Multi-Objective Optimization of Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicle Powertrain Design—Cost and Energy. . . . . 153

Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155PHEV and HEV Single-Objective Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159PHEV and HEV Multi-Objective Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161

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Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164HEV-FC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164PHEV-FC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167

Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175

About the Editor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

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