stokstad, understanding and enjoying the earliest christian art

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Review: Understanding and Enjoying the Earliest Christian Art Author(s): Marilyn Stokstad Review by: Marilyn Stokstad Source: American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 112, No. 3 (Jul., 2008), pp. 533-541Published by: Archaeological Institute of AmericaStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20627489Accessed: 02-04-2015 11:33 UTC

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MUSEUM REVIEW

Understanding and Enjoying the Earliest Christian Art

MARILYN STOKSTAD

Picturing the Bible: The Earliest Christian

Art, Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, 18

November?30 March 2008, curated by Jeffrey

Spier.

Picturing the Bible: The Earliest Christian

Art, by Jeffrey Spier, with contributions by Mary

Charles-Murray, Johnnes G. Deckers, Steven Fine, Rob

in M. Jenson, and Herbert Kessler. Pp. 309, b&w figs. 40, color figs. 263. Yale University Press, in asso

ciation with the Kimbell Art Museum, New Haven

and Fort Worth 2007. $65 (cloth); $40 (paper). ISBN 978-0300-11683 (cloth); 978-0-912804-47-7

(paper).

By calling this excellent exhibition Picturing the Bible: The

Earliest Christian Art, the Kimbell Art Museum in Fort Worth,

Texas, has created a welcoming public invitation to what is,

in fact, a scholarly and focused view of the origins of Chris

tian pictorial art. A worthy successor to The Age of Spiritual

ity, held 30 years ago at the Metropolitan Museum of Art

in New York, and to Aurea Roma, held at the Palazzo delle

Esposizioni in Rome from 2000 through 2001, Picturing the

Bible is more modest in scale but similarly concerned with

presenting both the latest scholarship and a larger vision of

Early Christian art. Although focused on the fourth and fifth

centuries, the exhibition includes artworks from the early third to the mid seventh centuries, from a coin of 217-2181

to the silver David plates of ca. 628-630.2

The installation of Picturing the Bible is remarkable. Black

and-white photograph murals suggest the original architec

tural context of the art: the synagogue at Dura Europos, San Paolo fuori le Mura in Rome, the apse mosaics of Santa

Costanza and Santa Pudenziana, and the carved wooden

doors of Santa Sabina. The photographs so harmonize with

the Kimbell's travertine walls in tone that they seem to merge with the setting. This muted scheme enhances the glitter of gold glass and silver and bronze objects. The exhibition

concludes with a blaze of color in the Rabbula Gospels3 and

the Vatican's jeweled reliquary of the True Cross,4 known as

the Cross of Justin II. In general, the labels in the exhibition

are good, and many have useful visual aids, such as drawings of objects in an earlier condition.

On the entrance walls of the exhibition, selections from

the famous Wilpert Collection of watercolors, created before

the invention of color photography, evoke the art of the cata

combs. These watercolors are the product of a monumental

Vatican project. Beginning in 1897, the German priest and

archaeologist Josef Wilpert started to use the relatively new

art of photography to record the paintings in the catacombs.

Pompeo and Renato Sansaini, a father and son, took black

and-white photographs, which Carlo Tabanelli then painted over with watercolor to reproduce the original colors. Today, the most popular and often reproduced catacomb paintings have deteriorated, but these watercolors capture the appear ance of the originals as they could have been seen a century

ago.5 In Picturing the Bible, these photograph watercolors flank

the black-and-white, mural-sized photograph of the reliquary Cross of Justin II. Here, then, is the alpha and omega of the

exhibition, for the last work on display is the Vatican's True

Cross, with its veiled relic,6 encrusted with (later) jewels in

barbaric splendor.

Leaving the catacombs, the viewer enters a darkened gal

lery (fig. 1). This darkness will come as a surprise for many

visitors, as the museum, designed by Louis Kahn (1901-1974) and established by Kay Kimbell and Velma Fuller Kimbell in

1964, is renowned for the classic simplicity of its design and

for the innovative use of natural light in its galleries. Kahn

included skylights, which he described as "narrow slits to the

sky." When combined with perforated metal reflectors that

spread the sunlight over the underside of curving ("cycloid

shaped") vaults, these skylights permit daylight to illuminate

the walls and works of art. How, then, did the exhibition's

designer, Tim Dawson, supported by operations manager

Larry Eubank, control or eliminate this natural light? They

simply covered the skylights with an opaque material. The

material is virtually invisible to the viewer because it rests on

the outer surface of the vaults. The covered skylights can be

seen between rows of spotlights in figure 1.

The works of art also presented challenges beyond prob lems of light. Their sensitivity to changes in temperature and

1 Spier 2007,171, no. 1 (New York, the Dr. Jay M. Galst Fam

ily Collection). 2 Evans et al. 2001, 34-6; Spier 2007, 285-87, nos. 84a,

84b (New York, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, inv. nos.

