Information Processes & Technology

Project Management

St Joseph’s Catholic College

Outline

Project Management

Social and Ethical Design

System Development Cycle

Useful Web Sites

Sample HSC Questions

Project Management

Project management focuses on a project. - a beginning - an end

Meets established goals within cost, schedule, and quality objectives.

Coordination of a number of phases to successfully achieve identified goals.

Ref: 6, 7, 10

Project Management

These phases include –

o understanding the problem,

o plan o designing solutions,

o implementing and

o testing, evaluating and maintaining.

Ref: 4

Developing a Project Plan

Planning is crucial in project management. Planning means listing in detail what is required to

successfully complete the project along the three critical dimensions of -

quality,

time, and

cost. Ref: 6, 7

Developing a Project Plan

A project plan is a summary of a project that specifies who, what, how and when.

It clarifies what needs to be done and helps people to understand how they fit into the project.

Ref: 6, 7, 10

Developing a Project Plan

A project plan usually breaks the project into major tasks called subprojects.

It must provide an overall schedule, the details of the subprojects and a schedule for each subproject.

It must also identify the people, information technology and data/information required by the system.

Ref: 6, 7, 10

Developing a Project Plan

Project goal—the result of the project if it is successful. Goals may be broad or they may be very specific.

Deliverable—a tangible item expected from a task. It may be a diagram, report, data dictionary, program or training manual.

Schedule—shows the timing of major tasks and who will do the work. The success of a new system depends on accurate time estimates for each task.

Ref: 6, 7, 10

Software

Project plans are constructed using InformationManagement Software or Project ManagementSoftware.

Information management software helps individuals conducting a project to manage information and schedule tasks. 

Project management software contains most of the features of information management software.

Ref: 6, 7, 10

Communication Skills

Active listening - involves restating, reflecting and summarising the speaker’s major ideas and feelings. - active listeners encourage the speaker and are non-committal.

Conflict resolution - solves arguments and disputes. - it involves listening to the other person’s views and looking at the conflict as a problem to be solved. - the aim is to create a “win-win” situation.

Ref: 4, 10

Communication Skills

Negotiation skills - negotiation is a discussion between two parties with a goal of reaching agreement on issues.

Interview techniques - involve careful preparation, implementation and follow-up.

Team building - is the process of getting a group of people working together.

Ref: 4, 10

Ref: 9

Social and Ethical Design

Machine-centred systems are designed to simplify what the computer must do at the expense of participants.

Human-centred systems are those which make participants’ work as effective and as satisfying as possible.

User-friendly describes a tool that people find easy to use.

System Design

Ref: 1, 4, 10

Work Environment

Health and safety - eg. ergonomics - furniture, information technology, environmental factors.

Changing nature of work –This includes - deskilling, multi-skilling and in some cases redundancy. Will anyone lose their job or will new jobs be created?

Ref: 4, 10

Work Environment

Ethics is a set of beliefs we hold about what is right and wrong.

There are a number of issues involving the use of information systems that many people are concerned about.

These include -

-         environmental impact

-         equity and access

Ref: 4, 10

Work Environment

Equity concerns equal rights for all. It means that all people should have equal access to the benefits of information technology - this includes gender equity.

Invasion of privacy Privacy - computer technology allows personal information to be distributed faster and further than previously before.

Control (rights and privileges) Control is the level of direct involvement that people have in decision making.

Ref: 4, 10

Work Environment

Freedom of information Individuals have the right to access information

regarding themselves.

Computer crimeComputer crime can be broadly defined as any illegal or immoral activity that could not work without the use of a computer.

CopyrightCopyright laws protect the rights of an author against cases of piracy.

Ref: 4, 10

Understanding the Problem

Plan

Designing SolutionsImplementing the Solution

Testing, evaluating & maintaining

Change in purpose

Change type of system

Change system

Change use of system

Problem with system

U P D I T

System Development

Cycle

SDC

Ref: 4, 10

Understanding the Problem

Preliminary Investigation

A preliminary investigation, or requirement definition, determines whether a quick fix of the existing system will solve the problem or a new system is necessary.

