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RICE IN NORTH EAST INDIA

Status Paper on Rice in North East India

Dr. S. V. Ngachan1 Dr. A. K. Mohanty

2 & Dr. A. Pattanayak

3

1 Director, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam-793193, Meghalaya

2 Programme Coordinator, KVK, ICAR Sikkim Centre, Ranipool, Sikkim

3 Principal Scientist & Head, Division of Plant Breeding & Genetics, ICAR Research Complex, Umiam, Meghalaya

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Introduction

Household food and nutritional security of North-eastern states of India predominantly

depends on rice. Rice is the principal food grain crop of the North Eastern hilly ecosystem

followed by maize, occupying 3.51 million hectares which accounts for more than 80% of the

total cultivated area of the region and 7.8 per cent of the total rice area in India while its share in

national rice production is only 5.9 per cent. The total rice production of NE region is estimated

to be around 5.50 million tones with average productivity of 1.57 t/ha, which is much below the

national average of 2.08 t/ha (Pattanayak et al., 2006). During the post-green revolution period

due to introduction of improved varieties, the rice yield in NEH region has been enhanced up to

40% that plays a pivotal role in increasing the productivity (Borthakur, 1993, Dhillon et al., 2001).

Rice cultivation in the NEH region of India is exposed to different biotic and abiotic stresses that

include extreme temperatures at the time of flowering and grain filling stages thus resulting a

very dismal figure in rice productivity and production of the region which in turn reflects a lower

per capita consumption as well.

The NE region is considered to be one of the hot pockets of rice genetic resources in the

world and a potential rice-growing region with extremely diverse rice growing conditions as

compared to other parts of the country. Being the secondary centre of origin of rice, the NE

region is rich in diverse germplasm that shows the distinctness amongst the germplasm which

have been collected so far. Selection made unknowingly by various ethnic groups inhabiting at

different altitudes and climatic situations, practising different forms of cultivation might have

also contributed to some extent towards the diversity of rice crop in this region (Sarma et al.,

1988). However, Richaria and Govindaswami (1990) were of the opinion that although the

surrounding hi11 regions recognized as center of origin of rice, the genetic base of rice may have

diminished since the introduction of modern high yielding rice varieties. It is worth to mention

that the primitive rice cultivars including the wild species are the rich source of rice genetic

material to be used by modern plant breeders which contributed to the development of present

day high yielding varieties. The tribal inhabited belt is more often the centre of domestication

and genetic diversity of rice crops very often assumes importance due to some unique genetic

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rice materials being maintained by peasants and subsistence farmers which differ in numerous

characters such as plant height, duration, photo-sensitivity, grain size and shape, grain aroma,

cooking quality, tolerance to various biotic and abiotic stress situations, etc.

It is roughly estimated that during the past more than 30,000 rice cultivars were grown in

the eastern and north eastern parts of India. The north eastern region is also home to a large

number of aromatic and quality rice varieties. In fact, the whole region is considered as a

veritable treasure trove of rice germplasm with wide genetic resource of rice.

However, the NE region is lagging much behind the other advanced states as far as the

production and productivity of rice are concerned. In post green revolution period after 1960s,

consolidated research efforts have been taken up in the field of crop improvement and crop

production in rice, but the growth in production and productivity is still at minimal state.

Rice in NEH region is grown in varied ecosystems that spans over the high altitudes of

Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh; flood prone areas of the Brahmaputra and Barak valley of Assam

and also upland, steep terraces, rainfed, irrigated and deep-water, Jhum and tilla land ecologies

of the other states of the region. The increase in rice production and productivity over the past

30 years is marginal and much below the national average; most part of which are attributed to

expansion of rice area mainly in the summer season in 90’s. Rice self-sufficiency is only about 80

per cent in north-eastern India. States like Assam, Manipur and Tripura can easily produce

surplus rice. Others can improve their production potential and productivity with suitable

interventions.

Zonal information

The north-eastern hill region presents

most diverse condition for rice growing in

terms of slopes, altitudes, agro-climatic

conditions, soil types etc. The widely diverse

agro-climatic conditions along with other

physiographic conditions have led to immense

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variability among rice cultivars in the NE region.

a. Physiography of the region

The region is characterized by diverse agro climatic and geophysical features which make

the region unique in many ways (Sarkar, 1994). Physiographically the entire NE India is divided

into four well differentiated units: i) the eastern Himalayan region, ii) the eastern mountain

region, iii) the Meghalaya- Mikir tableland and iv) the Brahmaputra valley. The eastern

Himalayan zone receives heavy rainfall and hence is clothed with thick vegetation with physical

landscape of rocky surface, alpine vegetation and snow capped high peaks. The Eastern

mountainous zone are relatively low, ranging from 1000 m towards the Brahmaputra valley to

5000 m towards China. The altitudinal pattern of the NE hills varies widely. The average

elevation of Patkai range in Nagaland is 600-1410m whereas Tripura ranges from 400 - 700 m.

The narrow and deep valleys and the hills in Mizoram are deficient in water. The Meghalaya-

Karbiolong plateau covering an area of 32821 km is under the regime of heavy rainfall, feeding

the streams perennially. The plains physiographic divisions comprise the Brahmaputra valley,

the Barak valley and the terai region of North Bengal. Of the total geographical area of Eastern

Himalayan region, 35% lie in the elevation range of below 150 m, 26% between 150 - 1200 m

and 18% between 600-1200 m. The NE region is also divided into three distinct macro-

physiographic divisions, viz. (i) Lofty Himalayan Mountain, (ii) Subdued Peninsular Block and (iii)

Great Brahmaputra Alluvial Plains. These divisions have further been subdivided into eight units:

i) mountains, ii) piedmont slopes, iii) longitudinal valleys, iv) flood plains, v) river terraces, vi)

slip-off-slopes, vii) leaves and viii) filled river courses (Sarkar, 1994).

b. Climate

The Eastern Himalayan zone is broadly divided into three climatic regions (Table 1).

Table 1. Climatic regions of Eastern Himalayan zone

Climatic features Sub-regional components

Humid mesothermal warm

temperature with dry winter

Gangetic type

Brahmaputra valley, Barak valley, Terai region of

North Bengal, Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland,

Mizoram, Tripura and Assam Hills (sub-regions ii, iii, IV

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and V)

Cold snow forest climate with warm

season

North eastern ArunachaI Pradesh, lower hills of

Sikkim and Darjeeling district

Cold snow forest climate with mild

warm season

Northern parts of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim

The altitudinal differences coupled with varied physiography contributes to great climatic

variations in NE India. Therefore, the climate of NE region varies from near tropical in the plains

of Assam Tripura and south Mizoram to near alpine in the northern Sikkim and Arunachal

Pradesh. The greater part of the region has, however, subtropical climate. The annual

precipitation received in the region comes largely from south-west monsoon, which sets around

middle of May and continues till the end of October. Over the past few decades of rainfall

pattern data, the average annual minimum and maximum rainfall in the region is estimated to

be 1637 mm and 6317 mm respectively.

The climate of Arunachal Pradesh is characterized by low temperature and extreme

humidity due to the presence of extensive forests and high altitude. The year can be divided into

rainy season from March to November and the cold season from November to early March, thus

resulting there is no hot season in the state. During winter, heavy fog hangs over the hills, rivers

and valleys. Climatically, the state can be divided into three zones: (a) the foot hills and first

range of hills falling in the monsoon belt, which are sub-tropical, (b) above first rang and up to

the foot of the snowline falling in the temperate zone, where climate is temperate and alpine

and (c) above snowline. The normal average maximum and minimum temperature are 28° C and

20° C respectively and relative humidity is 79.7%. The annual average rainfall varies from 750

mm to 6,250 mm.

The climate of Assam is humid subtropical nature with warm humid summer and cool

dry winter. While the eastern and southern Assam has more moisture availability, that in the

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western and central Assam is comparatively less. Although the rainfall in Assam is high but its

distribution over time and space is not uniform. The period from December to February is

virtually dry having only 65.9 mm rainfall. Among the districts, Karbianglong receives the lowest

rainfall (1152 mm) while Cachar and Lakhimpur the highest (3000 mm). The mean annual

maximum temperature varies between 23.6° C and 31.7° of C and minimum temperature varies

from 10° C - 25.2°C. The average solar radiation indicates that the radiation interception is only

36 - 38% of the sunshine hours during June to August owing to continuously overcast sky. Flood

is a regular feature affecting rice production in Assam. On an average 0.5 million ha of rice lands

are annually damaged by flood.

The climate of the hilly region of Manipur abutting Nagaland north is same as the

climate of Nagaland. The valley of Manipur constituting of about 960 km2

shows mosaics of

colour pulsating in the forests to indicate seasons. While the temperature seldom dips lower

than 5° C in winter, it rarely goes above 27° C on an average excepting hot summer days. The

state blends well with other sister states in respect of rainfall. Average rainfall is around 2375

mm and the major precipitation occurs from July to September but monsoon starts during May

and extends up to October.

The climate of Meghalaya is characterized by coolness and humidity, which is the

natural result of the great water surface and extensive forests over which evaporation and

condensation proceed and at the close proximity of the hill range excessive precipitation takes

place. From the beginning of November till the end of February, the climate remains cool and

the temperature seldom exceeds 27° C.

In Mizoram, the average maximum and minimum temperature are 30°C and 12°C

respectively with an average rainfall of 1660 mm.

The climate of Nagaland is similar to those of other hilly states of the region. The major

precipitation occurs between July- September but rainy season commences from May onwards.

Winters are coldest with an average minimum temperature ranging from 1o C to 13° C in the

entire state.

In Sikkim, the extreme variations in elevations account for extremely varied climatic

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conditions. In accordance with normal lapse, rates of temperature, the low valley bottoms with

altitude less than 600m above msl have moist tropical or humid tropical climate. The climate in

areas with 2000 m elevation, becomes cool. From this altitude onwards, low temperature

prevails till the height reaches 6000 m asl. Higher up in elevation, coolness increases

progressively till snowline is reached. The climatic conditions in this zone (above 3600 m)

changes from arctic to polar.

Tripura enjoys more or less an equitable climate. As the hilly areas are not very high,

there is little variation in climate in various parts of the state. The average maximum

temperature, minimum temperature, rainfall and humidity of Tripura from the past few years

observations was calculated to be around 34° C, 10° C, 2700 mm and 81.5% respectively.

c. Soil type/Nutrient management

As per USDA taxonomic system of classification (1973), the soils of NEH region have

been classified into 5 orders of Inceptisols, Entisols, Alfisols, Utisols and Mollisols (Samra and

Patiram, 2001). Preliminary soil survey conducted in a representative manner has indicated

presence of at least 278 soil series, which are classified, defined and mapped in systematically

by the NBSS & LUP. Soils of NEH region of India have developed in situ on many types of rocks.

The rock formations commonly found are: sandstone shale, sultone, conglomerate and

limestone. These are mostly soft rock and easily weatherable and crodable. In some places of

Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh granite, phylites, geneiss and quartizities have also been

found. The soils occurring in the region are generally classified into orders - entisols, inceptisols

and alfisols. Occurrence of ultisols has been reported in Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya from

various studies. The heterogeneity in the soil characteristics of the region is attributable to the

interacting effects of various soil forming factors.

In the hilly region, soils have developed largely on shale and to a lesser extent on slate

and sandstone of different colours. High rainfall with optimum temperature favours thick

vegetative growth, which in turn adds humus and creates favourable conditions for very deep

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weathering of rocks. Depth of soils on steep slopes in the upper part of the hills varies from

shallow to very shallow and at places moderately deep and rock exposed and, since geological

erosion precedes soil formation, soils are stable under vegetative cover. The disturbance of the

ecological balance caused widespread washing down of soil from upper reaches to foothills and

valleys. The soils are rich in organic matter and fertile. These are mostly under thick forest and

where jhum cultivation is practiced the soils loose the organic matter and suffer from erosion

hazards. Due to considerable amount of loss of bases from the soil under the influence of high

rainfall the soils become acidic The soils in the valley are mainly composed of sandy, silty, clayee

and gravel developed due to the washing down on alluvial materials from the surrounding hills.

These soils are rich in organic matter and acidic in reaction. The depth of the soils is deep to very

deep and the soils are fertile.

Stable agriculture on permanent land tenure system is practiced in this zone. In this

zone drainage is the main problem in the low lying areas and basin lands. As regards nutrient

status, the organic carbon (QC) content is rated high in most of the soils of the region except the

soils of Tripura where soils are medium in QC. The entire soil of Meghalaya are deficient in

available P. Practically all the soils of Tripura Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh and over 50% soils

of Nagaland, Sikkim and 40% soils of Mizoram are deficient in available P. The soils of South and

North districts of Tripura, Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh and 50% of soils of Tuen sung

and Kohima districts of Nagaland are rated low in available K. All the soils of Manipur,

Meghalaya, major portions of Mizoram, West district of Tripura and Kameng and Siang districts

of Arunachal Pradesh are high in available K. The soil reaction varies from acidic (pH 5.0-6.0) to

strongly acidic (pH 4.5-5.0) in the entire hilly region. The soils of Mizoram and Nagaland vary

widely infertility. In Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya, the variation is comparatively moderate

whereas the variation is low in Manipur, Tripura and Sikkim. Acid soils of the region are rich in

active Al, which diminishes plant tolerance to drought stress through impairment of root

system. Iron toxicity in rice grown in some acid soils has been reported both from hill and valley

soils in this region.

The major portions of the soils of Assam belong to Inceptisols (49.3%) followed by

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Entisols (32.3%), Alfisols (12.3%) and Ultisols (6.1 %). The texture of Assam soils varies

considerably depending on the agro climatic conditions and physiographic units. The most

typical characteristics of Assam soil are its acidity. The major parts of the soils of Assam are

acidic in nature having pH ranges 4.2 to 5.8.The soil of flood plains have slightly high pH (6.0-

6.5). The soils of hill zone have higher pH ranging from 6.0 to 7.1. The organic matter content of

Assam soils is medium to high. The available N content has been rated low to medium in three

zones whereas it is medium in the hill zone. The available PP5 content ranged from low to

medium in three zones of the Brahmaputra valley zone, medium to high in the Barak valley zone

and low in the hill zone. The available K20 content in the soils varies from low to medium in

different zones. High variability in fertility status is observed between upper and lower

Brahmaputra valley. Wide spectrum of fertility status of the region, in turn, results in vegetative

growth potentials in general and cropping pattern in agriculture pattern in particular, attributing

to inherent diversity traits of the region.

d. Rainfall and its distribution pattern

The average annual rainfall of the region ranges from 2000-4000 mm and goes as high as

11000 mm in Cherrapunjee areas. The production and productivity of the region are low as

compared to other regions. Rice is grown in hilly upland areas in the hilly states, which are not

much suitable for rice cultivation and the productivity of upland rice is much lower than that of

plains. Consequently the average productivity of the region is much below the national average.

e. Agro-climatic Zones

All the botanical zones from tropical to alpine are found in the NE region of India due to

its geographical situation, climate and altitude. The entire north-eastern hill region comprising

the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and

Tripura falls under the agro-climatic sub-Himalayan Zone 2 (Anon, 1999). On the basis of

topography, agro- meteorological parameters, soil type, crop grown etc., the region is divided

into six agro-climatic zones (Table 2) and similarly based on rainfall, terrain, soil type and crops

grown, the state of Assam is divided into six agro-climatic zones (Table 3).

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Table 2. Agro-climatic zones of NE hill region

Zone

Altitude

range

(m msl)

Areas covered Crops grown

1. Alpine 3500 Parts of Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh Kharif Rice, Maize,

ginger, vegetables

2.Temperate

sub-alpine

1500-

3000

Tuensang, Zuneheboto and Mokakchung

districts of Nagaland, Western Arunachal,

Khasi hills ofMeghalaya, northeast Manipur,

parts of Sikkim and east and south of

Mizoram

Rice, small millers,

potato, 3 maize,

soybean vegetable

3.Sub-tropical

hill

1000-

1500

Tirap of Arunachal, Jaintia and Garo hills of

Meghalaya, parts of Sikkim, northeast

Mizoram, Wokha of Nagaland

Rice, maize, wheat,

mustard, soybean,

pea, ginger,

turmeric

4.Sub-tropical

plain

400-

1000

Imphal (Manipur), Some parts of East and

South Sikkim, Bagti and Longnak (Nagaland)

and Buchanchai (Mizoram)

Irrigated rice and

other crops

5.Mild

tropical hill

200-

800

South Jaintia and North Khasi hills

(Meghalaya), west Manipur, lower south

Sikkim, Dimapur and Ghaspani (Nagaland)

Jampu (Tripura), north west Mizoram

Upland rice, maize,

pulses, cotton,

wheat

6.Mild

tropical plain 0-200

Lohit, Pasighat, Singpho (Arunachal), west

Garo hills (Meghalaya), major parts of

Tripura, Dimapur (Nagaland)

Irrigated and

rainfed rice,

oilseeds, sugarcane,

jute, potato

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Table 3. Agro-climatic zones of Assam

Zone Area (km2

) Districts Crops grown

North bank plains 14,424 (18.37%) Dhemaji, North Lakhimpur,

Sonitpur and Darrang

Rice, toria, jute,

vegetables

Upper

Brahmaputra

valley

5,561 (7.08%) Golaghat, Jorhat, Sibsagar,

Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Rice, toria, sugarcane

Central

Brahmaputra

valley

5,561 (7.08%) Nagaon and Morigaon Rice, toria, pulses,

vegetables

Lower

Brahmaputra

valley

20,222 (25.75%)

Dhubri, Bongaigaon, Kokrajhar,

Goalpara, Barpeta, Nalbari,

Kamrup

Rice, jute, vegetables,

oil seeds

Barak valley 6,962 (8.9%) Karimganj, Cachar and

Hailakandi Rice, sugarcane

Hills 15,222 (19.4%) Karbi Anglong and North Cachar Rice, maize,

plantation crops

f. Rice and cultural heritage in the state

Krishna (2004) in her paper on 'The Gendered Price of Rice in North Eastern India'

mentioned a Nagajoke to show the rice heritage of North East. The joke is about three men who

spoke different languages. They happened to meet at a crossroad and sat down to eat their

lunch. Each mentioned what he had brought and each said something different. But when they

opened their bags they found that all had rice and chilies. This joke succinctly conveys the

existence of an extraordinary socio-cultural diversity and rice together with a broad brand of

shared element in the North Eastern region as a whole.