17.190.398,17.190.397). 3 Cod. Plut. 1.56; Spier 2007,276-82, no. 82 (Florence, Bib

lioteca Medicea Laurenziana). 4 Spier 2007, 283-85, no. 83 (Vatican City, Treasury of St.

Peter's). 5 Spier 2007,173-83, nos. 3a-c, 4-11.

6When the relic leaves the Vatican, it must be covered (i.e.,

veiled).

533 American Journal of Archaeology 112 (2008) 533-41



534 MARILYN STOKSTAD [AJA112

Fig. 1. Installation view of the exhibition section "The Emergence of Christian Art": foreground, marble statuette of the

Good Shepherd, ca. 280-290, Asia Minor (Cleveland, the Cleveland Museum of Art, John L. Severance Fund, 1965.241);

center, silver dish and cup from the Water Newton Treasure, late fourth/early fifth century, England (?) (London, British

Museum, inv. nos. P&EE 1975.10-02.7, P&EE 1975.10-02.5); background, marble sarcophagus with Moses and the Isra

elites crossing the Red Sea, last quarter of the fourth century, Rome (Vatican City, Vatican Museums, inv. no. 31434); marble sarcophagus with Jonah, late third century, Rome (Vatican City, Vatican Museums, inv. no. 31448) (courtesy Kimbell Art Museum).

humidity, and of course their physical security, required the

construction of dozens of special cases in order to meet the

specifications imposed by the lenders.

The examples of Early Christian art based on Old Testa

ment and even pagan Roman themes displayed in the dark

ened gallery are often types of objects that are difficult to

appreciate. Unforgiving and uncompromising, tiny engraved

gems?sometimes set in rings, broken bowls, and fragments of gold glass?are things easily bypassed in the permanent installations of great museums, where monumental painting and sculpture attract the viewer's attention. But here, they are emphasized through the use of somewhat old-fashioned

but effective museum installation techniques. This is an ex

hibition of masterpieces, the designers seem to say, where

individual objects are isolated in cases and illuminated with

strong, focused light. These lighting effects, which visitors

may take for granted, are not an easy task for the designer, who must consider the different reflecting qualities of gold

glass, gems, and silver, as well as the different possible an

gles of the viewer's vision. The dramatically lit sculptures of

Jonah7 and the Good Shepherd8 illustrate the way familiar

works can take on new life and importance thanks to their

isolation and dramatic highlighting. These striking sculp tures in fact establish the first major theme of the exhibition:

the Old Testament origins of Christian iconography. This

exhibition, after all, is about the Bible, not simply about the

New Testament.

The viewer's attention moves back and forth between the

individual motif of the Good Shepherd and the story of Jonah swallowed and regurgitated by the sea monster/whale. Thus, at once, the major themes of the exhibition are established.

In subject and form, the Old Testament provides a basis for

or prefigures the New Testament, while pagan Rome lingers in the background. Images may focus on individual motifs

or be continuous narratives. Viewers may tend to identify the Good Shepherd, for example, as either the shepherd of Psalm 23 in the Old Testament or as Christ of the New

Testament with his promise of salvation. But the sculpture

7 Fourth century, Asia Minor; Spier 2007, 186-87, no. 15

(New York, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, inv. no. 1876

[77.7]).

8Ca. 280-290, Asia Minor; Spier 2007,190-1, no. 21 (Cleve

land, the Cleveland Museum of Art, inv. no. 1965.241).



2008] THE EARLIEST CHRISTIAN ART 535

could also represent the Greek god Hermes carrying a lost

sheep on his shoulders. Or he could simply be a shepherd of Roman genre?no more, no less. The Jonah relief could

be part of a lively story shown with a classical sea monster, as

in pagan Roman narrative sculpture, rather than the whale

of folk song. To early Christians, Jonah's ordeal prefigured the resurrection of Christ. These brilliantly lit sculptures thus

give substance and focus to a gallery filled with tiny, glitter

ing gems and gold glass fragments. Visitors can also focus on the truly extraordinary gold glass

bowls and engraved gems, treasures so battered by time that

they stand in fragmentary isolation?an isolation imposed both by their exhibition cases and by their unique survival.

An engraved glass bowl that depicts Adam and Eve, found

in Cologne9 and a star of the earlier exhibitions in New York

and Rome, also provides an appropriate opening salvo. The

bowl has been broken into so many pieces, however, that the

join lines glitter in the light, rendering the image difficult to

"read." A mere fragment of a second bowl decorated with gold

glass10 is even more difficult for the amateur to understand.

