st. augustine - tagaste secondary school form two … · st. augustine - tagaste secondary school...

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ST. AUGUSTINE - TAGASTE SECONDARY SCHOOL

FORM TWO HOME ASSIGNEMENT-APRIL,2020

ENGLISH

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ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS:

1. i) When we talk about setting, characters and plot we are ………………………literary works.

a) Answering

b) Transcribing

c) Translating

d) Interpreting

ii) Hawa the Bus driver is an example of …………………………………

a) Literary work

b) Plot

c) Artistic Language

d) Setting

iii) Literary works use ………………………...language

a) Thematic

b) Artistic

c) Dynamic

d) Systematic

iv) A piece of writing that uses artistic language to reflect social realities is

a) Plot

b) Setting

c) Tittle

d) Literary

v) The term title means …………………………………………….

a) Name of the Literary

b) Summary of the literary work

c) Theme of the literary work

d) Lesson of the Literary work

Answers

i. ii. iii. iv. v.

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2. Choose a book that you can read and finish with no time. A short story book is interesting if it

answers the following features of question.

a) What is the title of the book?

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b) Who is the author?

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c) Name and describe the main character?

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d) What does the author say about the rest of the characters?

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e) What lesson(s) do we learn from the book?

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3. According to the title of the book you have chosen above (question 2)

a) What problem does the main character faced?

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b) How is the problem solved?

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c) Is the story believable? Give reason

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d) How does the story it relate to the society.

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e) How does the story touch the feelings of the readers?

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4. Write to narrate what took place in an accident that you ever experienced using the following

guising points

a) What is the date of the event?

b) Who was the quest of honor

c) What was the aim of the event?

d) What is the name of the school which Jane is studying?

e) What is Jane planning to do with the money?

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N:B Write in a good paragraphs showing every necessary steps of essay writings as you were

taught at school. Other wise you will loose your marks. 1Pg.space

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5. Answer the following questions as from Poem analysis

i. A line in Poem is a ……………………………………

a) Speaker

b) Stanza

c) Poem

d) Verse

ii. Lesson and themes are considered when………………………………a Poem

a) Interpreting

b) Answering

c) Transcribing

d) Translating

iii. A freedom Song/ is an example of a …………………………….…….

a) Song

b) Stanza

c) Verse

d) Poem

iv. A stanza is………………………...in a Poem

a) A group of lines

b) A group of Poems

c) A group of themes

d) A group of speaker

v. The term theme means………………………………

a) Central message in the Poem

b) Stanza in the Poem

c) Lesson in the Poem

d) Speaker in the Poem

Answers

i. ii. iii. iv. v.

6. Write a Composition to narrate what happened during general Election of Tanzania in October

2015 (250 words) consider all necessary steps for composition writings.

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7. Answer the questions from the following Poem.

A freedom song

Atieno washes dishes

Atieno plucks the chicken

Atieno gets up early

Beds her sacks in the kitchen

Ateno eight years old

Atieno yo,

Since sh is my sister’s child

Atieno needs no pay,

While she works my wife can sit

Sewing every sunny day

With her earnings/support.

QUESTIONS:

1) Who is the imaginary speaker in this Poem?

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2) Who is Atieno?

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3) Where does she sleep?.........................................................................................on what?

4) How much is Atieno Paid? ……………………………………………………………………………………………….

What reason is given for what Pay?

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5) How much house work does the aunt

do?.......................................................................................................................why?.........

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8. What a card for a certain occasion or an event.

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9. Answer general questions on text read.

i. Reading for general information needs one to read a

text………………………………………………….

a) Carefully

b) Slowly

c) Quickly

d) Keenly

ii. …………………………………….Is an example of question seeking general information.

a) “Explain the effects”

b) “Explain the causes”

c) “What do we learn? “

d) “What is the text about?”

iii. The purpose of reading for general information is to obtain

…………………………….information.

a) Specific

b) Quick

c) Fast

d) General

iv. The term general means…………………………

a) Intensive

b) Detailed

c) Extensive

d) Specific

v. The tem text means………………………………………

a) A goo work

b) Written work

c) An excellent work

d) Un written work

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Answers

i. ii. iii. iv. v.

10. Write a personal letter to any of your friend according to your interest by considering all the

necesist in letter writing.

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FORM TWO HOME ASSIGNEMENT- APRIL, 2020

CIVICS

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Answer all questions.

1. Define what is Executive and give five functions of the executive.

2. List five sources of Central government revenue.

3. Give five ways that a student can participate in Central government activities

4. Explain six principles of democratic government

5. What are the two types of democratic government

6. What are the two types of democracy mention and explain

7. Mention the three types of indirect democracy

8. List down three points for each of the following

a) Conditions for parliamentary candidates

b) Conditions for presidential candidates

c) Conditions for voters

9. Does Tanzania practice free and fair elections. Mention four reasons for your

answer.

10. Name then explain five socio-cultural practices which Linder the equal

participation of men and women in a society

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FORM TWO MASSIGNEMENT – APRIL, 2020

GEOGRAPHY

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INSTRUCTION

1. Answer all questions in section A and section B

2. All answers should be written in the new Msomi exercise book.

SECTION A:

(WATER MANAGEMENT AND SSTAINABLE USE OF FOREST RESOURCES)

Answer all questions in this section

1. a) Define the meaning of land reclamation

b) Name five techniques used in land reclamation process in Tanzania

c) Mention four different resources that are obtained from water.

e) Explain the types of underground water and how it can be tapped for uses at local and

national level in Tanzania.

2. a) Outline six problems caused by extraction of water resources.

b) Name four main sources of water pollution

c) Outline four effects of water pollution to the community.

d) Explain five causes of environmental pollution and four ways of conserving water

resources

3. a) Define the following concept

i. forest

ii. forestry

iii. Agro –forestry

b) Outline two main types of forests

c) Describe four categories of natural forests

d) Mention eight importance of forest

e) Mention six method of conserving forests

f) List down four countries leading in timber production in the world.

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4. a) Outline seven products obtained from the forests

b) List down five problems facing harvesting of forestry resources

c) Give six suggestion of addressing over – exploitation of forests

d) Explain five factors influencing distribution of forests in the world.

5. a) Outline six values of underground water

b) List down three places where the salt is extracted in Tanzania

C) Name eight problems facing fishing industry in East Africa

d) Why East Africa rivers are not navigable (Give six points).

SECTION B

(TOURISM &ENERGY AND POWER RESOUCES)

ANSWE ALL QUESTIONS IN THIS SECTION.

6. a) Define the following concepts

i. Tourism

ii. Eco- tourism (Green tourism)

iii. Honey pots

b) Mention and explain two types of tourism

c) Describe factors which have contributed to the development

7. a) With vivid examples, outline seen positive effects and negative effects of tourism in

the world.

b) Mention six ways of addressing negative effects of tourism in our community

c) Why tourism has increased new days? (with 8 points)

d) Mention the following

i. Ten game reserves n Tanzania and four game reserves in Kenya

ii. Ten National Parks in Tanzania and four National parks in Kenya.

e) Mention the tourists attraction (Honeypots) in Namibia and Switzerland. (Give four

points each )

8. a) Why should the local people be involved in tourist activities ( Give four reasons)

b) How does tourism differ from other industries (Give four points)

c) How can Tanzania improved its tourism industry.( Give six points)

d) Why do we say that tourism in Tanzania has bright future? Give three reasons

9. a) How can the conflicts in the national parks be solves (Give six points)

1. How can the conflicts in the national park be solved

2. Mention six principles of Eco- tourism to the local community

3. Draw the map of Tanzania to show the location of the game reserves and National

parks

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10. a) Outline the advantages and disadvantages of

i. Nuclear power energy

ii. Hydroelectric power

iii. Biogas

iv. Geothermal power

v. Solar energy

vi. Wind power

vii. Fuel wood and charcoal

viii. Coal

ix. Tidal power

x. Natural gas

b) Write down the uses each one (above points)

c) Give four reasons explaining why uses of coal has been declining new days at a global

level.

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ST. AUGUSTINE-TAGASTE SECONDARY SCHOOL

FORM TWO HOME ASSIGNMENT APRIL-2020

BASIC MATHEMATICS

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Instructions 1. This paper consists of ten (25) compulsory questions. 2. Show clearly all the working and answers in the A4 paper chronologically.

3. All writing must be in black or blue ink except drawings which must be in pencil.

4. Four figure mathematical tables, geometric instruments and graph papers may be used

where necessary.

5. All communication devices, calculators and any unauthorized materials are not allowed

in the examination room.

6. Write your Name at top right corner of every page.

FOR EXAMINER’S USE ONLY

QUESTION NUMBER SCORE EXIAMINER’S INITIALS

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

-14

-15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

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1. Write 1,615,010,948 in words.

2. Find the quotient of 880152 and 169

3. One-fifth of an even number added to one-sixth of the next even number makes a total of

15. Find the two numbers.

4. Subtract 2km 9m 8mm from 4 kilometers 10 meters and 3 millimeters

5. The perimeter of a rectangle is 20cm and its area is 24cm2. Calculate the length and

breadth of the rectangle.

