sushi history

SUSHI | すし

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First Editon

ISBN 545–421–32796–8–2

Printed and bound in San Francisco, CA

SUSHI | すし

Jen Allender

California College of the Arts

Publishing Group

ONE | HISTORY

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Long, Long AgoSushi’s origin dates back to the 4th century BC in Southeast Asia.

As a preserved food, the salted fish, fermented with rice, was an

important source of protein. The cleaned and gutted fish were

kept in rice so that the natural fermentation of the rice helped

preserve the fish. This type of sushi is called nare–zushi, and was

taken out of storage after a couple of months of fermentation,

and then only the fish was consumed while the rice was discarded.

Over time, it spread throughout China, and later, around the

8th century AD, in the Heian period, it was introduced into Japan.

Since Japanese preferred to eat rice together with fish, the sushi,

called seisei–zushi, became popular at the end of Muromachi

period. This type of sushi was consumed while the fish was still

partly raw and the rice had not lost its flavor. In this way, sushi

became more of a cuisine rather than a way to preserve food.

Later in Edo era, Japanese began making haya–zushi, which

was created as a way to eat both rice and fish; this dish was

unique to Japanese culture. Instead of being only used for fermen-

tation, rice was mixed with vinegar and combined not only with

fish but also with various vegetables and dried preserved foods.

Today, each region of Japan still preserves its own unique taste

by utilizing local products in making different kinds of sushi that

have been passed on for generations.

At the beginning of the 19th century, when Tokyo was still

called Edo, the food service industry was mostly dominated by

mobile food stalls, from which nigiri–zushi originated. Edomae,

which literally means “in front of Tokyo bay,” was where the fresh

ORIGINS OF SUSHI

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fish and tasty seaweed for the nigiri–zushi were obtained. As a

result, it was also called edomae–zushi, and it became popular

among the people in Edo after Yohei Hanaya, a creative sushi

chief, improved it to a simple but delicious food. Then, after the

Great Kanto earthquake in 1923, nigiri sushi spread throughout

Japan as the skilled edomae–zushi chefs from Edo, who had lost

their jobs, were diffused all over Japan.

As time passed and many of the Japanese and Chinese

cultures crossed, Sushi became a popular food choice in both

countries. Throughout the cities, you would find food stands where

various types of Sushi were sold. In fact, during intermission at

the various theaters, Sushi was sold as a snack much like the pop-

corn sold in today’s theaters. Since Sushi was easy and quick to

make, it became a staple for most households in the 19th Century

to accommodate the busy lifestyles of the Japanese people.

Eventually, a food shortage in Japan changed the way in which

Sushi was made. Rather than throw the rice out, it was now eaten

along with the fish. Additionally, the fermentation process was

shortened so the fish although still safe to eat, was a little on the

raw side. Because the fermentation process was shortened, the

Sushi had a slightly sour taste, which people loved. As people

began experimenting, they discovered that by making the rice

with a little vinegar the same sour taste was produced and better

yet, the fermentation time was dramatically reduced to one or

two days.

In the 1980s, in the wake of increased health consciousness,

sushi, one of the healthiest meals around, has gotten much more

attention; consequently, sushi bars have increased in the United

A sushi stall in the Edo periold.

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A sushi shop in Tokyo in 1930. The stall, once on wheels, now forms the right side of the front of the shop. The young man with the bicycle delivered sushi to homes and offices.

the mass production of sushi with the delicate skills used by sushi

chefs, making and selling sushi has become more accessible to

countries all over the world.

What began as a means of preserving fish has turned into a

multi–billion dollar industry with thousands upon thousands of

sushi restaurants dotting the country. If you have never eaten

The great thing about eating sushi is that it can be eaten as an

appetizer or main course in a fine Japanese restaurant or snacked

on at home. Being loaded with rich nutrients and low in calories,

sushi makes the perfect food. For this reason, sushi is served

in homes and restaurants around the world every day.

The three main categories of Sushi include Nigiri, which is a small

rice mound topped with cooked or raw fish, Temaki, hand rolled

cones of seaweed that are filled with rice, vegetables, and fish,

and Norimaki or Maki, which is a combination of rice along

with fish and/or vegetables all rolled up in dried seaweed, with all

three having the same foundation of vinegar rice. For each of

these categories, the preparation is as unique as the presentation

or serving.

Food and NaturePerhaps one of the defining features of the Japanese cuisine is the

relationship that exists between how food is used and nature.

Where possible, food is eaten in as natural a state as possible, as

this is considered the best, if not the only, way to experience the

true taste of food. This is at the heart of the Japanese philosophy

of eating. So the fish and shellfish caught in the seas of Japan

are often eaten raw, or only very lightly cured with vinegar or salt.

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A map of Tokyo during the Edo Period.