Before discovery of farming, life in the forest was animal-like conditions as depicted in the

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folktales of the North East. Haldipur (1985) describes a Mishimi tale from Arunachal Pradesh

regarding the origin of paddy cultivation. At first there was no rice on earth and people lived on

forest roots and leaves. The God of mountain - Gallan, cared especially for birds, gave the

sparrow a grain of rice and taught it how to cultivate. Observing this the men assembled

together and decided to send a messenger to mountain God Gallan for requesting him to give

them rice also. The sparrow overheard this and knowing it was difficult for bird too small to

cultivate rice, offered to teach men provided they let it take rice from their fields. Then men

agreed. The sparrow took them to the top of a hill and told them to clear the jungle. Gallan sent

rain and the seed was sown. Ever since, sparrows feed on young crops in the rice fields. In an Adi

story about the coming of snow, a handful of grain. overflows the bamboo cooking vessel, fills

the house and covers the forests and hills, before it turns into snow (Elwin, 1970). In

khezankenoma village in the Phek district of Nagaland, a particular slab of stone is believed to

have had the power to multiply paddy spread over it for drying (Krishna, 2004).

The North Eastern region or Eastern Himalaya ranges of India fun parallel in an east-west

direction from Sikkim through Bhutan and southern China through western Arunachal pradesh.

The region abounds with enormous vegetational diversity with the ingress of Tibetan and

Malayan elements. This complex mountainous and riverine topography tested the ingenuity and

livelihood skills of settlers - men and women and also opened up communications between

people of different groups followed the river routes to and from the plains, to barter and trade

goods like salt, cotton and rice.

The cultural and ecological diversity of the North Eastern region is apparent in the

heterogeneity of rice farming systems. Paddy occupies the primary position in a composite and

varied mix of crops (other cereals, vegetables, fruits, pulses, oilseed crops, sugarcane), animal

food sources (pig, poultry, fish) and other non-food crops (cotton, spices, tobacco, bamboos and

canes). Land that is not cultivated (forests and seasonal fallows) and water courses are integral

part of the system. Rice is the major cereal (apart from maize in Sikkim). The centrality of rice is

reflected in various ceremonies. The Wanchos of Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh believe that

rituals to protect paddy in the granary will also protect other grains (Srivastava, 1973). The

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significance of rice is not only because of its place in the daily diet but also because of the

importance of rice stores (bhoral ghor in Assam) in ascribing personal status (male status

mainly). The stored rice must be grown in one's own field and not bought in the market. The

importance of rice stores is also evident in various feasts and at the same time for various

nutritional rice-based preparations and brew, called apong, zu in Arunachal Pradesh, sa},

laopani, haria in Assam, kakiad in Meghalaya, madhu in Nagaland etc. consumed in hill areas

and also in the plains of Assam.

Indigenous varieties or landraces of rice are cultivated especially in hill states in jhum lands

(slash or burn fields), pani kheti (wet rice cultivation) and dry rainfed terraced cultivation. Wet

rice (irrigated by gravity channels from the perennial hill streams) is grown on the flatter lands in

the valleys. In the hills tilling is entirely done by hand. In fact, no mechanical tools have been

used in hills. Arunachal Pradesh, however, Sherdukpen and Khampti use the plough on level

land. Recently shallow tube wells have been introduced in the Assam plains, which is otherwise

entirely dependent on the monsoon rain. Tractors and power tillers are also being used in

recent years in some parts of the region. Jhum has been consistently discouraged but in

hillsjhum is still a way of life (Table 4). 2,679,000 ha land are still under jhum cultivation in 48

districts where 6, 07,536 families are involved in jhum (Mahapatra, 1983; Anon. 1997).

Table 4. Area, families and tribes involved in jhum (shifting or slash- and-burn) cultivation

State Area

('000 ha)

District

(No.)

No. of tribal

families

involved

Number of Ethnic groups

Arunachal

Pradesh 381 10 54,000

Aka. Bangro, Dafla. adi, Miniyong.

Padam, Miri, Mishimi

Assam 467 2 58,000 Karbi, Hmar, Miri, Dafla

Manipur 360 5 70,000 Kuki, Tangkhul, Hmar; Mao.

Marang, Kabui, Kacha Naga

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MeghaIaya 730 5 52,290 Khasi, Garo, Jaintia

Mizoram 45 3 50,000 Mizo, Kuki, Hmar; Lakher

Nagaland 474 7 1,16,046 Sema, Ao. lotha, Konyak.Rengma

Tangkhul

Tripura 108 3 43,000 Tripuri,Jamatia,Kuki.Garo,Reang

Total 2565 35 4,43,336 38

Source: Mahapatra, 1983; Anon., 1997

Some tribes of North east associate rice with goddesses. The Assamese Hindus believe

that the goddess Lakhimi brought rice to earth. The Meities of Manipur have a rice goddess

known as Phoinobi (Panchani, 1987). The Adi seek the blessings of the goddess Mopin for a good

harvest. According to the belief. Mopin gave the first ancestor of the Adi seeds for cultivation

and method of sowing (Haldipur, 1985).

Rice cultivation has traditionally been in the women's domain of knowledge in the North

East. The wide array of varieties in North East India reflects the women's knowledge of seeds

and of plant breeding. Khonorna village of Nagaland near Kohima has now been promoted as a

tourist attraction for the 20 varieties of paddy being grown in its terraced fields. Agrawal (1994)

noted that some Garo women have knowledge over 300 indigenous verities of rice. It is reported

that the morphological variability of rice in the North East India is related to a very high genetic

diversity, and the 'gene-diversity-index' for the region is close to that for all Asian rices

(Glazmann, 1986 ). In other words, proportionately small geographical area of NE region of India,

there is enormous diversity of rice as in all of Asia. The rice germplasm collection from this

region, which is more than 10,000 so far, is a testimony of rich genetic diversity of rice in India's

North East.

Women carry the knowledge of different varieties with them, even when they are

displaced from their original villages due either to natural calamities or better financial

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opportunities. People of several villages in the flood-ravaged Dhemaji district of Assam are a

case in point. Another example is Hari-athpur Hajong village. The women know the classes of

rice as they perceived, such as dumahi (two-month 's short duration harvest), ahu (monsoon

harvest), sali (winter harvest), boro (summer harvest) and bao (deep water or floating rice) and

also know both tradlttonal and improved rice varieties. The women also know the quality

aspect of different rice varieties and their utilization. For example, mention may be made of

joha (fine-grained aromatic) for special occasions or for sale), bora (sticky rice, for their own

consumption in various preparation), malbhog, chakoa, etc.

Rice germplasm collection in the form of local landraces and selection of the landraces for

desirable traits represent an extraordinary rich heritage of rice germplasm in the region. This

diversity has evolved under different farming practices at varied altitudes and ecological

situations. The food gathering Idu of Mat hum and Dri valley in eastern Arunachal Pradesh

collect leafy greens, edible mushroom, berries, fruits and nuts from the forests, and supplement

these withjhum cultivation, growing two early maturing varieties of rice, Apu and Entro (ng) and

six late-maturing varieties Keochi, Ketara, Kejari, Kebora, Kememora and Kembomar

(Bhattacharjee, 1983). Many local varieties are selected for specific locations, soil conditions,

maturity duration and for other special characteristics. The glutinous rices grown by the

Khamptis locally known as Khampti rice at low altitudes of Lohit and Tirap are well known for

their softness. The rice-based Apatani farming system at a height of over 1500 m in lower

Subansiri district is world famous because of its uniqueness under irrigated wet rice eco system

and fish cultivation. Similarly, the Zabo farming system of Nagaland and high altitude Monpa

farming system are examples of efficient traditional time tested management of biophysical

resources. The women plant different varieties for different reasons. For example, Pyapi with a

black husk, Allang amo, which retains its red colour even after it is cooked, Aino ari, which can

be harvested quickly, Amo hasso and Rarre amo which are suited for different kind of soil.

According to women, that both in the hills and plains different growing seaons allow for a

staggered harvest, which is done by hand either by the women and men together or by women

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alone. Only the panicle, the grain bearing inflorescence is cut. The selection of panicle facilitates

the farmwomen to do manual harvesting more comfortably and effectively and to avoid a long

range of discontinuous variation for maturity over the entire crop maturity span in the valley

(Sharma, 2002). The widely adopted HYV s of rice are not preferred by the farmers due to their

short stature, and thus unsuitable for existing manual practice of panicle harvesting.

The combination of particular crops varies from family to family, tribe to tribe depending

upon farming systems, ecological conditions and livelihood activities of the farmers in both hills

and plains of the region. This mosaic adds up to an overall diversity that reflects a collective

wisdom that has evolved over several decades (Krishna, 2004). Throughout the region generally

the women select the seeds for sowing although the methods of selecting seeds may vary from

place to place and tribe to tribe. Years of observation and practice have given the women an

intuitive understanding of rice seeds and the ability to select viable pure strains. Some women

take utmost care to select only those sheaves that do not have different strains mixed. Some

examine the seeds minutely for size, shape and colour. Selected seeds for sowing next year are

stored in bamboo basket called locally tom in Assam, hushak in West Siang of Arunachal Pradesh

etc. Mizo women use wood ash to preserve paddy seeds in bamboo baskets and also in tin

drums, now –a- days (Krishna, 1998).

Krishna (2004) reports the gender roles in farming of West tripura, central Mizoram,

Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Assam and Manipur. In Tripura, husking of rice and brewing rice

beer are women's work only; jhum cutting, setting fire to jhum, fire protection are men's work

only and both women and/or men do sowing of seeds, weeding, watching over jhum,

harvesting, threshing paddy, transporting jhum products to market and sellingjhum products

(Ganguly, 1993). In Aizwal district of Mizoramjhum weeding and seed storage have to be taken

care of by women only, protectingjhum and marketing by men only and clearing forest, burning,

sowing and harvesting by women and/or men (Krishna, 1998). Amongst Nishis of Arunachal

Pradesh women's responsibilities are clearing undergrowth, sowing, weeding, harvesting,

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storing grains in baskets or granaries, preparing old plots for next season and the men will have

to do slashing and burning the forest cover, removing unburnt logs, building and fencing the

fields, searching for new plots (Mishra, 1991). The Japhuphiki (southern Angamis) of Nagaland

the role to be played by women only include work in the field, carry agricultural implements to

the fields, clear paths, sowing and weeding; by men only - demarcate plots, cutting and burning

for jhum, till soil and by both women and men is harvesting (D'souza, 2001; Mehrotta, 1992).

The farm works fixed for women and men of Tangkhul Naga of Manipur are: for women only -

tending saplings, transplanting, weeding, harvesting, husking and pounding, storage of crops

and for men only clearing forest for cultivation, ploughing, building dykes, preparing land. The

Tangkhul Naga women weekly spend 6 hours and 8.19 hours time in drying paddy seeds and

dehusking and pounding of paddy respectively against 5 hours and 0.3 hour by men (Shimary,

2004). In Tirap, Wancho girls aged three or four carry seeds, farming implements etc.

(Srivastava, 1993; 1989).

In the Brahmaputra valley in Assam considerable gender specificity has been observed in

farming tasks. The specific roles of women and men in cultivation in Assam (Jorhat district) are

assigned as for women are: irrigation, fertilizer application, sowing seeds, transplanting,

weeding, harvesting and post harvest operations while men in addition to attending these

operations, they will have to do land preparation, ploughing and spraying of pesticides. While

the women perform 80% of transplanting and harvesting, they do not participate at all in

spraying pesticides and land preparation. For the other works, women's contribution is 10-30%

of total labour. This specificity cuts across all farm sizes and has not changed (Saikia, 2004). But

less visible gender-specificity in farming tasks assigned to either men or women is also observed

among some groups.

Since the agriculture of Assam is overwhelmingly dominated by the single grain crop rice,

and since the ancient times all social and economic activities associated with rice farming found

reflection invarious aspects of Assamese culture, the culture is, therefore, sometimes called

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dhanya sanskriti meaning rice culture (Bhagabati, 1990). The most important means of

livelihood of majority of the people belonging to divergent social groups is rice farming. This

common interest of rice farming has kept the different groups of the people in constant

interaction and cooperation. The women who are the real performers of the cultural activities

associated with rice farming also mould the unity among various tribes through sharing of

common ecological setting and cultural practices (Dutta, 2004). By and large, women bear a

greater quantum of work than do men in the North East India and are of late undertake tasks

that were traditionally in the men's domain. Therefore, the rich diversity of rice in NE India has

been nurtured by women's knowledge and skills.

Rice production scenario

a. Area, production and productivity of rice

The rice production scenario of NE region shows an increasing trend starting from

35.26 lakh MT during 1980-81, 45.28 lakh MT during 1990-91, 56.93 lakh MT during 2000-01

and 67.18 lakh MT during 2008-09 with an area coverage of 30.64 lakhha, 33.26 lakh ha and

35.71 lakh ha and 35.00 lakh ha, respectively against 536.31 lakh MT (401.52 lakh ha), 745.89

lakh MT (425.96 lakh ha), 855.00 lakh MT (449.72 lakh ha) and 964.31 lakh MT (455.37lakh ha)

respectively of the country as a whole (Anon., 2002). The percentage of share of NE India in

total rice production of the country was at very alarming figure of 6.96 % (2008-09) and

productivity was 1919 kg/ha against the country figure of 2178 kg/ha (Table 4).

Table 4. Area (A), Production (P) and Productivity (Y) of rice in NE India

State 1980-81

1990-91 2000-01 2007-08 / 2008-

09

Area

Prod

n. Yield Area

Prod

n. Yield Area

Prod

n. Yield Area

Prod

n. Yield

(Iakh

ha)

(Iakh

MT)

(kg/

ha)

(Iakh

ha)

(Iakh

MT)

(kg/

ha)

(Iakh

ha)

(Iakh

MT)

(kg/

ha)

(Iakh

ha)

(Iakh

MT)

(kg/

ha)

Arunach 0.83 0.88 1058 1.22 1.42 1170 1.19 1.26 1059 1.26 2.19 129

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al 3

Assam 22.75 25.2

2 1109

24.9

0

32.7

0 1313

26.7

5 39.99 1495

24.8

4

41.74 161

4

Manipur 1.88 2.73 1448 10.5

7 2.74 1742 1.95 4.52 2320

1.68 5.79 235

7

MeghaIa

ya 0.99 1.33 1338 1.04 1.20 1155 1.08 1.91 1772

1.08 3.10 188

6

Mizora

m 0.29 0.28 976 0.51 0.64 1244 0.57 1.09 1913

0.52 0.79 885

Nagalan

d 1.02 0.91 898 1.27 1.56 1227 1.46 2.00 1411

1.73 3.95 199

4

Sikkim 0.16 0.17 1037 0.15 0.22 1440 1.47 0.32 147

6

Tripura 2.88 3.90 1356 2.74 5.01 1830 2.56 5.88 2297 2.42 9.30 258

6

NE total 30.64 35.2

6 1150

33.2

6

45.2

8 1316

35.7

1 56.93 1594

35.0

0

67.18 191

9

All India 401.5

2

536.

31 1336

425.

96

745.

89 1751

449.

72

855.0

0 1901

455.