6. Find the GCD (greatest common divisor) of 328 zxy and 22212 zyx .

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7. Find two consecutive positive odd numbers such that the sum of their squares is equal to

130.

8. A bus is supposed to start at 1225 and reach its destination at 1350. It starts 3 minutes

late and arrives 10 minutes late. How long did it take to each its destination?

9. Given that 3102 x and 4107 y evaluate ,8yx and express your answer in the

standard form.

10. Make an estimate and pick the nearest answer in the following: 001180

04404152

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11. Given that ,22 na evaluate, .65 6na

12. On a map whose scale is 1:50,000 a lake is found to have an area of 16cm2. Find the

actual area of the lake.

13. Simplify the following without using tables

00

00

00

00

61106tan

3723cos

6797sin

2322tan

14. Express the ratio 150ml to 12L in its lowest term.

15. If U*V=UV+V, find x, given that 605*2* x

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16. The pie chart below shows the monthly expenditure of Mrs. Juma

Fees transport

108 36 54

108 Food

Others 54

Rent

a) If Mrs. Juma spends shs. 21600 on food, how much does she earn?

b) How much does she spend on transport?

17. Four farmers A, B, C, and D keep livestock as shown in the table below.

Farmer A B C D Goat 10 28 25 20 Sheep 16 24 19 37

Draw a multiple bar graph to represent this information

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18. Show that when a line is drawn across a triangle and parallel to one of its sides, similar

triangles are formed.

19. Write 325

1

in the form ba + dc

20. A point Q on the level ground is 12m from the base of a vertical flagpole. A wire from a

point Q is attached to the pole at 16m above the ground. Find the length of the wire.

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21. Find the y -intercept of the line joining the point

21

2,21

1 and

21

2,21

1

22. The value of a two digits number when reversed is 6 less than twice its value when

unrevised. If the difference of its digits is 2; find the number.

23. Junior was ¼ times as old as her father 8 years ago. In 2 years’ time the sum of their

ages will be 65 years. Find Junior’s age now.

24. In a group of 240 tourists, 80 speak English, 120 speak French 60 speak both English

and French. How many speak.

a) English only?

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b) French?

c) Neither English nor French

25. The angle of elevation of the top of a tree from point A and B are 25 and 56

respectively. Given that A and B are on horizontal ground and in a straight line with

the tree, and that B is 30m from the foot of the tree. Find:

a) The height of the tree

b) The distance of A from B.

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ST. AUGUSTINE TAGASTE SECONDARY SCHOOL

FORM TWO HOME ASSIGNMENT- APRIL ,2020.

CHEMISTRY

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TOPICS: 1.PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION

2. FORMULA, BONDING AND NOMENCLATURE

QUESTIONS

1. What is periodicity?. Briefly explain the meaning and how the following properties of

elements varies from left right and down the group in the periodic table.

i. Reactivity

ii. Atomic radius

iii. Electronegativity

iv. Electropositivity

v. Melting point and boiling point.

vi. Density.

2. (a) Write electronic configurations of first 20 elements in the periodic table in the table

then indicate their periods, groups and valances.

(b) From the list in (a) above, which elements are:

i. Alkali metals

ii. Alkali earth metals

iii. Metalloids

iv. Non metals

v. Metals

vi. Halogens

vii. Noble gaases

(c) What are the properties of the following elements.

i. Alkali metals

ii. Alkali earth metals

iii. Halogens.

3. (a) Define the following term and give two examples per each

i. Bonding

ii. Chemical bond

iii. Ionic bonding

iv. Covalent bonding

v. Valency

vi. Oxidation number

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(b) Using dot , cross and electronic diagrams, show chemical bonding in:

i. Sodium chloride

ii. Magnesium chloride

iii. Water

iv. Nitrogen gas.

4. Give five differences between ionic compounds and covalent compounds.

5. (a) State three differences between oxidation state and valency.

(b) Calculate oxidation states of Cl, S, Cu, and N in the following chlorine gas,

sulphuric acid,

copper nitrate and nitric acid respectively.

6. What is radical? Write chemical formula, sign and valency for the following radicals.

i. Hydroxide

ii. Carbonate

iii. Oxalate

iv. Permanganate

v. Dichromate

vi. Ammonium

vii. Hydrogen carbonate

viii. Sulphate

ix. Phosphate

x. Hydrogen sulphate.

xi. Nitrate.

7. Write chemical formulae for the following compounds:

i. Magnesium chloride

ii. Aluminium sulphate

iii. Sodium carbonate

iv. Potassium dichromate

v. Sodium thiosulphate.

8. Write the IUPAC names for the following compounds.

i. CaCO3

ii. H2SO4

iii. HClO4

iv. K2Cr2O7

v. CuSO4

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9. (a) With two examples per each, define the following terms:

i. Empirical formula

ii. Molecular formula

iii. Structural formula

(b) What are IUPAC names for the following substances:

i. Soda ash

ii. Baking soda

iii. Plaster of paris

10. (a) An oxide of iron has 70% Fe, and the rest percent for oxygen. Calculate

molecular formula of this oxide. Vapour density of iron oxide is 80 ( Fe=56,

O=16)

(b) A certain compound has 20.1% Fe, 11.5% Sulphur, 23% oxygen and the rest for

water of crystallizations

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FORM TWO HOME ASSIGNMENT- APRIL, 2020

PHYSICS

1. Answer ALL question in A4 papers.

1. (a) Explain how electric charges may be transferred from one body to another

through friction.

(b) A piece of ebonite rod is rubbed with some fur. How is the fur charged in this

case?

2. Show, with the aid of diagrams, how electric charge may transferred from a

charged body to another body through direct contact.

3. Draw a well-labelled diagram of the gold leaf electroscope. How does this

instrument operate?

4. Explain how a charged body may be made to lose its electric charge.

5. Describe the structure and made action of a lightning conductor.

6. There are different symbols for a bulbs and a lamp. Draw each symbol.

7. Draw circuits with three bulbs connected.

(a) In series

(b) In parallel. In each circuit must include battery of two cells, a switch and a

bulb.

8. Copy and complete the following table:

Unit of Name of unit symbol

Current

voltage

Resistance

9. Two resistors of 3Ω and 5Ω are connected in series and then in parallel. Find the

equivalent resistance when they are series and when they are in parallel

10. Three 1.5V cells are attached in different ways, what will be the voltage in each

case?

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FORM TWO HOME ASIGNMENT -2020, APRIL

HISTORY

______________________________________________________________________________

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Answer ALL questions in section A and B and section C.

2. Be neat complete and answer to the point 3. Use A four answer sheets 4. Follow the instructions carefully.

SECTION A

1. For each of the following choose the best answer from the given alternatives

and write its letter in the table provided.

i) The chronological order of events is usually shown by the following except a) Time-chart b) Carbon fourteen c) Time line d) Family tree

ii) Homo-sapiens lived in one of the following periods: a) Early stone age b) Iron age c) Late stone age d) Middle stone age

iii) Among the given sets of areas below, one was an important salt making centre in Africa a) Axum and Meroe b) Axum and Uvinza c) Meroe and Taghaza d) Taghaza and Uvinza

iv) An important feature in the East African coastal commercial life was the Indian Banyanys who were:- a) Agents of colonialism b) Slave trader owners c) Gold miners from Britain d) Traders and money lenders

v) Traders and Missionaries had the following activities in East Africa a) Discovery of mineral areas in Africa b) Occupation of land for the Asians c) Spread of administration and civilization d) Exploration and acquisition of areas for trade

vi) One of the effects of early contacts between East Africans and outsiders was-

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a) Depopulation b) Rise of coastal city states c) Unequal exchange d) Migration of people from South Africa to East Africa

vii) Gao was a trading centre which was developed into a large empire known as:- a) Songhai b) Asante c) Mali d) Ghana

viii) The period marked by intensive competition and welfare among European states was known as:- a) Industrial capitalism b) Mercantilism c) Monopoly age d) Industrial revolution

ix) In South- central Tanzania, the Hehe, Bena and Sangu people were ruled by:- a) Kabaka b) Mtwa c) Mwani d) Omukama

x) Triangular trade was conducted:- a) Across indian ocean b) Pacific ocean c) Red sea d) Atrantic ocean

i Ii Iii iv v Vi vii viii ix x

2.a) Match the items in LIST A with those in LIST B by writing the correct letter

below the corresponding question number in the table provided

LIST A LIST B

i) Audio-visual sources of History

ii) Agents of industrial capitalism

iii) Centralized feudal state in

interlacustrine region

iv) Exchange of goods between

Western Sudan and North

African societies

v) Fante, Akwan, Ife, Yoruba,

Buganda, Bunyoro, Chagga,

Pare and Haya

vi) Organizer of people to open up

a) Buganda

b) Bunyoro

c) Explorers

d) Feudalism

e) Moran

f) Ntemi

g) Pastoralists

h) Permanent crop cultivation in Africa

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new lands whatever it was

available

vii) Pokot, Karamajong, Nandi,

Shona, Ndebele

viii) Yao and Kamba

ix) Gathering and hunting

societies in East Africa

x) Makonde and Makua

i) Black Smiths

j) Films and television

k) Clan heritage based on mother

l) Khoikhoi and Hadzabe

m) Hadzabe and Dorobo

n) Professional hunters

o) Pre-Colonial African commercial

societies

p) Oral tradition and Museums

q) Trans-Atlantic trade

r) Trans-Saharan trade

i Ii Iii iv v Vi vii viii ix x

2. b) Arrange the following sentences in a chronological order by writing their

roman numbers in the table provided.

i) The rise of Oman Sultanate led to a great expansion in trade in East Africa. ii) In addition they established military bases in various parts of East Africa

and the Sultanate now became the major link between African, Asian and European traders

iii) By the middle of the 17th century, Oman had grown into the most powerful Sultanate in Western Asia.

iv) In order to control this trade, the Oman Arabs helped the city states and East African kingdoms in their resistances against the Portuguese.

v) In this trade the major commodities from East Africa were slaves and ivory in return for glassware, beads, guns, clothes and other simple consumer goods.