Likewise, fresh, seasonal agricultural products are only lightly

cooked to preserve their bite and flavor, or they may be slightly

salted. How and what people cook is also highly influenced by the

season and by local produce. As a result, Japan is home to many

delicious regional dishes.

To further maintain the purity of food, Japanese cooking

rarely mixes different food types, and sauces are normally served

in separate dishes as dipping condiments. This is in contrast to

the practices of many other cuisines which use long, slow cook-

ing techniques, often with the addition of sauces and spices, so

that the food becomes something very different from the raw

ingredients. The Japanese aesthetic regarding food and drink may

be described in artistic terms, and Japanese cooking can be com-

pared to the famous ukiyo–e woodblock prints. The striking beauty

of ukiyo–e lies in its economy of line and simplicity, and it is this

same elegant minimalism that is found in all good Japanese cook-

ing. The unique approach of Japanese chefs to their food inspired

French chefs in the 1970s to develop nouvelle cuisine, where food

was artistically arranged on the plate.

However, nouvelle cuisine became notorious for its overemphasis

on presentation rather than the size of the serving, forgetting that

Japanese meals consist of several,not just a few, small dishes.

Taste and TextureEating uncooked fish strikes many Westerners as barbaric and

somehow indecent, but this attitude usually disappears with

the first brave bite. Part of the instinctive Western uneasiness

is due to the ugly word “raw,” with its misleading suggestion of

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something coarse and tough. To overcome the initial reluctance of

my friends, I remind them that sashimi is sometimes the first sold

food served by Japanese hospitals to patients who have been on a

liquid diet. The fact is that raw fish as the Japanese eat it does

not taste or smell fishy. In a blindfold test the skeptic would

not have the faintest idea he was eating fish; he would probably

assume that his chunk of raw tuna was a cube of refrigerated rare

roast beef.

Sashimi is the Japanese umbrella term for raw fillets of fish

eaten by itself, usually dipped in soy sauce and a special pungent

horseradish. Sushi consists of balls of vinegared rice garnished

either with a strip of raw seafood or with cooked shrimp, cooked

fish, vegetables, seaweed or egg.

By far the most popular sashimi fish is maguro, tuna, both

the fatty pink meat and the red lean, and the Japanese prefer

it is spring or early summer. It appears before you in a shallow

porcelain bowl, five or six juicy–looking, squarecut little red slabs,

leaning on each other like fallen dominoes and decorated with sliv-

ers of green cabbage or whiteradish. Alongside, bedded on a tiny

slice of radish, you find a tab of wasabi, the hot, green horserad-

ish paste.

For the right presentation, sushi should be served on authentic

Japanese dishes. Although the dishes do not have to match,

they should all have a Japanese influence. If you do not have any

Japanese dishes, dark colored platters or plates are most accept-

able. If a group of people order from a sushi bar or restaurant, or

if you have a group of friends over for dinner and serve a variety

of sushi types, you would use a communal platter.

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With the introduction of sushi machines, which combine in

this situation, a nice presentation would be to serve the Norimaki

sushi in groups of four and nigiri in pairs, or whatever combina-

tion you prefer as long as it is in even numbers. Keep in mind

that if you serve Temaki or Norimaki rolls, you should serve them

to your guests first as the ingredients can cause the seaweed to

become soggy.

For any type of sushi, the seasonings used are crucial. The

two main types of condiments served are soy sauce and wasabi

sauce, which is Japanese horseradish and quite hot. Some people

in the United States have discovered that mixing a little soy

sauce with the Wasabi is delicious. However, this is taboo in

Japan. Along with these, pickled ginger slices are served but only

as something to cleanse the palette between eating the differ-

ent Sushi varieties. For instance, if you were to eat Ebi, which is

shrimp, you would take a small bite of the ginger to cleanse the

palette before you moved to the Unagi sushi, which is eel.

Remember that it is perfectly fine to serve a communal plat-

ter of sushi but every person should receive his or her own dish

containing each of the condiments. If you are having a sushi party

for people who have never enjoyed the taste and experience of

sushi, a simple card with eating instructions can be placed at each

setting advising the guests that the sushi should be dipped with

the seaweed side and not the rice, which prevents it from soaking

up too much of the condiment of choice.

Japanese Koi fish

Rice farmers in the Edo period.

TWO | INGREDIENTS

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RICE + FISH

Varieties of sushi rice

Tako (octopus)

Rice: A Staple Food for AllIn Japan, rice is so important that the word for cooked rice,

gohan or meshi, also means meal. It not only plays a major

part in Japanese cooking, but, since its introduction in the 2nd

century BC., rice and its cultivation have been the very foundation

of the nation itself. Rice was probably introduced to Japan from

Southeast Asia, and the earliest evidence of crop production was

found in village settlements dating from around the 2nd century

BC to the 2nd century AD. Rice cultivation revolutionized life in

the western region of Japan, and from there soon spread further

east. The first nation, Yamato, was formed in the west in the 4th

century; the first known historical record book mentions “brewed

sake” (an alcoholic drink made from fermented rice) being pre-

sented to the Tenno (emperor) and a definition of “refining rice”.