37

964.3

1

217

8

NE% 7.63 6.57 -

186* 7.81 6.07

-

390* 7.94 6.66

-

150*

7.68 6.96 -

192

*

(Source : Min. of Cons. Affairs & PDS & Min. Of Agril/ Rajya Sabha Unstarred questions)

Table : 5 Percent decrease/increase of production of rice over the last decade

State Percent decrease/increase of production in

1990-91 over 1980-81 2000-01 over 1990-91 2008-09 over 2000-01

Arunachal 61.4 -11.27 73.80

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Assam 29.66 22.29 4.37

Manipur 0.37 64.96 28.09

Meghalaya -9.77 59.17 62.30

Mizoram 128.57 70.31 -27.52

Nagaland 71.43 28.21 97.5

Sikkim 29.41 45.45

Tripura 28.46 17.37 58.16

NE total 28.42 25.73 18.00

All India 39.08 14.63 12.78

*decrease in yield over national average

It is evident from the Table 4, that area under rice, production of rice and productivity

of rice in NE region were in increasing trend from 1980-81 to 2008-09. Area under ride was

maximum in Assam and lowest in Mizoram thus resulting a severe setback in rice production in

Mizoram and gaining a momentum in rice area from 0.15 (2000-01) to 1.47 lakh ha (2008-09) .

The percentage increase of production of rice was recorded as 28.42% in 1990-91 over1980-81,

25.73 % in 2000-01 over 1990-91 and 18.00% in 2008-09 over 2000-01 with an increasing trend

in national rice production from 1980-81 to 2008-09, the increase being 39.08 % in 1990-91 over

1980-81, 14.63% in 2000- 01 over 1990-91 and 12.78 % in 2008-09 over 2000-01. The

productivity of rice was highest in Tripura (2586 kg/ha) followed by Manipur (2357 kg/ha) and

Nagaland (1994 kg/ha) during 2008-09. Assam registered highest production (41.74 lakh MT) in

2008-09 sharing 62.18 % of the total NE rice production (67.18 lakh MT) in 2008-09 . However,

the productivity was much less against the national average of 1336 kg/ha of 1980-8, 1751 kg/ha

of 1990-91, 1901 kg/ha of 2000-01 and 2178 kg/ha of 2008-09. The share of NE India to total

national production of rice was 6.57%, 6.07%, 6.66% and 6.96% in 1980-81, 1990-91, 2000-01

and 2008-09, respectively.

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Rice area (lakh ha), production (lakh MT) & yield (kg/ha) of NER and India

The approach adopted by various researchers earlier was to collect, evaluate and utilize

the germplasm resources available in the region and to try-out a large number of varieties

through varietal trials. Over 500 varietal trials of rice were conducted during 1975 - 80 in different

states of the region. Based on their results, promising varieties were identified for different

seasons and altitudes.

In Manipur, CH-988 a secondary selection from Chinese variety released in Jammu and

Kashmir was introduced in the early sixties for the pre-kharif season. IR24 developed by IRRl,

Manila was introduced in Manipur in the mid-seventies. Both the varieties were, however, not

released officially for the state.

Upper Shillong (l900m msl), where cold tolerance of a high order is required at

flowering and seed formation stages, was selected as site for cold tolerance breeding work.

About 1000 cultures of rice and segregating populations were screened at Upper Shillong.

Khonorullo was found to be the best followed by DuIlo-6, Ryllo Red 2, Ryllo Red 5, IR 3941-23,

Jungruh etc. About 100 crosses with local and improved lines were made at Manipur and

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Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh. From these improvement programmes 'Khonorullo' was

released for cultivation in high altitude areas of Meghalaya. 'Phourel', a tall photosensitive Indica

line selected from local collections was recommended for cultivation in the Manipur valley .

'Ngoba', a local collection from Meghalaya was identified as a new source of dwarfing.

While the screened and developed varieties provided some solutions, the need for

altitude specific varieties was identified for boosting up rice production. The ICAR Research

Complex, Umiam , therefore, concentrated on developing suitable rice varieties separately for

low (up to 800m msl), medium (800 - 1300m msl) and high (l300m msl and above) altitude areas

in an attempt to make available area specific and demand driven high yielding varieties as the

introduction of such varieties from other areas did not provide the desired dividends apparently

due to the problems associated with rice cultivation as indicated earlier.

Growth rates of area, production and yield of rice

The state wise growth rates of area, production and yield of rice in NE India revealed

that during the period 1997-98 to 2007-08, the area under rice in the region increased

marginally while per ha yield increased/decreased significantly. The area expansion as well as

yield increases caused the output to grow at an annual rate of 2.52%. The low productivity

growth rate of NE India was due to lack of technological breakthrough in most of the states of

the region.

Out of the seven states in the NE India, four states showed positive trends and three

states negative trends in growth of area under rice. But except Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland,

the growth rates of area in other states of the region were significantly low (less than 1 %). It

was due to the various restrictions imposed by the respective State Governments to the practice

of jhum cultivation since the late eighties. Rates of growth of production and yield were

observed to be positive in all the states except Meghalaya. Mizoram experienced the highest

growth rate of rice production and the least being Meghalaya.

Contribution of area and average yield to rice production

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The contribution of area in increasing rice production was appreciable in the states of

Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland. Average yield was the sole contributing factor in

increasing rice production in the states of Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura. In Mizoram and

Tripura, the significant yield effect offset the negative area effect. Area and average yield

contributed almost equally in increasing rice production in Assam. The highest contribution of

36% from the interaction component was observed in Nagaland. It is interesting to note that

except Mizoram, the interaction effect was positive in all the NE states. On an average, the

contribution of average yield in increasing rice production in NE India was lower than the all

India level (Table 6).

Table 6. Percentage contribution of area, yield and their interaction

State Area Production Interaction

Arunachal Pradesh 63 21 16

Assam 42 48 10

Manipur 9 80 11

Meghalaya 80 18 2

Mizoram -21 139 -18

Nagaland 43 21 36

Tripura -8 101 7

NE India 28 60 12

All India 16 71 13

In NE India, the maximum variation in rice production was observed in Mizoram (45.47% CV)

and the minimum in Meghalaya. These are the two states, which showed the highest and

lowest growth rates of rice production in the region. The variation in rice area was much smaller

than that in production both at all India and NE India levels. The maximum variation in area was

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observed in Nagaland and minimum in Meghalaya. The yield per hectare was stabilized at a very

low level in all the states except Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura where the CV was as high as

20%, 37% and 22% respectively. It revealed that the states with higher growth rate of yield per

hectare witnessed high instability in rice production as reported by Mehra (1981) and Pal and

Sirohi (1989) in their studies in instability in crop production in India in the context of new

technology.

Rice farming systems of North Eastern region

The rice farming situations in the North Eastern Hills are as follows:

1. Direct seeded, rain fed in upland (on steep slopes),

2. Direct seeded rain fed on level bench terraces,

3. Transplanted on wet terraces; and

4. Transplanted in valley lands.

1. Direct seeded, rainfed in upland (on steep slopes)

The patches of land are cleared in the hills and vegetation is burnt to make plots for rice cultivation on

steep hill slopes. The paddy seeds are directly broad casted on steep hill slopes, which germinate with

moisture availability. The crop is mainly grown as rain fed without any control on water application.

Provisions, however, are made for safe removal of excess water from the fields by providing drainage

channels along the slopes.

2. Direct seeded rainfed on level bench terraces

In some cases the rice is cultivated on dry terraces of different shapes and sizes as rain fed crop. Where

the rice is cultivated as rain fed crop on slopes, there is no careful planning and scientific design of water

conveyance and drainage systems; rather the irrigation is applied from one terrace to the other except a

few well developed system of rice farming in the region. Without favourable growth conditions, poor

inputs and heavy infestation of weeds, insects and pests attack clubbed with inefficient resources

management practices, the rice productivity in the hilly watersheds has been adversely affected resulting

in lower production and productivity.

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3. Transplanted on wet terraces

In the states of Nagaland, Sikkim and Manipur the rice is cultivated on carefully designed wet terraces.

The water coming from the upstream and highlands is tamed and made to stand behind the bunds. The

flow of water is regulated and it is carefully carried from one terrace to the other and finally drained off

in the downstream channels leading to streams or nallas. In this system of rice cultivation, there is no

control on the movement of nutrients with water (Kannan et al., 1999). Zabo farming system of Nagaland

and Apatanis of Arunachal Pradesh are example of a better-managed resource systems but not the well-

managed system. Because in these systems, due to extremely high rainfall resulting into excessively high

runoff with disturbances in the soil.

4. Transplanted in narrow valley lands

The most prevalent method of rice cultivation is the transplanted rice in valley lands in which generally

the moisture regime is much higher and it is possible to grow transplanted rice in these situations.

Besides that the NE region contains many varied FS most of which are semi- subsistence

in nature. They change both within and across the physical environment depending upon the

resources available to the farmers and the needs of the family. Since rice forms the staple diet of

the people of north eastern states, farmers of the region practice a number of Indigenous rice-

based FS from time immemorial. The region is substantially rich in indigenous techniques and

systems developed by the tribal farmers using their ingenuity and skill. Research and

development efforts are, therefore, needed to work out and implement viable alternatives to

the existing traditional FS, which may be environmentally safe, sustainable productive and

acceptable to the farmers (Borthakur et al., 1983). Shifting cultivation is the main traditional FS

of the region. In addition to shifting cuItivation, some other traditional FS exist in the region.

Important among them are rice-based farming system of Apatanis of Arunachal Pradesh, Zabo

FS of Nagaland, Panikheti in Nagaland, Dhan kheti in Sikkim and high altitude Monpa FS in

Kameng Himalaya.

Shifting cultivation

Shifting cultivation, locally known as jhumming, also known as slash and burn agriculture

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is the dominant land use system in humid tropics with high rainfall and steep slopes where

forest vegetation regenerates very fast. The origin of shifting cultivation could be traced back to

the Neolithic period between 13,000 -3,000 BC on the basis of archeological data, marking a

revolutionary change in human societies from food gathering to food production. This system of

cultivation is regarded as a distinct stage in the evolution of agriculture and modern land

husbandry practices-a transitional stage between nomadic hunting and gathering and sedentary

agriculture. The practice of shifting cultivation has been evolved throughthe struggle of small

human societies to supplement their hunting and food gathering in the forests by the then

newly discovered techniques of raising food crops by planting.

Shifting cultivation, is the cheif means of livelihood of tribal people in the hilly areas of

northeastern India (Satapathy and Sarma, 2002). Jhum, as practiced in the region, is a highly

complex FS with wide variation based on cropping and yieldpotential. These variants based on

ecological and cultural variations in the tribal societies are highly insulated because of

topographical barriers. However, the cycle or agricultural operanons in all these areas is

noticeably similar marked by the following successive stages:

• Selecting forested (usually secondary growth) hilly lands before December by entire village

on the basis of rotation of fields;

• Cleaning the forest tract by cutting down the jungle with dao (sickle) and axe during

December-January and leaving chopped leaves and twigs to dry till February;

• Burning the dried debris around February to mid-March before the onset of monsoon;

• Sowing seeds of various crops in a mixture using dibble sticks or sharp knives or by

broadcasting;

• Weeding, watching and protecting crops;

• Harvesting, threshing and storage;

• Abandoning the land after cultivation for a period of2 years;

• Shifting to another site;

• Return to the same site to repeat the process after 3-6 years.

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Besides the above stages of operation, the tribal people observe some religious

ceremonies with the operations; particular mention may be made of the worship and sacrifice

of pigs and chickens before sowing seeds and also of festivals celebrated after completion of

harvest. This has made shifting cultivation a way of life for the tribals of India's northeast. The

most remarkable feature of shifting cultivation is that all essential crops such as rice (Oryza

saliva), maize (Zea mays), cassava (Manihot esculenta), aroids (Colocasia sps.) sweet potato

(Ipomea batatas), ginger (Zingiber officinale), finger millet (Eleusine coracana), Cotton

(Gossypium sps.), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), cucurbits etc. grown in the same field as mixed

land use system resembling latest cafeteria system of cultivation. The ash corrects the sol acidity

in the high slopes of high rainfall zones and the admixture of ash with the soil makes it more

fertile. The large number of crop species (sometimes up to 40) over both space and time are

effectively managed due to the sequential harvesting during the year. The harvesting of grains

from jhum field is almost continuous beginning from about August to January or even February.

Weeding is the most strenuous and labour consuming part of shifting cultivation; at least four

weedings are necessary. The farmers erect watch houses either on raised platform or on tree

branches in their respective fields for watching and protecting the crops. The field is used for a

year for mixed cropping and subsequently it is either abandoned or cultivated with one or two

selected crops; occasionally some residual crops are collected from abandoned fields. Owing to

nutrient leaching, soil erosion and loss offertility after one or two years, the cultivated area is

abandoned (without necessarily changing hutment); a new place of land is then selected to

repeat the process of leaving the old one under forest fallow for years to recuperate.

The periodicity after which cultivation is again taken up in the jhum land is calledjhum

cycle. The jhum cycle now ranges from 5-10 years or even less (3-6 years). The land area remains

under effective control of village communities or clans; the system does not recognize private

ownership though the mode of land allotment varies from tribe to tribe. The average size of

jhum plot varies from 1-2 ha and the average family consists of 2 adults and 3-4 children.

According to an estimate, the area under shifting cultivation in northeastern states is about 2.6

million ha.

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Under the pure jhum economy nobody offers labour for hire and they sell or purchase

very little. Utilization of simple tools such as a chopper (dao, dibbling stick small hand hoe etc.),

absence oftilling or use of animal power, active participation of women, non-existence of

irrigation, little initial investments and minimum number of items are some other distinguishing

features of this primitive FS. According to a survey by the ICAR, the percentage of involvement

of men and women in Jhum is 45:55. Shifting cultivation supplemented by harvest of flora and

fauna from surrounding forests with several subsidiary occupations as its adjuncts forms its

complete economic system and a way of life around which the whole social, political and

cultural life of the hill people is interwoven with the result they resist any change to modern

methods of cultivation.

The jhum land in a village has a uniform period of rotation or jhum cycle depending on

land-man-ratio in the village. As the pressure on population in a village increases, the cycle gets

adjusted accordingly. One of the major problems injhum in northeastern India is the drastic

shortening ofjhum cycle from more than 20 years earlier to 4-5 years, which results in setting of

distortion. The hills are not able to recoup and regenerate and the system has started breaking

down. The critical Period ofjhum cycle depends on several factors including slope of the land,

texture of the soil, the extent of rainfall, aspect of the hill, natural vegetation and intensity of

cultivation. The length of jhum cycle reported from different states show that the critical limits

have been transgressed almost everywhere (Table 8). The jhum cycle has reached the critical

limit in parts of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Mizoram where it is as low as 2-3 years even

though the maximum ranges from 4-10 years This has adversely affected in economic yield with

gradual decline in yield over a period of time when short cycles are imposed on infertile land.

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Table 8. Distribution of cropping and fallow period in the shifting cultivation systems practiced by

different tribes in NE India

Tribe Area

Cropping

period

(years)

Fallow

period

(years)

Rainfall

category

Population

density

category

Khasi Khasi hills 1 4-5 High High

Pawi Mizoram 1 8 High Low

Lushai Mizoram 1 4-8 High Low

Lakhar Mizoram 1 8 High Low

Riang Tripura 1 7-9 High Medium

Hmar Manipur 1 5-6 High Low

Idu mismi Arunachal 1 3 High Low

Karbi Assam 1 5 Medium Medium

LothaNaga Nagaland 2 6-12 Medium Medium

Source: Sharma, 1984.

The jhum cycle plays a critical role in the natural regeneration and consequently the jhum

economy. The jhum areas, with cycles between 20 and 30 years, pass through three successions,

viz., weedy profusion, bamboo exuberance and pine predominance. If the jhum cycle is between

10 and 20 years, only two success ions are possible and bamboo becomes dominant species.

Whenjhum cycle is further reduced to less than 5 years, the succession gets arrested at the early

weedy profusion stage. The natural process of regeneration of soil fertility is abruptly

terminated even before it has begun.

The basic tenets of the traditional land laws of Khasis, Jaintias and Garos center around

shifting cultivation in which land-man relationship is primarily based on three principles: (i)

allocating principle, i.e., the village or clan chief is vested with powers to make minor

dispositions ofland among members from time to time forjhum cultivation, (ii) the allotee has

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usefructuary rights and (iii) the allottee has to cultivate with the family labour endowments. The

Apatanis of ,Arunachal Pradesh and Angamese of Nagaland have generally three types of land:

privately owned land, clan land and common village land. The Karbis of Assam practice

community ownership of land. Among the Kuki tribe of Manipur, the land formally belongs to

the village chief and the farmers pay tribute to the chief for cultivation. The chief has the right

to distribute land among the cultivators at his discretion. The Mizos had a system of hereditary

chieftainship in the villages. The lal (village chief) used to own the land. But now management of

land is vested in the village council.

The tribal people of NE hill states of India are socially and culturally attached to the system

as a whole and to various operations involved in shifting cultivation. All agricultural operations

have significance to the tribal people and are preceded or followed by some rituals varying from

tribe to tribe. Also, all the functions, celebrations and festivities of tribal people focus on various

operations underjhum system of agriculture. Shifting cultivation has a special significance in the

ethos of concerned tribal society and social relationship, cultural values, and mythical beliefs are

directly linked with it. All elements in SOcial living are geared to and integrated into the

continued operations of the culture. Tribal value orientation is one of the basic causes

underlying the continuance of shifting cultivation among the most of the tribes of the hill

regions. The different stages of shifting cultivation from sowing seeds to harvest are connected

with agricultural rites and ceremonies. These activities are integrated with the tribal beliefs and

socio-culturallife.