Its walls were originally covered with small gold glass medal

lions of Adam and Eve; Jonah, Daniel, and Abraham about

to sacrifice Isaac; and possibly Christ as a miracle worker?all

continuing themes of the exhibition. Engraved gems seem

to resonate with many Fort Worth viewers, captured as they are in a gallery that is intimate and personal. These engraved

gems?with images the size of a fingernail?come alive. Two

women standing beside me on my first visit were gesturing and talking together as if they were in a jewelry shop. They seemed quite ready to try on, purchase, and walk outwearing these miniature treasures, hardly thinking whether they were

wearing symbols of their?or someone else's?faith. And this

response, I propose, is not frivolous; it is the genius of this

exhibition. Difficult and usually ignored treasures are made

important to people who are not trained as archaeologists or art historians or even versed in religious art.

Picturing the Bible is organized in long, subdivided galler ies into two principal sections: "The Emergence of Christian

Art" and "The Christian Empire." As we have seen, "The

Emergence of Christian Art" begins with Adam and Eve, the

Good Shepherd, andjonah, followed by displays of Christian

symbols, especially the fish (ichthys in Greek; for the early Christians, meaning Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior) and

the monogram of Christ, which is formed by combining the Greek letters chi (X) and rho (P) and is known as the

Chi-Rho Christogram. This is the symbol that the emperor

Constantine placed on his soldiers' shields before the fate

ful battle for control of the Roman empire. For this exhibi

tion, the British Museum loaned two rare and important

pieces?a silver cup and a dish dating from the late fourth

or early fifth century?that belong to a hoard of silver and

gold known as the Water Newton Treasure from its findspot in Cambridgeshire, England (see fig. I).11 On the cup is

inscribed "Relying on you, Lord, I honor your holy altar";

the donor's name, Publianus, is engraved on the base. The

imposing dish (diam. 33.5 cm) is lightly engraved with the Chi-Rho and an omega.

On the wall nearby is one of the most fascinating objects in the exhibition: the late third-century tombstone of Licinia

Amias12 that was found on the Vatican Hill. It is engraved with

an epitaph, two fish, an anchor, and a wreath. The inscrip tion "fish of the living" must refer to the Christian acrostic,

ichthys, although the wreath and the inscribed letters "D(z's)

M(anibus)" ("to the sacred spirits of the dead") at the top are standard pagan usage.

In an alcove, Jewish art is recalled by the photograph mural

of the synagogue at Dura Europos, the limestone relief of a

menorah,13 and coins and gems.14 That Jews of this era ap

preciated and employed figurative works of art is no longer in question. The discovery of the synagogue of Dura Euro

pos, for example, demonstrated a rich tradition of narrative

painting with its murals. Notable in this small section of the

exhibition are the silver shekels (fig. 2) from the time of the

First Jewish Revolt, beginning in 66 C.E.15 On the obverse, these beautiful coins depict a chalice with a beaded rim and

a base raised on projecting feet, with the date "year 2" (67

C.E.) or "year 3" (68 C.E.) and the inscription "shekel of Is

rael." On the reverse, one finds the inscription "Jerusalem the holy" and a branch bearing three fruits that look like

pomegranates; these fruits would be appropriate because

they decorated the columns of the Temple of Solomon and

the robes of the high priest.16 The rich symbolism of the

temple, with its golden menorah and showbread table, can

be seen on other coins and engraved gems from the time of

the Second Jewish Revolt, early in the second century.17 In

the catalogue, other aspects of Jewish art are recalled in the

excellent essay by Fine.18

Having established the sources of Early Christian art in

the Graeco-Roman and Jewish artistic traditions, the first

section of the exhibition turns to "The Path to Salvation."

An imposing collection of marbles?sarcophagi and epi

taphs?concludes this section and introduces "The Church

9 Mid fourth century, found in the Roman necropolis of

Luxemburgerstrasse, Cologne; Spier 2007, 184, no. 12 (Co

logne, R?misch-Germanisches Museum der Stadt K?ln, inv.

no.N340). 10 Second half of the fourth century, Rome or the Rhine

land; Spier 2007, 184-85, no. 13 (London, British Museum, inv. no. MME 1881.06-24.1).

11 Spier 2007, 200-1, nos. 31a, 31b (London, British Muse

um, inv. nos. P&EE 1975.10-02, P&EE 1975.10-02.5). 12 Spier 2007,196-97, no. 27 (Rome, Museo Nazionale Ro

mano-Terme di Diocleziano, inv. no. 67646). 13 Spier 2007, 204, no. 35 (Berlin, Staatliche Museen, inv.

no. 4691). 14 Spier 2007, 202-3, nos. 32-4 (coins: New York, the Amer

ican Numismatic Society 1944-100.62978 [no. 33a], 1944

100.62994 [no. 33b], 1944.100.63042 [no. 34a], 1944.100.