From the 8th to the 12th centuries, when aristocratic culture

blossomed, rice became firmly established as a staple food,

cooked in various ways for the upper classes, although the major-

ity of the population was dependent on other lesser quality grains

such as millet. It was the popularity of rice that led to the develop-

ment of other basic accompaniments, such as seasonings and

sauces, and of various cooking techniques. The aristocratic class

also contributed to the establishment of eating etiquette, which

subsequently influenced cha–kaiseki, the meal served at the tea

ceremony, and later Japanese cuisine as a whole.

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Short grain sushi rice

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At the royal court, an increasing number of annual ceremonies

and rituals were performed, including Shinto ceremonies (the

indigenous religion), and these would be accompanied by food and

sake. Sake was, and still is, regarded as a sacred liquid, cleansing

evil spirits. Eating and drinking became an important part of the

procedures and cooking itself became a ritual: traces of this can

still be seen today in the way top Japanese chefs handle and care

for their knives.

The Importance of SaltWith the development of rice cultivation, salt started to appear

and play a great part in the culinary scene. It was extracted from

the sea and replaced the former source of salt: animals’ intes-

tines. However, due to scarcity and its poor storage qualities, salt

was mixed with animal or plant fibers and proteins. The mixture,

called hishio, was in effect a nutritious, fermented food as well

as a seasoning, and transpired to be one of the most important

developments in Japanese culinary history.

The three basic kinds were grain hishio (salt–fermented rice,

barley or beans), meat hishio (seafood or animal meat) and grass

hisho (plant, berried or seaweed). Hishio later developed into

some of the most well–known and important Japanese foods, such

as miso and shoyu (grain hishio), shiokara and sushi (meat

hishio), and tsukemono pickles (grass hishio). The idea of fer-

mentation was further developed to produce alcohol using barley,

yam and glutinous rice. Although at first this was al alcoholic food,

rather than a liquid, it was the origin of Japan’s most celebrated

drink, sake. To observe that rice is an essential element to sushi is

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Opposite Page: Mackerel, salmon, octopus, tuna and squid sushi fish

Above: Shiso Leaf (perilla)

like pointing out that the Winter Olympics would be whole lot

less engaging without snow. No rice, no sushi: It’s that simple,

and that important. Here’s what you need to know about it.

Although most of the rest of the world east long–grain rice,

and has for a very long time, the Japanese have been cultivating

and eating short–grain rice. Because it contains more cellulose,

short–grain rice is sticker. That stickiness is what makes

sushi possible.

Japanese gourmets hyperventilate over the arrival of the

season’s new crop, called shinmai, which is special because the

freshly dried grains are still at the point where they retain a lot

of water. But as tasty as it is, new rice is not well suited for

making sushi rice. Instead, the itamae uses older, more aged

rice, which has lost a lot if its inner moisture. This “vintage”

rice is called komai, a term that applies to any rice more than a

year old. Rice prepared for sushi is, in Japanese, sushi–meshi.

“Meshi” is the kun, or original Japanese pronunciation, of the

kanji, or written character, for “rice.” Gohan is the on, or borrowed

Chinese reading, of the same character. (The go in “gohan” is an

honorific, a prefix to make a word more polite.) Remember that

some Japanese words sound more masculine, and some dis-

tinctly feminine. To native Japanese ears in most circumstances,

“meshi”sounds more masculine. “Gohan” has a softer, more

feminine sound to it. The sushi–ya has always been thought of

as a man’s world; some of the language used there reflects that.

And so “meshi” is the word for rice that you will almost always

hear and use. If you are a female, though, rest assured that you

can use the word “meshi” without undue aspersions being cast

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upon your sexuality. When sushimeshi is formed into the nuggets

of rice for hand–pressed slabs of nigiri sushi, though, it’s called

shari. In normal parlance, “shari” refers to dry, brittle bones. It

is used specifically to describe the tiny pieces of bones from the

Buddha’s body that were pulverized and distributed as relics after

his death. The grains of rice, or maybe the nuggets of nigiri sushi

themselves, were though to resemble these pieces of bone. Today,

you’re likely to hear “shari” as a way of distinguishing the rice

from the topping ingredients (tane—we’ll get to this word later) of

nigiri sushi.