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

SECTION B .

3.a) The time line below shows the years in which important events took place

in Africa. Against each year write the letter of the relevant event in the table

provided.

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1822 1959 1795 1741 1500AD

EVENTS

A. Sultan Seyyid Said moved his capital to Zanzibar B. Mombasa establishes itself as an independent Sheikhdom. C. Abolition of slavery by the British at the cape D. The first ant-slave trade agreement in East Africa. E. The British captured the cape of South Africa. F. Dr. Leakey discovered the skull of the earliest man at Oldivai Gorge.

G. Dutch settlement at the cape H. Emergence of Ntemi system of organization. I. End of Portuguese rule in East Africa.

1822 1959 1795 1741 1500AD

3.b) Complete each of the following statements with correct historical facts.

i) _______________ is the scientific study and analysis of language. ii) ______________ was the exchange system developed within a given

community. iii) _________ were the spiritual and political leaders among the Masai society. iv) The war fought by the Boers against the British was known as _______ v) The feudal system in Buhaya was called _________

4. With three (3) specific examples write down agents of industrial

capitalism…..

5. List down any four (4) economic factors for interactions among the people of

Africa.

6. LIST down three (3) modes of production in pre - colonial Africa…

7.a) Draw the map of Tanzania and on it locate the following

i) Locate the place where the skull of earliest man was discovered. ii) Locate any 3 societies in the central and western Tanganyika which was

practicing Ntemi system.

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iii) Locate the following coastal city states Kilwa and Zanzibar and Mafia. iv) Show / indicate the historical sites where past drawings and rock paintings

are found.

8.b) List any five factors which led to the transition from primitive

communalism to other modes of production in pre-colonial Africa.

SECTION C .

9. Write short notes on each of the following terms

i) Moresby treaty ii) Boer trek iii) Neolithic revolution iv) Regional trade v) Centralized states

10. “History is a dead subject” oppose the statement by giving out the

importance of studying history in this new generation of science and

technology.

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SHULE YA SEKONDARI MTAKATIFU AUGUSTINO-TAGASTE

KAZI YA NYUMBANI KIDATO CHA KWANZA- APRILI, 2020

KISWAHILI

_________________________________________________________________

MAELEKEZO:

1. Mtihani huu una sehemu A, B, C, D na E.

2. Jibu maswali yote.

3. Majibu yote yaandikwe kwenye nafasi zilizoachwa wazi.

4. Majibu yote yaandikwe kwa kalamu yenye wino wa bluu au mweusi.

5. Andika jina lako na namba ya mtihani katika kila ukurasa.

SEHEMU A: (ALAMA 15)

UFAHAMU

1. Soma habari hii kwa makini, kisha jibu maswali yanayofuata.

Manju : Hadithi hadithi ......................

Watu: Hadithi, njoo, uongo njoo na utamu kolea ..................

Hapo zamani za kale alitokea mama mmoja aliyekuwa chongo na mwanae

alimchukia kwa sababu ya kuwa na chongo. Mwanae alijisikia aibu kutembea na

mama yake mwenye jicho moja na hakupenda mama yake amtembelee. Hii

ilimfanya mtoto huyu kujisikia vibaya sana na wakati mwingine kujuta kuwa na

mama wa aina hiyo.

Mama alimpenda mwanae na hakuonesha kukasirika hata pale mwanae

alipomnyanyapaa waziwazi. Baadae mtoto akakua na kumaliza masomo yake na

kupata kazi nzuri. Akafurahi kuwa amepata kazi nzuri, hivyo atakuwa mbali na

mama yake chongo anayemtia aibu. Akachagua kufanya kazi mji wa mbali na

alipo mama yake, akafanikiwa kazini kwa kupandishwa cheo na akawa mtu

mashuhuri mwenye mali na mwenye hekima kubwa.

Siku moja asubuhi alisikia wanawe wakilia walipokuwa nje wakicheza.

Alipowauliza wakasema kuna mtu anawatisha, akatoka nje kujua nani anaewatisha

wanawe, kufika kumbe wale watoto walitishwa na chongo la yule bibi.

Alipomtazama vizuri akagundua ni mama yake mzazi. Alikuwa amechoka na

amezeekaa sana, amedhoofu mwili na anaonekana ni mgonjwa.

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Mtoto kwa hasira akamuuliza “mama umekuja kufanya nini hapa” kama unashida

ungenipigia simu sio kuja” kwanza nani kakuonesha ninapoishi na nani

kamruhusu mlinzi kukufungulia mlango? Ona sasa imewatisha wanangu kwa

chongo lako. Mama yake akasema samahani mwanangu sikujua......................”

kisha mtoto akamchukua mama yake akamtoa nje na kumpeleka kituo cha basi ili

arudi kijijini.

Baada ya siku chache kupita, yule jamaa akapata taarifa kuwa mama yake ni

mgonjwa sana na anahitaji kumwona. Akaondoka kwa siri kwenda kijijini ili

akasikie mama anataka kumwambia nini, Alipofika akakuta watu wengi

wamekusanyika nyumbani kwao. Alipouliza akaambiwa mama yake alifariki

baada ya kuugua sana bila msaada wowote. Alipoingia ndani akakuta barua

aliyoiandika mama yake, barua ilisomeka hivi;

“Mwanangu mpendwa wa pekee, naandika barua nikiwa kwenye maumivu makali

sana na sijui kama nitapona, nimeugua nikakosa matibabu kwa kutokuwa na

fedha. Sikuwa na mtu mwingine wa kumweleza shida yangu zaidi yako wewe

mwanangu wa pekee, lakini nilipohitaji kuja kwako angalau unisaidie matibabu

ulinifukuza na kudai nawatisha wanao kwa chongo langu.

Baba yako alifariki ukiwa mdogo sana. Sikubahatika kupata mtoto mwingine.

Nilikulea kwa nguvu zangu zote nikitegemea baadae utanisaidia lakini

umenitelekeza na kunitupa kwa sababu tu mimi mama yako nina chongo hivyo

unaona aibu kuwa nami.

Nisamehe kwa kuwatisha wanao kwa chongo langu, nisamehe kwa kuja kwako

bila taarifa, nisamehe kwa kuwa mie mama yako chongo.

Lakini naomba nikupe siri ambayo hukuijua, mwanangu wewe ndiye uliyezaliwa

chongo. Ulikuwa na jicho moja tu. Nikaumia kuona mwanagu ana jicho moja,

atawezaje kuishi na kukabiliana na changamoto za maisha? Nikaomba madaktari

wanitoe jicho langu moja wakupe wewe. Niliona ni heri mimi niwe chongo kwa

kuwa nimeshaona mengi sana duniani kuliko wewe.

Ulipowekewa jicho langu nilifurahi kukuona una macho mawili nikajua utaweza

kuzikabili vema changamoto za dunia hii na hakika jicho langu limekusaidia

kwani wewe ni mashuhuri na tajiri sana kwa sasa. Lakini kwa jinsi ninavyoumwa

najua nitakufa nikiwa nimetimiza haja ya moyo wangu. Kwa kutumia jicho langu

umeweza kuwa msomi mzuri na tajiri unaye heshimika na jamii yote, wasalimie

wajukuu zangu na waambie wawe na amani, kwani hawataniona tena nikienda

kuwatishia na chongo langu.

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MASWALI:

(a) i. Andika kichwa cha habari kinachofaa kwa habari hii....................................

.............................................................................................................................

ii. Kwa nini mama alikuwa na chongo?

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

iii. Mama alikuwa na watoto wangapi?

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

iv. Mama alipogundua mwanae anamnyanyapaa alifanya nini?

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

v. Kati ya mama na mtoto ni nani aliyezaliwa chongo?

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................

(b) Toa maana ya maneno yaliyopigiwa mstari.

i. Chongo ......................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................

ii. Amedhoofu ................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................

iii. Alifariki ....................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................

iv. Nikaumia ...................................................................................................

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v. Haja ...........................................................................................................

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(c) Andika ufupisho kwa maneno sitini (60).

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SEHEMU B: (ALAMA 15)

UTUMIZI WA LUGHA NA USAHIHI WA MAANDISHI

2. (a) Kwa kila sentensi andika KWELI kwa kauli sahihi au SI KWELI

kwa kauli isiyo sahihi katika nafasi zilizoachwa wazi.

i. Fani na maudhui ni nyanja kuu za lugha ................................................

ii. Kila lugha inajitosheleza kimsamiati duniani ..........................................

iii. Lugha ya Kiswahili ina irabu tano tu ........................................................

iv. Lugha hubadilika kulingana na muktadha .................................................

v. Umbo, sauti, mpangilio, na maana ni tanzu nne za lugha ........................