However, shifting cultivation is a predatory system of agriculture involving indiscriminate

cutting and burning offorests, improper land use leading to resource degradation, ecological

imbalance as well as adverse socio-economic effects. The system was excellent at one point of

time with larger jhum cycle and no population pressure but the unsuitability of shifting

cultivation begins with the reduction in shifting cycle, accelerating both on-site and off-site

degradation due to erosion runoff, nutrient losses, loss of biodiversity, and deterioration in

watershed hydrology. Loss of valuable wild life, wild plants of diverse gene pool, rare orchids,

grasses and edible vegetation useful for animal nutrition have been reported from shifting

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cultivation areas. With the denudation of forests, an important source of livelihood of the

community, which is complementary to the traditionaljhum disappears. The process of soil

erosion begins when shifting cultivators enter into the plots; their movement on slopes causes

loss of soil aggregates, forest litter, and earthworm casting etc. to slide down the hill. Studies

conducted by ICAR on shifting cultivation on steep slopes (44-53% slopes) have indicated soil

loss of 41 t/ha and the corresponding nutrient losses are 703 kg/ha of organic carbon, 146 kg/ha

of phosphorus and 7 kg/ha of potash.

The soil erosion from hill slopes (60-79%) under first year, second year and

abandonedjhum was estimated to be 147, 170 and 30 t/ha/ year respectively. Second year

cropping in the same piece of land is more hazardous as compared to first year of cropping.

Consequently the total production from this cultivation is very low; the rice yields in Khasi Hills

(Meghalaya), Garo Hills (Meghalaya), Khonsa (Arunachal) and Siang (Arunachal) are reported to

be 128,504,408, and 832 kg/ha respectively (Anon., 1980).

Despite such hazards, shifting cultivation is a part of social, economic, cultural and

religious life of the tribals of NE India. Unless economically viable, socially acceptable,

sustainable and eco-friendly system offarming is provided to the communities, it would be

difficult to abolish the practice of shifting cultivation altogether. The issues involved with the

problem of shifting cultivation are very complex and multifaceted. An important characteristic

of shifting cultivation is the community action and participation in the entire economic activity

in the relevant area. Rao et al. (1990) while studying the attitude and awareness of farmers of

West Garo Hills ofMeghalaya towards shifting cultivation reported that farmers were not averse

to modem agricultural practices despite their strong attachment to shifting cultivation. This

supports the observation that there is no such inherent inhibition - sociological or otherwise -

among the hill tribes against adopting new and improved techniques of agriculture provided

they are convinced of its utility and benefits (Saikia and Bora, 1981). The immediate prospects

for security of livelihood and not necessarily the search for a better standard ofliving particularly

explained the predilection forjhumming over terrace cultivation in certain situations and they

can accept those alternatives that could be organized with traditional skills and resources Kar.

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1981). Rao et al. (1990) indicated that the tribal farmers, in general, had favourable attitude

towards both shifting cultivation and modem agricultural practices. This, however, appears, to

be a contradiction. Adoption of modem agricultural practices is limited to wet rice cuItivation

(WRC) and their favourable opinion is based on their experience on WRC. In case of progressive

villages, the proportion of WRC area (valley lands) in the operational holdings was higher than

that in less progressive villages (Rao and Reddy, 1988). Shifting cultivation is a time tested

practice involving minimum risk, remarkably dynamic in accommodating the growing needs of

tribal farmers and amenable for minor adjustments required from time to time in terms of land

allocation among crops and among tribal households due to changes in population pressure.

Hence they held favourable opinion in both the cases. Majority of tribal farmers are aware of

changes in their environment and they perceive lack of sufficient forest and vegetative cover as

the main reason for these changes for the worst.

Rice-based Apatani FS

Arunachal Pradesh, endowed with high geographical, socio- economic, cultural and

edapho-climatic diversities, is spread over a total area of 83,743 km2 . Out of the net cropped

area of 1.7 lakh ha, 60% still falls underjhumming and rest under upland terraces, wet land

terraces, valley lands and plains, where rice bowls a major share of 62.5% followed by maize

and millets. So far, only 9.4% of the cultivated area is irrigated. Despite high work participation

(57.65% against national average of24.0%) of the rural people, average rice yield in the state is

only 1.15 t/ha, which is very low (Chaudhary et al, 1990). Low solar energy interception, high

rainfall, unfavourable water regime, unleveled land, low plant density and negligible use of

improved tools and implements, fertilizers and plant protection chemicals are some of the

important constraints of low yield. The introduction of rice cultivation in valley land has,

however, increased the rice yield considerably. A much superior rice based FS is, however, in

practice since time immemorial in the plateau of Apatani, where they have brought cultivation

on irrigated fields to a high degree of efficiency (Chaudhary et al., 1993).

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Apatani tribe of Arunachal Pradesh inhabits the Apatani plateau, occupying a stretch of

26 km2 areas in the central core of the lower Subansiri district. The valley lies midway between

Panior and Kamla river at an altitude of approximately 1524 m. Steep mountain tops with

altitude up to 2438 m enclose the valley from all sides. The valley has been appropriately called

'the rice bowl oftheApatanis', who practice wet rice cultivation (WRC) in this valley with efficient

management. The area is laid out in highly cultivated artificially irrigated terraces, well watered

by the Kale river, a sluggish stream 40-60 feet in breadth with low alluvial banks. The valley was

dotted with isolated hillocks and low pine clad spurs run here and there into the valley

(Chaudhary, 1973). The farmers practice rice cultivation integrated with fish culture in terraces

and finger millet cropping on risers over 1736 ha area where 968 ha is under rain fed upland

andjhum. Maximum holding size varies between 0.02 ha to 3.00 ha. The climate is cool (9.1-

19.3°C) humid (73% RH), rainfall- 235 cm; temperature during rice cultivation varieS between

11.2-27.8°C and rainfall during rice ranges from 5.7-273.0 cm The soil of the valley is humic black

and reddish (Dutta Choudhuy 1981). According to Mukherjee et al. (1989), the soil ofthe valley,

up lifted terraces and river terraces have been developed on alluvial and colluvial materials

washed down the hills. High and well distributed rainfall coupled with thick vegetative cover

have resulted in deep weathering of rocks and given rise to very deep soils which are well

drained, dark greyish brown to very dark brown. The surface texture (25-67 cm) is loam. The soil

pH 5.1-5.6, OC 1.25-2.87, P 19-32 kg/ha and K 300-665 kg/ha have been reported in the soil of

the plateau (DAO, lower Subansiri).

The FS of Apatani valley deserves a special significance, where agriculture from subsistence

is raised to a surplus level and the small valley is developed into a veritable rice bowl. A well-

developed and traditionally old system of terraced rice cultivation with maximum land utilization

is practiced. Only indigenous rice varieties having very long duration of 190-278 days with an

average of 228 days from seed to seed are grown. Nursery is raised in the month of February in

exclusively marked fields for nursery only. Nursery duration ranges from 60-80 days. Beds are

prepared wet and sown with dry seeds @750-800 kg/ha. land preparation starts in the month of

Apri I. Leveling of terraces is done with the help of indigenous wooden tools known as 'sambya'

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and ‘mideing' while digging of fish channels are done with the help of a wooden cobra with

flattened tip called 'hiita'. Single rice seedling transplanting at a spacing of20-24 cm is practiced.

Risers are used for finger millet cultivation through transplanted seedlings. Paddy-cum- fish

culture is a vital component where mainly common carp followed by grass and silver carp are

grown at a stocking density of 175-2500 numbers/ha with an average of 1750 fingerlings/ha

gaining weight from 130-400 g/fish in 4 months. The period of different operations and their

manpower requirement in Apatani FS is given in Table 3.

All local rice varieties have short, bold grains with glutinous kernels. Most of the varieties

have high shattering character, hence Panicle harvesting and sometimes spontaneous threshing

(grain extraction from panicle) in the field itselfis practiced. Yield of varieties under AFS is shown

in Table 9.

Table 9. Operation and manpower requirement in Apatani fanum system (AFS)

Operation Period Man days

required

Mode of

operation

Fencing February-March 4 Community

Maintenance of channels January-July 3 Community

Maintenance of raisers January-February 31 Individual

Nursery raising F ebruary_ March 18 Individual

Manuring February-April 15 Individual

Land preparation April-May 28 Individual

Transplanting April-May 40 Individual

Weeding April-September 41 Individual

Fish culture May-September 7 Individual

Bird scaring and supervision September-October 15 Individual

Harvesting, threshing October-November 115 Individual

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andtransport

Drying and storage October-November 11 Individual

Table 10. Agronomic traits of varieties grown inAFS

Variety

Seedling

age

(days)

Duration

(seed to

seed)

Ear

bearing

tillers!

m2 (nos.)

Grains/

panicle

grain

(nos.)

1000

weight(g)

Grain

yield

(t/ha)

lmpoare 63 211 152 145 24.2 5.4

Impohath 35 246 142 156 22.5 5.0

Emo red 67 247 138 4.6

EmoEerkhe 67 260 135 107 26.4 3.8

EmoElang 77 261 139 162 25.7 5.8

Owe lmpo 67 278 145 133 24.7 4.7

Pyat Pyani 70 249 151 53 22.6 4.2

Pyat Kogya 63 204 139 87 26.0 3.2

Pyat Pyapu 70 249 156 5.7

Pyat Pyare 44 190 147 76 23.3 2.6

Ji Pyat 72 249 99 91 26.1 4.3

Pyaling

Pyakhe 63 199 171 96 26.1 4.3

Pyaping

Tababam 70 238 97 228 21.3 4.7

Pyaping

pyapu 60 229 152 105 24.6 3.9

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A well-developed and traditionally old system of terraced cultivation is practiced in the

AFS. The terraces in the main valley are quite broad, perfectly leveled and provided with strong

bunds. These bunds are made of soil and supported by bamboo or wooden chips from lower

terrace at base. Terraces are made with traditional trial and error method with major emphasis

on perfect leveling having no consideration of size and shape and thus no two terraces are

identical. It is recorded that proper technical consideration is being given in making bunds up to

proper size and shape (generally 0.6-1.4 m in breadth and 0.2-0.6 m in height) so as to resist the

highest possible water pressure to fulfill the expected water requirement of the plots. Perfect

leveling of plots and well managed irrigation-cum-drainage systems reduce the soil erosion to

negligible limit. The layout of terraces, irrigation and drainage structures are ideal examples of

coordination of efforts and perfection of technique has classified the soil of Apatani valley as IT e

(Mukherjee et al., 1989).

The Apatanis have developed a remarkable system of water management and irrigation.

Every stream rising from the surrounding hills is tapped soon after it emerges from the forest,

channelised at the rim of the valley and diverted by network of primary, secondary and tertiary

channels. A short distance above the terraces occurs the first diversion from the stream. Usually

only little water is deflected here in feeder channels, while the stream continues its course, the

feeder channel branching off at angles leads water through the series of terraces so that by

blocking or opening the connecting ducts, any field can be flooded or drained out as and when

required.

The crop section of main channels ranged from 1.0-1.7 m in width and 0.38-0.65 m in

depth. These channels are generally pitched with boUlders at the entry, which checks erosion of

channels due to very high flow of water. The most important aspect of right water management

in low land rice fields is to keep water layer on the soil surface at the Permissible depth. The

Apatani farmers drain off water from the rice fields twice during tillering - once during flowering

and finally at

maturity, since drainage at tillering or flowering stage is reported to increase yield by 15-20% in

rice (Singh, 1986).

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Nutrient and fertility management of the terraces of AFS is done mainly through the

recycling of agricultural wastes. Approximately 9.6- t/ha paddy straw is allowed to decompose in

the wet terraces and finally incorporated atthe time ofland preparation. Burning of un

decomposed straw during January-February is also in practice, especially on dry terraces.

Burning is reported to increase available K, 0 and exchangeable calcium significantly (Borthakur

et ai, 1983). Pig and poultry droppings, rice husks, kitchen wastes, ash and weeds removed

during weeding are also recycled in the terraces every year for improving the fertility. After the

rice crop is harvested cattles are allowed for free grazing in the fields from December to

February and thus the cow dung is also recycled. Since entire rainwater of the surrounding hills

is tapped for irrigation, nutrients of dung and even forest humus are also partly utilized through

irrigation water.

Paddy -cum-fish culture was introduced in AFS in 1965-66. Roy (1986) reported growth up

to 450 g/fish in 3-4 months, giving a yield of 225 kg/ha. A well-marked division of labour is

generally followed for various operations in the AFS. Men generally takes care ofhard works like

building terraces, irrigation channels, fencing, removing earth and planting trees while women

look after nurseries, transplanting seedlings, weeding, fish management, harvesting, threshing,

drying and storage. Community cooperation in the Apatani society is very strong and, therefore,

some of the operations are done on community basis (Chowdhury, 1973 b). Pest and disease

problems in the rice fields are generally very low. Blast is the main disease. Severity of leaf blast

incidence varies from 0.1 -40.0% at vegetative stage while neck blast incidence ranges from 2-

13% at reproductive stage. Amongst insects, grasshoppers and root weevils are observed.

However, their populations remain at low level as grasshoppers and root weevils eat by local

people and birds respectively.

Apatani farmers are extremely cautious of their environment and ecology. Apart from

conserving the soil from erosion, farmers have taen up plantation of Terminalia myrinalia,

Altingia excelsa, Michelia sp., Magnolia sp., pines and bamboos. Thus the entire hills

surrounding the valley and uplands surrounding the villages are fully kept as conserved forest.

This helps in conserving the ecology and maintaining the flow of natural streams. The AFS

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confmes its dependence on local resources only. Most of the important tools used in the AFS

viz., sampya, hiita, dammu, nideing hiita etc. are made of wood. Fish retaining nets and fish

catching baskets are made of bamboos. Use of modern tools, implements, fertilizers etc. is still

not in vogue in AFS. Land tenure system, pressure on land, geographical location, ampIe rainfall,

availability of natural streams and certain edific factors help in the success of AFS. Based on FS

performance of Lightfoot et al. (1993), AFS is highly productive (due to scientific gravitational

irrigation and drainage and utilization of terrace riserslbunds, high yield of rice, introduction of

paddy- cum-fish culture as subsidiary source of income), sustainable (availability of natural

water streams, diversity of rice varieties, biological pest control), stable (unique confinement of

local inhabitants without migration, use oflocal resources) and equitable (a well-marked division

of labour within the family and community, community understanding). However, despite the

AFS is highly economical and ecologically sound, it has certain disadvantages. The main

disadvantages are:

• Introduction of HYV s will be quite difficult

• Varieties with low biomass may not be accepted

• No plant protection measures can be followed due to paddy- cum-fish culture

• Community decision for improvement from the present system

• Low cropping intensity (rice-fallow system only)

• Eroding of social cementing force and urbanization

• Social turbulence and imbalance due to various interventions of development.

The Adi rice cultivation practices

In Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh, Adi tribe with its sub. group, Gal/ong, Minyong,

Boris, Pailibo, Ramos, Bokar etc. accounts a great majority and rice is the staple food of these

tribes. Bali is the most important landrace grown by theAdi tribe, which is highly adapted and

possesses multiple resistences to disease and pest. The Adi farmers follow monocropping of rice

in wetlands/lowlands and mixed cropping of rice with maize, millets and many other crops

injhum cultivation. Cereals, especially rice constitutes the major component of the crop mixture

(Sarangi and Dey, 2005). Sequential harvesting of crops is an effective way of managing up to

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35-40 crop species. Successive harvest of cereals creates additional space for the remaining

crops, which also receive humus and nutrients (Mishra et al., 2004). In jhum rice cultivation

jhum clearing in February-March, seed sowing in April, weeding in May-June and harvesting in

July/august is done. Apart from jhum rice cultivation Adis practice WRC also in lowland/valley

land areas where standing water is available. All the agricultural operations from land

preparation (by digging with spade) to harvest have been performed manually. In WRC, two

types of cultivation are in vogue: kharif and mipun rice cultivation. Performance of some

varieties is presented in Table 71.

Zabo FS of Nagaland

Zabo is an indigenous FS practiced in Nagaland, which has a combination of forest,

agriculture and animal husbandry with well- founded conservation base, soil erosion control,

water resources development' and management and preservation of. The system is also called

by 'ruza'. The place of origin of Zabo FS seems to be Kikruma village located at an altitude of

1,270 m in Phek districtof Nagaland inhabited by Chakesang tribe. Rice is the staple food of the

Chakesang tribe. The whole of Kikruma village is on a flat ridge bounded on the south by the

Seidzu river and on the north by the Khuzha river. However, tapping of water from these two

seasonal rivers to irrigate the cultivated areas on the ridges is out of question as the ridge is

higher than the river level by several hundred meters. Besides, the banks of these two rivers are

so steep that construction of terraces or irrigation channels across the slope is difficult. The

situation might have compelled the people to evolve a system for farming for their livelihood

since time immemorial, which is called Zabo' meaning impounding water. The soil is silty clay

loam of greyish brown colour and sticky. The soil is high in organic content and available nitrogen,

low in phosphates and very low in available potash. The soil is acidic in nature (pH 6.27) with

very low calcium carbonate content. Jhumming is widely practiced by the farmers with jhum

cycle of about 7 years.