63049 [no. 34b], 1944.100.63091 [no. 34c], 1944.100.63100 [no. 34d]; 204-5, nos. 36, 37; gems: New York, the American

Numismatic Society 0000.999.36807 [no. 36] [E.T. Newell

Collection]; Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Muse

um of Archaeology and Anthropology, inv. no. B-5110 [no.

37]). 15 Spier 2007,202-3, nos. 33a, 33b; supra n. 14.

16 Spier 2007,203. 17 Spier 2007,203.

18 "Jewish Art and Biblical Exegesis in the Greco-Roman

World" (Spier 2007, 25-49).



536 MARILYN STOKSTAD [AJA 112

Fig. 2. Silver shekel dating to the First Jewish Revolt (67 C.E.), 2.2 cm, Jerusalem. New York, the American Numismatic So

ciety 1944.100.62978 (courtesy Kimbell Art Museum).

Triumphant" in the second section. Casual viewers may take

this installation of sarcophagi for granted, but it is important to realize that we are looking at literally tons of fragile and

precious marble relief sculpture. The loan and installation

of eight complete (or partial) sarcophagi and three epitaphs is a testament to the determination and skills of the registrar

Patty Decoster, who was responsible for shipping and insur

ance, and the art handlers under the direction of Eubank, who had to manipulate objects weighing as much as 1,500 to 2,500 pounds.

At the far end of the long gallery (fig. 3), one sees first the

Red Sea sarcophagus19 and, behind it on the end wall, the

Jonah sarcophagus,20 one of the best known in the history of art, although only the front panel survives. In the case of

Jonah, the strong lighting calls attention to the damaged condition and extensive restoration of the sculpture; it looks

like the work of an 18th-century sculptor rather than that

of an unknown third-century carver, and Bartolomeo Cava

ceppi (1716-1799) has been identified as the restorer. The

Red Sea sarcophagus (see fig. 3) is one of the most elaborate

examples of Roman continuous narrative: the Jews escape from Egypt, Pharaoh and his men perish in the waters of

the Red Sea, and Moses and his followers enter gates that

belong either to paradise or to the heavenly Jerusalem. The

sculpture recalls the well-known and widely reproduced

fourth-century Constantinian reliefs on the Arch of Con

stantine. But the catalogue essay presents only a literary in

terpretation without mentioning the sculpture's formal or

technical qualities. Across the gallery stands a child's sarcophagus from the

first quarter of the fourth century that, poignantly, is less

than 3 ft long. At the right, the Magi bring gifts to Mary and

the Christ Child.21 At the left, Ezekiel stands in the Valley of

the Dry Bones watching a beardless adult Christ gesture with

a magic wand to bring the fleshed-out skeletons to life. The

authors of the catalogue focus on the interpretation of the

themes and the relationship between Jewish and Christian

iconography; however, I found myself studying the techni

cal aspects of the carving, especially the use of the drill?not

only the running drill work in the draperies but also that

in the facial features. What as a student I found distracting and even unpleasant (or worse, amateurish), I now find

exciting. This is surely the origin of certain techniques em

ployed during the 11th and 12th centuries, such as those by the Romanesque Cabestany Master who was featured in an

exhibition in Barcelona in spring 2008.22

The presence of the Virgin in the Magi scene highlights one of my few reservations about the exhibition, which is the

lack of attention paid to women, who were certainly impor tant in the Early Christian community. The Adoration/Eze kiel sarcophagus has an imposing image of the Virgin Mary seated in profile on a throne with a footstool. And since this

image is in the context of a narrative scene, surely, I thought, we will soon have the iconic version (e.g., the Cleveland Mu

seum of Art's Coptic textile with the Virgin and Child with

angels) ,23 But no. Mary does appear again in the exhibition

but always in the context of the life of Christ. What about

the life of Mary herself? What about the female followers

of Christ? What about the Early Christian saints? St. Tecla

is included but only as listening to St. Paul.24 Where are the

imposing images of the saint herself with her lions?

In "The Christian Empire," the second part of the exhibi

tion, works of art from the fourth to the seventh centuries

express the triumph of the Christian church. Here, Spier has assembled a distinguished array of masterpieces ranging from the well-known Passion sarcophagus25 to the contro

versial Andrews diptych (which, now seen in the context of

Early Christian art rather than in its "home" in the Victoria

and Albert Museum, I am tempted to call Carolingian in

spired by Early Christian)26 to the magnificent ivories from

the British Museum with scenes of the Passion, formerly called the Passion ivories and now known as the Maskell

ivories (fig. 4).27 The sarcophagus from ca. 350, with scenes of the Passion,

can be seen in the center of figure 3. Alternating arches

and lintels supported by spiral carved columns frame the

five scenes that combine narrative and allegorical treat

ments of the Passion. At the right, the youthful, beardless

Christ is brought before Pontius Pilate who turns away as he

washes his hands; at the left, a Roman soldier crowns Christ

19 Spier 2007, 211, no. 43 (Vatican City, Vatican Museums,

inv.no. 31434). 20

Spier 2007, 207, no. 39 (Vatican City, Vatican Museums, inv. no. 31448).