(b) Sentensi zifuatazo zina utata. Kwa kila sentensi andika maana mbili ili

kuondoa utata huo.

i. Maneno haya yameandikwa chuoni.

.......................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

ii. Aje Jumanne

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iii. Amina alisema atakwenda kwao.

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iv. Nilipokwenda nilikuta ua nyumbani kwake.

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v. Juma anapenda kusoma kuliko John.

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(c) Chagua kifungu cha maneno kutoka Orodha B kinachotoa maelezo sahihi ya

maneno/neno katika Orodha A. Andika herufi ya jibu sahihi katika nafasi

uliyopewa.

ORODHA A ORODHA B

i. Rejesta

ii. Simo

iii. Sarufi maumbo

iv. Lafudhi

v. Kamusi

A. Lugha ya mazungumzo na lugha ya maandishi.

B. Taaluma inayoshughulikia maumbo au mjengo

wa maneno katika tungo.

C. Mtindo wa lugha inayozungumzwa kulingana

na muktadha au kusudi maalumu.

D. Maneno yasiyosanifu yanayozungumzwa katika

kipindi fulani cha maisha.

E. Matamshi ya msemaji wa lugha fulani ambayo

humtambulisha mahali anapotokea.

F. Huonesha mpangilio wa maneno ya lugha

kialfabeti, jinsi yanavyoandikwa, kutamkwa na

maana zake.

G. Sarufi inayoshughulikia matamshi ya vitamkwa

vya lugha.

ORODHA A i ii iii iv v

ORODHA B

SEHEMU C: (ALAMA 15)

SARUFI

3. (a) Onesha matumizi ya mofimu “ki” katika sentensi zifuatazo:

i. Kitoto changu kimekuja.

...................................................................................................................

ii. Mimina maji kidogokidogo.

...................................................................................................................

iii. Akirudi nitamuona.

...................................................................................................................

iv. Amevaa kifalme.

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v. Paka akiondoka panya hutawala.

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(b) Soma kifungu cha habari kifuatacho kisha ainisha maneno yaliyopigiwa

mstari kwa kuandika ufupisho wa aina ya neno chini yake (N, V, W,T,E,

H,U, I)

“ Bandu bandu humaliza gogo. Mtoto alianza udokozi kidogokidogo. Mara

kadokoa nyama jikoni mara pipi dukani, mara daftari shuleni, mara ....................”

Mama yake ukimwambia anakuja juu, mkali kama pilipili!Ukome! Mwache

mwanangu, wizi umemfundisha wewe! Leo kabanwa mchana kweupe. Loh!

Aibu. Mama analia kama mbwa koko; wale waliotuona adui zake ndio

anaetufuata tumsaidie. Polisi waitwe waje wachukue watu wao, mama na mtoto

wote wapelekwe kituoni

(c) Jaza istilahi inayofaa katika nafasi zilizoachwa wazi katika sentensi

zifuatazo.

i. ............................................ni kitabu cha marejeo chenye msamiati

uliokusanywa kutoka kwa watumiaji wa lugha fulani. Maneno hupangwa

kwa utaratibu wa kialfabeti, hutoa maana na ufafanuzi wa utumizi wa

maneno na jinsi unavyotamkwa.

ii. ...............................ni hali ya kuunda nomino kutokana na aina nyingine

ya maneno.

iii. ................................... ni neno pamoja na ufafanuzi wake katika kamusi.

iv. .................................... ni neno au sehemu ya neno iliyo ndogo kabisa

yenye maana kisarufi na ambayo haiwezi kugawanyika zaidi bila

kubadili maana ya neno.

v. ...................................... ni vipande vya maneno vinavyopachikwa kabla

na baada ya mzizi wa neno.

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SEHEMU D: (ALAMA 40)

FASIHI SIMULIZI

4. (a) Katika njia zifuatazo za uhifadhi wa kazi za fasihi simulizi, onesha ubora na

udhaifu wake (Onesha ubora mmoja na udhaifu mmoja kwa kila njia).

NJIA ZA UHIFADHI WA

KAZI ZA FASIHI SIMULIZI

UBORA UDHAIFU

i. Kichwani

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ii. Maandishi

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iii. Kompyuta

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iv. Kanda za video

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v. Vinasa sauti

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(b) Soma maelekezo yafuatayo kisha jaza jedwali kwa neno moja kila chumba

kwenda kulia au chini.

- Sherehe au ibada za kienyeji zifanywazo katika makabila zikiambatana na

utoaji wa kafara kwa lengo la kuabudu mizimu, miungu ili kuomba jambo

fulani. i.

- Tungo za maneno yenye maadili kwa jamii ambazo hutolewa katika mtindo

wa uwili wenye ukinzani husemwa aghalabu katika kuonya au kufunda.

ii.

- Mafunzo tunayoyapata baada ya kusoma kazi fulani ya fasihi. iii.

- Manju au mtambaji wa kazi ya fasihi. iv

- Kiishilizo cha kifungu cha maneno yenye ujumbe fulani katika mtindo wa

ushairi. v.

iv.

v.

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iii.

i.

ii

(c) Soma shairi lifuatalo kisha tathmini vipengele vya kifani alivyotumia mtunzi

wa shairi hili.

i. Mpenzi kanitoroka sijui kenda wapi,

Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Pote nimefika,

Lakini sikumpata, mpezi sijui aliko.

ii. Nimeteseka sana kutafuta kotekote,

Mwisho nimeanza kuita njoo njoo ndama wangu,

Siyo naita ndama wa Ng’ombe bali ni mtoto wangu.

iii. Burundi , Kongo, Rwanda, Kote nimemaliza,

Macho yameangaza mpaka mipaka yote,

Katika kuzunguka kwangu nikaokota mbalamwezi.

iv. Njoo njoo, Ndama wangu, ee mtoto wangu upesi,

Nyumba nimeihama nalala nje kama mwanga wa usiku,

Mwisho nitaliwa na wanyama wabaya na sijui utaliaje.

v. Nimeshaipanga zawadi ya yule atakayemleta,

Ng’ombe sita, mbuzi wawili, jogoo watano, nafikiri inatosha,

Au nitaongeza pesa laki moja sadaka ya mtoto wangu.

MASWALI:

i. Mtunzi ametumia mtindo gani katika wimbo huu?

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ii. Nini muundo wa wimbo huu?

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iii. Taja wahusika wawili katika wimbo huu.

...................................................................................................................

iv. Unafikiri mtunzi alikuwa na hisia gani wakati anatunga wimbo huu?

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v. Taja kifungu cha maneno ambacho mtunzi amekitumia kuonesha

msisitizo.

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(d) Baadhi ya methali zikitumika kwa upande mwingine huweza kuleta hasara.

Ni kwa vipi busara ya methali zifuatazo huweza kwa upande mwingine

kuleta hasara?

i. Asiyesikia la mkuu huvunjika guu.

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ii. Ajali haina kinga

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iii. Haraka haraka haina baraka.

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iv. Polepole ndio mwendo.

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v. Samaki mmoja akioza wote wameoza.

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SEHEMU E: ( ALAMA 15)

UANDISHI / UTUNGAJI

5. Jifanye kuwa Diwani wa Kata ya Saranga S.L. P 3270, Dar es Salaam.

Andika barua ya mwaliko kwa Waziri wa ujenzi na miundo mbinu S.LP. 3550 Dar

es Salaam, ukimualika kwenye hafla ya uzinduzi wa ujenzi wa barabara ya

Temboni mpaka Matosa utakaofanyika kwenye viwanja vya Shule ya Sekondari

ya Mtakatifu Augustino. Barua yako ipiti.e kwa katibu mkuu wizara ya miundo

mbinu.

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FORM TWO HOME ASSIGNMENT-2020, APRIL

BIOLOGY

2. Answer ALL question in A4 papers.

1. (a) Name and explain the process by which the cell absorbs:

i. Water

ii. Minerals

(b) Describe the movement of water from the soil to the leaves of a tall plant

2. (a) Explain the forces that make water and mineral salts move through a plant

(b) Explain the necessity of transport in plants and animals (5 points )

3. (a) With aid of diagrams, compare the internal structure of a dicotyledonous root and a

monocotyledonous root.

(b)

i. State the adaptations of plants which enable them to reduce water loss (5 points).

ii. Explain why transpiration is a necessary evil

4. (a) Give three reasons why pressure of blood is greater in the arterioles than in the veins

of mammals

(b) Explain how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood

5. (a) Distinguish between closed and open circulatory systems.

(b) Describe the structures and functions of the blood cells

6. (a) With example of an organism, outline the types of respiratory surfaces of animals

(b) State the characteristics of respiratory surfaces in animals

7. Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in a mammals (use diagram)

8. (a) Give a word and symbol equation for:-

i. Aerobic respiration

ii. Anaerobic respiration in plants

iii. Anaerobic respiration in animals

(b) Name the end products of respiration in (a) (i, ii, and iii above)

9. (a) (i) What are obligate anaerobes?