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Table 11. Performance of local landraces of Siang under upland condition

Landrace Location Yield

(t/ha)

Days to

mature

Resistance

to blast

Yabar West Siang 3.1 131 MR

Yaupumik Upper Subansiri 3.0 132 MS

Pluamo Tirap 2.9 131 MS

Yamuk West Siang 2.8 128 MR

Lemuk Mukte West Siang 2.7 140 MR

Pinint Upper Subansiri 2.7 131 MS

Yaling East Siang 2.7 136 S

Bali West Siang 2.6 133 MR

Hibar Hirpu Upper Subansiri 2.5 131 MS

Bee Upper Subansiri 2.5 131 MR

Yasing East Siang 2.4 136 MR

Pehi East Siang 2.3 137 MS

Lite Upper Subansiri 2.3 133 R

Buing Upper Subansiri 2.1 131 MS

Niyoni Tirap 2.0 134 MR

Source: Anon., 2000

R:Resistant; MR:Moderately resistant; MS: Moderately susceptible; S: Susceptible

The Zabo FS comprises of protected forest land on hilltop, well planned water harvesting tank at

the middle and cattle yard and rice fields towards foothills. In case, a suitable location for water

storage is not available, the run off water from the upper catchment is taken directly to rice

fields which act as water source for rice crop. Special technique for seepage controlling the plots

is followed, which include thorough puddling and use of paddy husks on shoulder bunds. This

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system of farming is common on individually owned land of about 2.5 ha area. The various

components of Zabo FS are described as follows:

a. Forest land: The catchment area (about 1.5 ha or more) is kept under natural vegetation on

upstream side of the pond to serve as water sources for the period during monsoon. Normally

cutting or burning of trees does not disturb this area. Slope of the catchment area is generally

100% or more.

b. Water harvesting system: Adjacent to the catchment area (middle hil1 slope), water

harvesting ponds are dug out towards down streamside with formation of earthen

embankment. The size of the pond is usually kept as 24 x 10 x2 m'. Silt retention tanks are

constructed at several points before the run off water enters into the pond. The water

harvesting system occupies about 0.2 ha area. Silt retention tanks are cleared annually as a part

of maintenance of the water harvesting system.

c. Cattle shed: It is a common practices of every farm family to maintain an enclosure

fenced with ordinary woods and branches of bamboo for open cattle yard, which is

managed by a group of farmers by stocking cattle on rotation basis, preferably a little

below the water harvesting pond. Buffaloes are the common animals available with

the farmers, and 20-30 numbers are kept in one yard for 10-15 days. Washing

of the cattle yard is done with run-off water, which goes afterwards to the rice fields for

manuring. When there is an overflowing of water, it finds way through diversion

passing through the cattle yard and washes down the manures to the field below. Split

bamboo channels are used to carry such dungs and urine from the cattle yard to the

central point of the field from where it spreads in the entire field.

d. Agriculture land: Rice field are located in a lower elevation than thewater-harvesting

pond. The area of the rice fields varies between 0.2-0.5 ha. Use of green manure like

Albizia lebbeck and mekhonu tree leaves, application of cow dung and diversion of run

off through open cattle yard are the usual methods of manuring rice crop. Chemical

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ferti1izers are not at all used. Rice fields are thoroughly rammed at the time of

puddling following different methods, viz., treading by human and cattle. Ramming by

wooden sticks etc. to create a hard pan so as to avoid percolation losses. Seepage

losses through shoulder bunds are checked with the use of paddy husks on the

upstream side. Only one rice variety, Tanyekmugah is grown. This is a local tall variety

of 180 days duration.

The seed rate is 60 kg/ha and transplanting time is June. The variety is grown at a

spacing of 12 x 12 cm and two irrigations from the storage point (as supplement)

maintaining 10 cm water depth in terraces are applied. The yield of the rice variety is

about 3-4 tlha. Most of the farmers practice paddy-cum-fish culture technique as in

Apatani FS and derive about 50-60 kg of fish per ha as an additional output.

In Zabo FS, all the agricultural operations like hoeing, puddling, ramming in rice fields are

done manually with small hand tools, wooden sticks etc., which are time consuming and labour

intensive. Sometimes, the farmers may get lower yield from the only one rice variety they

commonly grow, even under excellent land, water and local resources management systems. By

and large the Zabo FS is a organic farming without using any chemical fertilizers and plant

protection chemicals. Practicing line transplanting and use of paddy weeder may reduce the

high cost in weeding and intercultural operations. On the whole, the Zabo FS comprises of

inherent and traditional agricultural and forestry land use, in built water harvesting system with

well-founded conservation bases.

Panikheti

Angami and Chakhesang tribes ofNagaland have developed a system of irrigating

terraced fields for growing rice known as panikheti (Gokhle et al, 1984). This system has

reflected the skill and ingenuity of the local farmers who have constructed these terraces

manually with their indigenous tools for growing of rice. Bench terrace cultivation or panikheti in

Nagaland presents an excellent example of developing bench terracing for rice cultivation by

using steep slopes (up to 100% or more) and rocky lands with availability of very small quantity

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of soil.

The topsoil is maintained in the terraced bed while constructing terraces annually.

Disposal of excess water and application of irrigation water is managed by allowing water to

flow from one terrace to another by providing opening in the ridge bund. In the terraced fields,

agricultural operations start in December and January with digging of field with the help of

spade. While digging, soils turn on residue of rice plant. Puddling starts in the month of April.

After that water is allowed to enter into the terrace. By the first week of June, the terraces will

be full of water. In the same month, seedlings are transplanted from nurseries in puddle lands.

By the end of September, the paddy plants are bunched together. This prevents the plants from

being damaged by the winds or by the weight of grains. This also reduces the loss of grains

during harvest and makes the harvest easier. The components of the system are:

Terraces: The terraces are constructed and supported with strong bunds of width varying

from 0.5-1.2 m and height from 0.2-1.4 m (from the lower to upper field level) depending on

slope of the land and size of the terrace. The leveling of terraces is done by cut and fills method.

When the terrace is leveled, the removed topsoil is spread uniformly over the surface of the

terrace. Terracing makes possible the use of land intensively over the years by reducing the loss

of run-off and soil. The terrace fields are properly prepared for rice cultivation.

Fish culture: A small pond is dug out in the middle ofthe terrace for fish culture. When all

the water is drained out after the harvest of rice crop, the fish grow in the pond. Mostly

common carp is reared in the ponds. The fish culture gives additional income to the farmers.

Water management: This is the most important aspect of panikheti

or rice cultivation on terraces. All care is taken to regulate the flow of water into the fields. The

water brought down from the higher hills is diverted to the rice fields from the main channels

and sub-channels. Maintaining 10-15 cm deep water in all the terraces is very significant. This

helps in increasing phosphorus availability to the crop. The water runs down from one terrace to

another through wedge type openings in the earthen bunds. To maintain desired water level in a

particular terrace, an appropriate size stone is kept at the opening in the bund.

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Land management: The construction of terraces on hill slopes not only ensures standing water

in the fields but also checks soil erosion and loss of soil fertility due to washing away of top soil.

The leaves of trees from the forest and decomposed cow dung and husks are sometimes used

for increasing the soil fertility. Stubbles of previous crop and dry leaves are burnt in the terraces.

All the farm operations are done manually. Azolla is also grown in the terraces. All weeds, crop

stubbles etc. are incorporated in the fields to retain soil fertility.

Three types of terraced fields are found in Kohima district of nagaland viz., i). Dzutse -

water supply to these fields is regular throughout the year. Water not needed in one terrace is

conveyed to another terrace through channels; ii). Khuso - water supply is through channels

from streams and iii). Vakhra - fields are similar to khuso but involvement of labour is more.

Dhankheti

With the improvement ofliving standard of the people of Sikkim, food habits were

changed and they could no longer relish the upland rice- 'Ghaiya' and started WRC. Initially the

people were not interested for terrace cultivation but they were forced by then British

Government. the bench terraces are made on hill slopes up to 80% or even more. the bench

terraces are watered through perennial seasonal springs tapped from higher elevation. The

water from spring is collected into very small rivulet commonly known as 'kholsa' and when this

kholsa is sufficiently big is known as 'khola '. The water from kholsa and khola are taken in

channels to irrigate rice-transplanted terraces under the gravity from higher elevation In short

distance water flows in one direction and in long distance from both the directions. There is

complete harmony and cooperation among users of water to maintain the drainage channels.

On the irrigated terraces rice seedlings, raised in nurseries, are transplanted and fields

remain almost submerged throughout the growing seaon and drain out through a single outlet

of the field. Natural courses Of water are frequently not disturbed to drain out the excess water.

surface flow of water from one terrace to another is managed in such a way that suspended soil

particles remain in the adjoining areas only. water from terraces and diversion ditches is safely

drained to the vegetative slopes and sever damages to roads, fields and plantation crops.

The channels remain covered with the stone plates passing throUgh paths. Terrace wall is the

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main factor determining terrace stability or degradation. Terrace wall failures and considerable

erosion from the terrace slopes occur during high magnitude of rainstorms in monsoon (June -

September). Swelling and bulge development are the characteristics of retaining walls prior to

failure. Shortage of labour is a constraint to maintain proper and constant repair of terrace wall

slides. Following cropping systems exist in Sikkim on the irrigated terraced lands (Patiram et al.,

2001).

ο Rice - wheat

ο Rice - mustard

ο Rice - potato

ο Rice - fallow

ο Maize - rice - mustard

ο Maize - rice - fallow

In Sikkim, farmers intercrop rice with traditional varieties of soybean, rice bean and black

gram on bunds. Most of the area is under cultivation of local rice varieties, which yield 1-2 tlha.

The popular local rice varieties are: Attey, Masseey, Sikre, Krishnabhog, Kalshanti, Bhuidhan,

Darmali, Tasrey and Dutkatti.

High altitude farming in Kameng Himalaya

Farming in high altitude belt (above 2500 m) is a challenging task. The management of

biophysical resources by the Buddhist Monpa of Senge village of Kameng district of Arunachal

Pradesh is a casi point (Sarma, 1993). The Buddhist Monpas ofSenge village practiced settled

subsistence hoe fanning by giving up the practice of shifting cultivation after realizing its

detrimental impact on environment. Both kharif and rabi crops are raised by Monpa farmers on

the natural hill slopes without terracing it. Sheep droppings and oak leaves serve as manures in

the khariffields, while human wastes and litter are sprayed during rabi season. Yearly rotation of

maize and finger millet fields, minimum tilling with hoe and inter and mixed cropping in these

fields are part and parcel of their strategy to maintain soil fertility for sustainable farming.

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Farming systems of West Garo Hills of Meghalaya

Goswami (1996) did an economic appraisal of indigenous hill farming systems (FS) in West

Garo hills district ofMeghalaya to identify the existing fanning systems and their transition flow

to modern system of agriculture. Four types of indigenous farming systems were reported to

have existed in West Garo Hill district of Meghalaya such as traditional FS, marginally modern

FS, semi-modern FS and modern FS.

FS I (traditional): This FS was found to have three components:

ο Settled cultivation in the valley lands between the two hills, bullock ploughing under

rainfed condition, various types of agricultural crops are grown

ο Shifting cultivation in the hill slopes. A single crop of rice or maize and mixed crops of rice

+ maize + cotton + tapioca +ginger are grown.

ο Rearing of livestock like cattle, pig, goat and poultry

FS II (marginally modern) : The components of this FS are:

ο Settled cultivation in the valley lands between the two hills, bullock ploughing under

rainfed condition, various types of agricultural crops are grown

ο Shifting cultivation in the hill slopes. A single crop of rice or maize and mixed crops of rice

+ maize + cotton + tapioca +ginger are grown.

ο Rearing oflivestock like cattle, pig, goat and poultry

ο Growing of horticultural crops like areca nut, banana, orange and pineapple in hill slopes

FS III (semi-modern): Five components are found to have existed in this FS

ο Settled cultivation in the valley lands between the two hills

bullock ploughing under rainfed condition, various types of

agricultural crops are grown

ο Shifting cultivation in the hill slopes. A single crop of rice or

maize and mixed crops of rice + maize + cotton + tapioca

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+ginger are grown.


ο Horticultural plantation

ο Cultivation of annual and seasonal crops like cereals, pulses,

oilseeds and vegetable with improved technology on the

terraces on hill slopes made by the Government

FS IV (modern): The components of this FS are as follows:

ο Settled cultivation in the valley lands between the two hills,

bullock ploughing under rainfed condition, various types of

agricultural crops are grown


ο Horticultural plantation

ο Cultivation of annual and seasonal crops like cereals, pulses,

oilseeds and vegetable with improved technology on the

terraces on hill slopes made by the Government

ο Plantation crops like rubber

ο Plantation of quick growing leguminous trees and bamboos

on the hill slopes

ο Cultivation of annual fodders on the hill slopes

In the valley lands between the hills, rice is predominantly grown. Here the agriculture

system followed is like that of plains. Bullock power is used for ploughing the land. Jhum mixture

is the predominant crop component occupying 29.50% of the gross cropped area. It is grown in

the hill slopes by almost all the farm households. Next to jhum mixture, autumn rice occupies a

larger scale of 19.94% of gross cropped area followed by winter rice,jhum rice and spring rice: In

the valley and terraced lands, rice is the principal crop as it accounts for 52.88% (all rices) of the

total cropped area. Major portion of the gross cropped area (55.62%) is injhum land, followed by

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valley land (26.16%) and terraced land (26.16%). Of the total production, major share is

fromjhum (38.64%), followed by terrace (32.42%) and valley land (28.94%) indicating the

dominance ofjhum in the agriculture of the district.

Apatani rice farming system of Arunachal

Pradesh

Zabo – rice farming system of nagaland

Panikheti – an indigenous rice farming

system of Nagaland

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Promising local cultivars of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam

Promising local cultivars of Manipur and Meghalaya

Promising local cultivars of Mizoram and Nagaland

Rice-based cropping systems followed in NE india

The agricultural practice in the region are broadly of two distinct type viz., settled

farming practiced in the plains, valley/foot hills, terraced slopes and shifting cultivation in the hill

slopes. Depending upon the system of farming, food habits and climatic conditions, several

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crops are grown in the region. Some of the frequently practiced cropping systems of shifting

cultivation areas are collated in Table 12.

Table 12. Dominant rice based cropping system of NEH Region

Agro climatic zone Cropping system

High hills

Lower hills

Foot hills

Plain area

Rice-potato/vegetable

Rice/maize-mustard

Rice-wheat

Rice-wheat+mustard

Rice - potato

Rice- potato

Rice- vegetable

Rice-groundnut, rice-rice- cowpea, Rice-wheat rice,

Rice-pulses, rice-linseed.

Rice growing seasons

The rice grown in the region thus can be classified into six classes primarily.These are Ahu or

autumn rice, Sailor Kharif rice also called winter rice, Boro or spring/summer rice, Asra or shallow water

rice, Bao or deep water floating rice or hill rice. The hill rice can also be furthersubdivided into mid

altitude rice and high altitude rice. The various classes of rice along with the season of cultivation are

indicated in Table 6.

Table 13. Categories of rice growing season

Class Season of cultivaton Remark

Ahu

(Autumn Rice)

Early :February to May Normal :

Mar-April to Jun-July

Late : May to August

Transplanted with irrigation Rainfed-

direct sown

Transplanted - Rainfed or irrigated.

Sali (kharif) Normal:July-Aug. to Nov.-Dec

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(Winter rice) Late : Aug-Sept. to Dec.-Jan

Boro (spring/summer rice)

Nov.-Dec. to April-May In water stagnated areas or with

irrigation

Asra (Shallow water rice) Mar.-April to Nov.-Dec. In 1-2 M deep water

Bao (Deep water/floating

rice)

Mar.-April to Nov.-Dec. In 2-5 M deep water

Hill Rice Mid Hill April-May -Sept.-Oct.

High Hill June-July-Nov.-Dec.

Economics of rice production

Economic comparisons are made not only between new and traditional varieties, but also

between farms with different resource situations and cropping patterns. The optimum level of

fertilizer use depends upon the location, variety and season. During this period of rapid change

in rice varieties and rice production techniques, it particularly avoids 'blanket recommendations'

for fertilizer use. The use of pesticides for the control of pest and diseases is important and will

undoubtedly increase in importance with the increased use of fertilizer following the

introduction of improved rice varieties. The profitability of rice production is a subject of

interest. One of the most useful measures of profit is the return above variable cost. Variable

cost includes such item as seed, fertilizers, chemicals, hired labours, harvesters; share of the

crop yield. It does not include the cost of the land, operator and the family labour. The key

factors influencing returns per farm are technology, farm size and cropping pattern. The

production function analysis indicates the level of use of scarce resources, the stage of

technology adoption and also the factors determining farm productivity.

The marketable surplus of rice in terms of percentage of the value of the total marketable

surplus of the optimum plans of the identified FS is shown in Table 14. Marketable surplus of

rice was found to be highest in semi-modern FS followed by traditional FS under all the three

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plans whereas plan I recorded the highest marketable surplus followed by plan III.