The project plan is created in this stage. Participants. Participants play an important

part in developing a workable system. Participants are people involved in the

planning, design and implementation.

Ref: 4, 10

Preliminary Investigation

Data collection methods

Data is collected tounderstand theproblem andto develop anappropriate solution.

o interviews,

o surveys,

o observations and

o measurements.

Ref: 4, 10

Problem Definition

Provides a clear definition of the problem, which needs to be solved.

Ref: 4

Ref: 9

Requirements Report

The requirements report is a statement about the need for a new system.

It outlines the aims and objectives of the new system and how it will help the organisation.

The requirement report is based on data collected from the participants.

Ref: 4, 8, 10

Negotiating specifications with the client

If there is a client involved who must accept the project upon completion, the specifications that define a successful outcome must be negotiated and agreed to by the client, and included as part of the contract.

A client may be either internal or external. There may also be more than one client.

Ref: 4, 8, 10

Prototype

A prototype is a working model of an information system, built in order to understand the requirements of the system.

Used when the problem is not easily understood.

Involves a repetitive process of prototype modification and participants' feedback, until the process is understood.

Can be the basis for further system development.

Ref: 4, 8, 10

Ref: 9

Prototype

Prototypes can be created from application packages that provide screen generators and report generators.

There are advantages and disadvantages in using a prototype.

Ref: 4, 8, 10

Prototype - Advantages

The requirements of the system more accurately reflect the needs of the participants.

Participants earlier involvement - this may reduce the number of changes required by the participants in the testing, evaluating and maintaining stage.

The new system is easier to create from a prototype.

Ref: 4, 8, 10

Prototype - Disadvantages

The greater involvement of the participants could impact on their work with the old system.

The repetitive process of the prototype can be frustrating if the succeeding versions do not provide a better solution.

Successful prototypes can produce software that is difficult to maintain, unreliable or inadequate. This may occur if any design restrictions are not taken into account when creating the prototype.

Ref: 4, 8, 10

Questions

Name the system you investigated

What was the problem with the system you investigated?

Who are the participants?

What data gathering methods did you use?

Describe your development of the prototype.

What was the outcome of the prototype you developed?

Planning

This stage involves making decisions using the data gathered in the preliminary investigation

A constraint is a factor that affects the system and prevents it from achieving the desired objectives.

There are different types of constraints, such as -

financial environmental

technical personal

Planning

Ref: 4, 8, 10

Feasibility Study

A feasibility study is a short report that analyses potential solutions in terms of the known constraints and makes a recommendation.

The feasibility study briefly examines the available options, estimates costs and identifies any constraints to be considered.

Ref: 4, 8, 10

Economic Feasibility

Economic feasibility compares the costs of developing the new system with the expected benefits.

A financial analyst is often asked to assess economic feasibility. Economic feasibility is also called cost/benefit feasibility.

Ref: 4, 8, 10

Technical Feasibility

Technical feasibility determines the information technology requirements of the new system and the technical demands that will be placed on the new system.

Ref: 4, 10

Schedule Feasibility

Schedule feasibility determines whether time is available to implement the new system.

Ref: 4, 10

Organisational Feasibility

Organisational feasibility determines whether the new system will fit into the organisation and meet the current goals and objectives.

It also determines whether the new system will have enough support from participants to be successfully implemented and whether participants can operate the system.

Ref: 4, 10

Recommendation Options

A feasibility study has three recommendation options

no change

develop a new system

investigate other solutions

Ref: 4, 10

Analysis Report

The details of the new system are presented, along with recommendations for design, implementation and maintenance.

The analysis report contains -

design specifications

a more detailed project plan

Ref: 4, 10

Risks involved

Risk is the exposure to potential threats to the project.

They differ from constraints in that they are not definite but possess some likelihood of occurrence.

Risks are identified and classified as Low Risk Medium Risk High Risk

Ref: 4, 6, 7, 10

Questions

Describe any constraints involved in the Making Decisions stage you encountered.

What recommendation was advised after your submission of your Feasibility Study?

Describe the most appropriate tools used in this stage of the System Development Cycle. Give reasons why.