(ii)What are facultative anaerobes?

(b) What is oxygen debt?

10. (a) Explain double, pulmonary and systemic circulation

(b) State three precautions that must be taken before blood transfusion

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INSTRUCTIONS

1. Write all provided notes in your biology exercise book 2. Be careful when copying to avoid spelling errors 3. All appeared diagrams in this notes should be drawn

neatly using pencil and labeled correctly using blue/black pen

4. The notes should be completed before re-opening of the school.

NOTE;

The notes should be written with your own hand writing, it is

prohibited notes to be written by the other person.

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TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS IN LIVING ORGANISMS

Transport is the movement of substances from one part to another within the body of living organisms.

In animals, food and oxygen must be transported to the cells where they are required while waste products produced should be removed by transporting them out of the body

In plants, substances like food , oxygen , waste products, minerals, hormones should also be transported out or in the cell required

IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORT IN LIVING ORGANISMS

i. Waste products like urea, carbon dioxide , ammonia are removed from a cell which might result into toxic

ii. Food materials reaches the body cells and tissues iii. Mineral salts and water reaches the cells where they are needed iv. Enzymes and hormones are carried to the site they are required for better function of the body

MECHANISM OF TRANSPORT IN LIVING ORGANISMS

There are two transport mechanisms

1. Passive transport 2. Active transport

PASSIVE TRANSPORT

Occurs without the use of energy to transport materials through the cell membrane. It include processes

such as:

i. Diffusion ii. Osmosis

iii. Mass flow

1. DIFFUSION Diffusion is the process by which molecules move from a region of high concentration to a region of

low concentration until equilibrium of two sides is maintained.

The difference of concentration of substances between two regions is known as concentration gradient.

Thus when concentration gradient is high diffusion is faster and when concentration gradient is low,

diffusion is also low.

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Examples of diffusion

i. A smell of a perfume sprayed in one corner of the class is soon felt to the other corner. ii. Colour of Potassium permanganate when its crystals are put in water.

ROLES OF DIFFUSION IN LIVING ORGANISMS

i. Digested food such as amino acids , glucose are absorbed in the ileum by diffusion ii. Manufactured food from the leaves are distributed to other parts of the plant by diffusion iii. Removal of the nitrogenous wastes such as urea and ammonia from the cell iv. Gaseous exchange in the lungs of animals and in the leaves of plants

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF DIFFUSION

i. Size of molecules : small and light molecules diffuse faster than large and heavy molecules ii. Temperature: increase in temperature increases the rate of diffusion. Decrease in temperature

decreases the rate of diffusion iii. Thickness of the membrane and tissues : thin membranes enhances higher diffusion than thick

membrane iv. Concentration gradient : the greater the difference of the two concentration gradient, the

greater the rate of diffusion 2. OSMOSIS Osmosis is the process by which water molecules move from a dilute solution to a strong solution

through a semi- permeable membrane.

OR

Osmosis is a process by which water (solvent) molecules move from a region of high water (solvent)

concentration to a region of low water (solvent) concentration through a semi- permeable membrane.

TYPES OF SOLUTION

i. Hypotonic solution : this is the solution with more water and less solute concentration. A hypotonic solution has low osmotic pressure.

A cell placed in this solution gains water.

ii. Isotonic solution:- these are solutions with the same concentration of solute and water. These solutions have the same osmotic pressure.

iii. Hypertonic solution

Sugar molecule

water molecule

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This is a solution with less water and more solute concentration. A cell placed in such solution

loses water by osmosis.

This solution has high osmotic pressure.

EFFECTS OF OSMOSIS IN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

1. A cell placed in isotonic solution • Water diffuses into and out of the cell by osmosis at equal rates • Therefore cells retain their normal shape

2. Cell placed in hypotonic solution a) Animal cell

The cell will gain water by osmosis and swell and finally burst because the cell membrane is

weak.

This bursting of red blood cell is called haemolysis

Animal cell in hypotonic solution

b) A plant cell

• A cell gains water by osmosis but it does not burst because of the presence of rigid cellulose cell wall

• The large central vacuole expands, causing the cell to swell • In this condition, the cell is said to be turgid

Plant cell in hypotonic solution

H2O

Animal cell in isotonic solution Plant cell in isotonic solution

H2O

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3. Cell placed in hypertonic solution a) Animal cell

• Cell loses water by osmosis, a cell shrink and become crenated. • The process of an animal cell lose water and, shrink and become crenated is called

crenation. A Crenated cell

b) A plant cell

• A cell loses water by osmosis, a cell shrink and become flaccid. • A process by which a plant cell loses water, shrink and become flaccid is known as

plasmolysis

Experiment to demonstrate osmosis in Irish potato

ROLES OF OSMOSIS IN LIVING ORGANISMS

H2O

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i. Enables plants to absorb water from the soil and water movement from cell to cell. ii. Offers support by turgidity. iii. Provide opening and closing of stomata when the guard cells are turgid. This allow gaseous

exchange and transpiration to take place iv. Reabsorption of water from the kidney tubule.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF OSMOSIS

i. Concentration gradient:- the greater the difference between the two concentrations the greater the speed of osmosis.

ii. Temperature:- increase in temperature increases the rate of osmosis. iii. Thickness of the membrane:-osmosis is faster in thin membranes than in thick ones

OSMOSIS

DIFFUSION

Is limited only in liquid form Occur in all medium, solid, liquid and gas

Requires semi- permeable membrane Does not require semi- permeable membrane

Only solvent molecules can diffuse Both solute and solvent molecules can diffuse

The flow of molecules occurs only in one direction The flow of molecules occur in all directions

Osmosis is a slow process. Diffusion is the fast process.

3. MASS FLOW Mass flow:- Is the is the bulk movement of substances from one region to another due to the

difference in pressure between the two regions.

The materials move in a very high speed unlike diffusion and osmosis

In plants, mass flow is responsible for the transportation of water and mineral salts from the roots through stem, branches and leaves through xylem vessels while manufactured food through phloem vessels.

In animals, mass flow is responsible in digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system and lymphatic system.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Active transport:- molecules move against their concentration gradient . Thus a cell uses energy to

move materials across the cell membrane.

Examples

Absorption of Mineral salts from the soil

Absorption of Amino acids and glucose into the blood stream.

TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS IN PLANTS

Transport in high plants is carried out by vascular system

Vascular system composed of specialized tissues known as vascular bundles

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COMPOSITION OF VASCULAR BUNDLES

Vascular bundles composed of xylem and phloem

XYLEM

Xylem are made of xylem vessels and tracheids. Xylem vessels consists of dead cells and Lignin materials

which make them rigid.

Function of a Xylem

i. Transports water and dissolved mineral salts from the soil to all parts of the plant. ii. Provides support for woody plants.

Phloem

Phloem is made up of sieve tubes and companion cells. • Sieve tube elements have perforations or pores that form sieve plates. • Companion cells have a high concentration of mitochondria. They provide the sieve-tube

elements with energy. Function of Phloem

To transports manufactured food from the areas they are produced (leaves) to the rest of the plant body

such as roots and fruits.

In between the xylem and phloem is cambium, the cell of cambium divide to form a new xylem and phloem.

Xylem and phloem alternate in arrangement with xylem slightly to the inside.

DISTRIBUTION OF VASCULAR BUNDLES IN PLANTS

1. Monocot Root

Both the xylem and the phloem tissues are alternately arranged in a ring

Monocot root have pith

2. Dicot root

The xylem tissues are arranged in the form of a star and it occupies the central position.

The phloem tissue alternate with the arm of the star.

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3. Monocot stems Xylem and phloem are scattered There is no pith Xylem and phloem are not separated by cambium

4. Dicot stems The phloem and xylem (vascular bundles) are arranged in a ring. Have pith at the centre Xylem and phloem are separated by vascular cambium

ABSORPTION AND MOVEMENT OF WATER AND MINERAL SALTS IN PLANTS

Plants absorb water and mineral salts from the soil through root hairs.

Water from the soil is absorbed by the root hair, and dilutes the contents of the cell sap vacuole.

Water moves from the root hair cells to the cortex cells by osmosis while mineral ions moves by active transport

Water and mineral salts then moves the same way into the cells of the endodermis, then into the pericycle and then into the xylem which will be taken to upper part of a plant.

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ADAPTATION OF ROOT HAIRS.

i. Long and numerous to increase the surface area for absorption. ii. Slender and flexible hence able to penetrate small spaces in the soil.

iii. Thin to allow easy diffusion of materials. iv. Have concentrated cell sap hence able to take water by osmosis

FORCES INVOLVED IN THE CONDUCTION OF WATER.

1. ROOT PRESSURE Is the force in the root that pushes water up the stem. However root pressure is not sufficient to

push water up to the top of the plant.

2. COHESION FORCE Is the force that make like molecules stick together, e.g. Water molecules sticking together. This

ensures the continuous flow of water from the roots to the shoot (transpiration stream)

3. ADHESION FORCE Is the force that make unlike molecules attract each other, eg. Water molecules to stick to the

wall of the xylem.