21 Spier 2007, 209, no. 41 (Vatican City, Vatican Museums,

inv. no. 31450). 22 El Romanic i la Mediterr?nia (29 February-18 May 2008,

the Museo Nacional d'Art de Catalunya). For the Cabestany Master, see Litde 1993,313-14, no. 161 (The Calling of Peter

and Andrew) (Barcelona, Museo Mares, inv. no. 654). 23 The Virgin Enthroned, sixth century, Egypt; Weitzmann

1979,532-33, no. 477 (Cleveland, Cleveland Museum of Art,

inv. no. 67.144). 24 St. Tecla with Lions and Angels, fifth century, Egypt;

Weitzmann 1979,574-75, no. 513 (Kansas City, Nelson-Atkins

Museum of Art, inv. no. 48.10); see also Ward and Fiddler

1993,125. 25

Spier 2007, 219-20, no. 46 (Vatican City, Vatican Muse

ums, inv. no. 31525).

26Spier 2007,225, no. 52 (London, Victoria and Albert Mu

seum, inv. nos. A.47-1926, A.47A-1926). 27

Spier 2007, 229-32, no. 57 (London, British Museum, inv. no. MME 1856.06-23.4-7).




Oy

.4

Fig. 3. Installation view of the exhibition section "The Christian Empire": foreground, detail of marble sarcophagus with Moses and the Israelites crossing the Red Sea, last quarter of the fourth century, Rome (Vatican City, Vatican

Museums, inv. no. 31434); center, marble sarcophagus with scenes of the Passion, ca. 350, Rome (Vatican City, Vatican

Museums, inv. no. 31525); background, marble sarcophagus with Christ performing miracles and Peter's denial, third

quarter of the fourth century, Rome (Algiers, Musee National des Antiquites d'Alger, inv. no. 238) (courtesy Kimbell

Art Museum).

with jewels instead of thorns while Simon of Cyrene carries

the cross. In the central image, a complex allegory on the

theme of resurrection replaces the Crucifixion. The cross

becomes the victorious Constantinian Chi-Rho surrounded

by a victor's wreath. It seems to be carried heavenward by an eagle flanked by the sun and the moon. Doves perch on

the horizontal bar, and the sleeping soldiers below remind

the viewer of the empty tomb of the risen Christ. The sculp ture is unusually fine and well preserved; only the wreaths

at each end are replacements. A contrasting, simple narrative interpretation of the bib

lical passages occurs on the British Museum's four ivory

plaques, carved ca. 420-430.28 These plaques, with scenes

from the Passion, once may have formed a reliquary box.

They quite literally "picture the Bible." Here, Christ carries

the cross, Pilate washes his hands, Peter tells the maid that

he does not know Christ, and the cock crows. The three

additional plaques include the Crucifixion, with Christ as

a heroic youth alongside the suicide of Judas; the Resurrec

tion, indicated by the empty tomb and the two Marys with

sleeping soldiers; and the appearance of Christ to Doubting Thomas and the aposdes after the Resurrection.

These plaques were acquired by the British Museum in

1856 from the collection of William Maskell (ca. 1814-1890), an Anglican churchman and antiquarian. As chaplain to the

Bishop of Exeter, Maskell became involved in the religious debates that effectively split the Episcopal Church into an

Anglo-Catholic faction and a determinedly Protestant Church

of England. The high relief and the monumental yet de

tailed execution of the Maskell ivories are truly remarkable.

While the original panels are only about 7.5 x 9.8 cm, in

Fort Worth, a plaque enlarged on a giant billboard retains

its affective beauty. The so-called Maskell ivories exemplify the difference 30

years have made in Early Christian studies. The entries in the

1977 catalogue for The Age of Spirituality emphasize the physi cal description and condition of the ivories.29 The descriptive text of the catalogue for Picturing the Bible emphasizes the

beauty of the carving. Scholars in 1977 sought to identify and

locate a school or workshop and to establish relationships with other objects of similar style and technique, including those in different media, such as manuscript illumination.

They hoped to define a Roman fifth-century school of ivory

carving, and in the exhibition, they gathered associated pieces

28 Supra n. 27. ^Weitzmann 1979,502-4, no. 452.




Fig. 4. Ivory plaque with Christ carrying the cross, Pilate washing his hands, and Peter's denial, ca. 420-430, 7.5 x 9.8 cm, Rome. London, British Museum, inv. no. MME 1856.06-23.4 (courtesy Kimbell Art Museum).

for comparison. Today, scholars appear to be more concerned

with literary and theological interpretations. One might say that we have here a contrast between an archaeological ap

proach and a literary or even theological one.