To prepare sushi–meshi, the raw rice and water go into an

automatic rice cooker. Because of the quantities needed, now-

days even a tiny sushiya uses a rice cooker, a little mechanized

devise that has revolutionized Asia. Rice is neither “steamed” nor

“boiled,” as it is often described in translation, in the cooker. It’s

prepared with a combination of both methods. Cooking rice is

called yudaki in Japanese kitchen slang. The word in normal usage

means a “hot water cascade.” That’s what the water and rice

sound like, gurgling and bubbling away under the pressure of the

steamer pot, hence the expression. Typically, near–equal parts of

rice to water are the rule of cooking a batch of basic rice. For

sushi–meshi, itamae may mess around with this equation, depend-

ing on the brand of rice and other factors, such as the humidity

and the exact age of the rice. Good itamae will also mix brands to

get just the product they want. Whatever the alchemy, what the

itamae wants to avoid is a sticky, gluey gumminess, called beta–

beta in Japanese, at one end of the bad rice spectrum, and grains

not entirely cooked and kochikochi, hard inside, at the other end.

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Sushi rice has to be just glutinous enough to stick together, but

with each grain retaining its own identity, kind of like kids at a

junior high school dance. Good sushi–meshi has a pleasant firm-

ness of texture in the mouth that is shiko–shiko.

Freshly cooked rice, for sushi or any other meal, should meet

three criteria: It should have a glowing luster (tsuya), a pleasant

stickiness (nebari), and the correct taste (aji). Tell an itamae, or

any Japanese cook, that his rice exemplifies these three terms and

he will lay down his life for you. You can complain in a sushi–ya

about the mead waitress, the bad seating, or the mistreatment of

Japan’s Korean minority, and the itamae is likely to take it all in

stride. You insult the quality of the rice, however, at your own peril.

Any criticism at all will be taken very, very seriously.

Once cooked, rice is transferred to a wood tub (hangiri), then

fanned to cool it; at the same time, a seasoning is drizzled over it.

The seasoning—awase–zu, or coming together vinegar—is more

or less standard among itamae and consists of rice vinegar, sugar,

and salt. Awase–zu is also referred to as su–mezu. (The combina-

tion of vinegar, salt, and water that the itamae uses for moistening

his hands to keep the rice from sticking to them while he fashions

shapes for nigiri sushi is called te–zu, or hand vinegar.) From

an aesthetic point of view, the sugar and vinegar add a pleasing

luster to the rice. The grains look fat and glossy, an appearance

that’s helped along by the fanning, which moves cool air over

the hot rice to make the surface of the grains more amenable to

absorbing the salt andsugar liquid. In more scientific terms, the

vinegar, in addition to its historical role in sushi as a preservative,

temporarily dissolves much of the stickiness of the freshly cooked

THREE | VARIETY

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TYPES OF SUSHI

Varieties of nigiri and sashimi

Original Styles of SushiThe oldest sushi still found in Japan is the funa–zushi of Shiga.

This type is a nare–zushi, or long–pressed sushi, made using

freshwater fish such as funa, a type of carp, dojo (loach) or

namazu (sheatfish). The fish is first salt–cured and then marinated

in cooked rice and salt. This is a way to preserve fish; the rice and

salt are discarded. The origin of this oldest–surviving sushi can

be traced back to hishio, a mixture of raw fish and salt, although

some say it goes right back to various other similar fish–preserv-

ing methods that existed in China as early as 300BC. Although at

one stage the Chinese also developed this method of using rice

mixed with salt, the technique had disappeared completely from

the Chinese culinary scene by the 17th century.

Sushi TodayThe process of nare–zushi then took to develop into the present

day sushi is well recorded. First it was simplified; the nare–zushi’s

long–term pressing, for almost a year, was greatly shortened to

about ten days so that the rice could also be eaten before it fully

fermented. To hasten the fermentation process and prevent the

raw fish from rotting, vinegar was added to the rice. The result is

a simple oshizushi, meaning pressed sushi, a specialty of Kansai,

the region around Osaka. But it was in Tokyo in the 19th Century

that the process was sped up even more, with the development

of nigiri, instant sushi. Sold from the street stalls and stores as a

snack, nigiri, also known as edomae, was the fast food of its time.

It was and still is the most famous sushi of all.

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Today, sushi restaurants abound and sushi chefs are regarded

as highly skilled craftsmen who train for a number of years at

their craft. Indeed, top sushi restaurants are becoming very expen-

sive places to eat. So, even though sushi remains a snack food, it

is undoubtedly a high–quality one.

Varieties of SushiBara Sushi–The vinegar rice and ingredients are mixed as a salad.

Chirashi Sushi–The rice bed has various layers of fish and is

served in a bowl called Gomoku Sushi or Iso–don.

Futomaki–This is a large Maki roll that has many different ingredi-

ents using Nori, which is a seaweed wrap.

Inari Sushi–Instead of using the traditional vinegar rice, brown,

fried tofu is used.

Nigiri Sushi–Vinegar rice topped with a slice of raw or cooked fish,

or vegetables.

Okonomi Sushi–This is home–style Nigiri Sushi.

Onigiri Sushi–This Sushi is made with regular steamed rice and

rolled into a ball with other ingredients

Oshizushi–Vinegar rice and other ingredients of choice pressed

into a mold.