4. CAPILLARY PRESSURE Is the force which raises water in a narrow tube. This made possible by cohesion and adhesion

forces

Capillarity: the ability of a liquid to flow through narrow tube.(ability of narrow tube to draw

liquid upward against gravitational force).

5. TRANSPIRATION PULL Occurs when water evaporates from the plant through the stomata in the leaves. This maintains

continuous column of water from the roots to the leaves.

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TRANSPIRATION

Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the plant to the atmosphere through stomata

Transpiration stream is the continuous flow of water from the roots through the stem to the leaves

where it is lost to the atmosphere.

TYPES OF TRANSPIRATION

There are three types of transpiration:

i. Stomatal transpiration occurs through the stomata on the leaves. It accounts for approximately 90% of the water lost by plants.

ii. Cuticular transpiration happens through the cuticle of leaves. iii. Lenticular transpiration takes place through the lenticels.

Experiments to demonstrate Transpiration in Plants

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

Structural factors.

i. The size of leaves; a large leaf has more stomata than a small leaf thus lose more water than those with smaller leaves

ii. An extensive root system: Plants that have extensive roots absorb more water and can therefore lose more water than those with few roots.

iii. Leaf cuticle: leaves with thick cuticle have less transpiration rate than leaves with thin cuticle iv. Number of stomata: The more stomata a leaf have, the faster the rate of transpiration and vice

versa. v. Position of stomata: Stomata on the upper surface of the leaf lose water more easily than those

on the lower surface or sunken.

Bell jar

Plant

Polythene

Pot

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Environmental factors

i. Temperature: Transpiration rates go up as the temperature goes up. Higher temperatures cause the stomata to open and release water into the atmosphere. Lower temperatures cause the stomata to close.

ii. Relative humidity: As the relative humidity of the surrounding air rises, the transpiration rate falls.

iii. Wind and air movement: wind removes water vapour and thus increases the rate of transpiration.

iv. Availability of soil moisture: When moisture is lacking in the soil, less water is absorbed by the roots hence reduce transpiration.

v. Light: Higher light intensity increases the plant's internal temperature and hence increases the rate of transpiration

The rate of transpiration can be measured by potometer

GUTTATION

Is the loss of water in form of water droplets along the leaf margin or tips of some vascular plant like

grasses

• It occur through structure called hydathodes Differences between guttation and transpiration

TRANSPIRATION GUTTATION

Occur during the day time Occur at night

Occur when the atmosphere is dry Occur when the atmosphere is saturated

Lose water in form of water vapour Lose water in form of droplets

Transpiration is through the stomata Guttation is through the leaf margin

SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSPIRATION

i. Transpiration helps in cooling of plants ii. Transpiration pull facilitate conduction of water from the roots to other parts.

iii. Together with water also mineral salts are brought from roots to other parts of the plant. iv. Excretion of excess Water from plants

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DISADVANTAGES OF TRANSPIRATION

i. In dry condition plants may lose too much water, this leads to wilting and death of plants.

TRANSLOCATION.

The movement of food substances in the phloem is by translocation.

Translocation is the transport of manufacture food substances from their site of synthesis (leaves) to

the site where they are utilized or stored.

The products are transported to:

i. Storage organs, like tubers, seeds, corns, bulbs, and fruits. ii. Growing and developing regions, like meristem of roots and stem, fruits and glowers. iii. Secretory organs like nectar glands.

Experiment to demonstrate translocation

Requirement

Potted plant

Scalpel/knife/razor blade

Procedure

• Get a well grown potted plant • Cut a ring of bark and remove it • Place a potted plant where it is not disturbed for one week Make observation

Results

The part above the ring will swell indicating accumulation of food while the part below the ring

remains the same but eventually shrivels leading to the death of the plant.

Experiment to demonstrate translocation

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TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS IN MAMMALS

Mammals are the complex multicellular organisms whose bodies are made up of numerous cells and

tissues. Thus diffusion alone is not enough to insure efficient carrying out of life process.

Therefore mammals have a transport system called circulatory system

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Types of circulatory system.

A. Open circulatory system Consist of blood which is not completely closed within vessels. This is suitable for small

organisms, invertebrates like spiders, crabs, lobster, snails, oysters and clams.

B. Closed circulatory system Has blood contained in unbroken network of vessels, where blood circulate within a continuous

system of blood vessels. Example the blood of all vertebrates and some invertebrate such as

earthworm

Mammals have closed Circulatory system and is made up of the following:-

i. Heart (pumping organ) ii. Blood (transporting fluids) iii. Blood vessel (tubes through which blood flows)

THE MAMMALIAN HEART

The heart is a muscular pumping organ about the size of a closed fist. Mammalian heart lies in

the thorax enclosed by a double layer of a membranous sac called pericardium.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PERICARDIUM

i. Secrets a fluid which lubricates the heart when working. ii. The outer part has fatty layer that acts as a shock absorber. iii. It holds the heart in position. iv. Prevents over dilation.

Heart also has cardiac muscles which contract and relax without getting tired to ensure pumping of blood.

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STRUCTURE OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART

The Mammalian heart has

A. Four chambers:- i. Right Atrium(auricle):- receives deoxygenated blood from different parts of the body and

pump it into the right ventricle ii. Right Ventricle:-receives deoxygenated blood from right atrium and pump it to the lungs for

oxygenation iii. Left Atrium(auricle):- receives oxygenated blood from lungs and pump it to the left

ventricle. iv. Left Ventricle:- receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium and pump it to different

parts of the body.

The wall of left ventricle is more muscular so as to push blood under high pressure to all over the body.

B. Valves i. The tricuspid valve; found between the right auricle and right ventricle. It prevents

backflow of blood from the right ventricle to right atrium. ii. The bicuspid valve: found between left auricle and left ventricle. It prevents backflow of

blood from the left ventricle to left atrium. iii. Semi-lunar valves:- are located at the bases of the pulmonary artery and aorta to prevent

back flow of blood from aorta and pulmonary artery into the ventricles. C. Blood vessels

i. Venacava:-this is the main vein that carries deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body to the heart(right atrium)

ii. Superior (anterior) vena cava: large vein that carries deoxygenated blood from the upper half of the body to the right atrium of the heart

iii. Inferior (posterior)vena cava: large vein that carries deoxygenated blood from the lower half of the body to the right atrium of the heart

iv. Pulmonary vein:- carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. v. Aorta:- is the main artery which carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the

body. vi. Pulmonary artery:- carries de-oxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.

D. Septum Divides the right and left chambers of the heart

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INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A MAMMALIAN HEART

ADAPTATIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART TO THEIR FUNCTIONS

i. Is Muscular to pump blood over long distance ii. Have Myogenic cardiac muscles which contract and relax rhythmically without fatigue;

hence heart continues pumping; iii. Heart divided into 4 chambers which are hollow to accommodate more blood iv. Ventricles have thicker walls than auricles to generate higher pressure to drive blood

over long distance. v. Walls of left ventricles are thicker than those of right ventricles to generate more

pressure to pump blood to the rest of the body vi. Have septum which prevent mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

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vii. Have Valves to prevent back flow of blood viii. Has coronary artery and coronary vein to supply myocardium with oxygen and nutrients;

and remove waste products ix. Inner pericardium secretes the pericardial fluid; which reduces friction between the two

layers during contraction x. outer pericardium is surrounded by layer of fat which acts as shock absorber and protect

it from mechanical damage

THE BLOOD

Blood is a specialised tissue in human and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as

nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same

cells.

COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

Blood is made up of blood cells and plasma

A. BLOOD CELLS There are three types of blood cells.

i. Red blood cells (Erythrocytes) ii. White blood cells (Leukocytes) iii. Platelets (Thrombocytes)

1. RED BLOOD CELLS (erythrocytes): Are shaped like slightly indented, flattened disks.

Properties of red blood cell

• Red in colour due to presence of hemoglobin. • Are tiny biconcave discs shaped. • They have no nucleus • Are numerous (about 5 million per 1mm3 of blood) • Each RBC lives for about 4 months(120 days). • Are formed in red bone marrow • Are extremely small, less than 1/100 mm in diameter.

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FUNCTIONS OF Red Blood Cells

i. To transport oxygen from the lungs and to different body tissues elsewhere.

Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form a compound known as Oxyhaemoglobin

Haemoglobin + Oxygen Oxyhaemoglobin

Oxyhaemoglobin compound releases oxygen when it reaches tissues with low concentration of

oxygen

ii. To transport carbon dioxide from different body tissues to the lungs Haemoglobin combines with carbon dioxide to form a compound known as Carbamino-

haemoglobin and carries it to the lungs where Carbon dioxide will be released

Haemoglobin + Carbon dioxide Carbamino-haemoglobin

iii. Transport of Carbon monoxide Haemoglobin combine with carbon monoxide to form Carboxy-haemoglobin.

Haemoglobin + Carbon monoxide Carboxy-haemoglobin

Carboxy-haemoglobin does not dissociate hence leads to death since haemoglobin is not set

free to collect Oxygen

ADAPTATION OF RED BLOOD CELLS.

i. Numerous hence increase surface are. ii. Have haemoglobin that combines with oxygen. iii. Have thin plasma membrane which allows easy diffusion. iv. Absence of nucleus creates more room for more haemoglobin. v. Their disc shape increases surface area. vi. They are continuously formed and replaced.