A few modifications or refinements in dating have been

proposed for some of the pieces that were also in the New York

show in 1977. For example, the silver reliquary with Christ

and the aposdes30 is dated to the early fifth century rather

than to the fourth, and the ewer with the blind man,31 now

specified as late fourth century Roman, had been identified

as simply western Mediterranean, fourth or fifth century. In the exhibition galleries of the Kimbell Art Museum,

examples of gold glass continue to lure viewers onward. I do

not think I have seen a better selection or collection of late

fourth-century gold glass. A notable example is a medallion

with the bust of a youthful, beardless Christ?identified by the inscription "Cristus"?surrounded by four youths, dis

ciples, or saints (fig. 5).32 Other subjects include Daniel and

the Dragon of Babylon and Christ as a miracle worker and

as the Good Shepherd.33 And while the meaning of these

pieces is discussed in expert detail in the catalogue, I ex

pected a better discussion of the nature of gold glass itself,

including its technical possibilities and difficulties. This frag ile, delicate medium consists of a sheet of cut and engraved

gold leaf sandwiched between two layers of glass. Examples

typically have a diameter of 9 cm but sometimes as much as

12.5 cm. Such medallions originally formed the bottom of

a bowl or cup. They were broken away and plastered into

tombs in the catacombs.

The True Cross merits a special section in the catalogue,

although in the installation, the Passion cycle, the Crucifixion, and the True Cross flow together easily. The True Cross is

represented by two splendid examples. The first is a bronze

staurogram (after stauros, Greek for "cross"), formed by the

Greek letters tau and rho, from which hang the letters alpha and omega, signifying "I am the beginning and the end."34 A

second cross, from ca. 500, is made of brass but was tinned so

that it would gleam like silver and be far less expensive.35 It

30 Spier 2007, 251, no. 74 (Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Mu

seum, Antikensammlung, inv. no. VII760). 31

Spier 2007, 244, no. 67 (London, British Museum, inv.

no. MME 1951.10-10.1). 32

Spier 2007, 219, no. 45 (London, British Museum, inv.

no. MME 1863.07-27.6). 33

Spier 2007, 222-23, nos. 48 (London, British Museum,

inv. no. MME 1863.07-27.1), 49 (Vatican City, Vatican Muse

ums, inv. no. 60750), 50 (Vatican City, Vatican Museums, inv. no. 60705).

34 Spier 2007, 233-34, no. 58 (Vienna, Kunsthistorisches

Museum, Antikensammlung, inv. no. VI612). 35

Spier 2007, 235-36, no. 59 (Munich, Christian Schmidt

Collection, inv. no. 155).




is engraved with images of angels and Daniel with the lions, an Old Testament type of Christ.

The designer creates a break in the onward flow of the

exhibition with a side gallery that looks out onto a courtyard and the only one lit by daylight. This space is dedicated to

"The Apostolic Succession and Traditio Legis," which is the

passing of authority over the Christian community from Christ

to the apostle Peter, who, as bishop of Rome, became the

first pope. The theme is represented in bronze, gold glass, silver, ivory, painting, mosaic through photograph murals, and in the monumental sarcophagus from Aries.36 Visitors

delight in two bronze lamps made in the late fourth century. On one, Peter performs the miracle in which he brings wa

ter from the rock in his prison cell to baptize prisoners and

jailors;37 the imagery of this scene is based on the Old Testa

ment theme of Moses drawing water from rocks to sustain the

Israelites. The second lamp is a double lamp in the form of

a ship in full sail, with Peter seated in the stern steering and

Paul standing at the prow guiding.38 The ship is a traditional

symbol of the church or of the Christian community. In a special category for depictions associated with "com

plex exegesis" are found some of the masterworks of the

exhibition. Christian exegesis, meaning "interpretation,"

goes beyond simple explanation and involves sophisticated

allegorical interpretations of events and passages from the

Bible. Among the treasures of Early Christian art are a ewer

from Scodand with biblical scenes,39 an ivory book cover with

garnet enhancements from the treasury of the cathedral of

Milan,40 the remarkable reliquary with Old and New Testa

ment scenes found beneath the high altar of the church of

San Nazaro in Milan,41 and an early fifth-century ivory dip

tych with Adam naming the animals on one panel and the

miracles of St. Paul on the other.42

The occasion for the creation of the Adam/St. Paul dip

tych and the person honored are unknown, although such a

valuable tablet must have been a presentation gift, perhaps made in an imperial workshop. Adam and St. Paul are linked

by their power over animals. Adam?still in the gardens of

paradise and recalling the classical pagan image of Orpheus

charming the animals with his music?is commanded by God

to name the animals, and thus he gains control over them.

In the New Testament Acts of the Apostles, St. Paul con

fronted by pagans on Malta is unharmed by a serpent's bite.