Temaki–These are cone–shaped seaweed rolls also called a

hand roll.

The short grain Japanese variety, Oryza sativa japonica, as

opposed to the neighboring Southeast Asian countries’ long grain,

jawa and indica, was developed over the centuries to suit the cli-

mate as well as the taste of the Japanese people. Once cooked, it

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On pages 32 and 33

from left: Anago, Maguro,

Enngawa and Tamago

nigiri.

Pages 34 and 35 from left:

Makerel, Crab, Maguro, Ebi,

Ika and Iwashi nigiri.

becomes quite tender and moist but firm enough to retain a little

crunchiness. Unlike long grain rice, it becomes slightly sticky,

In general, the farther south you go in Japan, the sweeter

the sushi–meshi tends to be. People in most regions of southern

Japan are stereotyped for liking sweet tastes more than their more

northern cousins. Something else to consider is temperature.

Nigiri sushi’s rice should be, according to sushi lore, the same

temperature as the skin on your cheek; slightly cool. The rice

should be slightly warmer for chirashi sushi, since you want the

flavors of the toppings to blend in, which they do better with

warm rice.

Alas, a lot of itamae have gotten sloppy, even in Japan,

and they’ll use the basic awase–zu recipe to flavor the rice in all

kinds of sushi. If a sushi–ya pays attention to this important

detail, though, it is nearly a foolproof hallmark of an outstanding

establishment, as it the itamae who lightens up on the sugar in

sushimeshi during the summer.

Nigiri sushi eaten during the summer has traditionally had

more of a sour kick to the rice. It is a practice that undoubtedly

comes from sushi’s earliest days, when the vinegar was working to

keep the fish from spoiling; in warmer weather, naturally,

more vinegar would have been added. But is also has to do with

a Japanese folk belief that if a diet is balanced between the

five tastes (sweet, sour, salty, hot, and bitter), the body will run

smoothly. Lose that equilibrium, and it’s like saying “Heidi–ho”,

come on in and make yourself at home” to bacteria, viruses, evil

humors, and heaven knows what else is out there to afflict one.

In hot weather, according to these beliefs, we naturally eat more

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salt to offset what is lost through perspiration. The increase in salt

intake can threaten the intricate inter play of the five tastes, and it

can be countered, in part, by increasing the sour.

Sure, the AMA probably doesn’t endorse all this. But that is why

more vinegary foods, like pickled vegetables, are associated with

summertime Japanese cuisine, and it is why nigiri sushi–meshi in

the hotter months will have more vinegar than in the winter. Or it

will if the itamae knows what he is doing.

In addition to his other duties, then, the itamae can be riding

herd on up to three different pots of rice. Even keeping one ready

isn’t a job for amateurs. If the rice for sushi gets too cold and is

reheated, it gets slippery and squishy and won’t hold together.

A worse fate awaits if it is chilled, as many a neophyte sushi

enthusiast has learned after bringing home leftovers and sticking

them in the refrigerator. The grains get hard and chalky, virtually

inedible. So a towel goes over the tub of cooled rice to keep it at

the ambient temperature as long as possible. A competent itamae

and his staff will have a constant supply during the sushi–ya’s

hours of operation, and it will be consistent in quality. If it is not,

the sushi snob’s response is merciless, swift, and decisive. The

sushi tsu must always be gracious and reasonable in expectations

in most areas of a sushi meal—except when it comes to sushi–

meshi. You should still be gracious, of course. But if the rice in

hour sushi is in any way inferior, do not return. Standards for other

matters of sushi snobbery can vary in some instances, but not

with rice. There’s no excuse or any place calling itself a sushi–ya

to present anything but excellent sushi–meshi. Come on, it only

FOUR | PRESENTATION

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CONCEPTUAL DISHES

A Unique CuisineThe cuisine of Japan is in many ways different from those of other

countries. Different kinds of food, different ways of cooking, of

serving—different ways too of thinking about food, eating, meals.

In Japan, while fish should look like fish, the fish dish ought

also to look like something more. It ought to reflect within its

composition another concern, one the West considers aesthetic.

The effect should be as pleasing to the eye as the taste is to the

tongue. At the same time, there is a canon of presentation, a

system of culinary aesthetics to be satisfied.

The colors, for example, must be artfully opposite. The pink of

the tuna sashimi ought to be contrasted with the light green of the

grated wasabi (horseradish) and the darker green of the shiso leaf

upon which the slices rest. And the slices themselves are, despite

their casual appearance, carefully arranged.

There are five types of arrangement (moritsuke) of food on

dishes. The most common is yamamori, a mountain like mounded

arrangement. There is also sugimori, a standing or slanting

arrangement, like the cedar (sugi) that gives the style its name.

Then there is hiramori, a flat arrangement used for foods such

as sashimi. And there are ayamori (woven arrangements) and

yosemori (gathered arrangements) as well.