Table 14. Marketable surplus of rice (%)

Optimum

plan

Farming system Mean

Traditional Marginally

modern

Semi-

modern

Modern

I 16.60 4.46 8.36 6.06 8.87

II 0.72 1.01 7.48 6.07 3.82

III 6.47 4.37 12.52 0.99 6.09

Mean 7.93 3.28 9.45 4.37

Recommended package of practices

Production technology for rainfed upland rice

Soil tillage

ο The land after harvest of the previous crop should be opened preferably with a mould

board plough. Premonsoon showers in April and May help to break the clods.

ο To control weeds to some extent, one or two summer ploughings should be given

whenever possible.

ο Deep tillage and fine tilth should be ensured at the time of final land preparation for

sowing.

Soil and water conservation

ο Soil conservation measures such as bunding and contour terracing should be adopted.

Rain water, especially surface run-off, in a micro and macro-watershed on a community

basis in sloppy lands should be stored for giving one or two life saving irrigations at

critical stages of crop growth in the event of terminal drought.

ο Adequate amount of compost or FYM (5t/ha) should be applied to improve the soil

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structure and to increase water retention and soil fertility.

Selection of varieties

Rice varieties in duration range of 90-110 days with yield potential of 3-4 t/ha should be

selected.

Varieties for rainfed upland rice

Variety Duration

type

Grain Feature yield (t/ha) Average

Kayalni 11 62 LB Intermediate tall 2.0

Heera 68 LB Resistant to GM, blast 305

Sattari 75 SB Early maturing mutant 3.0

Kalinga 11 85 LB Intermediate tall 3.5

Vanaprabha 85 LS Intermediate tall 3.0

Neela 90 LS Resistant to GM, blast,BPH 3.0

Poorva 90 MB Fine grain 3.0

Subhadra 90 LS Drought tolerant 3.0

Tara 100 LB Resistant to GM, GLH 3.5

Annada 105 SB High yielding 4.0

Govind 110 LS Tolerant to BLB, blast, BS 4.0

TTB 4-7 115 LB 4.0

Soil amelioration

Lime or paper mill sludge @ ¼th

lime requirement (about 1.5-2.0 t/ha) should be used in

strongly acid soils once in 2-3 years for decreasing aluminium toxic city, phosphate deficiency

and phosphate fixation and for increasing rice yield.

Sowing

• Seeds should be sown when the land is dry, well in advance of the onset of monsoon.

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Sowing should be ensured around late May to early June.

• Sowing should be done before rains or when 30-60 mm rainfall has been received.

Sowing at a time when rainfall 120 mm or more was found to be detrimental in getting

desirable crop stand and yield (Rao, 1983).

• Seeds should be sown deep in lines 20 cm apart, with a seed drill or behind the country

plough.

• A seed rate of 60-80 kg /ha should be used depending upon the test weight of the seeds.

Weed control

Weed infestation is one of the major factors that limit the production of upland rice.

Weeds need to be controlled before the crop is 3-week old or earlier, through hand weeding,

mechanical weeding or weedicide application. For chemical weed control, liquid formulations

like butachlor etc. @ 1.5 kg ai dissolved in 800-1000 1 of water should be sprayed within first

week of sowing seeds. The success and good production of rainfed upland rice depends upon

effective weed control.

Fertilizer application

• If soil test information is not available 20-30 kg/ha each of Phosphorus (125-187 kg single

superphosphate) and potash (33-49 kg muriate of potash) should be applied. In the hilly

terrains with high rainfall having high P-fixing capacity, the phosphate rate may be

doubled.

• Early application of nitrogen in short duration varieties I essential to get higher yield. For

varieties maturing in 85-115 days, 2/3 of fertilizer nitrogen should be applied at seeding

and the remaining 1/3 within three weeks after germination of rice seeds and after

weeding. In basal application, diammonium phosphate may be applied since ammonium

form of nitrogen is better than nitrate or sometimes urea.

Plant protection

• Varities tolerant to insects and diseases (termites, mealy bug, stem borer, gundhi bug,

brown spot, leaf blast, neck blast) should be selected (Table ).

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• Seeds should be treated with Bavistin or Thiram @2-3 g Ikg of seeds.

• Need based chemical control measures should be adopted to protect the crop from

insects and diseases.

Harvesting and post harvest operations

• The crop should be harvested when four fifth of the grams m the panicles is ripe. This

condition of the is attained at about 25-30 days after flowering.

• Improved sickles should be used for higher labour efficiency in harvesting.

• Paddle thresher or power thresher may be used for threshing paddy.

• The grains should be dried properly under shade.

• The grains should be stored in rat proof improved storage bins or structures. . .

Production technologies for boro rice

Boro rice

Land selection: Low lying typical boro areas or irrigation command areas.

Seed selection: Healthy seeds should be selected after putting in plain water.

Seed treatment: After selection, the seeds should be soaked directly for 24 hours in

fungicidal suspension ofDithane M-45 or Captaf or [email protected] g/I of water or [email protected] g/l of

water. Seeds may be agitated for 5 minutes for thorough mixing after putting in a closed

container with Mancozeb (Dithane M 45) or Captan (captaf) or Captafol (Foltaf) @ 2.5 g/kg of

seeds or with Carbendazim (Bavistin) @ 2.og/kg of seeds.

Seed bed preparation: Beds should be 125 cm wide and 10 m long with 30 gap in

between two beds. Six to eight such beds are required for transplanting 1 bigha of land.

Seed rate: 650 to 1000 g pre-germinated seeds are required for each bed and seed

requirement for transplanting one ha of main field is 40-45 kg.

Age of seedlings: 5-6 leaf stage is suitable for planting.

Field preparation: The field should be ploughed 3-4 times followed by laddering. Level

ing should be done properly to retain water uniformly in the field.

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Fertility management:

Area Nitrogen Phosphorus Potash

Low lying area 0 0 0

Periphery of low lying area 40 kg/ha 20 kg/ha 20 kg/ha

Irrigated area 60 kg/ha 30 kg/ha 30 kg/ha

Time of application: In marshy area whole quantity 0 P and K should be top dressed at

21-25 DAT. For irrigated area, 1I3rd

N as basal and l/3rd at the time of tillering and the remaining

part at panicle initiation stage are to be applied. P should also be incorporated into the soil at

active tillering stage at 25-35 DAT along with second dose of N.

Transplanting Variety Number of

seedling/hill

Depth of

planting (cm)

Spacing (row x plant-

cm)

Mahsuri 2 5 25 x20

Boro I 2 5 25 x20

Boro2 2 5 25 x20

Krishna 2 5 20 x20

kallinga 3 3 5 20x20

Gap filling: The dead hills are to be replanted within 7-10 days of transplanting.

Water management: Irrigation water is to be applied to maintain 2-5 cm of standing

water in the field after 2-3 days of transplanting up to 7-10 days before harvest.

Interculture: Two weedings are to be given preferably at 20 and 40DAT.

Plant protection

In seed bed: As soon as one or two blast spots are seen, the beds should be sprayed

with Bavistin @1 gllofwater or Hinosan @l ml/l of water. In root-knot nematode and stem borer

endemic areas, Fradon 3 G @3 g/sq m or Thimet l0 G or Basudin 10 g@ 1 g/sq m are to be

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applied at 5 DAS. If nematode is not a problem, Monocrotophos @ 0.12 ml/ 10 sq m may be

sprayed for effective control of most insects at 5-7 DAS. After washing the roots of the uprooted

seedlings, the root portion is to be dipped in 0.02% solution of Chlorpyriphos (1 mill of water)

along with 1% urea for 3 hours as a protective measure against stem borer, gall midge and

hoppers.

In field insect pests infestation at different stages

After transplantation

Discoloured edge of

the leaf after unfold to

yellowing or whitish in

patches

Whorl

maggot Hills are

damaged up

to30DAT

Chlorpyriphos 20EC 2.5 ml/l of water

Leaf tissues Hispa scrap

in white parallel lines

Hispa

1 damaged

leaf/hill

Chlorpyriphos20EC

Monocrotophos40EC

Carbafuran 3 G

2.5 ml/l of

water

3.0 ml/l of

water30 kg/ha

Presence of dead heart Stem borer 5% dead

hearts

Chlorpyriphos 20EC

Monocrotophos

40EC

Carbafuran 3 G

2.5 mill of

water

3.0 mil of water

30 kg/ha

Yellowing and

withering of plants

Leaf and

plant

hoppers

10 insects/

hill

Chlorpyriphos 20EC

Monocrotophos40EC

2.5 mill of

water

2.0 mill of

water

Presence of silver

shoots Gall midge

5% silver

shoots

Monocrotophos

40EC Carbafuran 3 G

As stated

respective

insecticides

Active tillering stage

Presence of tubular

case by cutting the tips

of the leaves; leaf

Case worm 1-2 cases/

hill

Quinosphos25EC

Monocrotophos40EC

3.7 mill of

water

3.0 mill of

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tissues crapped in

white patches

water

Leaves are folded along

margins by webbing

them together

Leaf folder

More than

onedamaged

Leaf/hill

Quinosphos 25EC

Monocrotophos40EC

3.7 mill of

water

3.0 mill of

water

Presence of silver

shoots Gall midge

5% silver

shoots

Monocrotophos

40EC Carbafuran 3 G

As stated for

the respective

insecticides

Leaf tissues Hispa 1 damaged

Leaf/hill Chlorpyriphos 20EC

2.5 mIll of

water

Scrap in white parallel

lines

Monocrotophos40EC

Carbafuran 3 G

3.0 mill of

water

30 kg/ha

Presence of dead heart Stem borer 5% dead

hearts

Chlorpyriphos 20EC

Monocrotophos40EC

Carbafuran 3 G

2.5 ml/I of

water

3.0mUl of

water

30 kg/ha

Boot leaf to heading

stage

Presence of partially or

completely chaffy

grains in the panicle

Rice bug 1-2 bugs/

sqm Malathion 5% dust 20 kg/ha

Presence of white ear

head Stem borer

1 moth/ sq

m

Chlorpyriphos 20EC

Monocrotophos40EC

Quinalphos25EC

2.5 rnl/l of

water

3.0mUl of

water

3.7 ml/ha

Larvae climb and cut

the ear head

Ear cutting

caterpillar 1 larva/hill

Chlorpyriphos 20EC

Quinalphos 25EC

2.5 rnl/l of

water

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3.7 ml/ha

Presence of shed grains

or panicle at the base

of the plant

Climbing

cutworm 1larval/ hill

Chlorpyriphos20EC

Monocrotophos40EC

Quinalphos25EC

2.5 ml/l of water

3.0mUl of

water

3.7 ml!ha

Diseases

Blast

Spraying schedule to be followed as soon as spots on leaf are seen with Hinoson 50Ec

@0.1 % or Dithane M-4 @0.2% or Blitox 50 @0.4%. Spraying should be continued at an interval

of 10-15 days till the disease is controlled.

Sheath blight

To control the disease, Bavistin @0.05% is to be sprayed. Two sprayings are required,

the first at the disease and the second after the first spray.

Production technologies of Ahu rice

Land selection and preparation

Low lying areas having sufficient soil moisture even during January and February should

be selected. The land should be prepared by 3-4 ploughings followed by laddering. Proper

leveling has to be done so as to retain water uniformly in the field.

Fertility management

Compost or FYM @ lOt/ha are to be applied during initial ploughing. Fertilizer schedule

is as follows:

Nutrient requirement (kg/ha) Form Quantity (kg/ha)

For dwarf variety

N40 Urea 88

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P20 SSP 125

K20 MOP 33

For tall variety

N20 Urea 44

P 10 SSP 62

K 10 MOP 16

In absence of SSP, DAP can be applied in proportion to the quantities of N and P as

suggested. Full dose of phosphatic fertilizers is to be applied at the time of final ploughing. Half

of nitrogenous and potassic fertilizers have to be applied during 15-20 days after germination or

after first weeding. The second top dressing with the remaining quantities of N and P fertilizers

should be applied during 40- 45 days after germination or after second weeding, but not later

than panicle initiation stage.

Sowing time: The optimum time of sowing is middle of February.

Seed selection: As in Boro rice.

Seed treatment: As in Boro rice

Seed rate and sowing: Sowing is done in lines with an inter row spacing of20 cm. Seeds

are to be sown @ 75 kglha. For broadcast crop seed rate of 85-105 kg/ha is to be used.

Interculture: Weeding should preferably be done with wheel hoe, dry land weeder or

bindha followed by laddering at 3-4 weeks DAS. The second weeding should be done at 2-3

weeks after first weeding. Weeding should precede fertilizer application. Pre-emergence

herbicide Butachlor @ 2 .0 kg a.i /ha at 2-3 DAS or post-emergence herbicide 2, 4-D @ 0.8 kg

a.i/ha at 2-3 leaf stage of dicot weeds and sledges or 25-30 days after emergence of rice should

be applied.

Water management: As in Boro rice.

Plant protection

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Insect pest: As in Boro rice.

Root knot nematode: Carbafuran (Furadon 3 G) @ 3 g/sq. m or Phorate (Thimet lOG) @

1 g/sq m or Diazinon (Basudin lOG) @ 1 g/sq m is to be applied 5-7 DAS .

Diseases: As in Boro rice.

Landraces and varieties of rice of NE india

Some landraces, breeding lines and varieties of NE India are mentioned below:

LANDRACES

Arunachal Pradesh

Ashy, Panola, Choking, Susannah, Pangram, Bade, Jaiyango, Latung, Oiti, Deko, Local

black, Keieng, Lhamang, Mipun, Ahusdhan, Satya, Channadhan, Mahen, Charimpok,Tagin,

Katimahiya, Lahi, Phomang, Lengman, Halodhor, Akhodimio, Ningmaibasa, Nunmum,

Phomgman, Khodmio, Lambadhan, Mamkinkeng, Kharangchang, Chhalayaang, Khopsang,

Chihachock, Biharichameli, Samkungchameli, Lamachameli, Chameli, Chamtong, Khichang,

Kudumoni, Chakechungcham, Chakhicham, Sasaing, Chamtongli Betkhuit, Parong, Sakhi, Taisa,

Simoi, Chaliin, Sanyak, Chadown- Betguti, Yaling, Deku, Pankajichha, Chha, Chhai, Simoichha,

Tinmahinadhan, Joyadhan, Chachan, Basmotoi, Koduchechamali, Kodomungchameli

Chakhichameli, Khutarachameli, Betguti, Chameli, Boradhan, Pikhasichang, Khetichameli,

Khasenchamel~, Khuchekchameli, Kayamong, NamiNilhari, Khamtilahi, Mimiti, Tie~t: Mirap,

Mimagitchak, Minildoka, Khusho, Jorang, Khomo, RatSt Chomcha, Khroscha, Khatu, Khamang,

Mesong, Tabor, Kanchalmang, Emo Empo, Khawji, Payo, Namyi, Sangkhaw, Chamic, Frow,

Manpa. Amdang, Ahu, Kerpu, Punghng, Chuksingpa, Amiong, IC 25681, Maidang-ahu, Champhal,

Arnte-boro, Oiky, Keling, Chanka, Dajum, Bang-napdai, Nemo, Nipun, Pangra-balongba, Pyat

pyani, Miyo, Yayo, Khawnowjoma, Amo, Khaw-makhew, Seti, Impo-Elang, Ke-boro, Maibung,

Johala, Khownamtoek, Jingmik, Chomju, Bali, Yabor, Pyapon, Kamplungmang, Moping, Mahjang,

Penin, K, Khopsan, Amyong, Gyapung, Dazum, Kyummang, Immo-Eukhe, Pyare, Poppy, Anker,

Asiamkel, Daro, Impare,Ningkriahu, Khatu, Khamang, Kerpu, Jarti, Impohath, Immo Elang, Pyat

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Kogya, Ji Pyat, Pyping, Pyakhe, Pyping, Tababum, Pyping, Pyaphu, Daro, Tulu Amte Kimin,

Kamplungmag, Khaw, Makhew, Soiki, Moping, Palman, Neuly, Tyng, Makhomali, Pungngahu.