The carving of the two diptych leaves represents two major

stylistic tendencies in Early Christian art: the one (Adam) derived from classical art, the other (Paul) looking toward

the abstract art of Byzantium. Experts suggest that the pan els may have been carved by a single master who depended on different sources. The Adam panel is often reproduced

Fig. 5. Gold glass medallion with bust of Christ, late fourth

century, 7.8 x 9.0 cm, Rome. London, British Museum, inv. no. MME 1863.07-27.6 (courtesy Kimbell Art Museum).

alone, and the Kimbell exhibition affords the viewer an op

portunity to study the contrasting styles of the two panels as

well as the rich possibilities for interpretation. The last major genre of Early Christian art included in

the exhibition is the illustrated Bible. The British Library loaned four fragments of the Cotton Genesis.43 Dating from

the late fifth century, these precious fragments are from our

earliest illustrated Bible. The Sinope Gospels44 are housed in

the National Library in Paris, the Rabbula Gospels45 are from

the Laurentian Library in Florence. All were in The Age of

Spirituality. Important conclusions from Massimo Bernarb?'s

forthcoming study of the Rabbula Gospels are presented in

the catalogue; this is another example of the inclusion of

groundbreaking, recent research that characterizes this exhi

bition. Bernarb? will demonstrate that the illustrations were

inserted into the manuscript and in fact come from Greek

gospels contemporary with Rabbula's script.46 The exhibition concludes, triumphantly, with the Cross

of Justin II (Byzantine emperor from 565 to 578), on loan

from the Vatican,47 and two of the silver David plates from the

Metropolitan Museum.48 The David plates make an excellent

finale, bringing attention back to Old Testament sources of

Christian art. However, I confess to less than complete enthu

siasm for the reliquary Cross of Justin II. The repousse work

36 Spier 2007,242-43, no. 64 (Arles, Musee de P Aries et de

la Provence Antiques, inv. no. FAN.92.00.2487). 37

Spier 2007, 241, no. 63 (Florence, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, inv. no. 1674).

38 Spier 2007, 249, no. 72 (Florence, Museo Archeologico

Nazionale, inv. no. 1671). 39

Spier 2007, 253-55, no. 75 (Edinburgh, National Muse

ums of Scotiand, inv. no. GVA1). 40

Spier 2007,256-58, no. 76 (Milan, Tesoro del Duomo di

Milano). 41 Spier 2007,259-63, no. 77 (Milan, Museo Diocesano, inv.

no. MD 2004.115.001). 42

Spier 2007, 264-66, no. 78 (Florence, Museo Nazionale

del Bargello, inv. no. 19-20 C). 43

Spier 2007, 268-70, no. 80a-d (London, the British Li

brary, Cotton Ms. Otho B.VI). 44

Spier 2007, 271-75, no. 81 (Paris, Bibliotheque Natio

nale de France, Ms.suppl. gr. 1286).

45Supran.3.

46Spier2007,276. 47 Supra n. 4.

48 Supra n. 2.




on the back of the arms seems to me to be of high quality,

although not everyone agrees. Beckwith, writing about the

cross in his Early Christian/Byzantine volume for the Peli

can History of Art series, called the imperial portraits and

the busts of Christ "hunched little puppets."49 The central

medallion of the lamb also seems awkward. On the front of

the cross, the container for the relic is obviously modern, and the catalogue identifies it as an addition of Pope Pius

IX (1846-1878). But how much that we see today is the

work of 16th-century artists who restored the cross after the

looting of Rome by the troops of Charles V in 1527? Are the

gems even later? In short, I am very uncomfortable with the

piece (which I have never examined outside the museum

case), and I look forward to the detailed study of the gems and the promised publication of documentary evidence by Denise Allen.

It is a shock to move from the exhibition into a special exhibition shop occupying precious space that could have

been so much better used as a didactic gallery and/or a

reading room. Some museums, typically the Metropolitan,

provide large and comfortable exhibition reading rooms

for their visitors. Today, much of the best art publishing is

by museums and university presses such as Yale University

Press, which published the catalogue for Picturing the Bible.

The catalogue presents authoritative yet accessible, well

written essays, and it should be made readily available to the

exhibition's visitors.

Finally, a visitor to even a great exhibition wants both di

dactic materials and artworks. The catalogue does an admi

rable job of filling in literary and biblical background, but

I would have liked to see more architectural, liturgical, and

social context for the artworks in the display. The Aurea Roma

exhibition made very good use of digital imagery, including a

simulated walk-through of the Early Christian Roman church

of Santa Maria Maggiore. In Picturing the Bible, the orienta

tion gallery could have explained straightforward technical

matters. Just how does one make gold glass images? Where

did the artists get their materials? How is ivory worked?