Designing Solutions

Designing a Solution

Designing a solution is the transformation of the specifications into appropriate hardware, software and information processes.

Involves purchasing hardware, writing or purchasing software, and specifying information processes to make the system operational.

Ref: 4, 10

Designing a Solution

Systems analysts and programmers often use –

Top-down - divides a large, complicated problem into a series of smaller, easier to solve problems.

Step-wise refinement - then takes each sub-problem and breaks it down even further.

Solutions based on prototypes are created in this stage.

Ref: 4, 5, 10

Participant development

Participant development occurs when people within the information system develop the solution.

Participants produce their own information system using readily available information technology.

Tools for participant development - eg. guided processes in application packages

Ref: 4, 10

Information Technology

Acquisition of hardware and software and the process of making it operational

Ref: 4, 10

Design Tools

Design tools are used to better understand the system and document the new system.

The tools are used to assist in explaining the operation of the new system.

Ref: 4, 10

Types of Design Tools

The design tools used in the Designing Solutions stage of the System Development Cycle include -

o Context diagrams

o Data flow diagram

o Decision trees

o Decision tables

o Data dictionaries

Context Diagrams

Context diagrams are used to represent entire information systems.  

Process Single process - a circle is used to represent the entire system. 

   

 Data Flow An arrow is used to show the flow of data between the process and the external entities.

   

External Entity Any person or organisation that provides data to the system or receives data from the system.

      

Ref:1, 2, 3, 4, 10

Data Flow Diagram

Data flow diagrams represent the information system as a number of processes that together form the single process of a context diagram.

The source of data, its flow between processes and its destination along with data generated by the system is represented.

Ref:1, 2, 3, 4, 10

Data Flow Diagrams

Process

Process Processes are an action taking place transforming inputs to outputs.

    

Data flow An arrow is used to show the flow of data between the process and the external entities.

   

External Entity Any person or organisation that provides data to the system or receives data from the system.

    

Data store A location where data is stored. It can be in computer format, such as a diskette, or in non-computer format, such as a filing cabinet or an answering machine.

   

Ref:1, 2, 3, 4, 10

Data Flow Diagram Example

Decision Trees

A decision tree is a diagrammatic way of representing all possible combinations of decisions and their resulting actions.

It represents the decisions made within a system as the branches of a tree. Each branch ends with a particular action.

Ref: 3, 4, 10

Decision Trees Example

Ref: 10

Data Dictionaries

Data dictionaries contain a comprehensive description of each field in the database.

This commonly includes:

field name, number of characters (field width), data type, number of decimal places (if applicable) and a description of the purpose of each field.

Ref: 3, 4, 10

Data Dictionary Example

Data Dictionary Example

System Flow Charts

System flowcharts are a diagrammatic way of representing both the flow of data and logic through an information system.

Ref: 3, 4, 10

System Flow Charts

Ref: 3, 4, 10

System Flow Chart Example

Ref: Meriden, 2001, Andrews

Screen Design

Screen design for input and output of data are created.

These are created using good principles of design, eg. ease of navigation, and use of consistent style.

Ref: 3, 4, 10

Documentation

Technical specifications must be identified and documented prior to purchase of hardware.

Documentation is an essential part of any system, as it communicates information to the developers, users and others on how the system operates and how to use it.

Ref: 3, 4, 10

Technical and user documentation

User documentation – used to assist people to use the computer system.

Technical documentation – describes the construction of the computer system.

Ref: 3, 4, 10

Questions

Describe the role of the Systems Analyst in Stage 3 of the System Development Cycle – Designing Solutions.

Various tools can be used at this stage. Explain the difference between using a data flow diagram and a system flowchart. Outline the tools you have used in your project.

Implementing

Implementation Plan

The project manager coordinates all the elements of a project.

The implementation stage delivers the new system to the participants.

Ref: 3, 4, 10

Implementation Plan

Responsibilities of the Project Manager controlling work in progress to see that it is carried out according to plan;

providing feedback to those working on the project;

negotiating for materials, supplies, and

services; and

resolving differences among those involved with the project. Ref: 3, 4, 10

Conversion Methods

Direct involves the immediate change to the new system on a chosen date.