Asymmetrical aesthetics also apply in the way in which food

is placed in relation to the surface area of the dish itself. Let us

say something roundish—a fillet or teriyaki–style fish—is to be

served. It will appear on a long, narrow, flat dish. Resting against

the fish and extending the length of the dish will be a single stalk

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Salmon roe (egg) nigiri

Roe nigiri with radish

of pickled ginger. An asymmetrical balance has been created in

which the negative space (the empty part of the dish) serves as

balance to the positive (fishfilled) and is accentuated by the single

line (pickled ginger), which intensifies the emptiness and, of

course, by so doing also intensifies the succulence of the fish.

PresentationYou didn’t think this was just going to get left to chance, did you?

Were you paying attention back there when we are talking about

the Japanese mania for formalizing everything? Let’s review: There

is a proper way in traditional Japanese etiquette to cut up a des-

sert persimmon and, as graphically illustrated technical scrolls for

professional sword testers who used condemned criminals as the

targets of their craft show, to cut up human beings as well. The

way a cord is knotted around a wrapped present signifies some-

thing about the occasion for the gift. So given that kind of picki-

ness, you can damn well assume there will be rules for presenting

food on a dish. There are the rules, noted earlier, that are known

as moritsuke or moriawase. And the rules themselves have rules:

Food is arranged in formal (shin), semiformal (gyo), and informal

(so) styles. (Although, to make it more fund, within the formal

style are formal–formal, formal–semiformal, and formal–informal,

and the same for gyo and so. So there are actually nine difference

permutations.) The same shin–gyo–so approach is found in the

tea ceremony, calligraphy, flower arranging, and other arts where

spatial factors figure.

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Maki and nigiri plates

Sushi place setting

There are some basic methods of moritsuke used to pres-

ent sushi, and some others that dictate the way side dishes are

arranged. Again, cuisine doesn’t get much more informal, in

Japanese terms, than sushi, so the rules are fairly relaxed. Note,

though the underlying principles of the rules are going to be

observed and it is the perspicacious sushi tsu (and there should

be no other kind) who recognizes and appreciates them.

The hiramori style of food presentation is what you are most

likely to see on your place in a sushi–ya. Your order of nigiri kisu

has just been handed to you, let’s say. Resist the urge to shovel it

in as swiftly as civilized table manners will allow. Take a moment

to consider the way it has been laid out on the plate. The most

common order of nigiri sushi is a pair. Notice, though, that the

pair of kisu is deliberately situated. The pieces are neither hori-

zontal nor perpendicular, but rather slanted on the plate, and over-

lapped just enough so the piece closest to the front of the plate

is closest to your right hand. Part of the reason is practical. It is

easier to pick up the pieces of nigiri than it would be if they were

lined up evenly, side by side. It also has more eye appeal. This

slanting arrangement of a pair of pieces of food is the simplest

form of hiramori, or “flat–style” moritsuke.

Sashimi is typically arranged in a flat style, the slices of fish

drifting across the length of the plate. If you have a couple of

orders of nigiri sushi, they might well be arranged similarly. If

so, you can begin to see some of the more subtle elements of

the flat style, which, while simple, is far from simplistic. This sort

of flat style, with a single row of food lined up horizontally, is

called ichimonji, after the brushstroke for the numeral one, which

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Tuna maki with sesame seeds and California roll with tabiko

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it resembles. Printed with type, one is written with just a single,

horizontal stroke with a little bump on the right end. When a cal-

ligrapher writes the character, though, he draws the brush up from

left to right as he goes across the paper. The line of your nigiri

sushi slants the same way. It adds a dimension to the presenta-

tion that would be missing if the sushi were lined up exactly

straight across the plate. In fact, if you draw a line vertically or

horizontally on your plate, your sushi will not be along either axis,

or squarely in the middle where the lines cross. It will always be

grouped along an angle or in a quadrant, off center, to avoid what

would otherwise be monotonous and predictable. A potential

problem with the ichimonji line of sushi is that it threatens–we’re

going into Art Appreciation 101 here, I know, but follow me–to rise

right off the back of the dish, compositionally speaking. So that’s

where a mound of pickled ginger slices is stacked, usually below

the ascending side of the sushi line, as a compositional counter-

weight. There will always be something on the plate to anchor the

line of ichimonji.

If the counterweight consists of ginger slices, they will be

arranged sugimori style. A sugi is a cedar tree. The mound of

ginger (or any food served sugimori style) has the same shape as

that tree; bunched up something like a plump pinecone. When a

garnish or side dish is put on a flat plate, like the ginger beside

your nigiri order, it is an informal version of sugimori. More

formal versions would be set in a bowl or deep–sided container.

Sometimes they’re used in sushiya, placed beside the plate of

sushi. If the itamae does serve ginger in a separate bowl, he will

take time to place it just so. The mound of ginger will be just tall

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enough to peek over the rim of its container, like the summit of

a mountain appearing above the mist, or sunk below the sides

of a deep bowl, to resemble a cedar growing far down in a valley.