A few faces would have humanized the show. The obvious

choice might have been one of the pairs of portrait busts

found with the Cleveland Good Shepherd.50 The portrait of

Constans would have added an imperial dimension, if it is in

deed that of the youngest son of Constantine, known to have

been a devout Christian.51 Or I might choose the woman hold

ing a scroll, from the late fourth/early fifth century.52 This

portrait evokes maturity and dignity and seems to express the

woman's Christian piety. To increase female presence in the

exhibition, I could see Cleveland's The Virgin Enthroned or

a saint such as the Nelson-Atkins Museum's Tecla as welcome

additions. To enrich the sources of Christian iconography, I would have included pagan Roman art. The Priestess of

Bacchus from the Victoria and Albert Museum may not have

been available,53 but an even better choice might have been

an imperial apotheosis.54 The Jewish heritage could have

been reinforced with the gold glass image of the Torah ark

that Fine reproduces in his catalogue essay.55 Finally, I would

have at least hinted at the developing Christian ritual in order

to place the themes of cross and crucifixion, sacrifice and

hope, in a liturgical context. The Antioch chalice from the

Metropolitan Museum56 (with Christ seated in a vine) and

the Riha paten (with the communion of the apostles) from

Dumbarton Oaks57 would have been welcome here. My list

may not seem very creative, for the Torah ark, the Coptic

Virgin Enthroned, the Antioch chalice, and the Riha paten were all exhibited in The Age of Spirituality.58

For all our emphasis on material culture and our constant

ly changing ideas of social and historical accuracy, we must

never forget that we are dealing with what for generations have been considered objects of spiritual as well as physical

beauty. Our changing attitude over the last 30 years seems

to be expressed even in the titles of the two great American

exhibitions: The Age of Spirituality and Picturing the Bible.

SPENCER MUSEUM OF ART

UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS

13OI MISSISSIPPI STREET

LAWRENCE, KANSAS 66045 [email protected]

Works Cited

Beckwith J. 1979. Early Christian and Byzantine Art. The Pelican

History of Art. Rev. ed. New York: Penguin Books.

Evans, H.C., M. Holcomb, and R. Hallman. 2001. The Arts of

Byzantium. Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 58(4). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.

49Beckwith 1979,18. 50 Busts of men and women, ca. 270-290, eastern Mediter

ranean; Little 2006, 124-27, nos. 47-52 (Cleveland, Cleve

land Museum of Art, inv. nos. 1965.242, 1965.243, 1965.247,

1965.245). 51 Ca. 337-340, Eastern Roman empire; Evans et al. 2001,

21; Little 2006, 128-29, no. 53 (New York, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, inv. no. 1967 [67.07]).

52 Late fourth/early fifth century, Eastern Roman empire; Evansetal. 2001,18-19;Little 2006,131-33, no. 55 (NewYork, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Cloisters Collection,

inv.no. 1966 [66.25]). 53 The ivory leaf (diptych leaf of the Symmachi) was to be

shown at the Norton Museum in West Palm Beach, Florida, at the time of the Kimbell exhibition (see Weitzmann 1979,

187-88, no. 166 [London, Victoria and Albert Museum, inv.

no. 212-1865]). 54 Diptych leaf with apotheosis of a deceased emperor, sec

ond quarter of the fifth century, Rome; Weitzmann 1979, 70

1, no. 60 (London, British Museum, inv. no. 57.10-13.1). 55

Spier 2007, 24, 36-7; supra n. 18. 56 The Antioch chalice, first half of the sixth century, Syria.

Silver cup in a silver-gilt shell, possibly a standing lamp rath

er than a chalice; Weitzmann 1979, 606-8, no. 542; Evans et

al. 2001, 21 (New York, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the

Cloisters Collection, inv. no. 50.54). 57 The Riha paten, 565-578, Constantinople (?); Weitzmann

1979, 611-12, no. 547 (Washington, D.C., the Dumbarton

Oaks Collection, inv. no. 24.5). 58 Twenty-two works seen in The Age of Spirituality and five in

the Aurea Roma exhibition were included in Picturing the Bible.




Little, CT., ed. 1993. The Art of Medieval Spain, 500-1200.

New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art and Harry N. Abrams.

-, ed. 2006. Set In Stone: The Face in Medieval Sculpture. New York and New Haven: The Metropolitan Museum of

Art and Yale University Press.

Ward, R., and P.J. Fiddler. 1993. The Nelson-Atkins Museum

of Art: A Handbook of the Collection. New York: Hudson

Hills Press.

Weitzmann, K., ed. 1979. Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and

Early Christian Art, Third to Seventh Century. New York and

Princeton: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, in associa

tion with Princeton University Press.



stokstad, understanding and enjoying the earliest christian art

Documents

kimbell art museum

earliest christian art

metropolitan museum

jstor terms

fort worth

jstor archive

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marilyn stokstad review