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2. WHITE BLOOD CELLS ( Leucocytes). Properties of red blood cell

i. Are colourless. ii. Have irregular shape iii. They have nucleus. iv. Fewer and large than red cells. v. Are formed in the bone marrow of long bones ,lymph nodes and spleen vi. Life span is about 5-21 days

Types of white blood cell

A. Phagocytes (granulocytes): Engulf and digest invading bacteria and viruses(pathogens) This process is called phagocytosis

Phagocytes can also be subdivided into :-

i. Neutrophils ii. Eosinophils iii. Basophils

B. Lymphocytes (Agranulocytes): This do not have granules and produce antibodies which:

Produce anti-toxins that neutralize antigens from pathogens. Causing pathogens to clump together and die then digested by phagocytes

Functions of white blood cell

To protect the body against disease

THE EFFECT OF HIV ON WHITE BLOOD CELLS

The HIVs in the blood of a HIV-positive person attack the white blood cells(lymphocytes). The

viruses reproduce and increase in number within the lymphocytes.

Then the lymphocytes burst and release more viruses in the blood stream. The released

Viruses attack more, new white cells. The attack continues in that cycle until many white blood

Cells are destroyed.

3. PLATELETS (Thrombocytes) i. They are fragments of cells produced in the bone marrow. ii. Nucleus Absent. iii. Are irregular shaped iv. Life span is about 5-10 days v. 150,000–400,000 platelets in each microliter of human blood

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Function of thrombocytes

For blood clotting

Clotting process

• Plateless contain a chemical substance called thrombolastin • When blood vessels is injured the thrombolastin neutralises Heparin which converts

prothrombin to thrombin. Heparin is a chemical substance that prevents blood clotting in blood vessels

• The active thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin. • The fibrin then forms a network of fibres which prevents further loss of blood

B. PLASMA Plasma is a pale-yellow fluid in which substances dissolve in it. Approximately 55% of the blood

is plasma.

COMPOSITION OF PLASMA

Plasma is mostly made up of 92% water but it also has dissolved substances such as food nutrients,

metabolic wastes, oxygen, proteins and mineral ions.

FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA

i. Plasma serves as a transport medium for delivering nutrients to the cells of the various organs of the body.

ii. It transports waste products derived from cellular metabolism to the kidneys, liver, and lungs for excretion.

iii. It fights infections since it contains antibodies. iv. iv. It is also a transport system for blood cells, hormones and enzymes to the targeted areas. v. Plasma helps to distribute heat throughout the body. vi. Regulate the pH to maintain of body fluids

BLOOD VESSELS

Blood vessels:- are the tubes through which blood flows.

Mammals have three types of blood vessels: arteries, veins and capillaries.

A. ARTERIES

Arteries are thick-walled, muscular and elastic vessels that transport blood from the heart to all parts of the body.

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All arteries transport oxygenated blood, except the pulmonary artery

The main artery is AORTA

Have narrow lumen to transport blood under high pressure

Have thicker outer walls to withstand pressure caused by blood coming from the heart

They lack valves because blood in them have high pressure, hence move forward.

Blood flowing in arteries have pulse due to contraction and relaxation of arteries

Arteries branch arterioles which supply blood to the major organs

Arterioles sub divided into CAPILLARIES

B. VEINS i. Are vessels that carry blood from all parts of the body to the heart. ii. All veins carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary vein iii. All veins have valves to prevent backflow of blood iv. Have large lumen and thin ,less muscular wall compared to arteries v. Carry blood with less nutrients and more waste products EXCEPT

HEPARTIC PORTAL VEIN:- carry blood from almentary canal which is rich in food substances to the liver.

RENAL VEIN:- carries blood from the kidney where waste products have been removed during utrafiltration

When veins branch they form venules. When venules branch, they form capillaries

C. BLOOD CAPILLARIES i. Are smallest blood vessels which are in direct contact with body tissues ii. They have thin wall (only one cell thick) and narrow lumen iii. They allow water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other nutrients and waste substances to

exchange between blood and surrounding tissues iv. They lack valves

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Differences between

ARTERIES VEINS

Carry blood away from the heart Carry blood towards the heart.

Have thick muscular elastic wall. Have thin elastic wall

Have no valve Have valve to prevent back flow of blood.

Have narrow lumen Have larger lumen.

Blood moves in pulse. No pulsation

Carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery.

Carry de-oxygenated blood except pulmonary vein.

Blood move under high pressure. Blood move under low pressure.

Usually lies well below the surface. Usually lies near the surface.

If cut blood comes out in spurts. If cut blood comes out in a slow steady stream.

Main artery is Aorta. Main vein is Vena cava.

BLOOD GROUPS AND BLOOD TRANSFUSION

The Concept of Blood Group

Human blood can be grouped in to four blood groups namely groups A, B, AB and O.

This classification is based on the type of antigens in the red Blood cells and antibodies in the

plasma.

Red blood cells have proteins on their membrane which are known as antigens

There are two types of antigen ie. Antigen A and B

Antigen are the one determine the blood groups

Thus:-

A person with antigen A has blood group A

A person with antigen B has blood group B

A person with antigen A and B has blood group AB

A person without antigen A or B has blood group O Plasma has two antibodies i.e. ant-A and ant-B

Antibody should always be the opposite of antigen. If antibody contact with the corresponding

antigen example Anti-A and antigen A agglutination occurs

NB:

Agglutination is the clumping together of red blood cells

IMPORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE OF BLOOD GROUP.

i. Predict blood groups of children of a couple. ii. Settle legal questions relating to paternity. iii. A basis of blood transfusion.

BLOOD TRANSFUSION

Blood Transfusion is the transfer of blood from one person (donor) into the circulatory system

of another person (recipient).

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The person who gives blood is called DONOR

The person who receive blood is called RECIPIENT

Blood group AB can receive blood from all blood groups but donate to AB only. Thus group AB is referred as UNIVERSAL RECIPIENT

Blood group O can donate blood to all blood groups but receive from O only. Thus group O is referred as UNIVERSAL DONOR

RHESUS FACTOR (Antigen D)

Some people have another antigen called Rhesus antigen/Rhesus factor / antigen D on

their red blood cells while others do not have it.

About 85% of human populations have this antigen.

Those having this antigen are referred to as Rhesus positive(Rh+) and the presence of this factor gives blood group a positive sign i.e. A+,B+,AB+,O+

Those without it are Rhesus negative (Rh-) and lack of this antigen gives blood the negative sign ie. A-, B-, AB- and O-

If Rh antibody mixes with Rh antigen during blood transfusion, agglutination will occur. NOTE

Rh+ can stimulate the Rh- to produce antibodies to act against Rh+ antigens. However, the Rh- cannot stimulate the Rh+ blood to produce antibodies against Rh-

Therefore, an Rh+ person can receive blood from the Rh- donor and not the vice versa. Basing on Rhesus antigen:-

A universal recipient is blood group AB+ A universal donor is blood group O-

Donor’s

Group

(V) Shows no agglutination

(X) Shows agglutination

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RHESUS ANTIGEN AND PREGNANCY.

During pregnancy of Rh- mother carrying Rh+ child and if the placenta is damaged the baby’s Rh+ can pass across placenta membranes into mother’s blood.

Mother’s blood responds by producing Rhesus antibodies hence Agglutination may occur in the foetus blood.

First birth may occur safely but children that follow are at higher risk because much of the antibodies will be formed.

HOW TO SAVE THE BABY

Inject the mother with anti-rhesus globulin which prevent the antibody-antigen reaction

Transfusion of blood to the foetus while still in the uterus.

PRECAUTIONS TAKEN DURING TRANSFUSION

i. Blood must be compatible, i.e. the donor and the recipient. ii. Blood has to be carefully screened, i.e. to make sure is free from any harmful substances such as

HIV and AIDS, syphilis and hepatitis B. iii. Transfusion should be done only when extremely necessary iv. Donated blood should be stored in special bags and added with anticoagulant to prevent it from

coagulating. v. Donated blood is kept in a refrigerator for a maximum of 21 days. After that it expires and should

not be used.

ADVANTAGES OF BLOOD TRANSFUSION

i. Saves lives of people during surgery or accidents ii. Increase of blood in the body help the body to function properly iii. Blood transfusion is used to treat diseases such as sickle-cell anaemia

DISADVANTAGES OF BLOOD TRANSFUSION

Transfused blood may not always be 100% free of infections.

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The patients own blood can destroy the transfused blood (agglutination) due to mismatch of ABO

system and Rh.

i. It may affect donor’s health if blood is taken in excess ii. May lead to Allergic reaction when the body reacts to plasma proteins or other substances in

the donated blood. iii. Can lead to Haemolytic reactions i.e. In very rare cases, the patient's blood destroys the

donorred blood cells.

BLOOD CIRCULATION

Blood circulation is the movement of blood from the heart to all part of the body and back to the

heart.

TYPES OF BLOOD CIRCULATION

i. SINGLE CIRCULATION The blood passes the heart only once to make a complete circulation. Blood from the heart goes directly

to the lungs and from the lungs it moves to all parts of the body and turn back to the heart again.