Most of the other side dishes that might accompany sushi, such

as edamame or angles of shredded daikon, are arranged in an

informal sugimori style or in mazemori. A mazeru is a mixture.

Mazemori arrangements will look spontaneous if they are done

properly, as if they were just plopped onto the plate or into the

bowl. But if you look, you’ll see they are placed so they add a bal-

ance or dimension to the overall composition.

Round, coin–shaped maki sushi are either laid flat or tilted

against one another like a pile of toppled dominoes. If they are

placed in the single line of the ichimonji, however, even slanted,

the row would be dull to contemplate. So the itamae bunches

them in diamonds or parallelograms. If they are tiled against one

another, or kakemori (kake means “propped”), the inner ingre-

dients can be seen and appreciated; the sides of the maki sushi

sticking up add another dimension to the arrangement. Every

now and then, an itamae will stack maki sushi in a staircase–step

arrangement, in the tawaramori style. A tawara is an old–fash-

ioned rice bale. It looks like a small barrel; a stack of maki sushi

resembles a pile of tawara.

There are at least two other ways of arranging big orders, but

they’ve gone out of culinary fashion in sushi circles and if you

happen across ne, it is like a step back in time, a little more than

half a century back, to be exact, to the war years in Tokyo, when

rice and fish were in short supply. During that era, itamae some-

times arranged party–size sushi orders by stacking them in two On page 50: Avocado eel maki

51: Salmon roe nigiri

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DINING PROTOCOL

The Sushi ExperienceHaving now some basic grasp of the aesthetics of tableware and

presentation, let’s turn to the items themselves. Memorizing the

names for all the utensils and tableware is of debatable value for

the sushi tsu.

Next come the mechanics of eating the sushi once it’s been

ordered. A few inches above the counter at most sushi bars there

is a narrow shelf, which the chef can easily reach. If a customer

orders okonomi or omakase, the chef places a rectangular stand,

usually made of wood, on the shelf. The stand will be empty,

except for a mound of pickled ginger. (Only in the United States

do chefs also add a mound of wasabi.) This rectangular stand is

called a geta because it looks like a traditional Japanese wooden

sandal by the same name. The customer should leave the geta on

the shelf, where the chef can reach it. The chef will place orders of

nigiri on the geta. If he serves nigiri with more than a small dab

of sauce, he will most likely serve them on a plate, so the geta will

remain clean.

Most sushi bars put out bottles of soy sauce, as well as a

small dish for soy sauce for each customer. The better sushi

bars augment the soy sauce with dashi broth, sake, and mirin

to produce a “house” soy sauce, or nikiri. The best sushi chefs

often add their own sauce or seasoning to the fish before

serving it, and instruct the customer not to add extra soy

sauce. Some sushi connoisseurs forgo soy sauce in any case,

preferring to concentrate on the subtle flavors of the fish.

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Maki with crab meat

As for wasabi, chefs in Japan don’t serve extra wasabi on the

side because they put what they consider the proper amount in

the nigiri itself, between the topping and the rice. Generally, the

chef increases the amount of wasabi with topping that have a high

fat content. Many Americans have developed the habit if stirring

extra wasabi into their soy sauce. Chefs and most Japanese diners

frown on this practice. It’s better for the customer to ask the chef

to adjust the amount of wasabi inside the nigiri to match the

customer’s preference. Americans stir the wasabi into their soy

sauce to increase the level of spiciness. Ironically, however, wasabi

(and the green horseradish that passes for wasabi) rapidly looses

its spiciness and flavor when immersed in liquid.

The Taste of PerfectionA good nigiri ought to melt in the mouth, so chefs prefer not to

pack the rice too firmly. Most connoisseurs pick up sushi with

their fingers, since chopsticks are likely to break apart a loosely

packed nigiri. Some people claim that chopsticks are preferable

because the flavors of the different fish linger on their hands, pre-

venting full appreciation of each separate topping. But most sushi

bars provide each customer with a damp cloth, and wiping one’s

fingers between each type if nigiri should be sufficient to keep the

flavors separate. Likewise, the purpose of the pickled ginger is

to cleanse the palate between different types of fish. The ginger

shouldn’t be eaten as an appetizer, but it is fine to ask for more if

the supply on the geta runs out.

Methods for eating nigiri with one’s hands vary from person to

person. One option is as follows. The diner presses his thumb

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Inside out California roll

Pickled ginger used to cleanse the

palette between tastings

and middle finger lightly against the sides of the nigiri, at the

rectangle’s midpoint. He extends his index finger along the top of

the nigiri, down its length. The grip is a bit like the grip he would

use on a computer mouse. Holding the nigiri lightly, he lifts it off

the geta. He curls his index finger, pulling the far end of the nigiri

upward and toward him with the tip of the finger. He allows the

rectangle to rotate 180 degrees “head over heals,” while continu-

ing to hold it between the thumb and middle finger, so that it is

now upside down. This allows the diner to dip the fish side of the

nigiri in the soy sauce, rather than the rice side. If the diner dips

the rice side of a loosely packed nigiri into the soy sauce, the

nigiri will disintegrate in the soy sauce dish.