Old System

New System

Ref: 3, 4, 5, 10

Conversion Methods

Parallel conversion involves the old and new systems both working together at the same time.

Old System

New System

Ref: 3, 4, 5, 10

Conversion Methods

Phased conversion involves the gradual implementation of the new system.

Old System

New System

Ref: 3, 4, 5, 10

Conversion Methods

Pilot conversion involves trialling the new system in a small portion of the

organisation. The old system is still available if the new system fails or experiences problems.

Pilot conversion is usually started by a keen group of participants who appreciate the benefits of the new system.

Ref: 3, 4, 5, 10

Conversion Methods

Pilot Conversion

Old System

Old System

Old System

New System

New System

New System

Ref: 3, 4, 5, 10

Implementation of the chosen conversion process

Information processes are continually tested during the implementation of the system over a period of time.

Minor changes to procedures are immediately implemented.

Ref: 3, 4, 5, 10

Questions

Describe the role of the Project Manager in Stage 4 of the System

Development Cycle – Implementing.

Discuss the importance of training staff during this stage. Which of the conversion methods was the most appropriate for your system? Explain why.

Testing, Evaluating and Maintaining

System Testing

Testing is a way of verify the quality of the project.

Testing a system is a very important part of the implementation of a system.

Without rigorous testing, the system cannot be guaranteed to work as expected.

Tests must be designed to examine the system operation under all possible events.

Ref: 3, 4, 10

Ref: 9

Hardware

Tested using

- diagnostic software and - through general operation

Backup systems should be tested by selecting files to be restored.

Ref: 3, 4, 5, 10

Software

Software is tested using data that has been structured to test all decisions made within the system.

Test data must cover all possible combinations of data that may be encountered.

It should be based on the original design specifications.

Ref: 3, 4, 5, 10

Testing and Evaluating

Testing a solution ensures that it works. Testing is carried out throughout the system development cycle.

Evaluation determines whether the system is working as expected or whether changes are required.

Ref: 3, 4, 5, 10

Ref: 9

Maintenance

Maintenance is the modification of the system by making minor improvements.

Participants may discover deficiencies in the system and suggest improvements during the operation of the system.

Ref: 3, 4, 5, 10

Operation Manual

An operation manual details procedures participants follow when using a new system.

Participants need to be instructed about and assisted with the major features and functions of the system.

Ref: 3, 4, 5, 10

Operation Manual

Some of the factors for creating an easy-to-use operation manual include:

user-friendly format and structure

clear and concise instructions

steps listed in point form

tasks completed in the simplest way

appropriate instructions for file management and security

screen dumps included where possible. Ref: 10

Questions

 Explain the importance of testing a new system.     Who is involved in this stage? Describe the methods you have used in creating an operation manual.

Useful Web Sites

Board of Studies

http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/

HSC Online

http://www.hsc.csu.edu.au/

References

1. Board of Studies. (1999). IPT Examination Assessment & Reporting Supplement. http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus99/syllabus2000_listi.html#i

 2. Board of Studies. (1999). IPT Software and Course Specifications.

http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus99/syllabus2000_listi.html#i 3. Board of Studies. (1999). IPT Support Document

http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus99/syllabus2000_listi.html#i 4. Board of Studies. (1999). IPT Syllabus.

http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus99/syllabus2000_listi.html#i  5. Chivers, B. et. al. (1994). Computing Studies - Preliminary Course. The

Jacaranda Press: Australia.  

References

6. Cotterell, M & Hughes, B (1999). Software Project Management, International Thomson Computer Press, United Kingdom.

 

7. Haynes, M.E. (1989). Project Management. Crisp Publications, California.

 

8. Johnstone, G. et al. (2001). Excel HSC Information Processes and Technology – Your Step by Step Guide to HSC Success. Pascal Press: Sydney.

 

9. www.offthemark.com

10. Powers, G. (2000). HSC Information Processes & Technology. Heinemann, Australia

Best wishes for the HSC