Examples of animals with single circulation are fishes

ii. DOUBLE CIRCULATION The blood flows through the heart twice for a complete circulation. Mammals have double circulation

Types of double circulation

i. Pulmonary circulation ii. Systemic circulation

Pulmonary circulation

Is the movement of blood from the heart (right ventricle),to the lungs ,and back to the heart again (left

atrium).

HEART LUNGS HEART

Systemic circulation

Is the circulation of blood from the heart (left ventricles) to different parts of the body via AORTA and

back to the heart (right ventricles) via venacava

HEART LUNGS HEART

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Diagram showing Blood circulation in the human body

Diagram representing Double circulation

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IMPORTANCE OF BLOOD CIRCULATION

i. It enables the transportation of cell requirements such as oxygen and nutrients to all the body tissues.

ii. It ensures that waste products from the cells are removed . iii. Ensures regulation of body temperature. Body heat is transported to all parts of the body

through this system. iv. Blood circulation also transports hormones from the organs that produce them to the organs

where they are needed. v. Protects the body against diseases and infections through the distribution of white blood cells.

PUMPING OF THE HEART

Pumping of the heart result after contraction and relaxation of ventricles.

The contraction of the heart is referred as systole

The relaxation of the heart is referred as diastole CHANGES OCCURS DURING SYSTOLE

i. Ventricles contract pushing blood out of them ii. Semilunar valves open to allow blood to flow through artery and aorta iii. Bicuspid and tricuspid valve close to prevent back flow of blood to the auricles iv. Blood fills the auricles

CHANGES OCCURS DURING DIASTOLE

i. Ventricles relax creating more space for blood flowing ii. Semilunar valves close to prevent back flow of blood from the pulmonary artery and aorta iii. Bicuspid and tricuspid valve open to allow blood in auricles to flow into ventricles Blood fills the

ventricles

BLOOD PRESSURE

Blood pressure is measured by considering the systolic pressure and the diastolic pressure and is

measured by using an instrument known as sphygmomanometer

Under normal circumstances, a health adult persons has a systole pressure of 120mmHg and a Diastole

of about 70or 80 mmHg

Thus blood pressure = 120/80 or 120/70 mmHg

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HEART BEAT

Heart beat is made up of one contraction (systole) followed by relaxation (diastole) by an average of

about 72 times per minute

But Heart beat can be increased by stress, emotions or activities.

DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

1. SICKLE-CELL ANAEMIA This condition is a genetic disorder which causes production of abnormal haemoglobin and malformed

red blood cells (they form a sickle shape) hence reducing surface for transportation of oxygen.

Symptoms

i. Weakness ii. Tiredness iii. Dizziness iv. shortness of breath. v. Fatigue vi. Headaches vii. Abnormal heartbeat viii. dark-coloured urine

Treatment

Sickle-cell anaemia has no cure. It is difficult to prevent since it is inherited.

However, patients can be helped by making sure that:-

They avoid excessive physical exercise.

They eat a well-balanced diet that is rich in minerals and vitamins.

People known to have the defective gene should be advised not to have children 2. HAEMOPHILIA.

Is a hereditary sex-linked disorder that leads to excessive bleeding due to failure of blood to clot.

Causes

Low level of clotting factor

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Symptoms

i. The person might experience prolonged bleeding after any injury ii. Frequent nose bleeding or mouth bleeding iii. Blood in urine or stool

Treatment

It has no cure since it is inherited but patients can be helped by regular injection of clotting factors or

blood transfusion

3. LEUKEMIA. It is considered to be a form of blood cancer

Caused by overproduction of white blood cells Signs and symptoms

i. Abnormally high numbers of white blood cells ii. Extreme body weakness iii. Anaemia iv. Swelling of lymph nodes v. Throat and mouth infections that may be recurrent.

Treatment

Leukaemia cannot be cured. However, it is controlled by:-

Frequent blood transfusions,

Radiotherapy and chemotherapy to kill the abnormal cells

Bone marrow transplants

4. ARTERIOSCLEROSIS Arteriosclerosis is the hardening of arteries. It happens when there are fat deposits on the wall of the

artery and affecting the efficiency of blood flow. Mostly it occur in old age

Causes

i. Mainly caused by excessive alcohol and smoking ii. Stress iii. Too much fat in the artery iv. Lack of exercise

Effects

Arteriosclerosis causes swelling of part of a blood vessel and rupturing of the artery walls. It also

Prevention

i. Avoiding alcohol and smoking ii. Reducing stress iii. Minimizing intake of fatty foods iv. Engaging in regular exercise.

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Treatment

Arteriosclerosis can be treated by medication or surgery.

5. HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (HYPERTENSION) Very high blood pressure (over 140/90) strains the blood vessels and may cause heart failure.

Causes

High fat levels due to;

Over-consumption of fatty foods

Lack of exercise

Obesity

Emotional stress

Alcoholism and smoking

Arteriosclerosis. Prevention

i. Engaging in regular exercises ii. Avoiding alcohol and smoking, iii. Eating a balanced diet with less fat iv. Reducing stress

Treatment

Hypertension can be treated using drugs.

6. ANAEMIA. Is the lack of enough red blood cell haemoglobin in the blood..

Causes.

Excessive bleeding.

Lack of iron or enough protein in the diet

Normal function of the is destruction of bone marrow by disease or drugs.

Haemolysis due to diseases such as malaria Symptoms

i. Excessive tiredness ii. Breathlessness iii. Looking pale especially on face and palms iv. Low resistance to infections

Prevention and treatment

Consuming iron-rich foods

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THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system is the system of vessel that transport lymph from the tissues to the circulatory

system closely resembles the blood.

COMPONENTS OF A LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

i. Lymph(transporting fluid) ii. Lymph vessels (vessels through which lymph travels) iii. Lymphoid organs( lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, adenoids, tonsils)

Lymphatic system connects with the blood circulatory system at the superior vena cava

LYMPH

Lymph is a pale yellow fluid similar to blood plasma in composition but with less protein.

Lymph is formed by a process known as Ultrafiltration

Due to high pressure in the blood capillaries materials are squeezed out. All components of blood are forced out except blood cells and protein because they have large sized which cannot pass through the small pores.The fluid that comes out is known as tissue fluid or intercellular fluid

Some of the tissue fluid enters the venule and then connect the veins.

The rest of the tissue fluid enters the lymph vessels and is now called lymph

Lymph has the same components as the tissue fluid but it has more fatty substances

The lymph vessels then joins to large vessels called lymph ducts.

Lymph duct carries the lymph to the subclavian vein, in the way the lymph is returned to the blood

stream.

LYMPH NODES

At a certain point the lymph vessels are enlarged to form nodule like structure called lymph nodes

(lymph glands)

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Location of the lymph nodes

Lymph nodes are mainly concentrated in abdomen, neck, groin and armpits

ROLES OF LYMPH NODES

Lymph nodes help in the defense against diseases in the following:-

i. They trap bacteria by fine network of fibres ii. They produce antibodies which fight pathogen. iii. They produce lymphocytes which fight pathogens

IMPORTANCE OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

i. Lymph nodes produce lymphocytes (white blood cells) which help the body to fight diseases. ii. Lacteals enable absorption of fatty acids after digestion. iii. It provides a way of getting tissue fluid back to the circulatory system. iv. The spleen destroys worn out red blood cells. v. The spleen, adenoids and the tonsils produce antibodies which help in fighting disease-causing

microorganisms DISORDERS AND DISEASES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

1. ELEPHANTIASIS Causes

This is a disease that is caused by worms (filarial) that block the lymph vessels causing accumulation of

lymph which leads to swelling of the arms,legs, feet or scrotum.

Transmission

Filarial worms are transmitted by culex mosquitoes.

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Symptoms

Thickening of the skin and subcutaneous tissue enlarged and swollen limbs.

Prevention and control measures

Eliminating breeding areas of mosquitoes, for instance bushes and stagnant water.

Treatment

Elephantiasis is treated by destroying the parasites.

2. OEDEMA This is the swelling of body tissues due to excessive lymph.

Causes

Increased blood pressure in the capillaries,causing the production of large amounts of lymph that the lymphatic system cannot transport efficiently.

Pregnancy

obesity

Protein deficiency. Symptoms

Swelling of body tissues

Prevention and control measures

i. Reduce blood pressure ii. Pregnant women keeping the feet slightly raised when sitting or lying down iii. Eating a well-balanced diet iv. Reduce body weight

3. TONSILLITIS This is an infection and swelling of the tonsils.

Causes

It is caused by bacteria or viruses

Symptoms

i. Red and swollen tonsils ii. Sore throat iii. Fever or chills iv. Muscle ache and tiredness

Treatment

Mild cases of tonsillitis are treated by having adequate rest and taking plenty of fluids.

Severe cases may require tonsillectomy (surgical removal of the tonsils).

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4. LYMPHOMA Lymphoma refer to cancer that affect the lymphatic system. These cancer cause abnormal growth of

Cells in the lymphatic system grow out of control.

Symptoms

i. Swollen and painful lymph nodes ii. Fatigue iii. Weight loss iv. Night sweats v. Itching

Treatment

Lymphomas are treated using chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Severe cases may need bone

marrow transplants

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