Assam

Rongali, Bondhubora, Gumini borodhan, Amrujoha, Kolajoha, Dhaliboro, Boro 1,

Seetabhog, Tulsibhog, Begonbishi, Hatibandha, Ikaraguti, Pokikola, Balam, Gomiri, Kolabora,

Panimuri Tarabali, Hatidatia, Suagmoni, Rangadoria, Kalajoha, Pokhanibora, Dumai, Koi Muruli,

Galem, Nilagi, Bardhan, Badal Sali, Betguti Sali, Kola Sali, Halodhar, Lawdubi Sali, Ekhara Sali,

Bogi Sali, Kula Sali, Ronga Sali, Jiton Sali, Bomi Sali, Badshabhog, Solpona, Kalomdani, Muga Sali,

Madari Sali, Japok Sali, Dholamuta, Monohar Sali, Bonjoha, Chakoa, Bangal Sali, Kansi

Sali,Kolijoha, Saheb Sali, Konjoha, Keteki joha, Moina Sali, Ampakhi, Manikimadhuri, Gandhi

Bora, Ghew Bora, Chakoa Bora, Nol Bora, KolongiBao, Basikolom, Maimansingiabao, Kakoa Bao,

Negheri Bao, Bira bhonga, Kati Boro,Ketura, Komoldhan, Moinagiri, Horusali, Khamtisali, Silsali,

Toraboli, Hatimulsali, Bonjoha

Manipur

Keisangba, Tondonba, Chingmorangphou, Tompuing, Bhousak, Khangola, Charongphou,

Hemant, Desa, Khongjaiphou, Morangphou, Koraiphou, Makhomubi, Jouchou, Changman,

Sulamphou, Taothalbi, Chakhao (black), Chakhao (white), Manipuri, Langmabi, Maophou,

Manipuri (small), Makhemeil, Manipuri yellow, Lethati, Chakou, Miakrilha, Changkohpal,

Mazha, Changhosam, Napdai, Changat, Phaichang, Eyroya, Hate, Nhpgai, Kohheng, Bang-

Napdai Changpalman, Charhor, Changngatpal, Langmanbi, Chana, Chao' Djiikero, Buh Bam

Kohn, Changhasan, Kolchang, Langmei, Assam Tan, Bangmai, Khhangman, Taingod, Napdai

Hangme, Makhom, Meill Changman, Maonap, Magulong, Kahinghih, Farmba,

Hnapdai,Saitralbu, Tangna, Nahpgei, Longhha.

Meghalaya

Kbalum, Manipur, Bhoiwag, Manisang, Longsong, Laispah, Shroi, Frow, Ryllowhite, Abor

red Ryllo Red, Meghalaya, Batlong, Mawkher, Leihkhyriemkho, Laispahaba, Leihkhyriem, Sohem,

Tharoh, Leiukho, Lespahnoh, Leihpasyi, Sohemiao, Kpapnah, Kpalum, Nangjugu Lyngsi, Tongla,

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Maikutsuk, Abor A, Tura, Darjeeling, Umsning, Assam, Malaria, Sohkurleh, Dullo, Thernru,

Lyngsi, Kab asawrit, Rachhangtu, Hillock, Mirikrak, Nonglwai, Ryllo white, Khonorullo, Kba

Thugmaw, Kuki, Mynri

Mizoram

Tangate, Zichum, Batetype, Ugemap,Taisanghar, Thlanchhuab, Matani, Kangpui, Idaw,

America, Mizo, Buhtial, Taiklawngh, Farate, Mizo (big), Maibasa, Maibring, Rungteinn, Buhtui,

Bahbite, Releng, Buhskhi, Ringteii, Bangbow, Taikouwn, Nagatai, Taikawnpui, Veipheitai

Taifarete, Lengpui, Kawinglawntawi, Thawkmawh, Relengwi, Rungfei, Maibasapui, Mawbuh,

Farel, Maotai, Tai, Rungtai, Birichuk, Kawnlong Taikarlang, Lawngtlai, Lawngtalawai, Chinairi,

MP 2, LP 8, Horipui, Baitarisno, Pawnbuh, Sihletma, Ngarempaoo, Mang, Champhai, Tui,

Rangoon, Manbuh, Bu, Fazaitai, Trai, Traivuban,Buhchi, Idaw, Boban, Buhbantharam, Buhpui,

Puthalama, Mangbuh, Zorambuh, Fangsang, Fangsin, Zotawuh, Buhbawn, Tialte, Zerusalem,

Ngokawi, Rengkoi, Americabuh, Nonglwai, Majhera, LT 4, LT 2, LT 3, LP 9, LT 9, LP 6, LP 5,

Bapnah, Lakang, LP 7, Lumum, Heijong, Midokru, Mantai, Chinairi, Manusal, Leiletbuh,

Maibiring, Thalnchhuah, Buhte, Kangpui, Taisanghar, Farete, Pumphir, Phulbuh, Taibialbuh,

Maibiring

Nagaland

Nagaland Sinsatsu, Henigido, Akatan, Kemehyasopa, Kemenhya, Ngoba, Mikotchuwakelu,

Mikudep, Sarang, Sarengma, Misarengma, Khulong, Misokmil, Mitonging, Yaribatsuk, Moyatsuk,

Maikutsuk, Pangnakla, Geartsuk, Mamen, Yirnontsuk, Makuktanakla, Meserong, Kiyirtsuk,

Maikumapuk, Nagaland special.

Sikkim

Sannodhan, Lambadhan, Sunidhan, Sunodhan, Motodhan, Jharodhan, Sundari, Galodhan,

Paukhidhan, Dhan 1, Laxmidhan, Koetodhan, Palidhan, Dosaradhan, Setino, Khanato, Putodhan,

Manglidhan, Nampokdhan, Mehadhan, Galaidhan, Mangthan, Sundoriodhan, Pakidhan,

Latodhan, Bhayodhan, Bihundhan, Didhan, Dukadhan,Ahodhan, Parodhan, Rajodhan, Batodhan,

Samidhan, Pedhonilo, Pithodhan, Sikkadhan, Sunntadhan, Sekiteli, Lahudhan, Addy, Thapachini,

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Nardikalma, Chirakey, Kalakalas, Ramlakni, Dutkalani, Laskansal, Bhasamanik, Jhapaka

Tripura

Mepfbaw, Bungpet, Rangagellong, Chunglei, Nobdumli, Leitan, Sahoksan, Noining, Changman,

Dulakmorong, Anning, Billrong, Ningsi, Maicassak, Biralbinni, Khawai, Bagonbejon, Bamkoilua, Paijong,

Kalisatiya, Chanmouri, Rangoonbuh, Binni, Sonamukhi, Meli, Jhummalati, Bethi, Sarendyama, Maidani,

Charui, Karnram, Billrong, Dulakanrong, Garomaloti

BREEDING LINES

Arunachal Pradesb

AR 73, AR 11-125-1-1, AR 11-929-1-3, AR 87

Assam

TTB 17-1, TTB 15-1, D 208-2, M 37-2, D 51-1, M 135-3, AS 189, AS 363, AS 789, AS 24-1,

ASC 1520-85,AS 12-2, AS 786, B 21, BSI, B 144, B 157, B 32, B 156, B 153, B 52

Manipur

RCM6, RCM5

Meghalaya

RCPL 1-7C, RCPL 10C, RCPL 1-87-4, RCPL 3-5, RCPL 4-12, RCPL 3-8, RCPL 4-18, RCPL 3-4,

RCPL 1-14, RCPL 3-6, RCPL 1-4p, RCPL 1-13, RCPL 4-2, RCPL 4-16, RCPL 1-8, RCPL 1-6, RCPL

1· 5p, RCPL 4-7, RCPL 1-12, RCPL 3-2, RCPL 1-129, RCPL 7-5

Tripura

TRC 64-10-1, TRC 8776, TRC 87-251,TRC 87-252, TRC 10,

TRC 64-104, TRC 96-122

VARIETIES

Assam

Ahu (Photoperiod insensitive varieties)

Kala Dumai

(Kmj D 138-6)

Lal Dumai

(Kmj D 204-1)

Kmj. M 36-30 Koimurali

(Kmj M 142)

Dholajali

(Kmj M 175-1)

Chengri 1

(Kmj C 148-1)

Chengri 2

(Kmj C 203-5)

Basmati

(Kmj As 3)

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Basantabahar

(Kmj As 24-1)

Kasalath

(Kmj As 2)

Jaria

(Kmj As 46)

Rangadaria

(TTBAs 86

Fapori

(TTB As 25)

Farma

(TTBAs 35)

Garemahu

(TTBAs 20-1)

Dubaichenga

(TTBAs 48)

([Developed through pure line selection]

Aus Hybrid I (Kasalath x Basmati)

Ahu Cross

(Rangadaria x Dacca No. 6)

[Developed through hybridization]

Sali (Photoperiod sensitive and tall)

Latisali

(Kmj S 22)

Nagrasali

(Kmj S 156)

Prasadbhog

(Kmj S 61)

Badshabhog

(Kmj S 155)

Dhepisali

(Kmj S 161)

Ahomsali

(TTB SL 70)

Fulgai (TTB S 114) Latamaguri

(TTB S 115)

Bengolijoha

(TTB SJ 226)

Gomiribora

(TTB S B 279)

Laudumra

(TTB S 126)

Jahori

(TTB SL 240)

Kanaimuluk

(TTB SL 533)

Lakhimijoha (TTB SL

311)

Kalamadani

(TTB SL 202)

TTB S 36

[Developed through pure line selection]

Vijoysali

(Latisali x Georzesali)

Kerrsali (Nagrasali x Mainasali) Sali Hybrid 3

(Nagarasali x Dhepisali)

Swarnasali

(Latisali X Guachari)

Sali Hybrid 5

(Vijoysali X Kerrsali)

Handiquesali

(Vijoysali x Kerrsali )

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Monoharsali

(Latisali x Guachari)

Andrewsali

(Latamaguri x Lakhimijoha)

Sali Hybrid

(Latamaguri x Lakhimijoha)

TTB SC 406-93

(Latamaguri X Lakhimijoha)

[Developed through hybridization)

Asra and Bao (Photoperiod sensitive and tall)

Sailbadal

(KmjAr1)

Laki

(Kmj Ar 2)

Birpak

(Kmj Ar 28)

Dholabadal

(Kmj Ar 108-1)

Bagdar

(Hbj Aman I A-13-20)

Godalaki

(Hbj Aman IIA-I92)

Gowai

(Hbj Aman IllA-38-13)

Dudhlaki

(Hbj Aman IV A-185)

Dholaaman

(Hbj Aman V A-51-I)

Nagheribao

(EB 1)

Kolongibao

(EB 2)

Kekoabao (EB 3) Padmapani

Developed through pure line selection

AsraHybrid

(Salibadol x

Latisali)

AsraHybrid

(Salibadal x

Birpak)

Lachit

(CRM 13-3241 x Kalinga IT)

Chilarai Gopinath Luit, Kapilee

(IR 24 x CR 44-118-1) (Pusa 221 x IR 36) (Heera x Annada)

M:adhab Kmj 1-19-1, Rongdoi

(IR8xCh63) Kmj 1-17-2 (rasadbhogxIR8)

(Monoharsali x IR 8)

Ranjit.Bahadur; Kushal, Moniram, Piolee Barak

(Pankaj x Mahsuri) (Pankaj x Mahsuri)

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Hybrid 14 Longai Satyaranjan

(indica x ( Pusa 2-21 x (lET 9711 x

japonica) China 63) lET 11162)

Basundhara Rongilee, Bhogali Aghoni

(lET 8711 x (Ghewbora x (Gandhibora x

lET 11161) Kmj 1-52-22) Kmj 1-52-2)

Paresh Ketekijoha Panindra, Padmanath

(Ghewbora x (Savitry x (Pankaj x

Kmj 1-52-2) Badshabhog) Jagannath)

Jyoti Prasad, Bishnu Prasad Joymati

(K 343-29-1-1 x Suweon 334) (Joya x Mahsuri)

[Developed through hybridization]

Boro

B 111-17 (Hbj Boro

1)

Hbj Boro V

B 43-11

(Hbj Boro IT)

Saliboro

(HBJ Boro Ill)

(B 16-3

(Hbj Boro IV)

[Developed through pure line selection; source: Pathak, 2001]

Rice varieties developed/identified by ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region

Khonorullo, NEH Megha Rice 1 , NEH Megha Rice 2 , Ngoba, RC Manipbou 4, RC Manipbou 5,

RC Manipbou 6, RC Manipbou 7, TRC-Borodhan-1, Bhalum1 & 2, Lumpnah 1, Sahsarang1,

Lungniaphou

Medicinal value of rice

• Biochemical characterizations of north eastern rice germplasm were done by several

workers at ICAR Research Complex, Manipur University and Gauhati University. At ICAR

Complex, Umiam, Premila Devi and Patnaik (2008) analyzed a group of medicinal rice

genotypes endosperm constituents. Devi and Pattanayak (2008) also studied some

biochemical parameters and etno-pharmacological uses of some medicinal rice

genotypes of Manipur.

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• Medicinal rice diversity in NEH region of India: Some rice varieties and cultivars are

being used for medicinal purposes in this part of India (Table 7).

• Table 7. Ethno-pharmacological uses of uses of rice in north eastern hill region of India

Disease Predominant

cultivar of rice used

State Preparation Mode of application

Dysentery Sticky rice cultivars

e.g., Moirangphou,

Phouren, Chahou

amubi, Chahou

poireiton.

Manipur Rice kernel is

roasted on pan

and powdered

with pine resin

The powder is given

orally

Muscular

sprain

Sticky rice varieties Manipur Sticky rice is

cooked. Wood

charcoal is

powdered and

smashed with

the coked rice

The paste resulting

from this mixture is

applied on the area,

covered with banana

leaf and bound to fix

and left overnight

Dog bite Any local cultivar Manipur Raw polished

rice is chewed

Chewed rice is applied

on the bitten area.

Then one silver coin is

placed on it for

sometime

Reduced

eye sight

Any local cultivar Manipur Rice husk is

rubbed with ripe

banana, the

resulting paste is

strained through

muslin cloth

The filtrate is soaked in

cotton and applied on

the eyelids

Mouth

ulcer

Chahou amubi,

Moirangphou and

sticky cultivars

Manipur Chewing Raw milled rice is

chewed

Hypersens

itivity of

teeth

Chahou amubi,

Moirangphou and

sticky cultivars

Manipur Chewing Raw milled rice is

chewed

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Easy

labour

and

healthy

baby

Chahou poireiton Manipur Cooked rice Cooked rice is included

in the diet

Scanty

lactation

Chahou amubi Manipur Cooked rice Cooked rice is given

orally with sugar

Dandruff Sticky cultivars Manipur Rice water Rice water is boiled

with some herbs.

Filtered and filtrate is

applied, leaved for few

minutes and rinsed

with water

Skin

allergy

Luwai Meghalay

a

Raw rice powder Raw rice powder is

applied on the area

Tonsillitis Local cultivars Meghalay

a

Wine prepared

from rice

powder

The wine is given orally

• Some medicinal cultivars are already collected and quality study is being done. Notably

some of them are high iron, high methionine and high calcium. Some of them possess

antibacterial activities against some pathogenic bacteria.

Indigenous traditional knowledge on rice cultivation in North East India

The ITK is developed through wisdom and experience of farming community from time

immemorial. The traditional technologies are eco-friendly as these are free from use of

chemicals. This is an imperative need for sustainable agriculture. ITK is largely location specific

and there has been good scope to include ITK as an integral part of integrated crop

management. Rautray, (2002) discussed in details the ITK prevalent on rice in eastern and NE

India.

Selection of seed

The farmers select the bold grains for seed purpose. Fields having healthy crop growth

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are selected for selecting seeds. Second selection done in the threshing floor. While threshing

manually, the bold seeds that are easily shattered by the first two beatings are considered. This

process is effective in separating out the partially filled and diseased grains. The seeds selected

by this process possess more vigour.

Storage of seeds

Rice seeds stored in straw bin (locally known as tom in Assam) for next year sowing

poses better viability than the seeds stored in gunny bags. Several layers of paddy straw

covering the seeds act as barrier for circulation of atmospheric air into it. Thus the atmospheric

air with high humidity does not enter into the seed mass. The microenvironment with low

humidity helps in decreasing the pest activity and hence maintains seed viability for a longer

period.

Sowing time

Farmers sow deep and semi-deep water rice when the mole cricket (Gyllotapa africana)

starts creating sound. The insect makes its presence in the month of April in Assam indicating

the early advancement of monsoon and early sowing of bao rice (deep water rice) which

concedes with the real situation. The insect creates high pitch sound during its flight from trees

to trees. This biological change is very much perceptible due to frequent high pitch sound and

usually occurs during May.

Double transplanting of rice seedlings

Double transplanting is a method for seedling multiplication under seedling scarcity

situation. This situation usually arises when the established crop is damaged in field by flood. For

lower Assam situation, photoperiod sensitive rice varieties flowering in the last week of October

are ideal. Seeds of suitable varieties are sown in nursery in the month of June and transplanted

at one-month age in the second nursery. The second nursery should be in shallow low land,

where the risk of damaging the seedlings from flood is free. As the objective is to multiply the

seedlings, the transplanted seedlings in second nursery are uprooted. Hills are spitted into small

ones, each containing two tillers. Such small hills are transplanted in the main field. Even in

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absence of flood, seedlings raised through double transplanted technique and used at about

two-months stage perform better than the normal seedlings transplanted at one-month stage.

Double transplanting is thus desirable as contingent measure in flood prone low lands of Assam.

Water management

Frequent croaking by frog indicates happening of rainfall and accordingly farmers

schedule their irrigation and drainage practices.

In Boro season, low temperature in the northeastern region severely restricts growth

and subsequently leads to death of rice seedling in nursery. In order to partly overcome this

problem, farmers irrigate the rice fields in the afternoon and drain away the cold water in the

rooming. Water is having high specific heat (1 cal/g/°C) as compared to soil. Hence, it absorbs

more solar energy during daytime as compared to soil. Due to high specific heat, water gets

cooled slowly and thus keeps the plants warmer during night. By morning, water gets cooled and

its drainage helps exposure of soil to direct sunlight and fast warming up.