Chefs who see customer using chopsticks or dipping the rice

side in the soy sauce will pack the nigiri more tightly than is ideal.

Even when a customer doesn’t dip the nigiri in soy sauce, many

prefer to turn the nigiri upside down so that the fish touches the

tongue first, but that is a matter of preference. If the customer

isn’t using soy sauce, it’s perfectly acceptance to put the nigiri in

the mouth fish side up.

Either way, a nigiri should always be eaten in one bite. It

should also be eaten as soon as the chef serves it, so that I can

be enjoyed at the proper temperature, with the rice still slightly

warm. Traditional sushi rolls—with the seaweed on the outside—

should also be eaten right away, before the seaweed gets soggy.

If the chef serves a platter, the rolls with seaweed on the outside

should be eaten before the nigiri.

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SashimiThe etiquette for eating sashimi—slices of raw fish without rice—

is a bit different. Sashimi should always be eaten with chopsticks.

(It is bad form to rub the chopsticks together before use. The

assumption that the chopsticks contain splinters is an insult to

the chef.) Chefs serve a small mound of wasabi on the side with

sashimi. To avoid losing the spiciness and flavor of the wasabi

by mixing it with liquid, the customer should dab a bit of wasabi

directly onto the slice of fish with his chopsticks, then dip a differ-

ent corner of the fish in soy sauce. The garnishes that come with

sashimi—usually a green perilla leaf and shredded radish—are

meant to be eaten and provide digestive benefits.

Opinions among sushi experts vary as to whether to ask the

sushi chef about his “secret past,” as the video jokingly says. Most

believe that what makes sushi unique is the intimacy that develops

between the chef and his customers. Becoming acquainted with a

particular chef, and returning to his sushi bar repeatedly, is one of

the best ways for a customer to broaden his horizons. The chef is

likely to serve his most interesting and highest quality ingredients

to his regular customers. That said, a few sushi experts argue that

the customer ought to keep a respectful distance from the chef.

Either way, most experts agree on one thing. Customers who

show off their sushi knowledge at the sushi bar are tiresome.

Chefs appreciate customer who would rather eat sushi than talk

about it.

Hashi (chopsticks) with porcelain rests

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 | Corson, Trevor. The Story of Sushi. Harper Perennial, New York, NY. 2007.

2 | Kazuko, Emi. The Japanese Kitchen. Southwater Publishing, London. 2002.

3 | Lowry, Dave. The Connoisserur’s Guide to Sushi. The Harvard Common Press, Boston, MA. 2005.

4 | Richie, Donald. A Taste of Japan. Kodansha International LTD, San Francisco, CA. 1985.

5 | Ryuichi, Yoshi. Sushi. Tuttle Publishing, North Claredon, VT. 2006.

6 |Steinburg, Rafael. The Cooking of Japan. Time–Life Books, New York, NY. 1969.

7 | Wong, Kumfoo. Sushi Made Easy. Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., New York, NY. 2001

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INDEX

Anago

Aji

Bamboo Mat

California Hand Roll

California Inside–Out

Chopsticks

Edamame

Egg Sushi

Etiquette

Fish

Futomaki

Hand Rolls

History

Horseradish (wasabi)

Inside–out rolls

Kappamaki

Maki

25

40

30,31

31,32

52

32

52–55

23–25

16

31

12–17

53

31–33

32

31–34

42

31–33

Miso

Nigiri

Pickled ginger

Prawn nigiri

Rice

Rice vinegar

Soy sauce

Sashimi

Seaweed (nori)

Setting the table

Sushi rolls (maki)

Tamagoyaki

Tuna

Temaki sushi

Tekkamaki

Utensils

43

32

22–25

23,32

25

55

31–33

32

31

32

46

54–56

25

44

53–55

54

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The book is typeset in News Gothic MT by Monotype Imaging.

News Gothic was one of a number of sans serif faces manufac-

tured by American Type Founders in the early years of the twen-

tieth century. It was originally designed in 1908 by Morris Fuller

Benton. News Gothic MT, has a nice angularity that allows it to

wear better than most, and you will find it a pleasant change from

the other sans serif typefaces of this world. News Gothic MT pre-

ceded the more fiercely geometric forms of the twentieth century.

This design, with its plainly stated, unselfconscious letterforms,

was revived by Monotype in 1962.

Design and layout by Jen Allender

California College of the Arts

Graphic Design

Spring 2010, Type 2, David Asari

sushi history

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