Mixed sowing

Farmers in Assam follow the practice of mixed sowing of ahu (pre-autumn upland rice)

and bao (semi-deep and deep water rice) rice in flood prone rainfed lowlands. This provides an

insurance against the total crop failure in the event of aberrant rainfall in terms of time of

occurrence with respect to crop growth stage, or total amount and its distribution, finally

leading to drought or flood. In the years of early season deficit rainfall and slow rate of water

accumulation in field, the drought tolerant ahu rice becomes successful and the bao crop fails.

However, if there is early season flood, then the flood tolerant bao crop becomes successful.

Hence, mixed cropping of ahu and bao provides a minimum assured yield in the event of

abnormal rainfall situation.

Rice-cum-fish-culture

In northeastern region water stagnates in the low-lying rice fields for prolonged period

providing favourable habitat for fish farming. Farmers, therefore, adopt rice-cum-fish-culture to

utilize the natural resource of stagnating water. This system is also practiced in Apatani valley in

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Arunachal Pradesh since time immemorial (Melkania, 2001; Choudhary et al., 1993). The paddy

fields with one or two feet standing water, locally known as pani kheti are used for this system.

Rice-cum- fish-culture provides ample scope to increase fish production.

Control of stink bug/gundhi bug

Stinkbug or gundhibug (Leptocorisa varicornis Fab. And L. acuta Thun.) is of economic

importance from flowering to milking stages of rice crop. Both nymphs and adults of stink bug

suck the milky sap of tender rice grains. Affected grains in the panicle turn into white chaffy. The

insect is active from May to October coinciding with high atmospheric temperature and

humidity. This destructive pest usually appears in the rice field at the time of panicle emergence.

Weeds, volunteer rice and wild rice act as collateral host for this pest. Round the year rice

cultivation in lower Assam also favours their perpetuation. In Assam, boro

(November/December- April/May), early ahu (January/ February - April/May), ahu (March/April-

June/July) and Sali (May/ June – October/November) season rice are affected by this pest.

Trapping, repelling and encouraging predatory birds are traditional technologies of farmers to

control this pest without involving monetary insects.

Control of stinkbugs by trapping with rotten crabs or eels (Amphipuous cuchia) by

hanging dead crabs or eels (after breaking the shell) in rice fields with the help of threads

attached to bamboo sticks. Stink bugs are attracted by the rotten smell of these trapping

materials and feed on these. At this point, it is easy to kill the pest mechanically with the help of

a net or by fire. The rotten eels attract more number of bugs than the rotten crabs and the

former can act as trap material for 8 - 10 days as compared to 5 - 6 days .of the latter. Eight to

ten traps when used m the beginning 0f flowering (before the pest population build up) will be

effective in managing the bug population. Fresh water crabs and eels are available in the entire

Brahmaputra valley. Stinkbugs are repelled away with the smell and odour emending from the

peels of grape fruit (Citus paradisica). The bugs are active on rice panicles at milking stage. When

the peels of grape fruit are kept in the rice field at flowering or milking stage, the bugs repel

away. Grape fruits are plenty during this period making this technology feasible.

Birds like sky lark (gurkha baduli) are effective predators to control stinkbug. Providing

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supports like bamboo or wooden sticks at canopy level encourages the presence of these birds

in rice field. The predatory birds sit on these supports and eat away both the nymphs and adults

of stink bug. These birds do not feed on rice grains. Depending on pest pressure, 20-30 such

supports per acre are sufficient for effective management of stinkbug. However, the population

of this beneficial bird has of late been drastically reduced.

In Arunachal Pradesh (West Siang, East Siang, Lower Subansiri and Upper Subansiri

districts), as soon as the pest appears in the field during flowering local farmers fix several short

woodenlbamboo sticks randomly at certain intervals at rice fields (both lowland and upland

conditions). Then dead frogs/crabs are placed on the top of each stick. As the dead frogs/crabs

get rotten and start to emit foul smell, adult gundhibugs are attracted by this foul smell and

gather in mass on the rotten frogs/crabs. Sometimes farmers also seen to tie pieces of salted

fish with each stick. The reasoning behind this local practice is that until or unless emitting of

this foul smell stops, adult gundhibugs remain busy in large numbers with these rotten

frogs/crabs/fishes kept on sticks for at least 5-6 days. In the mean time, milk stage of rice florets

turn into thick dough stage. Naturally gundhibugs then do not prefer to feed on rice florets and

damage to rice grains is automatically reduced (Singh and Bag, 2002).

Growing dhaincha

Farmers believe that growing dhaincha plants on the field border is beneficial. They also

put the twigs of trees at few points in the field. The twigs provide habitats for natural enemies

like spider, dragonfly etc. Dhaincha is also a nitrogen fixer in symbiosis with rhizobium.

Scaring away of sparrows

Sparrows are very common pest in rice fields at maturity of thecrop in the northeastern

region. These little birds move in groups and cause sufficient yield loss by eating away

the grains. Fanners scare away by them keeping the black-coloured pseudostems of

arum (Colocassia sps) above the canopy level at the crop maturity stage. The

pseudostems are given the shape ofthe head of the snake by sharpening with a knife

and then these are mounted on bamboo sticks. The structures are erected in rice fields

at some interval so that the dark coloured- pseudostems remain about 5 cm above the

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canopy level. This mimics the head of snake and hence sparrows are scared away.

Farmers of Arunachal Pradesh employ a bow shaped noose trap for trapping the birds

damaging paddy. One end of the bow is made into a small triangle by means of cane or

bamboo strips. Onthe other end of the bow is fixed a string with a wooden spike. In

order to set the trap, the bow is given tension by fixing the wooden spike lightly inside

the triangle forming a noose on which the bait is placed. As a bird attracted by the bait,

sits on the noose, its weight presses the wooden spike and releases the bow, which

shoots up and strangles the bird in between the string and side of the triangle. This trap

is very effective for killing small birds. The trap is usually fixed on the branches of trees.

Grain storage and rat trap

Grains are stored with the leaves of neem (Azadirechta indica) or tulsi (Ocimum

basilicumi. After spreading the leaves from top of the storage structures, it is closed. The smell

of these leaves keeps the insects away from the structures. Fanners believe that the wood ash is

effective in controlling pests in stored grains. It is specifically used in seed small storage. The ash

is mixed with grains based on the extent of infestation, quantity of grains and storage structures.

Nahu (granary), an Adi traditional system of storing rice is a highly scientific storage

system in Arunachal Pradesh. A cluster of nahu storage system can be seen at the one corner of

village of Adi tribes. The nahu constructed in one corner of the village away from living houses so

that if there is accident of'fire in the living houses of the village, granary (nahu) is not affected.

Capacity of a single nahu varies from few quintals to 200 q depending upon the size and richness

of the family. The locally available took leaf iLivistona jenkinsianai, bamboo, wooden planks and

cane are used for construction of nahu. Foot of each plank is put on stone to avoid its contact

with moist soil. To stop rats to enter the nahu, rectangular or round wooden container is put in

each foot of the standing system. The grains are stored by making airtight compartments made

up of bamboo mats.

Nishi tribe of Arunachal pradesh also uses rat traps called gurung. the trap is made up

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oftauk(thin bamboo) with long internodes. They put the trap nearby hole in the house or paddy

field. In this trap, neck of rat gets tied, when it enters the trap and dies. The rats are also used

for food depending upon their size.

In Meghalaya, the Garos use grain storage structures made up of thatch grass, bamboo

and wooden poles. They fit inverted tin container in the foot of the structures to prevent rat

damage. This simple technique keeps away rats very effectively.

Some other ITK practiced by farmers of NE India (Sanna et al.,2002) are:

• To check multiplication of stem borers, which lay eggs on top portion of leaves, farmers

cut top portion of Sali rice seedlings before transplanting.

• To frighten birds and animals, fanners keep human status model made of thatch in rice

fields.

• For control of paddy leaf roller, farmers in West Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh cut

bamboo shoots into pieces and spray in rice fields after soaking in water overnight.

• To reduce excessive vegetative growth, the practice of allowing grazing animals in

standing bao rice fields during tillering stage is seen in many areas of Assam.

• To reduce growth of weeds, farmers in West Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh and

Kohima distrct of Nagaland apply common salt-water solution in upland rice crop.

Constraints in rice production

These constraints are briefly discussed below:

(i) Abiotic Stress :

Problem soil, low temperature and low sunshine hour and high rainfall pattern are

major abiotic constraints. Soils in the region are usually rich in organic matter and are acidic to

strongly acidic in reaction. It is now well documented that soil acidity leads to deficiency of some

essential plant nutrients as well as creates elemental toxicity thereby adversely affecting the

crop growth. The optimum pH congenial for nutrient availability to crop plants remain non-

existent in acid soils. It is indicated that 95% of soils of NE staes excepting Nagaland (77%) are

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acidic in reaction. Soils in the region are rich in total nitrogen due to presence of high amount of

organic matter. The content of organic matter and all forms of N and C:N ratio tend to increase

with elevation. The soils are deficient in available phosphorous due to high content of

exchangeable aluminium. High aluminium causes severe toxicity under upland condition. Under

lowland condition iron toxicity is common in the hill states.

Low temperature prevailing for considerable period of time, particularly in the hilly

areas, limits the total period of time available for rice crop and thus limits multiple cropping. In

high altitude areas of Meghalaya, it has been found that delaying transplanting after 20th

June

leads to yield reduction up to 60%. Studies have shown that as the temperature decreases in

hilly areas, translocation of soluble sugar and phosphorus to the developing grains gets

adversely affected resulting in chaffy grains. In addition, areas affected by low temperature, the

absorption of phosphorus also gets reduced. Rice grown in high altitude areas of Meghalaya,

Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Sikkim suffers from low temperature both at vegetative as

well as at reproductive phase while in mid-altitude areas of Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh,

Mizoram and Sikkim, the crop suffers from low temperature at reproductive phase only. Pre-

kharif crop of Manipur as well as boro rice grown in the low altitude areas of the region

experiences low temperature at vegetative phase.

The entire region experiences maximum cloudiness during monsoon. Average sunshine

hour in the region is the lowest in the country and ranges from 2 - 3 hours/day during monsoon

season and 6 - 8 hours/day during rest of the year. Fog accumulation at higher altitudes during

winter months reduces availability of solar radiation to the crop during growing period.

Major part of the region receives high rainfall (2000mm) of which 70 -90% is received

during pre-monsoon to monsoon period (April - October). High rainfall causes very high humidity

during growth stage of rice leading to increased incidence of disease and pests.

High rainfall also reduces fertility, increases incidence of grain discolouration and

damages mature grains. Although there is plenty of rain in the area during monsoon, short

periods of drought are common. In addition, rice crop in upper terraces face water scarcity due

to low water retention capacity. Flood is one of the major problems during the main kharif

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season in plain and low altitude areas of Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura. In addition, occasional

heavy rainfall causes complete submergence of the crop for several days in wet terraces.

(ii) Biotic Stress:

Major biotic factors that influence rice production in the northeastern hills are-

diseases, insect pests, rodents and weeds. Rice blast is endemic and major disease of the region.

Leaf and neck blast are common and both together cause yield loss ranging from 40 - 46%. Of

late, sheath blight has emerged as an important disease and is well distributed in Manipur and

Nagaland. Brown spot and bacterial leaf blight are other important diseases at low and mid-

altitude areas of Meghalaya and Nagaland, respectively. Sheath rot is assuming greater

importance in high altitude areas. Leaf scald and grain discoloration are also widespread in the

entire NEH region. Leaf scald generally appears at the maturity stage of the rice crop and,

therefore, does not cause severe damage. Grain discoloration, which causes reduced

germination, decay of seedlings and lowers quality, is a major problem in both upland and

lowland rice.

Stem borer and gundhi bug are major insect pests of the region. Areas adjoining

Bangladesh and Assam are infested by rice hispa and gall midge. In addition, root aphid and root

weevil are serious problems of upland rice. At higher altitudes of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya

and agaland, gundhi bug and thrips cause major damage.

Rodents cause severe damage to paddy from nursery to harvested grains in storage. In

the EH region, damage to standing crop of paddy range from 4.6 - 16.8% in lowland and 3.9 -

12.9% in upland. The problem is severe in Mizoram, Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh.

In high rainfall area like NEH region, weed is a great problem especially in upland rice

where puddling is not possible. Under upland condition, weeds often emerge along with the

crop and compete with the main crop for moisture, nutrient, light and space. This is one of the

reasons why farmers prefer to grow tall local cultivars, which show fast initial growth. It has

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been found that in upland, the yield of rice is directly proportional to the percentage of weed

control. Grasses, sedges and broad-leaf weeds thrive in upland situation. Some of the common

weeds of upland are Digitaria sanguinalis, Eleusine indica, Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon,

Ageratum conyzoides, Euphorbia hirta, etc. Under lowland situation, direct seeded crop faces

the same weed problem as the upland crop, however, at the later stages both direct seeded and

transplanted crop face problem of aquatic weeds. Some common weeds of lowland are

Echinocola colona, E. crusgalli, Cyperus iria, C. pilosus, Ludwigia octovalvis, Commelina

benghalensis.

(iii) Technological Constraints :

Among the various constraints under this group, location specific high yielding varieties

(HYVs) and their adoption are most important. Only about 20% of the rice growing area in the

region is under modern varieties. Because of wide variation in agroclimatic conditions varietal

requirements are highly specific and a good number of HYVs are needed to fulfill requirement.

The second major constraint is availability of quality seeds in sufficient quantity. As the seed

requirement of any individual variety is low, it is uneconomical for national agencies to produce

seeds of these varieties. A sound and coordinated seed production programme is absent in

almost all states of the region. Seed storage facilities available in the region are inadequate and

not properly equipped to protect against high humidity.

Non-availability of improved farm tools and machineries suitable for the terrain of the

region within purchasing power of the small and marginal farmers is another constraint which

limits rice production in the region. About 49% of the women work force in the region is

involved in rice farming and related agricultural production systems. Traditional farm tools and

rnachineries are rather primitive and heavy for women workers.

Higher yield cannot be attained in any crop without proper crop management even if

other inputs such as fertilizer, water and plant protection measures are used adequately. Proper

crop geometry, seed rate, timely sowing, transplanting and timely harvesting are important

aspects, which deserve consideration. Widespread practice of subsistence agriculture does not

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allow the farmers to go for proper crop management. As a result, rice is invariably grown under

poor management.

Strategies and modern techniques to enhance rice production in NER

Out of the present deficiency of 1.6 million tones of food grains in the region, 1.0

million tonne deficiency is in rice alone. Main strategy to increase rice production should be

through:

• Developing altitude specific varieties and packages in a participatory mode involving

farmers in selection process of such varieties to achieve an average production of 2.2

tfha from the present level of l.8 t/ha from 3.5 million ha of rice area i.e. a gain of 1.4

million tones.

• Introducing double cropping in at least 25 - 30% of valley land areas of l.5 million ha. i.e.

a gain of l.12 million tones.

• Promoting irrigation facilities by tapping both surface and ground water resources.

Present irrigation potential is only 0.88 mhm which needs to be increased to at least 1.6

mhm by tapping the water resources of 42.5 mhm in the region.

• Breeder seed production for the developed varieties by the concerned institute/

universities, easy access to such seeds need to be ensured. Encouragement and training

to youth groups and SHGs for seed production and delivery.

• In addition to the above, rice varieties for the shifting cultivation areas should be

developed to achieve an yield of 1.2 t/ha from the present level of 0.7 t/ha i.e. a gain of

0.8 million tones of rice particularly of glutinous type.

• Protection and characterization of existing and new germplasm and appending the

information to already available database for sharing the information at regional and

national level as well as for future use. This is needed to develop a statewise bioresource

inventory by the year 2015 and categorise risk level of various germplasm.

• Molecular characterization of important germplasm for protection of IPR issues and to

find out gene flow pattern in highly endangered species of agricultural importance.

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• Establishment of a community rice bio-parks to provide information to general public

about conservation needs, judicious and diversified utilization and open up avenues for

employment.

• Demarcation of around 50% jhum areas for organic rice production based on the

availability of infrastructure like road, power, storage facilities, marketing, credit facilities

and government support.

• Initially 25% of jhum land per annum may be brought under organic cultivation for three

years and remaining 25% in equal proportion in next 2 years. In this way 50% of jhum

areas will be covered by 2020. This would result in 15-20% increase in production with

20-30% increase in farm income by 2025.

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References

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Chaudhary, R.G, Dwivedi, R.N., Dutta, K.K., Sarma, B.K., Patel, C.S. & Prasad, R.N. 1993.

Rice based farming of Apatani - an efficient indigenous system of hill farming. Indian

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Datta, K.K., Prakash, N., Devi, P. & Vishwakarma, AK. 2006. Steps Towards Optimizing Rice

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status paper on rice in north east india - rkmp paper... · rice is the principal food grain crop...

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